SCTTheory TOC

Princeton Satellite Systems, Inc.
SPACECRAFT
ATTITUDE and ORBIT
CONTROL
Michael Paluszek, Pradeep Bhatta, Paul Griesemer,
Joseph Mueller and Stephanie Thomas
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
Spacecraft Attitude and Orbit Control
2nd Edition
6 Market Street, Suite 926, Plainsboro NJ
http://www.psatellite.com
Spacecraft Attitude and Orbit Control, 2nd Edition.
Copyright c 1996-2009 by Princeton Satellite Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced in
any form without the written permission of the publishers, with exception of brief quotations in reviews.
MATLAB R is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This books use or discussion of MATLAB R software or related products does not
constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB R
software.
Other product or brand names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders.
ISBN 978-0-9654701-0-0
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book evolved over 15 years starting when Princeton Satellite Systems was incorporated. It encompasses the
collective experience of the authors in spacecraft attitude and orbit control. This started with work on the NASA
Space Shuttle at the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory and continued with work on numerous spacecraft at RCA Astro
Electronics (which became GE Astro Space and is now part of Lockheed Martin.) Most of the recent work discussed
in this book relates to work done by Princeton Satellite Systems on numerous Air Force, NASA and commercial
contracts.
The authors would like to thank their many colleagues with whom they have worked over the past 30 years who in
some way inuenced the work in this book. This includes collaborators on projects and managers of projects on
which Princeton Satellite Systems worked. This list is not necessarily complete and we apologize to anyone we have
overlooked!
We would like to thank Professor Manuel Martinez-Sanchez, who was Mr. Paluszeks and Ms. Thomas thesis advisor
at MIT, Mr. Paul Zetocha, manager of numerous PSS contracts at AFRL, Dr. Barbara Sorensen of the U.S. Air
Force, Bj orn Jakobsson of the Swedish Space Corporation with whom we have worked on the PRISMA project, Mr.
Douglas Freesland who awarded us the Indostar attitude control system contract, Dr. Alfred Ng of the Canadian Space
Agency, Mr. Douglas Bender of Boeing with whom we worked on TDRS, Mr. Rich Burns of NASA with whom we
collaborated on TechSat-21, Dr. Russell Carpenter of NASA who managed one of our formation ying contracts, Dr.
Neil Goodzeit of Lockheed Martin, Bruce Campbell, and Andy Heaton of NASA with whom we have worked on solar
sails, Dr. Robert McKillip of Continuum Dynamics who collaborated with us on fault detection, and Mr. Christian
Phillipe of ESTEC. We would also like to thank former members of the company who are no longer at Princeton
Satellite Systems: Dr. James Frueh, Mr. Derek Surka, Ms. Kerri L. Kusza, Ms. Wendy Sullivan, Ms. Margarita Brito,
and Mr. Mike Miller.
One of the ideals we strive for at Princeton Satellite Systems is a work environment that encourages a balanced
lifestyle. We recognize that our success at work is only possible through the support of our families, and we are
grateful to them.
iii
iv
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements iii
Contents v
List of Examples xii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Spacecraft Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Control System Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 What A Spacecraft Control Engineer Needs To Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Product Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Design Tutorial 9
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Conceptual Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Simplifying Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Link Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Thermal and Optical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Spacecraft Orbit Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 Attitude Control System Design and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Power and Thermal Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.9 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Control System Design Process 27
3.1 Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4 Preliminary Designs 31
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Requirements Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 Satellite Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5 Math 41
5.1 Vectors and Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Spherical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 Time 49
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2 Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
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CONTENTS CONTENTS
7 Coordinate Systems 53
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Selenographic Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.3 Areocentric Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.4 Heliocentric Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
8 Kinematics 57
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.2 Euler Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.3 Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.4 Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9 Attitude Dynamics 69
9.1 Inertia Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.2 Rigid Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.3 Gyrostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.4 Modeling Flexible Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.5 A Simple Flexible Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10 Multibody Dynamics 83
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.2 Topological Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.3 Two Body Translational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.4 Translating Stage with Reaction Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
10.5 Pivoted Momentum Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
11 Orbits 95
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.2 Representations of Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.3 Propagating Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11.4 Gravitational Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.5 Linearized Orbit Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
12 Orbit Maneuvers 107
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12.3 Impulsive Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
12.4 Low-Thrust Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
12.5 Close Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
12.6 Maneuvers with Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13 Formation Flying 119
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.2 Coordinate Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.3 Relative Orbit Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
13.4 Geometric Parameters for Relative Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.5 Relative Orbit Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13.6 Formation Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
14 Launch and Reentry 161
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
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CONTENTS CONTENTS
14.2 Two Dimensional Optimal Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
14.3 Two Dimensional Flat Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
14.4 3D Cartesian Spherical Rotating Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.5 3D Bank and Flight Path Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
14.6 Launch Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
14.7 Lambert Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
15 Trajectory Optimization 175
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15.2 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15.3 Minimization Subject to a Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
15.4 Problem Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
15.5 Zermelos Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
15.6 Solar Polar Imager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
16 Budgets 187
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
16.2 Pointing Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
16.3 Propellant Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
16.4 Mass Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
16.5 Power Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
17 Sensors 193
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
17.2 Types of Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
17.3 Planet Optical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
17.4 Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
17.5 Other Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
18 Rendezvous Sensors 201
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
18.2 Rendezvous Sensor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
18.3 RADAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
18.4 LADAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
18.5 Optical Sensor Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
19 Optical Sensors 221
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
19.2 Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
19.3 Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19.4 Imaging Chips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
20 Actuators 241
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
20.2 Types of Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
20.3 Reaction Wheel Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
20.4 Control Moment Gyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
20.5 Thrusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
20.6 Magnetic Torquers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
20.7 Solenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
20.8 Stepping Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
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CONTENTS CONTENTS
21 Propulsion 259
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
21.2 Physics of Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
21.3 Nozzle Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
21.4 Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
21.5 Low Power Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
21.6 High Power Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
21.7 Multiple-Stage Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
22 Disturbances 271
22.1 External Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
22.2 Internal Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
22.3 Fourier Series Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
23 Simulation 285
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
23.2 Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
23.3 Nonlinear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
23.4 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
23.5 Simulations for Control System Verication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
23.6 Simulation of Stochastic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
24 Control Design 295
24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
24.2 Simple Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
24.3 The General Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
24.4 Fundamental Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
24.5 Tracking Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
24.6 State Space Closed Loop Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
24.7 Approaches to Robust Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
24.8 Single-Input Single-Output Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
24.9 Digital Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
24.10 Continuous to Discrete Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
24.11 Flexible Structure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
24.12 Model Following Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
24.13 Double Integrator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
25 Spacecraft Attitude Control 341
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
25.2 Attitude Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
25.3 Propagation of Quaternions from Gyro Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
25.4 Gravity Gradient Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
25.5 Nutation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
26 Command Distribution 349
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
26.2 The Optimal Torque Distribution Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
26.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
27 Attitude Estimation 357
27.1 Introduction to Estimation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
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27.2 Gyro Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
27.3 Conversion from Continuous to Discrete Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
27.4 The Kalman Filter Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
27.5 Unscented Kalman Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
27.6 Batch Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
27.7 Vector Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
27.8 Disturbance Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
27.9 Spin Axis Attitude Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
27.10 Stellar Attitude Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
27.11 Static Attitude Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
27.12 Recursive Attitude Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
28 Orbit Estimation 385
28.1 Recursive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
28.2 Batch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
28.3 Autonomous Navigation of Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
28.4 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
29 Geosynchronous Control 413
29.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
29.2 The Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
29.3 Transfer Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
29.4 Mission Orbit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
29.5 The Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
29.6 Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
29.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
29.8 A Mission Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
29.9 Design Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
29.10 Spacecraft Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
29.11 Spinning Transfer Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
29.12 Acquisition Using The Dual Spin Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
29.13 Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
29.14 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
29.15 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
30 Sun Nadir Pointing Control 435
30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
30.2 Coordinate Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
30.3 Sun Nadir Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
30.4 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
30.5 Attitude Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
30.6 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
31 Solar Sails 445
31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
31.2 Solar Pressure Force Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
31.3 Propellantless Attitude Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
31.4 Flexible Structure Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
31.5 Sail Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
32 ISS Proximity Operations 461
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32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
32.2 ISS Rendezvous Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
32.3 Proximity Operations Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
32.4 Proximity Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
32.5 Risk Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
33 ACS Testing 471
33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
33.2 Industry Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
33.3 A Testing Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
34 Fault Detection 487
34.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
34.2 Satellite Fault Detection and Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
34.3 Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
34.4 Fault Detection Background and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
34.5 Discrete Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
34.6 Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
34.7 Expert Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
34.8 Statistical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
34.9 Analytical Monitoring Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
34.10 Reasoning Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
34.11 Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
34.12 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
34.13 Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
34.14 Detection Filters for Attitude Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
34.15 Detection Filters for Orbit Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
34.16 Example Using Detection and Parity Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
35 Flight Operations 511
35.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
35.2 Elements of Flight Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
35.3 Mission Operations Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
35.4 Mission Operations Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
35.5 Mission Operations Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
35.6 Mission Operations Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
35.7 Mission Control Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
35.8 Mission Operations Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
36 Mission Planning 517
36.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
36.2 Orbit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
36.3 Launch Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
36.4 Observation Time Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
36.5 Ground Coverage for Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
36.6 Attitude Prole Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
37 Thermal 535
37.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
37.2 Radiation from a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
37.3 Dynamic Thermal Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
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37.4 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
37.5 Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
37.6 Heat Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
37.7 Multilayer Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
37.8 Isothermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
37.9 Thermal Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
37.10 Solar Panel Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
38 Power 547
38.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
38.2 Power Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
38.3 Power Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
38.4 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
39 Communication Links 553
39.1 Communication System Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
39.2 Information Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
39.3 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
39.4 Link Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
39.5 Line of Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
39.6 Intersatellite Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
40 Glossary of Acronyms 575
A Probability 579
A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
A.2 Axiomatic Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
A.3 Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
A.4 Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
A.5 Evaluating Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
A.6 Combining Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
A.7 Multivariate Normal Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
A.8 Random Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
A.9 Outliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
B Laplace Transforms 587
C Standard Atmosphere 589
Bibliography 591
Index 602
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LIST OF EXAMPLES
Introduction
1.1 Simple code example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Attitude jitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Design Tutorial
2.1 Link as a function of pointing error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Preliminary Designs
4.1 Control resolution example showing multiple ways of handling nite pulsewidth . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Attitude Dynamics
9.1 Rigid body dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.2 Momentum bias spacecraft nutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Orbits
11.1 Orbit simulation of impulsive inclination change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.2 Linearized orbit frequency response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Orbit Maneuvers
12.1 Rendezvous trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
12.2 Low thrust trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
12.3 Optimal planar maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
12.4 Frequency response of x-force to x-position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
12.5 A* 2D maneuver with obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
12.6 A* 3D maneuver with stayout zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.7 A* 3D maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Formation Flying
13.1 Example Trajectory Found with HillsEqns.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
13.2 Example Simulation Using RelativeOrbitRHS.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
13.3 Example of Periodic Motion and Lawdens Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
13.4 Example Periodic Relative Trajectory in an Eccentric Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
13.5 Example Periodic Relative Trajectory in an Eccentric Orbit, with Symmetric Cross-Track Motion . . 141
13.6 Trajectories for the Eccentric Tetrahedron Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
13.7 Trajectories of the reconguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Launch and Reentry
14.1 Minimum time orbit injection from the moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14.2 Three stage to orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
14.3 Single stage to orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
14.4 Newtonian lift and drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Preliminary Designs
15.1 Zermelo solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
15.2 Zermelo cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
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15.3 SPI trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Sensors
17.1 Earth sensor chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
17.2 Scanning earth sensor with standard chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Rendezvous Sensors
18.1 Radar range equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
18.2 CNR vs. pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
18.3 Ladar transmit power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
19.1 Diffraction limited resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
19.2 Airy pattern for a point source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
19.3 Light gathering ability of a telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
19.4 Visible stars for an ideal aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
19.5 Circle of confusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
19.6 Pinhole camera star image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
19.7 Earth, moon and sun spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Actuators
20.1 Reaction wheel frequency response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
20.2 Bristle friction and Coulomb friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
20.3 Double gimbal CMG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
20.4 Blowdown curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
20.5 Magnetic eld at geo orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
20.6 Magnetic torque at geo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
20.7 Stepping motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Propulsion
21.1 Payload to fuel ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
21.2 Electric propulsion system masses for LEO/GEO roundtrip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
21.3 Optimal exhaust velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
21.4 Exhaust velocity in electron volts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
21.5 Payload Ratio and Burnout Velocity in Multiple Stage Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Disturbances
22.1 Surface accommodation coefcients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
22.2 Density models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
22.3 Drag using a Jacchia model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
22.4 Gravity gradient with z-axis rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
22.5 Difference between a dipole and Meade-Faireld magnetic eld model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
22.6 Torque due to a residual dipole in geosynchronous orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
22.7 Comparison between pure specular and pure absorptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Simulation
23.1 Numerical integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
23.2 Coulomb friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
23.3 Smooth friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
23.4 Stiff Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
23.5 Simulation right-hand-side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
23.6 Simulation demo results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Control Design
24.1 Bode plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
24.2 Nichols plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
24.3 Root locus plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
xiv
24.4 Double integrator plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
24.5 Double integrator model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
24.6 Torque transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
24.7 Loop compensation example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
24.8 Delay example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
24.9 Bode Magnitude Plot of the Rate Control Loop with a Delays of 0.5 and 1 second . . . . . . . . . . 317
24.10 Comparison of Pulsewidth Modulator and Zero Order Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
24.11 Comparison of the Four Rate Estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
24.12 Comparison of the Matched Pole Zero with the Estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
24.13 Control of a double integrator with a lead network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
24.14 Bode plot for the collocated sensor actuator transfer function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
24.15 Bode plot for the non-collocated sensor and actuator transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
24.16 Lead Compensator with Flex Mode Added . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
24.17 Lead compensator providing ex damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
24.18 Bode plot for the non-collocated sensor and actuator transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
24.19 Bode plot for the non-collocated sensor and actuator transfer function with a phase-lead controller
and a crossover at 0.05 rad/sec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
24.20 Root Locus plot for the non-collocated sensor and actuator transfer function with a phase lead con-
troller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
24.21 Bode plot with a high frequency phase lead controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
24.22 Bode plot with a ex compensator zero at 0.6 rad/sec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
24.23 Model Following Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
24.24 Model Following Control Response with Increasing Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
24.25 Second order response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
24.26 Effect of the integrator on a second order step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
24.27 Phase plane controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
24.28 PID damping ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
24.29 Windup compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Spacecraft Attitude Control
25.1 Nutation dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
25.2 Nutation dynamics with a rate damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
25.3 Step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Command Distribution
26.1 Reaction Wheel Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
26.2 Gimbaled thrusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
26.3 North face simplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
26.4 Single Gimbal CMG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Attitude Estimation
27.1 Quaternion from unit vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
27.2 Errors due to misidentied starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
27.3 Kalman lter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Orbit Estimation
28.1 Orbit estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
28.2 Disturbance estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
28.3 Continuous discrete orbit estimation with process noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
28.4 Continuous discrete orbit estimation without process noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
28.5 Downhill Simplex Batch Orbit Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
28.6 Batch Least Squares Orbit Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
28.7 Doppler shift beat frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
28.8 Illumination variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
xv
Geosynchronous Satellite Control System Design
29.1 Dual Spin Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Sun Nadir Pointing Control
30.1 Sun-nadir yaw trajectory for a GPS orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Solar Sails
31.1 Solar pressure force model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
31.2 Heliocentric locally optimal steering for semi-major axis control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
31.3 Planet-centric locally optimal steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Fault Detection
34.1 Spinner detection lter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
34.2 Orbit thruster detection lter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
34.3 DC Motor Failure Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
34.4 Hardening spring failure simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Mission PLanning
36.1 Sun-Synchronous Inclination vs. Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
36.2 Repeat Ground-Track Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
36.3 Coverage Region Example with Constant Elevation Contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
36.4 Observation Time Windows Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
36.5 Coverage Region with Cone Projected onto the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Thermal
37.1 MLI effective emittance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
37.2 Isothermal satellite in geosynchronous orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
37.3 Thermal example. The referenced functions are included as listings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
37.4 Solar panel example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
37.5 Solar panel example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Power
38.1 Power vs time of year for a geosynchronous satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
38.2 Power vs heliocentric radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
38.3 Solar cell IV curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
38.4 Solar cell efciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
38.5 Eclipse in geosynchronous orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Communication Links
39.1 Shannon Information Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
39.2 Power from nose temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
39.3 Noise due to the sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
39.4 Noise due to the sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
39.5 Noise due to Mars and Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
39.6 Noise due to an attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
39.7 Noise due to a receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
39.8 Gain for a circular aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
39.9 Loss due to atmospheric gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
39.10 Loss due to pointing error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
39.11 Loss due to distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
39.12 Loss due to polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
39.13 Loss due to rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
39.14 Link analysis for earth to Mars link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
39.15 Link analysis for L
1
to earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
xvi
Probability
A.1 Dog birth problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
A.2 Hypothesis testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
A.3 Gaussian PDF and CPDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Standard Atmosphere
C.1 Standard atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
xvii
xviii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 How to Use This Book
This book covers the subject of spacecraft attitude and orbit control. It includes discussions of the physical systems
themselves and how to control those systems. This chapter provides an introduction to the topics in this book. In
the next chapter a complete tutorial is provided on spacecraft attitude and orbit control. It is recommended that the
reader who is new to the subject go through this tutorial in detail. Many MATLAB R scripts are provided. All of
these are available from Princeton Satellite Systems website including all supporting functions which are included
as compiled MATLAB code. You can explore each of the topics in the tutorial by customizing these scripts. In the
remaining chapters examples are given in MATLAB using Princeton Satellite Systems Spacecraft Control Toolbox
functions. If you have the Spacecraft Control Toolbox and MATLAB, you can cut and paste the examples into the
MATLAB Command window and execute them. If you save them in a script you can try different parameters and
customize the scripts to your own needs. There are very few scripts that will work without the Spacecraft Control
Toolbox. However, the given results serve to illustrate the text, which is completely self contained. No additional
products from The MathWorks
TM
are required for any examples in this book.
A code example is shown in Example 1.1. Plot2D is a function from Princeton Satellite Systems Spacecraft Control
Toolbox to generate 2D plots. The line PrintFig(1,1,1,SimpleExample) prints the gure into an encap-
sulated Postscript le. These last lines are in each example just for output purposes and so that you can cut and paste
the code into the MATLAB command window and execute it as is.
Example 1.1 Simple code example
1 t = linspace(0,100);
2
3 Plot2D( t, sin(t) );
4
5 PrintFig(1,1,1,SimpleExample)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
y
x
1
1.2. SPACECRAFT CONTROL CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
In this book we have not given many examples of operational hardware. The best source for up-to-date information
on current space systems is the internet. Virtually all aerospace companies have websites with elaborate product
descriptions. In addition there are many online industry newsletters and information websites that provide information
on existing systems.
1.2 Spacecraft Control
Spacecraft control is usually synonymous with Attitude Control, the engineering discipline of keeping a satellite or
spacecraft pointed in the right direction. However, in the last 20 years the umbrella of spacecraft control has expanded
to include close orbit control including automatic rendezvous and docking, formation ying and close maneuvering.
In the past orbit control was synonymous with mission planning, which can be thought of as low sampling rate
feedback control. In modern spacecraft it may be necessary to control relative position as tightly, if not more tightly
than, spacecraft attitude.
As an engineering discipline, spacecraft control embodies ve distinct areas:
1. Control system design
2. Dynamics and modeling of systems
3. Software design
4. User interface design
5. Spacecraft operations
The last is rarely considered, but is of critical importance in satellite control system design. The ve areas together
make up the Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS). Usually the system aspects of a spacecraft control system are
more important than the control laws themselves and often much more difcult to implement.
This book discusses all aspects of spacecraft control. This book assumes introductory courses in physics and calculus
through elementary differential equations. Some background in control theory would be helpful but is not essential.
This section will continue to expand upon each of the ve areas of the spacecraft control discipline.
1.2.1 Mnemonics
Table 1-1 gives some mnemonics used to denote spacecraft control systems.
Table 1-1. Attitude control system mnemonics
Mnemonic Meaning Where used
ACS Attitude Control System General
AOCS Attitude and Orbit control System Inmarsat 3
ADS Attitude Determination System GPS IIR
ADACS Attitude Determination and Control System
ADCS Attitude Determination and Control System
1.2.2 Control System Design
Attitude and orbit control system design can be further decomposed into:
1. Attitude determination
2. Orbit determination
2
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.2. SPACECRAFT CONTROL
3. Attitude Control
4. Orbit Control
5. Control distribution
The rst two involve sensor measurements, often using a combination of different sensors, to get an estimate of the
spacecraft pointing and position. The third and fourth involve the design and implementation of the control loops. The
last, distribution, involves taking control demands and converting them into demands on the actuators. For example, a
thruster may be pulsewidth modulated so torque or angular acceleration demand must be converted into pulsewidths
for the thrusters. In many cases, control distribution and control are combined into one step. Early control systems
were analog and the sensors were designed, in some cases, to produce outputs that could be used directly. For example,
a scanning earth sensor produces roll and pitch measurements and often autonomously makes adjustments for sun and
moon interference so that the sensor always gives valid measurements without the need for complex decision making
logic.
1.2.3 Dynamics and Modeling of Systems
The second area of spacecraft control can be decomposed into:
1. Modeling
2. Simulation
Modeling is the creation of computer software to replicate the physical behavior of the system. Only those physical
characteristics that are relevant to the problem being studied should be modeled. For example, for the purposes of
attitude control design, the mechanical and thermal dynamics of an earth sensor are rarely of interest and are usually
neglected. Simpler models are easier to test and debug and run faster. The numerical models are embedded in a
simulation. Since it is rarely practical to test control systems on real satellites, the designer must rely on simulation
to validate his or her designs. Simulations can range from all software running on the same platform, to software
models with the control system running on a ight or equivalent board or one in which actuator and sensor hardware
are integrated into the simulation. Types of simulations are shown in Figure 1-1 on the following page.
In the rst block diagram all of the models and the control software are part of the simulation. Everything is software.
This is the easiest to set up and maintain. However simulations may involve hundreds of thousands of lines of code
and large databases of parameters. Conguration management to allow reproduction of simulation runs is not a trivial
task and not something that should be taken lightly. The second diagram uses the actual ight software running on
its own processor. This allows testing of the ight software with the simulation and requires knowledge of hardware
interfaces and networking. The nal block diagram uses hardware actuators and sensors as well as the the ight
software. Figure 1-2 on page 5 shows the hierarchy of simulations and where in the lifecycle each would be used.
1.2.4 Software Design
The third area is the implementation of control systems in software. This is of critical importance. Ultimately, space-
craft control engineers must also be software engineers, whether they write in C++ or use a block diagram language.
Most of a spacecraft control system has little to do with control theory, but rather is related to how the satellite will
operate and interact with spacecraft operations. Aside from controlling the satellite, the software must:
1. Implement the user interface (command and telemetry)
2. Switch operational modes
3. Provide fault detection
4. Provide redundancy management
5. Plan maneuvers, operations, etc.
3
1.2. SPACECRAFT CONTROL CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1-1. Types of simulations
Dynamics Actuators Sensors
Control
Software
Simulation Computer
Control
Software
Simulation Computer
Flight Computer
Control
Software
Simulation Computer
Flight Computer
1.2.5 User Interface Design
The fourth area of spacecraft control is the most important. Most satellites that are lost are the result of operator
error; operator error is often due to user interface problems. A user interface problem can be a wrong command, or a
command whose effect is not completely understood.
In the early days of satellite design, the user interface was never designed; rather, it was implemented in an ad hoc
fashion. Today some satellite manufacturers (by no means the majority) have recognized that this is an important
component and must be considered early in the design phase.
4
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.3. CONTROL SYSTEM TERMS
Figure 1-2. Applications of different types of simulations
All Software
Design and
Analysis
Ops
Support
Software +
Flight
Computer
FSW Vercation
and Test
Anomaly
Investigations
Software + Flight
Computer +
Hardware
Fixed Based Moving Base
Integration and
Test
Anomaly
Investigations
1.2.6 Spacecraft Operations
The last area in the discipline of spacecraft control is ying the spacecraft, which many designers do once their de-
signs are launched. This involves planning maneuvers, monitoring the spacecraft during maneuvers and investigating
anomalies. Anomaly investigation ranges from post-mortems on lost spacecraft to ne-tuning the control system
performance by uploading new gains, for example.
1.2.7 The Spacecraft Control Engineers Job
How much time does a satellite control system designer spend on these tasks? Roughly 5% of a spacecraft control
engineers time is in actual control loop design. About 10% of his or her time will be spent modeling the hardware.
The other 85% will be spent writing software. This latter number includes writing analysis tools and simulations.
1.3 Control System Terms
Some attitude control terminology is not dened consistently throughout the aerospace industry. Textbooks and com-
panies use different terms for the same concept. Orbit control, as opposed to mission planning, is a relatively new
concept and the terminology is still evolving. This section explains a few confusing terms, and gives the denitions
that are used by Princeton Satellite Systems.
5
1.4. WHAT A SPACECRAFT CONTROL ENGINEER NEEDS TO KNOW CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.3.1 Pointing Accuracy
Also referred to as the attitude control accuracy. this generally refers to how well the attitude of the vehicle in question
can be controlled with respect to a commanded direction. When given as a requirement, it is an absolute bound on the
error allowed in the spacecrafts orientation with respect to the commanded orientation.
1.3.2 Pointing Knowledge
Also referred to as the attitude determination accuracy, this refers to how well the orientation of the spacecraft is
known with respect to an absolute reference. This term can be used for either real-time or after the fact orientation
knowledge. When given as a requirement, it is an absolute bound on the error allowed in the knowledge of the
spacecrafts orientation with respect to an absolute reference.
Sensor accuracy is the sum of the ultimate accuracy of the measurement, determined by the object used by the sensors,
and all the errors in the measurement such as mounting tolerances and thermal effects. Pointing knowledge is the
overall accuracy of attitude determination sensor suite. Stars are the most accurate source for a measurement followed
by the Sun and Earth.
Pointing knowledge can sometimes be improved after the fact, such as by monitoring the earths magnetic eld and
later post-processing the output of a magnetometer for better knowledge of a telescopes pointing direction for a
particular photograph.
The pointing knowledge of a spacecraft is usually better than its pointing accuracy, especially if it is not required to be
available in real-time. For example, control systems which use thrusters as the sole actuators generally have a pointing
accuracy limited to half the thrusters pulsewidth plus the attitude determination accuracy. Systems which incorporate
wheels into the attitude control system can usually operate close to the attitude determination accuracy so that the
pointing accuracy and the pointing knowledge are very close to each other.
1.3.3 Pointing Stability
When given as a requirement, this is the maximum rate of change of angular orientation allowed.
1.3.4 Jitter
Jitter refers to the errors in attitude of a frequency too high to be controlled by the attitude control system. When
given as an attitude control performance requirement, it is a specied angle bound or angular rate limit on short-term,
high-frequency motion of the spacecraft.
Each spacecraft has an inherent controller period required to sense an attitude error and implement a correction. This
period determines the controllers bandwidth by the relationship 1/t. Disturbances of a frequency above the bandwidth
are not attenuated by the attitude control system. Sources of such high-frequency disturbances could include the
internal vibration of a sensor.
Example 1.2 on the facing page shows a spacecraft pointing history with jitter. The jitter can be seen separately by
ltering the data and subtracting the smoothed curve from the original.
1.4 What A Spacecraft Control Engineer Needs To Know
The following is an outline of topics with which a spacecraft control designer needs to be familiar.
1. Dynamics
Rigid body
6
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.4. WHAT A SPACECRAFT CONTROL ENGINEER NEEDS TO KNOW
Example 1.2 Attitude jitter
1 tau = 3; % fundamental interval of control
system
2 w = 2
*
pi/tau;
3 t = linspace(0,2.5
*
tau,1000);
4
5 for k = 1:length(t)
6 % Add limit cycling
7 dist1(k) = 0.1
*
sin(w
*
t(k));
8 % add low-frequency white noise and bias
9 dist2(k) = 0.03+0.05
*
(sin(w/3
*
t(k))+cos(w
/1.5
*
t(k)));
10 % Add jitter and high-frequency white noise
11 dist3(k) = (0.03)
*
sin(30
*
w
*
t(k))+ randn
*
0.015;
12 end
13
14 % Add desired angle
15 %------------------
16 theta = 30;
17
18 % Plot
19 %-----
20 yL = {\theta Standard Deviations};
21 Plot2D(t,[theta+dist1+dist2+dist3;dist3/sig],
Time,yL,Attitude Jitter);
22 PrintFig(1,1,1,JitterDemo)
Attitude Jitter
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
29.8
29.9
30
30.1
30.2
30.3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
s
Time
Aerodynamics
Aeroelasticity (for launch vehicles)
Multibody
Electromechanical systems
Hydraulic systems (for launch vehicles and large vehicles like the Space Shuttle)
2. Disturbances
Solar pressure
Aerodynamic drag
Radiation pressure
Albedo pressure
Magnetic torques
Outgassing
3. Kinematics
Coordinate frames
Transformation matrices
Quaternions
Euler angles
4. Control
Single-Input-Single-Output (SISO)
Multi-Input-Multi-Output (MIMO)
Nonlinear
5. Sensors
Gyros
Accelerometers
GPS
Earth sensors
Sun sensors
Star sensors
7
1.5. PRODUCT INFORMATION CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Magnetometers
Potentiometers
Temperature sensors
Current sensors
6. Actuators
Rocket engines and other types of propulsion
Motors
Reaction wheels
Control moment gyros
Magnetic torquers
7. Math
Differential equations
Linearization of nonlinear models
Numerical methods
Probability and statistics
This book covers most of these topics. In many cases, the topics are explored as part of extended examples.
1.5 Product Information
For MATLAB R product information, please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA, 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
For additional information on the Spacecraft Control Toolbox, Formation Flying Module, Spin Axis Attitude Deter-
mination Module, or Solar Sail Module, please contact:
33 Witherspoon St.
Princeton, NJ 08542 USA
Tel: 609-279-9606
Fax: 609-279-9607
E-mail: info@psatellite.com
Web: www.psatellite.com
8
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN TUTORIAL
2.1 Introduction
This tutorial will walk you through elements of the design of a spacecraft. All of the scripts in this tutorial will work
with MATLAB R without any additional Spacecraft Control Toolbox functions.
Our goal is to design a geostationary spacecraft. The spacecraft must meet the following requirements:
1. Deliver -126 dBW at the beam center in the K
u
band
2. Maintain the orbital station to within 0.1 deg both in-plane and out-of-plane
3. Have a life of 7 years
The requirements ow among the communications, propulsion, power and attitude control subsystems is shown in
Figure 2-1 on the next page. The payload requirements drive both power and attitude control. For example, more
power is required if the attitude pointing requirements are loosened. The life and box requirements drive the amount
of fuel required and possibly the type of thrusters used. A long life requirement might drive the design to the use of
electrically augmented or electric thrusters. Propulsion also drives the pointing requirements. The more precise the
pointing the less fuel is required to perform maneuvers. Pointing affects both propulsion and communications in the
form
f = a + b (2-1)
where f is the power or the propellant required. The box size drives the communications subsystem since a large box
might increase the range to the beam center or lead to the need for a steerable antenna. Power drives the disturbances
since a larger solar array produces larger disturbances. Larger disturbances affect pointing so there is a closed loop
between power and attitude. Closed loops in the requirements may require design iterations. It is important to carefully
think out the requirements ow prior to starting the design lest unknown requirements result in design problems late
in the design process.
Well take the following steps:
1. Produce a conceptual design based on past experience of what should work
2. State our simplifying assumptions in the design
3. Compute the power needed to meet the rst two requirements. This will allow us to size our solar panels and
battery.
4. Perform a thermal and optical analysis. This will determine the actual size of our solar arrays and the distur-
bances on the spacecraft.
5. Do the orbit control analysis to meet the lifetime requirement
9
2.2. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL
Figure 2-1. Requirements ow
Communications
Power on Ground
Attitude
Control
Power
Pointing Power
Propulsion
Life
Disturbances
Disturbances
Mission Requirements
Pointing
Box
6. Design the attitude control system
7. Simulate the entire system
2.2 Conceptual Design
A conceptual design for a satellite that would meet these requirements is shown in Figure 2-2 on the facing page. The
main aspects are:
1. A box with insulating foil on the outside
2. Two radiators on the north and south faces
3. Batteries
4. Transponder (a radio transmitter)
5. Antenna for the payload that points at the earth
6. Two solar panels that always face the sun
7. Twelve thrusters. Four are on the north face, four on the west face and four on the east faces
North, south, east and west refer to the directions you would see if you were on the zenith (away from the earth face)
and looking at the earth.
2.3 Simplifying Assumptions
We will make some simplifying assumptions about the spacecraft.
1. The thrusters can be red so that they can produce any torque and force vector.
10
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.4. LINK ANALYSIS
Figure 2-2. Tutorial spacecraft
North
South
Nadir Zenith
Radiator
Battery
Transponder
Thruster
Fuel Tank
East West
Shunt
Solar Panels
+Y
+X
+Z
2. We have sensors that measure roll, pitch and yaw. Roll is the angle about the x-axis (the axis going from west
to east). Pitch is the axis going from north to south (y) and yaw is the axis pointing at the earth (z).
3. The spacecraft can be treated as a rigid body with a constant inertia matrix and center-of-mass that doesnt
move. This means that the rotation of the solar panels has no effect on center-of-mass or inertia.
4. There are no moving parts on the spacecraft. The rotation of the solar panels with respect to the core of the
spacecraft will be ignored as discussed above.
5. The thermal and solar disturbance model will only include the solar arrays.
6. Only the RF subsystem consumes power.
7. The power model will only include the RF emitted by the antenna, the shunts which dump excess power and the
battery.
2.4 Link Analysis
The link analysis is needed to determine how much power we need for the payload. The payload drives all other
requirements because it is the reason we are building the satellite. We are given a specication for beam power at the
center the beam. We will simplify our model to assume that the two losses are the range loss and the pointing loss.
The link equation is
P
R
= P
T
G
T
G
R
L
F
L
D
(2-2)
P
R
is the received power, P
T
is the transmitted power, G
R
is the gain of the receive antenna, G
T
is the gain of the
transmit antenna, L
F
is the free-space loss due to the expansion of the wavefront with the square of the distance from
the transmit antenna and L
D
is the depointing loss due to attitude errors. The link is shown in Figure 2-3 on the next
page.
The equation for the maximum boresight gain of an antenna is
G =
4A
2
(2-3)
11
2.4. LINK ANALYSIS CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL
Figure 2-3. Link
Data
RF
Transmit antenna Receive antenna
Solar panel
Modulator
where is the wavelength and A is the antenna aperture area. The range or free-space loss is
L
F
=
_
4R
_
2
(2-4)
where R is the range from the antenna to the beam center on the ground and is the wavelength. To compute the
pointing loss we must rst compute the 3 dB angle, that is the angle from the boresight for which the gain is down by
3 dB. dB are dened as
dB = 10 log
10
(x) (2-5)
The 3 dB angle,
3dB
, is
3dB
= 70

D
T
(2-6)
where the angle is in degrees and D
T
is the diameter of the transmit antenna. and D
T
must be in the same units.
The pointing loss is
L
P
= 10
1.2
3dB
(2-7)
where is the beam pointing error in deg. K
u
band for downlink has a frequency f = 12.7 GHz so the wavelength is
=
c
f
(2-8)
where c is the speed of light. For K
u
band is 2.4 cm.
The power required drives the solar array design. The beam pointing error connects to the attitude error through the
equations
AZ
=
roll
+

AZ
180/
yaw
(2-9)
EL
=
pitch
+

EL
180/
yaw
(2-10)
where
EL
and
AZ
are the beam center offsets.
The Link script generates the plot in Example 2.1 on the facing page. This shows the power, in dBW on the output
of the receive antenna given 1000 W at the input to the transmit antenna. The receive antenna radius is 0.5 m and the
transmit antenna radius is 1 m.
12
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.5. THERMAL AND OPTICAL MODEL
Example 2.1 Link as a function of pointing error
Link
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x 10
4
129.5
129
128.5
128
127.5
127
126.5
126
125.5
125
time (sec)
P
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
W
)
Power on ground
2.5 Thermal and Optical Model
The interaction of the solar ux with the solar arrays is used in the orbit disturbance model, the attitude disturbance
model and the power and thermal model. Figure 2-4 shows the thermal model.
Figure 2-4. Thermal model
s
o
la
r
u
x
r
e
e
c
t
e
d

s
o
l
a
r

u
x
Reemitted solar ux
+z
Power
The thermal balance is
a
ASs
T
n P
a
2AT
4
= 0 (2-11)
where A is the panel area,
a
is the absorptivity of the panel and ranges from 0 to 1, is the emissivity of the panel
(assumed the same for both sides) and ranges from 0 to 1, T is the panel temperature, P
a
is the power extracted
by the solar cells, S is the solar ux at the earths orbit (about 1367 W/m
2
) and is Boltzmanns constant equal to
5.67 10
8
W/m
2
K
4
, s is the sun vector and n is the outward unit normal to the surface. The power produced by the
panels is
P
a
=
a
ASs
T
n (2-12)
where is the conversion efciency and s
T
n is the dot product, equivalent to the cosine of the angle between s and n.
13
2.5. THERMAL AND OPTICAL MODEL CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL
Consequently, the thermal balance is
(1 )
a
ASs
T
n 2AT
4
= 0 (2-13)
Any energy that is not absorbed is reected specularly. The sum of the specular and absorption coefcient must equal
one
1 =
a
+
s
(2-14)
The force on the solar panel is related to the reection coefcients. The solar pressure force is
F =
S
c
As
T
n((2
s
s
T
n)n +
a
s) (2-15)
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum equal to 2.99792458 10
8
m/s. The reemitted ux is the same on both sides
so does not contribute to the net force. Let the solar array outward (cell) normal be
n =
_
_
0
sin
cos
_
_
(2-16)
where is the average tilt of the array due to thermal distortion.
The sun vector is always in the yz-plane of the solar panel. At equinox it is along z and at solstice it is elevated. Let
the angle be . Then the sun vector is
s =
_
_
0
sin
cos
_
_
(2-17)
so that
s
T
n = cos cos + sin sin = (2-18)
The thermal balance is now
(1 )
a
AS 2AT
4
= 0 (2-19)
and the force is
F
s
=
S
c
A(2
s
n +
a
s) (2-20)
The temperature of the solar array is
T =
_
(1 )
a
S
2
_
1/4
(2-21)
and the power produced by the array is
P
a
=
a
AS (2-22)
We would like the absorptivity
a
to be has large as possible to reduce the mass of solar arrays we need to take to
orbit. Modern multi-junction cells have efciencies, of 21.5%. Consequently our thermal design consists entirely of
picking the emissivity of the panels. The higher the emissivity, the lower the panel temperature. Generally, the colder
the solar cell the better its efciency. However, there may be a minimum desirable temperature (which will happen
when is a maximum). Therefore, this constraint allows us to determine our .
The script ThermalOptical plots the temperature, power and force as a function of sun angle as shown in Figure 2-
5 on the facing page.
14
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.6. SPACECRAFT ORBIT CONTROL
Figure 2-5. Solar effects
50 0 50
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
(deg)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
d
e
g
K
)
Panel Temperature
50 0 50
525
530
535
540
545
550
555
560
565
570
575
(deg)
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
Panel Power
50 0 50
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
(deg)
F
o
r
c
e

(

N
)
Panel Force

x
y
z
2.6 Spacecraft Orbit Control
2.6.1 Dynamics
The disturbances on the spacecraft are due to the gravitational acceleration of the sun and moon, solar pressure and the
effect of the earth not being spherical. For this tutorial we will only look at the earth asymmetry and sun gravitational
acceleration. Actually the effect of the moon is larger than the sun but the orbit of the moon is too complex for this
tutorial. The 3-body gravitational equations for the sun, earth and spacecraft are
r
i
=
3
j=1,j=i
j
r
3
ij
(r
i
r
j
) (2-23)
where
j
is the gravitational parameter of the j
th
body and where r
ij
= r
i
r
j
. r
i
is the acceleration of the i
th
body
with respect to the reference center. Figure 2-6 on the next page shows the geometry.
It is useful to write the equations out explicitly.
r
1
=
2
r
1
r
2
|r
12
|
3

3
r
1
r
3
|r
13
|
3
(2-24)
r
2
=
1
r
2
r
1
|r
21
|
3

3
r
2
r
3
|r
23
|
3
(2-25)
r
3
=
1
r
3
r
1
|r
31
|
3

2
r
3
r
2
|r
32
|
3
(2-26)
The denominator terms are always positive. Let 1 be the spacecraft, 2 the earth and 3 the sun. Note that r
ji
= r
ij
.
15
2.6. SPACECRAFT ORBIT CONTROL CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL
Figure 2-6. Three body gravity
r
2
r
3
r
1
r
21
Sun
Earth
We want the dynamical equations for r.
r
1
r
2
= (
1
+
2
)
r
1
r
2
|r
12
|
3

3
_
r
1
r
3
|r
13
|
3
+
r
3
r
2
|r
23
|
3
_
(2-27)
Let
r = r
1
r
2
(2-28)
d = r
3
r
2
(2-29)
r
1
r
3
= r d (2-30)
r = (
1
+
2
)
r
|r|
3

3
_
r d
|r d|
3
+
d
|d|
3
_
(2-31)
since
1
is much smaller than
2
, we can neglect
1
and
r =
2
r
|r|
3

3
_
r d
|r d|
3
+
d
|d|
3
_
(2-32)
The inuence of the sun is due to the offset of the spacecraft from the earths center and pushes in the direction of the
vector from the sun to the spacecraft. As r 0 the perturbation goes to zero.
The longitudinal drift must be computed from the gravitational potential. The gravitation potential can be written as a
series of spherical harmonic coefcients written in spherical coordinates
V =
2
r
n=2
_
_
a
r
_
n
n
m=0
(s
n,m
sin m + c
n,m
cos m)P
n,m
(sin )
_
(2-33)
where r is radius is longitude and is latitude. To nd the acceleration we must take the gradient
a =
i
r
V
r

1
r
V
1
r sin
V
(2-34)
Longitudinal drift is only caused by the second acceleration term and we are only interested in the terms up to n = 2.
The potential becomes
V =
2
r
_
a
r
_
2
2
m=0
(s
n,m
sin m + c
n,m
cos m)P
n,m
(sin ) (2-35)
16
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.6. SPACECRAFT ORBIT CONTROL
The Legendre functions of interest are
P
2,0
=
1
2
(3 sin
2
1) (2-36)
P
2,1
= 3 sin cos (2-37)
P
2,2
= 3 cos
2
(2-38)
When we are on the equator = 0 and therefore
P
2,0
=
1
2
(2-39)
P
2,1
= 0 (2-40)
P
2,2
= 3 (2-41)
We can then expand the sum
V =
2
a
2
r
3
_
3s
2,2
sin 2 + 3c
2,2
cos 2
1
2
c
2,0
_
(2-42)
The longitudinal acceleration is
a
=
1
r
V
=
6
2
a
2
r
4
[s
2,2
cos 2 c
2,2
sin 2] (2-43)
A comparison of the model with a 36 36 spherical harmonic model is shown in Figure 2-7. As can be seen they
agree closely.
Figure 2-7. Comparison of longitudinal accelerations for 36 36 harmonic model and single harmonic model
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
x 10
11
Longitude (deg)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
k
m
/
s
2
)
Longitudinal acceleration

Simplified model
36x36 Spherical harmonic model
2.6.2 Geo-synchronous Spacecraft Simulation
The M-le SimulationOrbit.m simulates a geo-synchronous orbit over two and a half days. The spacecraft is
initialized with the following position and velocity states in the earth-centered inertial reference frame:
r =
_
_
42, 167
0
0
_
_
, v =
_
_
0
3.074557
0
_
_
(2-44)
17
2.6. SPACECRAFT ORBIT CONTROL CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL
where a = 42, 167 km is the semi-major axis for GEO. This is found by satisfying the orbital period equation,
T = 2
_
|r|
3
/, for a period of one day, or T = 86, 400 seconds. The inclination is zero, so the velocity is purely in
the ECI y direction. The magnitude of the velocity is found by the velocity equation for a circular orbit:
|v| =
_

|r|
where = 3.98600436e5 km
3
/s
2
is the gravitational constant for earth.
The acceleration is computed in the RHSOrbit.m function. It includes gravitational acceleration from the Earth
and the sun, including the longitudinal acceleration term from Eq. 2-43 on the previous page. The results from the
simulation are plotted in Figure 2-8. The lower left plot shows the motion of the satellite in the inertial frame. The
other 3 plots show the relative position of the satellite with respect to a moving coordinate system that rotates with
the earth. In the rotating coordinate system, which is shown in Figure 2-9 on the next page, y points along the orbit
velocity, x points zenith away from earth, and z points south.
Figure 2-8. Simulation of Spacecraft in Geosynchronous Orbit with sun and earth Gravity Disturbances
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5
2
0
2
4
6
x (km)

y

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame
0 20 40 60
2
1
0
1
2
3
Time (hr)

z

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame
0 20 40 60
5
0
5
x 10
4
Time (hr)
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
k
m
)
ECI frame
0 20 40 60
2
0
2
4
6
Time (hr)
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame

x
y
The relative coordinate system is convenient in that it enables us to view how the actual orbit of the spacecraft is
moving with respect to its desired station, directly above a xed point on the earth. The motion in the y direction
represents the East-West drift, and the motion in the z direction represents the North-South drift.
After the inertial state is integrated, the relative position is computed as follows:
r(t) =
_
_
cos(t) sin(t) 0
sin(t) cos(t) 0
0 0 1
_
_
r(t)
_
_
42, 167
0
0
_
_
(2-45)
We rst rotate from the ECI to the local frame, through the angle t, where is the angular rate of the earth and t is
the elapsed time. We then subtract the earth-xed station position.
18
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.7. ATTITUDE CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN AND SIMULATION
Figure 2-9. Inertial and Rotating Coordinate Systems for Station-Keeping
x
y
Y
ECI
Z
ECI
z
X
ECI
2.6.3 North-South Stationkeeping
The North-South motion of the satellite is due to primarily to the gravitational acceleration of the sun on the spacecraft.
The moon also contributes to this motion, but it is ignored in this tutorial. As the plot in Figure 2-8 on the facing
page indicates, this motion follows a growing oscillation, with a period of about 1 day. North South stationkeeping
is required in order to keep the bounds of this oscillation within the acceptable limits, as dictated by the mission
requirements. The requirements for this example are to keep the oscillation between 0.1 degrees. In terms of
distance, this converts to:
d = 42167 0.1 /180 = 73.6 km
Our simulation shows that the magnitude of North-South oscillation grows at a rate of about 1.5 km/day. Therefore,
we would have to apply an impulsive delta-v in the orbit normal direction about once every 50 days. The simulation
results also show that the North-South relative velocity grows at a constant rate of about 0.08 m/s per day. Thus, on the
50
th
day, the delta-v required would be 4 m/s. This translates into an annual delta-v budget of 30 m/s. When the effects
of the moon are included, the North-South oscillation grows somewhat larger to about 2 km/day, which is 1 degree per
year. It then requires about 50 m/s of annual delta-v to perform North-South stationkeeping.
2.6.4 East-West Stationkeeping
The East-West motion is caused by accelerations acting in the xy plane of the rotating frame. This includes both the
the gravity from the sun and moon, as well as the gravitational harmonics of the asymmetric earth. The effect of earth
oblateness depends on the longitude of the station, as seen in Eq. 2-43 on page 17. The general result is a drift in the
longitudinal or East-West direction. The plot in Figure 2-8 on the facing page shows the longitudinal displacement (y
direction) growing at a rate of about 2.6 km per day. It would therefore take 28 days in order to reach our 73.6 km
boundary. Periodic burns in the y direction are applied to bound this drift. The associated delta-v depends upon the
longitude and the stationkeeping requirement (allowable drift), but it is typically only about 2 m/s per year.
2.7 Attitude Control System Design and Simulation
The steps done in designing an attitude control system are
1. Create a pointing budget
2. Create a disturbance budget
3. Select actuators and sensors
19
2.7. ATTITUDE CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN AND SIMULATION CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL
4. Design the control algorithms
5. Test in simulation
We are assuming ideal actuators and sensors so we will not do steps 2-3. The pointing budget is already factored into
the link analysis and we require that the spacecraft point in roll and pitch to within 0.1 deg.
2.7.1 Design the control algorithms
The dynamical equations for the spacecraft are Eulers equations
I +
I = T (2-46)
where I is the inertia matrix of the spacecraft, is the body rate measured about the body axes with respect to the
inertial frame and T is the sum of all external torques on the spacecraft.
is the equivalent of the cross product .

Written out it is
=
_
_
0
z

y
z
0
x
y

x
0
_
_
(2-47)
It allows us to write the vector differential equations as matrix differential equations. The vector form is not tied to a
particular coordinate frame but the matrix form is tied to a frame. In this case the equations are written in the body
frame so the two forms are equivalent. The spacecraft is nominally earth pointing and our control system will correct
small deviations from that pointing.
Figure 2-10. Spacecraft reference frame
z
z
y
To earth center
Positive Orbit Normal
x, v
North
South
East
West
x
s
y
s
The attitude kinematics come from the small angle approximation
=

+ (1
)
_
_
0
o
0
_
_
(2-48)
and
=
_
_
0
z

y
z
0
x
y

x
0
_
_
(2-49)
20
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.8. POWER AND THERMAL SUBSYSTEM
or
x
=

z
(2-50)
y
=

o
(2-51)
z
=

z
+
o
x
(2-52)
For small angular deviations these equations reduce to
= I
1
T (2-53)
where is a 3-vector (a vector with 3 elements) of small angular changes. We can then replace I
1
T with a giving us
the nal form that we will use for attitude control system design.
= a (2-54)
We have converted 3 coupled nonlinear rst-order dynamical equations and the, not shown, 3 nonlinear rst-order dif-
ferential equations that relate attitude to rate with 3 second order uncoupled linear differential equations. Surprisingly,
these equations are used for the design of stationkeeping control systems on real satellites. We can now design our
control system very simply. Let
a = K(

+ ) (2-55)
is the time constant and K is the forward gain. This is known as a proportional-derivative control system since
one part is proportional to the measurement which is and one part is proportional to the derivative of the measure-
ment. Note that the units are consistent. That is, if we replace the expression inside the parenthesis above with the
corresponding units of and we have:
sec
1
sec
+ 1 (2-56)
Clearly, the units of time cancel, so that both terms are dimensionless. The second order system can be written in the
form
+ 2 +
2
= 0 (2-57)
where is the damping ratio and is the undamped natural frequency. That is if were zero the system would oscillate
at frequency . We can equate the gains with these parameters if
K =
2
(2-58)
= 2

K
(2-59)
Generally, we want = 1 to get a smooth, non-oscillatory response so this becomes
K =
2
(2-60)
= 2
1
K
(2-61)
We multiply the acceleration, computed above, by the inertia matrix to get the control torque
a = IK(

+ ) (2-62)
where I is the inertia matrix.
2.8 Power and Thermal Subsystem
The power and thermal subsystems for the spacecraft shown in Figure 2-11 on the next page.
21
2.9. SIMULATION CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL
Figure 2-11. Power and thermal subsystems
RF
Radiated Heat
Battery
Transponder
Solar Panels
Radiator
Shunt
Radiated Heat
Sun
We discuss these two subsystems together because they are both involved in the thermodynamic equilibrium for the
spacecraft. The source of both power and heat is the sun. All incoming solar ux, whether converted to electricity or
not, must be radiated back into space. Electric power may be radiated as radio frequency emissions for the payload or
temporarily stored in a battery. The power balance equation is
P
a
= P
rf
+

E
b
+ P
s
(2-63)
where P
a
is the power coming in from the solar array, P
rf
is the RF power emitted by the antenna E
b
is the energy
stored in the battery and P
s
is the power transferred by the shunts to the radiator. To simplify the analysis we will
ignore the rest of the spacecraft and concern ourselves only with the solar panels and the power system described
above. This is consistent with our solar pressure disturbance model which only models the solar panels. This equation
has two forms. When the battery is fully charged
P
a
= P
rf
+ P
s
(2-64)
when it is partially charged
P
a
= P
rf
+

E
b
(2-65)
2.9 Simulation
2.9.1 Dynamical Model
Well write out the full dynamical model in state space form. We will be repeating some of the equations given above.
All of these equations go into our right-hand-side. We are only going to simulate attitude control but we will include
the power system and orbital dynamics so we can look at the pointing performance over several orbits.
Attitude dynamics:
= I
1
_
r
n
F
n
+ r
s
F
s
+ T
c
I
_
(2-66)
where r
n
is the vector to the north array and r
s
is the vector to the south array.
22
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.9. SIMULATION
External forces:
F
n
=
S
c
A
n
(2
s
n
n
n
+
a
s) (2-67)
F
s
=
S
c
A
s
(2
s
s
n
s
+
a
s) (2-68)
where the subscripts s and n refer to north and south. F = F
n
+ F
s
.
Attitude kinematics:
x
=
x
+
o
z
(2-69)
y
=
y
+
o
(2-70)
z
=
z
x
(2-71)
Orbit dynamics:
r =
2
r
|r|
3

3
_
r d
|r d|
3
+
d
|d|
3
_
a
l
u +
F
n
+ F
s
m
(2-72)
where where the longitudinal acceleration is
a
=
1
r
V
=
6
2
a
2
r
4
[s
2,2
cos 2 c
2,2
sin 2] (2-73)
and m is the mass
Orbit kinematics:
r = v (2-74)
Power system dynamics with the battery saturated:
E
b
= 0 (2-75)
and when the battery is partially charged:
E
b
= P
a
P
rf
(2-76)
where
P
a
=
a
AS (
n
+
s
) (2-77)
The temperature of the solar arrays is
T
s
=
_
(1 )
a
S
s
2
_
1/4
(2-78)
T
n
=
_
(1 )
a
S
n
2
_
1/4
(2-79)
The power delivered to the ground by the antenna is
3dB
= 70

D
T
(2-80)
G =
4A
2
(2-81)
L
R
=
_
4R
_
2
(2-82)
L
P
= 10
1.2
3dB
2
(2-83)
P
T
=
P
rf
G
T
G
R
L
R
L
P
(2-84)
The state vector is
x =
_

x

y

z

x

y

z
v
x
v
y
v
z
r
x
r
y
r
z
E
b
T
(2-85)
23
2.9.2 Control System
Our control system in discrete form is
T
c
= IK
_
k
+

k
k1
t
_
(2-86)
where K is the forward gain and is the rate gain time constant. t is the time step between control updates. This
control system approximates rate by a rst difference approximation.
frac
k
k1
t (2-87)
In practice this is a bad idea since this leads to amplifying noise. For example, if the attitude has not changed between
samples but the measurement is noisy this term will cause the control system to respond only to noise. In practice the
entire measurement should pass rst through a noise lter or a rate lter should be added to the rate term.
Well use the analog gains computed above because we will sample the control system fast enough (relative to the time
constant of the model) that the discrete nature of the updates is not important. We are also assuming that our attitude
sensor measures the angles relative to the local vertical frame. An earth sensor can measure pitch and roll easily but
yaw is more difcult. Nonetheless we will assume that a yaw measurement is available.
2.9.3 Integrated Simulations
The Simulation script implements the integrated simulation. The two cases given in this chapter are run by chang-
ing the following single line of code. You can change the variable simName to equinox to get an equinox simulation.
simName = Solstice;
Winter Solstice Simulation
The rst simulation will be 48 hours at solstice when the sun vector is at its largest angle to the orbit plane. This
causes increased disturbances if both solar panels curve in towards the sun vector. Figure 2-12 on the facing page and
Figure 2-13 on the next page show the results. The orbit results show the oscillatory nature of the orbit but the plots
do not show the effect of the disturbance force shown in the lower plot. In this simulation the sun and triaxial earth
harmonics are perturbations along with solar pressure on the solar panels.
The attitude plots show the steady control effort to cancel the disturbance torque. There is an offset in attitude because
the control is a proportional derivative controller. The offset is determined by the gain of the proportional term and the
inertial torque. This torque is caused by the bending of the solar panels towards the sun. The battery starts uncharged
but since we are not modeling eclipses it quickly reaches the fully charged state. For the same reason the panel
temperature does not change. The RF power changes because the distance to the point of measurement changes.
Spring Equinox Simulation
At equinox the sun is in the orbit plane. With our model there are no disturbances on the spacecraft. Figure 2-14 on
the facing page and Figure 2-15 on page 26 show the results. Two differences are observed. The sun is in the orbit
plane and does not produce an out-of-plane force. As a consequence there is no perturbation in the z direction. In
addition, because the sun is in the orbit plane the disturbance torque is also zero and there is no attitude offset.
24
CHAPTER 2. DESIGN TUTORIAL 2.9. SIMULATION
Figure 2-12. Solstice simulation orbit results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5
0
5
x 10
4
P
o
s
it
io
n

(
k
m
)
Solstice Orbit

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
4
2
0
2
4
V
e
lo
c
it
y

(
k
m
/
s
)

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
20
15
10
5
0
F
o
r
c
e

(

N
)
Time (hr)

x
y
z
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
x (km)

y

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame
0 10 20 30 40 50
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Time (hr)

z

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame
0 10 20 30 40 50
5
0
5
x 10
4
Time (hr)
P
o
s
it
io
n

(
k
m
)
ECI frame
0 10 20 30 40 50
2
0
2
4
6
Time (hr)
P
o
s
it
io
n

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame

x
y
Figure 2-13. Solstice simulation attitude, power, and thermal results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2
0
2
4
x 10
3

(
d
e
g
)
Solstice Attitude

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
10
5
0
5
x 10
5

(
r
a
d
/
s
)

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
T
o
r
q
u
e

(

N
m
)
Time (hr)

xC
yC
zC
xD
yD
zD
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
B
a
t
t
e
r
y

(
W
s
)
Solstice Thermal and Power
0 10 20 30 40 50
304.6
304.8
305
305.2
305.4
305.6
305.8
306
P
a
n
e
l
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
d
e
g
K
)

N
S
0 10 20 30 40 50
1077
1077.5
1078
1078.5
1079
1079.5
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
Time (hr)
0 10 20 30 40 50
126.068
126.0675
126.067
126.0665
126.066
126.0655
126.065
126.0645
R
F

p
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
W
)
Time (hr)
Figure 2-14. Equinox simulation orbit results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
5
0
5
x 10
4
P
o
s
it
io
n

(
k
m
)
Equinox Orbit

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
4
2
0
2
4
V
e
lo
c
it
y

(
k
m
/
s
)

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
20
15
10
5
0
F
o
r
c
e

(

N
)
Time (hr)

x
y
z
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
x (km)

y

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame
0 10 20 30 40 50
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Time (hr)

z

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame
0 10 20 30 40 50
5
0
5
x 10
4
Time (hr)
P
o
s
it
io
n

(
k
m
)
ECI frame
0 10 20 30 40 50
2
0
2
4
6
Time (hr)
P
o
s
it
io
n

(
k
m
)
Rotating frame

x
y
25
Figure 2-15. Equinox simulation attitude, power and thermal results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1
0.5
0
0.5
1

(
d
e
g
)
Equinox Attitude

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
8
6
4
2
0
x 10
5

(
r
a
d
/
s
)

x
y
z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
T
o
r
q
u
e

(

N
m
)
Time (hr)

xC
yC
zC
xD
yD
zD
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
B
a
t
t
e
r
y

(
W
s
)
Equinox Thermal and Power
0 10 20 30 40 50
310.5
311
311.5
312
312.5
313
P
a
n
e
l
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
d
e
g
K
)

N
S
0 10 20 30 40 50
1174
1174.5
1175
1175.5
1176
1176.5
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
Time (hr)
0 10 20 30 40 50
126.068
126.0675
126.067
126.0665
126.066
126.0655
126.065
126.0645
R
F

p
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
W
)
Time (hr)
26
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INDEX
Actuator
control moment gyro, 37, 245
single axis, 248
magnetic torquer, 34, 250, 433, 439
minimum impulse bit, 248
momentum wheel, 90, 424, 489
reaction wheel, 34, 89, 242, 350, 442
single gimbal cmg, 353
solenoid, 251
stepping motor, 257
Thruster, 433
thruster, 34, 248, 351, 421
electrothermal hydrazine, 414
pulsewidthmodulation, 248
Type, 241
Attitude Dynamics
dual spin turn, 424
exible structures, 76, 453
geosynchronous spacecraft, 425
gyrostat, 75
inertia, 69
positive denite, 69
rigid body, 72
Attitude Estimation, 357
batch methods, 364
Bayesian, 365
differential corrector, 365
maximum likelihood, 365
gyro model, 359
iterated extended Kalman Filter, 360
Kalman Filter, 359
simple, 357
spin axis, 368
star identication, 382
Unscented Kalman Filter, 361
Budgets, 187
mass, 189
pointing, 187
power, 191
propellant, 189
Command Distribution, 349
gimbaled thrusters, 351
logic, 354
optimal torque, 349
reaction wheels, 350
single gimbal CMG, 353
Control, 2
Bode plot, 296
control limiting, 336
cross-axis coupling, 338
digital, 312
continuous to discrete transformations, 318
modied continuous design, 312
double integrator, 300, 304, 309, 311, 320, 324, 333,
336
feedback, 295
exible structure, 322, 453
collocated, 325
lead compensation, 326
non-collocated, 326, 327
generalized integrator, 309
geosynchronous, 413
Linear Quadratic Gaussian methods, 306
model following, 330
momentum, 443
Nichols plot, 296
noise ltering, 430
nutation, 432
phase plane, 336
PID, 333, 335, 336, 433
rate control, 296
robust, 303
roll/yaw, 430
root locus, 297, 327
stationkeeping, 427
Sun nadir, 435
uncertainty, 303
Design Process, 27
conguration management, 28
databases, 28
requirements, 27
test plans, 29
Disturbances
aerodynamic, 272
diffuse reection, 278, 281, 446
602
INDEX INDEX
external, 271
Internal, 283
Plume, 281
accommodation coefcients, 282
method of characteristics, 281
radio frequency, 277
residual dipole, 276
solar pressure, 278, 445
specular reection, 445
thermal, 280, 446
Fault Detection, 487
detection lters, 494
examples, 497
failures, 488
neural nets, 495
online approximator, 495
parameter estimation, 494
parity relations, 493
reasoning, 496
reference models, 492
satellite, 487
Flight Operations, 511
example, 516
mission control center, 515
organizations, 511
preparation, 513
team organization, 514
timeline, 511
Formation Flying
assignment methods, 155
control, 145
analytic solution for circular orbits, 147
linear programming for circular orbits, 148
linear programming for eccentric orbits, 150
coordinate systems, 121
denition, 119
Gauss variational equations, 132
Gauss variational equations, 133
geometric parameters, 126, 136, 140
geometric parameters for circular orbits, 136
geometric parameters for eccentric orbits, 140, 142
guidance, 152, 155
halo orbit, 135
Hills equations, 128, 129
Hills frame, 124
Lawdens equations, 130, 131
Libration points, 133
mean and osculating elements, 122
missions, 119
motivation, 119
multiple team framework, 153
orbit regimes, 120
orbital element differences, 123
orbital elements, 121
relative dynamics, 128
relative frames, 124
Geosynchronous, 413
acquisition, 416
attitude determination, 423
dual spin turn, 424
mission orbit, 414
requirements, 413
spinning transfer orbit, 420
transfer orbit, 414
ISS, 461
proximity operations requirements, 464
spacecraft, 461
ATV, 461
Progress, 462
Shuttle, 462
Soyuz, 462
Kinematics
coordinate transformations, 57
Euler angles, 58
quaternion, 60
derivative, 62
interpretation, 66
linearization, 63
small angles, 66
transformation matrices, 58
Launch and Reentry, 161
azimuth angle, 170
hypersonic lift and drag, 170
Lamberts method, 172
launch guidance, 173
orbital plane, 171
three dimensional bank and ight path angle, 168
three dimensional rotating Earth, 167
two dimensional at Earth, 164
two dimensional optimal transfer, 161
vehicles, 161
Link
antenna, 558
budget, 559
communication system, 553
ISL, 563
constellations, 565
implemented ISLs, 565
lower layer protocols, 568
networking, 566
OSI reference model, 566
L1, 560
line of sight, 563
losses, 558
603
INDEX INDEX
atmosphere, 559
free space, 559
pointing error, 559
polarization, 559
rain, 559
noise, 554
attenuator, 556
planet, 556
receiver, 557
sky, 556
Sun, 555
Shannon Information Theorem, 554
Math
calculus, 45
differential equations, 286
oating point operations, 44
Laplace Transforms, 45, 587
matrix, 41
matrix identities, 44
matrix operations, 43
numerical integration, 287
stiff equations, 289
probability, 579
axiomatic, 579
binomial theorem, 580
distributions, 580
measurements, 583
multivariate normal distributions, 584
outliers, 585
random signals, 584
spherical geometry, 44
law of cosines, 45
vector, 41
math
numerical integration
discontinuities, 289
Mission Planning, 517
MissionPlanning
attitudeprole, 529
groundcoverage, 527
launchopportunities, 521
observation, 523
orbitdesign, 517
repeatgroundtrack, 519
synsynchronous, 518
Multibody Dynamics, 83
pivoted momentum wheel, 90
topological tree, 83
two body translational, 85
Optics, 221
diffraction limit, 226
errors, 228
geometry, 223
imaging chip
APS, 234
CCD, 234
CID, 234
imaging chips, 239
light gatherin, 227
nomenclature, 221
performance, 226
pinhole camera, 230
radiometry, 231
radiosity, 233
star trackers, 239
telescopes, 222
Orbit, 95
cartesian coordinates, 96
cylindrical coordinates, 97
equinoctial elements, 98
gravity model, 101
Kepler, 100
Keplerian elements, 97
linearized, 104
numerical integration, 100
propagation, 100
Orbit Estimation, 385
autonomous, 393
GPS, 394
MAGNAV, 394
MANS, 395
satellite to satellite tracking, 395
SMART-1, 398
continuous discrete Kalman lter, 386
disturbance estimator, 385
Orbit Maneuvers, 107
A*, 114
coplanar, 108
Lambert law, 110
low thrust, 111
non planar, 110
Orbit Measurements, 398
Power, 547
bus, 551
generator, 547
auxiliary power unit, 551
fuel cell, 550
nuclear reactor, 550
radioisotope thermal generator, 550
solar, 547
load, 551
Preliminary Design, 31
processor, 38
propulsion, 39
requirements, 31
604
INDEX INDEX
Preliminary design
cost, 39
Preliminary Designsatellite conguration, 33
Propulsion, 259
electrothermal hydrazine, 414
engines, 259
fusion, 265
Hall thruster, 264
ion engine, 264
low power electric, 264
nozzle, 262
nuclear thermal, 265
rocket equation, 260
Rendezvous Sensors, 201
antenna gain, 209
CNR, 214
Examples
ADLT, 205
Apollo LM, 202
AVGS, 202
Cloud Proling Radar, 205
DART, 201
ETS-VII, 203
Kurs, 204
NEAR, 205
Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle, 204
PRISMA, 201
Relavis, 202
Sandia, 205
Space Shuttle, 203
VGS, 202
XSS-11, 201
ladar, 213
beam scanning, 214
optics, 217
radiometry, 232
radar, 206
analysis, 211
bands, 207
conguration, 208
cross-section, 211
losses, 212
signal to noise ratio, 209
range equation, 215
range resolution, 210
vision, 216
Sensor, 193
accelerometer, 200
angle encoder, 38, 200
Earth
scanning, 196
earth, 38, 194, 421, 429
gyro, 38, 199, 359, 421, 429, 438
horizon, 38, 194, 421
magnetometer, 38, 200
potentiometer, 38, 200
stellar, 38, 438
Sun, 38, 199, 368, 421, 438
tachometer, 430
Sensor:horizon sensor, 369
Sensors
navigation, 398
landmark, 401
telescope, 404
ranging, 399
star trackers, 396
Active Pixel Sensors, 397
CCD, 397
CID, 397
Simulation, 3, 285
control system verication, 290
discontinuities, 289
dual spin turn, 424
linear, 285
stochastic processes, 291
solar ux, 447
Solar Sail, 445
cone and clock angle, 457
exibility, 453
force model, 446
guidance, 457
semi-major axis control, 459
sliding mass, 451
vanes, 450
Spacecraft Control, 2
Spacecraft Operations, 5
Standard Atmosphere, 589
Sun Nadir, 34, 435
attitude determination, 440
momentum control, 443
pointing, 436
sensors, 438
solar array, 441
Testing
DC-X, 478
INSAT 1, 476
Intelsat V, 477
IRAS, 472
MBB, 478
methodology, 481
ight vehicle, 482
life-cycle, 482
requirements ow, 481
test levels, 485
MOS-1, 472
605
INDEX INDEX
MSTI, 478
SMART-1, 479
Space Telescope, 477
Telecom 1, 472
Thermal
conductive, 537
heat pipe, 538
multilayer insulation, 539
radiation, 536
radiative, 537
radiator, 538
thermal balance, 535
Time
Earth rotation, 50
Greenwich Mean Time, 51
Julian date, 51
scales, 49
Trajectory Optimization, 175
constraints, 178
continuation methods, 178
downhill simplex, 177
examples
Solar Polar Imager, 182
Zermelos problem, 181
genetic algorithms, 177
Hamiltons, 176
locally optimal, 458
methods, 176
problem classes, 180
simulated annealing, 177
User Interface, 4
606
INDEX INDEX
607
Spacecraft Attitude and Orbit Control is a state-of-the-art reference
covering the latest advances in spacecraft attitude and orbit control. It is
based on 30 years of experience in spacecraft control and includes cutting
edge work that is unavailable in any other book. The book is intended to
be fully self-contained and includes all required mathematics and control
theory needed to delve into spacecraft control. The book approaches
spacecraft control from a broader perspective by covering relative
spacecraft position control as well as attitude control.
The book includes complete chapters on spacecraft examples including
solar sails, formation flying, geosynchronous spacecraft and sun-nadir
pointing spacecraft. Topics that influence attitude control, including orbit
and attitude estimation, thermal control, power systems and
communications links, are also included. Other chapters include
spacecraft operations, fault detection and the spacecraft design process.
Numerous examples with code from Princeton Satellite Systems
Spacecraft Control Toolbox for MATLAB are included. A tutorial chapter
provides a complete spacecraft design and includes all of the Matlab
code needed to replicate the results. Owners of the toolbox can run
every example and the book is included with each Professional and
Classroom purchase. However, the textbook is fully self-contained and it is
not necessary to own the toolboxes to learn the material.
The textbook is suitable for college juniors and seniors, graduate students
and aerospace professionals.
SPACECRAFT
ATTITUDE and ORBIT
CONTROL
S E C O N D E D I T I O N

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