BITS, BYTES WORDS.

, , ' . , 0 1 ( 0 , 1 ). (.. , , ). bit: H (Binary digIT) 0 1 0 : 1 : bits Byte 8 bits. T word (), () bits , . ' , . word . , 32-bit word 32 bit, 16-bit word 16 bit 8-bit word 8 bit word ( ' - )

H .
words : () (CPU instructions) () () () , . . 1 word. , o bits (format) . . words. . . 8-bits . 8-bits ' 256 , 2 ( ). 2 bits 4 : 0 0, 1 0, 0 1, 1 1 3 bits 8 : 0, 0, 0 0, 0, 1 0, 1, 0 0, 1, 1 1, 0, 0 1, 0, 1 1, 1, 0 1, 1, 1 n bits 2 8 bits 256 . . : 1
n

 01000001, a 0110001, 01000010, b 0110010, C 01000011, c 0110011, (ISO, ASCII) . -928 ( ). 928 .

(, /). ( 10). 10- 2- . 8- 16- 10 2- ( 8- 16- , 2- ).

2- 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 10000 1. 8- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20 10- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 C D E F 10 T 2 0 1. (. 10) 2. 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. H (10) 8. 10- , 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 ( 10). 16- 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, , , C, D, E F. H (. 10) 16.

10-, : k- : X1X2X3...X (k) , k 10- :

1*k(-1) + 2*k(-2) + 3*k(-3) + . . . + (-1)*k1 + X*k0

. 16- 3C1 10-: 3*163 + 10*162 + 12*161 + 1*160 = 15041 101100 10-: 1*25 + 0*24 + 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 +0*20 = 44

2. 16- 2- 16- . 16- 2-. . 16- 45D : 16- 4 = 0100 2- = 1010 " 5 = 0101 " D = 1101 " . 2

 0100101001011101 16- : 2- 10010000111010111. 1 0010 0001 1101 0111. 16- 2- 16- 1 => 1 0010 => 2 0001 => 1 1 101 => D 01 1 1 => 7 16- 121D7 3. 8- 2- . . 8- 64752 , , 8- 2- 6 => 110 4 => 100 7 => 111 5 => 101 2 => 010 : 110100111101010 ' 8- , 110 100 111 101 010 8- 64752. 4. 10- 2-. 2 0. 2- . . 73, 78 : 2 = 39 0 19 : 2 = 9 >> 1 9:2=4 >> 1 4:2=2 >> 0 2:2=1 >> 0 1:2=0 >> 1 : 1001110 5. . . . , 0+0=0 0+0 = 0 1+0=1 1+0 = 1 0+1=1 0+0 = 1 1+1=2 1 + 1 = 1 0 ( 2 !) . 2+1=3 10 + 1 = 11 3+1=4 11 + 1 = 100 69 + 15 -----84 1000101 + 1111 --------------1010100

 928 (ISO 8859)

Bits b4b3b2b1 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 b8b7b6b5 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 HEX 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 0 1 2 SP ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , . / 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? 4 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O 5 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ 6 ` a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o 7 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } DEL SHY 8 9 1010 A NBSP ` 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 B C D F

/ . , ( ) , - () (machine language). , ( - executable). ( ). , , ( ). (, ), , (). / , . . : , , ( ). ( ), . (: , , - - ). . (object oriented) , , () , . , (knowledge base) . (inference engine) .

/ (compilers)
compilers () , . compilers ( ) (linkers). FORTRAN compiler FORTRAN FORTRAN ( ) . : 1. () 2. compiler 3.

Compiler

compilers interpreters, o . compiler .

(machine language)
. . , (CPUs) . ( ), . ( ) .

assembly ()
. . assembly . , System Software, ' hardware.

O Assembler (;)
assembler assembly . (object code) (load) , (.. ) . assembler (CPU) . CPU. (IBM-compatible) '86 (8086, 80286, 80386, 80486) INTEL 68000 TOROLA assembler. assembler cross-assembler. O emulator assembler . ( ;) A . 80486 INTEL cross-assembler M68000 OTOROLA emulator "" ( 80486). , 68000 . 68000 .

FORTRAN (FOrmula TRANslator)
(1957) ,

. .

COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language)

50, . ' , . , , COBOL.

PASCAL
, , . . "" , . compilers . (urbo Pascal).

SIC (Begginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

, . , . . interpreter. . . (Visual Basic) .

C
. C UNIX , hardware. To System Software C. , , . C++ , , C.

LISP (LISt Programming)

(1958) . 5 . (Artificial Intelligence).

H PROLOG
LISP. , . . (Ada, dula, Algol, PL/1, Logo, Snobol, APL, Smalltalk , HTML JAVA , 100) , ' . .

4 80, (Data Bases), (DBMS - Data Base Management Systems) . ( , ) MS-Windows, client-server ( 90), 4 . . , 4 5 , . 5 . ( ).


.
" " (software), , , (system software). " "; , , " ". "" ( ) ; ! , , , . , , , , . , , . . ; , . . , ; , . , . . , . (. ) (. ). (projects) ' , , , , . . (hardware). o , . (software) , . : () () () () () - () . , .

O .
, ( ' ). - : ()

(Royce 1970) . -. , (feedback) (). ( ) . ' () , (Waterfall model) . . (prototyping) , , ( 4 - 4GL), . , , . , , , . , , . . . : , . (), , , . . , hardware , (software) . . O . . . ( ). / . , ( ) . . ( , , , ). , . . . , ( ) (). 9

. , , . . (). , hardware (, ) . ( ) (). ' , , .

/
, . , (, , , ) , . , , . "" (software developers) . , (Requirement Analysis). . (System Specification) , , (-) . , , . ( ). oar ( 1984) , 50-80% , "" (). James Martin (1982) 80% . : 10

 , . ( ). : !

.
. ( ) ( ). . (. ) "" (gap analysis). "" . , . , . , " ", " ", "", "", " " , . , : 1. ( ) () () () () () , () . , ( , , , ) ( ) . 2. () () () , . . , . ( ) , . , , " ". ( ;) .

.
, , . (document) ( ) . (document) ( !). , ( , ) . ( ) , , , . () . , (inputs) (outputs), , . (software) , , , , 11

 -. . . ( ). ( ). : ; ; ; ; ; ( ) ; ; ; (, , ) ; ( , , ); ; ; ; ; ( ;) ... . . , ' ' . Heniger (1980) : ( , ) , , , - . . ( ). . ' . . Sommerville "Software Engineering" (1985) : 1. , , . . 2. . . . 3. hardware , , (. barcode readers) . 4. . . 12

5. . . 6. . . 7. . . 8. . 9. .

(;)
, (prototyping method). 4 (Geoff Simons, Introducing Software Engineering, 1987): 1. 2. 3. 4. . , . . . ( 4 , ), . . . . (, , ). . : , . ,

13

 ( ) ( ) , .

O
, . , , , . ( , , , .). "" , . : " , , , " (Taylor, 1959) " , " (Teague & Pidgeon, 1985) ' " ". , . ( ).

. Pressman (1982) : , . . . , ( ) . " " . . ' . . . . () () () (). 14

 () () (). () . ' . . , . . , . . , .

. , . (machine language) - ( / processor) . ( -assembly) . ( ) . C, FORTRAN, PASCAL , , compilers () interpreters (;). compilers / interpreters () (compilation) (CPU processor) ( -executable). () , ( Windows, Unix ) . : (structured programming) (object oriented programming) ( ) . , . (objects). ( ) . .

4.1
1965 E.W. Dijkstra IFIP GOTO . Bhm & Jacopini 1966 : , :

1. , ()
, .

2. , if ... Then ... else,

.

3. , while ... do repeat ... until.

15

 , ( GOTO) !

"" , ! () . : () () () () . , "" "" . A ( projects, ) GOTO, projects , , . GOTO. , . . . ' . 16

..... While (....) do ...... If (...) then ... Else ... End if Repeat ... ... Until (...) End While .. .

TEXNIKE
: ( declarations) , . , , ,

. - (main, program ). , ( / ) . . (if-thenelse) (for, while, repeat). ( - data) , ( ). , . , , . () / , , . 17

 , . , . , , , . . : 1. : . 2. : . 3. : . . () , . : C Pascal Java Fortran 77 int integer int INTEGER Float Real double REAL char char string CHARACTER , . . . ( Pascal C) (procedures PASCAL) / - (FORTRAN) (paragraphs COBOL).

BOOL
Bool ( 19 ) : (True) (False) (Boolean logic). , , / (1/0) . Bool, ( ) (, . , ) . , , ( 5+3, 7- 4, 5x2, 20/4). Bool , (AND), (OR) (). : 4 3 (4>3 ) . : 40 ( 40, ) . 40 , . : 60 180.000 . AND, OR NOT Bool , V . :

AND

OR

NOT

T T F T T T F T F F F F T F Bool, , ( ) . () : = (), < (), 18

> (), ( ), ( ) (). Bool : < 100.000 < 60 > 56 < 20 > 40o < 75 o < 45% > 20% [( > 40o) ( < 10%)] ( > 8000lt) , . C && Pascal AND Java & FORTRAN .AND.

AND
OR || OR || .OR. NOT ! NOT ! .NOT. = == = == .EQ. > > > > .GT. < < < < .LT. >= >= >= .GE. <= <= <= .LE. != <> != .NE. , . (, ) ( ) ( ) , : C if (temp > 30 && temp <60) { mask = 5; printf (mask is 8 now\n); } else mask = 7; While () { () } Pascal if (temp > 30 AND temp < 60) then begin mask := 5; writeln (mask is 8 now); else mask:=7; While () do begin () end;

. : 1. ( , ) 2. ( ) , . 3. , , (compilation) ( .. C, PASCL, COBOL, FORTRAN ) , , 19

. (), . (algorithm) , / , , ( ). , . / ( ). / ( ). () . , . , ( ). ; , . ( ) , : 1. ( ). 2. . 3. , . 4. , , . : 7, 5, 11, 12, 3 9 : - 7 . . - 5. 7 5 7 . - 11. 11 > 7 11 . - 12. 12 > 11 12 . - 3. 12 - 9, 12 . . . . : 0. MAX . 1. . 2. MAX . 3. . 4. ; , . . 5. > ; , , 3 () : (...) , . , . 0 . : 0. . 1. . . 2. = 0 . 3. , . 1. . , . : 20

 "" : 1. . 2. . 3. , 3. ; 3. : ; 3. 3. : ; 2. 3. 1. :

, . (flowcharts), ( ), . : ().

(flowcharts) . 21

 ( / ), . . , . . : 1. ( ) ( ). 2. , . 3. . 4. , . . 5. . . .

, . ( ) - . ( ) ( ) . , . . : 22

 : : : _: / 5 30 () / ( ) () () / ( ) / ( ) () () / / () () / () / () / _ () / () () _ () ( Bool). . / ( ). (1, 2, ) . x, !

(o)
(array) (data, ) , . . , ( ) , .. = (1, 5, 7, 10) 1=1 ( ), 3=7 ( ) , . . n . 23

- : = 1, 2,..., n = 1, 2,..., n C: C= 1+1, 2+2,...,n+n : _. 0. 1. , , C: : i: () 2. , i 1 2. (i <= N ) Ci Ai + Bi ii+1 () 3. C B4. ( , searching). : 10 , ; - . . : -1. 0. 1. : , : , i: () 3. , , i 1 4. (i <= ) (i = ) () ii+1 () 5. . , . , , . . met, 0 () : -2. 0. 1. : , : , i, met: () 3. , i <- 1, met=0 4. (i <= ) (i = ) met met+1 () ii+1 () B5. (met > 0) met 6. , met .

24


. ' (: ' . .) , . () . , . ; . . ; , (. 99999). . : =(8, 256, 37, 1, 45). =( , , , , ) . 1. 1 . 1 999. : = (8, 256, 37, 999, 45) =(1, , , , ) . 8. : = (999, 256, 37, 999, 45) =(1, 8, , , ) : = (999, 999, 999, 999, 999) =(1, 8, 37, 45, 256) . : - 0. 1. : , : ( ) j, k, i: (j, i ) 2. , i 0 3. i i +1 min A1 ( 1 ) j2 (j <= N) (min > Aj) min Aj kj () j = j+1 () Bi Ak Ak () 4. 5. () : B. , . : 8, 256, 37, 1, 45

25

 . 1. 1 8 1 8. : 1, 256, 37, 8, 45 , 256, 37, 8, 45. ( 8) ( 256). : 1, 8, 37, 256, 45 37, 256, 45 . . , . , . k m n ( m n ). MIN (A, m, n, k) 1. : , k: ( ) m: ( ), n: ( ), j: () B2. min Am, k m, j m+1 B3. (j <= n) (min > Aj ) min Aj k j () j j+1 () 4. () : _ 0. 1. A: , , K, i, temp: ( ) B2. , i 1 3. (i < N) MIN(A, i, N, K) temp Ai Ai AK AK temp i i+1 () 4. 5. ; . ; () ( ). () 3 (;) . , temp. () Bubble sort: bubble sort ( ;). : 7, 5, 2, 11, 8 bubble sort : . . . . . 26

- 7 5. 5 . : 5, 7, 2, 11, 8 - 7 2 . 2 : 5, 2, 7, 11, 8 - 7 11. . - 11 8 . : 5, 2, 7, 8, 11 "" : 2, 5, 7, 8, 11 2 5 . . : UBLE_SORT 0. 1. : , i, k, temp, flag: (i, k ) 2. , i 1 3. (i <= N) k 1, flag 0 -1 (k+1 < k) temp k , k k+1 , k+1 temp () flag 1 ( 1 ) () k k +1 () (flag = 0) i N+1 ( ) i i+1 () () 4. 5. : binary search. , , . binary search. . ( ) . ( ) , ( ) ( ) . ( ) ( ) . . A = ( 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, 22, 29, 37) - 9 29 . 1 = ( 1, 2, 4, 7) 2 = (11, 22, 29, 37) 29 7 11 ( ) 2. 2 -: A21 = (11, 22) A22 = (29, 37) o 29 22 22 ( ). 22 : 221 = (29) 222 = (37) 221 . , . ( ) 27

 . : binary_search 0. 1. : , M: ( ) , , i, , flag: B2. 3. 1, (+)/2 4. (flag = 0 A > ) (K = ) flag=1, () (K < ) +1 -1 () () 5. (flag = 1) () 6.

28