Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Instrument Principles: Anemometer
Instrument Principles: Anemometer
Anemometer PressurePlateAnemometer
Measuresthedragthatthewindexertsonasolid body.Thesimplestformisaplateorballwhich isfreetoswingaboutahorizontalaxisaboveit's centerofgravitywhenacteduponbywindforce. Ameasureoftheangulardeflectionistaken. Thisdevicemustbekeptorientedtowardsthe windsoawindvaneortailisusuallyemployed torotateitaboutaverticalaxis. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:Mustbeorientedintothewind. Notveryresponsivetogusts.Hasanatural resonantfrequencywhereitflutters Keywords:pressureplateanemometer pendulumanemometernormalplate anemometerbridledcupanemometer deflectionanemometer
Figure1PendulumAnemometer
CupAnemometer
Measuresthespeedofawindpowered turbineintheformof(usuallyhemispherical) cupsmountedonradialspokes.Rotation speedcanbemeasuredbyanumberof differentmechanisms,butoftenamagnet, affixedtotheshaft,traversingpastafixed coilinducesapulseforeachrevolution,ora digitalshaftencoderisused. Advantages:Simple,omnidirectional(inone plane). Disadvantages:Movingpartswearout,slow toreacttogusts.Notsensitivetowindspeeds offractionsofameterpersecond. Keywords:cupanemometerRobinson anemometer
Figure2CupAnemometer
PropellerAnemometer
Measuresthespeedofawindpowered turbineintheformofapropellerorwind vane.Rotationspeedmeasurementscoverthe sameplethoraofmechanismsasforthecup anemometer,butinsomecasestherotation drivesageneratorwiththeoutputfromthe generatorbeingproportionaltospeed. Advantages:Simple.Compactcanbe handheld.Moreresponsivetoguststhanthe cupanemometer. Disadvantages:Movingpartswearout. Mustbeorientedintothewind. Keywords:propelleranemometerrotating vaneanemometer
Figure3PropellerAnemometer
HotWireAnemometer
Measureschangeinwireresistanceataconstant current(constantcurrenthotwireanemometer) oralternatively,thecurrentrequiredtokeepthe resistanceofawireatasetvalue(constant resistancehotwireanemometer).Fluid(wind) passingoverafinewirethatisheatedbyan electriccurrenttendstocoolthewireby convectiveheattransfer,andthuschangesthe resistance(unlessthecurrentisincreasedto compensate). Advantages:Goodspatialresolution(measures theflowinapreciselocation),usedforflow probes.Respondsquicklytochangesinflow (withappropriatecontrolcircuitry). Disadvantages:Costly,orientationsensitive, fragileandwirecanaccumulatedebrisina dirtyflow. Keywords:hotwireanemometerthermal anemometer
Figure4HotWireAnemometer
TubeAnemometer
MeasurestheheightofliquidinaJorUtube whichhasoneendbentintoahorizontal directiontofacethewindandtheotherend usuallyopenandfacingupsothatwindpassing overitwillcreateavacuumduetotheBernoulli effect. Theheightoftheliquid canbemeasuredwitha floatconnectedbya mechanicallinkageto arecordingdevice.
Figure6PitotTube
SonicAnemometer
Measuresthetimedifferencebetweenanultrasonic wavetraversingthroughairandareferencesignal.Air movementcausestheultrasonicwave'sphasetoadvance orretardrelativetothereference. Advantages:Nomovingparts.Cantakethousandsof measurementspersecond,handlinggustsandpeak values. Disadvantages::Costly,complex.Measuresvelocity onlyinonedirection(illustrationshowstwoorthogonal instrumentsusedtoovercomethis). Keywords:sonicanemometerultrasonic anemometeracousticanemometer
Figure7SonicAnemometer
LaserAnemometer
Bouncesalaserbeamoffairborne particles(suchasdust,pollen, waterdroplets)andmeasuresthe Dopplershift(changein frequencywithvelocity). Advantages:Nomastrequiredto measurewindvelocitiesatheights upto150m.Canmeasureflow field,notjustvelocityatapoint. Worksforanytransparent mediumcontainingparticles. Disadvantages:Costly,complex. Keywords:laseranemometer doppleranemometerlaser doppleranemometerparticle anemometer
Figure8LaserAnemometer
IonAnemometer
Measuresioncurrent.Ionizationoftheatmosphereisperformedeitherbynuclear radiationorhighfrequencydischarge(arcsandsparks). Advantages:Nomovingparts. Disadvantages:Costly. Keywords:ionanemometer
Barometer MercurialBarometer
Measurestheheightofacolumnofmercurypreparedby invertingaclosedtubefilledwithmercuryintoapoolof mercury.Avacuumiscreatedattheclosedendofthetube, andtheheightofthecolumnabovethesurfaceofthepool indicatestheairpressuredirectly.Compensationfor elevationabovesealevelisneededtoobtainreported pressure. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Environmentallyhazardous.Mustbeexactly plumb. Keywords:mercurialbarometerstickbarometerFortin barometerKewpatternbarometerwheelbarometer
Figure9MercuryBarometer
AneroidBarometer
Measuresthechangeinsizeofa partiallyevacuatedcapsule, constructedsoastomaximizethe changeinonedimensionwithchanges inairpressure.Thecapsule'length' changeisconnectedviaaleverlinkage toadialonwhichthepressureis shown Advantages:Compact,portable. Disadvantages:Inaccuraciesdueto temperature,hysteresisanddrift. Keywords:aneroidbarometer Vidiebarometer Figure10AneroidBarometer
CapacitancePressureSensor
Apressuresensormeasuringthe distancebetweentwometal plates,locatedoneithersideof achamber,bymeasuringthe changeincapacitancebetween them.Capacitanceisaninverse functionofdistancebetweenthe parallelplates. Advantages:Robust,no movingparts. Figure11CapacitancePressureSensor Disadvantages:Complex electronics. Keywords:capacitancebarometer
StrainGaugePressureSensor
Apressuresensormeasuringthe deflectionofamembraneby measuringthechangeinresistanceof anattachedstraingauge. Advantages:Robust,nomoving parts. Disadvantages:Smallsignal. Keywords:straingaugepressure sensor
Figure12StrainGaugePressureSensor
BourdonPressureSensor
Measurestheextensionofathinwalledclosed tubewithanovalcrosssectionbentlengthwise intoanarcof270to300degrees.Pressure appliedtotheinteriorofthetubetendsto distendtheflattenedtubeintoit'soriginalround shape,whichcausesthetubetostraighten slightly.Themovementofthetipofthetube candriveametermovementorbemeasured electrically. Advantages:Robust.Worksathighpressure. Disadvantages:Notsensitivetolowpressure Figure13BourdonPressureSensor differences.
Keywords:BourdonpressuresensorBourdonpressuretube
ResonantPressureSensor
Measuresthechangein frequencyofaresonantcircuit usuallyusingaquartzor ceramicpiezoelectricdevice. Advancedinstrumentsuse micromachinedorMEMS deviceswithonboard compensationandcalibration circuitry. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Costly. Keywords:resonantpressure sensorquartzresonant pressuresensorsilicon resonantpressuresensor
Figure14ResonantPressureSensor
Thermometer LiquidThermometer
Measurestheexpansionofaliquid.Themostcommonisamercury thermometerthatmeasurestheheightofathincolumnofliquidattached toamuchlargerreservoir. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:.Imprecise.Environmentallyhazardous. Keywords:mercurythermometer
GasThermometer
Measuresthevolumeor pressurevariationofagas. Onecommonapparatusisa constantvolume thermometer.Itconsistsof abulbconnectedbya capillarytubetoa manometer.Thebulbis filledwithagasandin thermalcontactwiththe bodywhosetemperatureis Figure15 tobemeasured.Areservoir Mercury ofmercuryisraisedor Thermometer loweredsuchthatthe volumeofthegasinthebulbremains constant.Thepressureofthegasinthe bulbcanbeobtainedbymeasuringthe leveldifferencehofthemanometer.
Figure16GasThermometer
MetalThermometer
Measuresthethermal expansionofametal.A bimetallicstripbends differentiallywith pressure. Advantages:Passive. Disadvantages: Inaccurate. Keywords:bimetalic strip
Figure17BimetallicStrip
ResistanceThermometer
Measuresthechangeinresistanceofanobject.Specially constructedsemiconductordevicescalledthermistorsarethe mostpopular.OlderResistanceTemperatureDetectors (RTD)devicesuseaplatinum,ornickelalloy(withironand copper),woundasafinewirecoil. Advantages:. Disadvantages:. Keywords:platinumRTDthermistor
Figure18Thermistors
ThermocoupleThermometer
Measuresthevoltageproducedbythecontactoftwo dissimilarbonded(welded)metalwires(Seebeck effect).Sometimesapairofwiresjoinedatbothends isused,whereoneendisheldatareference temperature.Thebimetallicjunctiondevelopsasmall voltagethatvarieswithtemperature. Advantages:Inexpensive.Widetemperaturerange. Disadvantages:Smallvoltage(comparabletoparasitic voltagesoftheconnectionstothemeasuring instrument). Keywords:thermocouple
Figure19Thermocouple
OpticorPyrometricThermometer
Measurestheenergyabodyradiates. Infraredradiationisusuallymeasured. Theradiationvariesasthe4thpowerofthe temperatureofabody.Thermaldetectors anddirectquantumdetectorsareused. Theformerconverttheradiationintoheat whilethelatterconvertradiationdirectly toelectronicsignals(illustrated). Advantages:.Remotesensing. Disadvantages:Shinyobjectsaredifficult Figure20PyrometricThermometer tomeasure. Keywords:infraredthermometeropticalthermometerpyrometer
CapacitanceThermometer
Measuresthechangeincapacitancewithtemperature. Advantages:. Disadvantages:. Keywords:
SemiconductorThermometer
MeasuresthevoltageacrossaPNjunction,oftenwith clevercircuitryandintegratedonachiptoprovidea linearoutputwithtemperature. Advantages:Inexpensive.Fairlyaccurate. Disadvantages:Somecircuitsaresubjecttosupply voltagechanges.Devicecharacteristicsvaryfrompart topart. Keywords:proportionaltoabsolute temperature+currentsource
Figure21PNJunctionThermometer
TippingBucketRainGauge
Measuresthenumberoftimesorfrequencythata bucketorpairofbucketsfillswithwaterand overbalances. Advantages:simple Disadvantages:Movingparts Keywords:tippingbucketraingaugetipping bucketprecipitationgauge
Figure23TippingBucketRainGauge
WeighingPrecipitationGauge
Measurestheweightofaccumulated precipitationinabucket.Thebucket emptiesbyevaporation. Advantages:Nomovingparts. Disadvantages:Complex.Subjectto debris(dirt,leaves)andwind. Keywords:weighingprecipitation gaugevibratingwireraingauge
Figure24WeighingRainGauge
OpticalPrecipitationGauge
Aninfraredorvisiblelightoptical deviceisusedtomeasuretherain dropsize,fallvelocityandintensity. Basically,beamsofradiationare interruptedbyraindropsorvideo imagesareanalyzed.Structured illumination(lightbeamsformedinto sheetsorcones)isoftenused. Advantages:Accurate Disadvantages:Complex. Keywords:opticalspectro pluviometeropticaldisdrometer
Figure25OpticalRainGauge
Hygrometer WetAndDryBulbPsychrometer
Measuresthetemperaturedepressionofawet objectduetoevaporation.Awetanddry bulbpsychrometerorhygrometerconsistsof twoordinarythermometers,onecalledthe drybulbmeasuressimpleairtemperature, whilethesecondthermometerhasit'sthe workingend(bulb)enclosedbyafabric sleevewhichiskeptwetwithdistilledwater fromareservoir.Byreadingthe temperaturesofthedryandwetbulb,arecord oftheamountofcoolingduetoevaporation Figure26Wet&DryBulbPsychrometer ofwaterfromthewetbulbisobtainedintermsofdegreesdepressionorloweringofthe wetbulbthermometertemperaturebelowthatofthedrybulbthermometer.Thehigher therelativehumiditythelowerthewetbulbdepression(closertojusttheair temperature).Usingpsychrometricformulasortables,thesetemperaturescanbeusedto computethehumidity. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:Doesn'tworkmuchbelowthefreezingpoint.Requiresthereservoirto bekeptfull. Keywords:slingpsychrometeratmometerclayatmometerevaporationpan evapotranspirometerLivingstonspherePicheevaporimeterradioatmometer
HairHygrometer
Measuresthechangeinthelengthofhumanhair.Thehair actshygrometricallyduetothediffusionequilibriumbetween itswatercontentandthewatervapourcontentofits environment. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:Temperaturesensitive.Fragile. Keywords:hairhygrometerhumanhairhygrometer hygroscope
Figure27HairHygrometer
CapacitanceHygrometer
Measuresthechangeofcapacitanceassociatedwithachangeofdielectricconstant betweencapacitorplates.Dielectricmaterialssuchaspolymers,silicageloralumina desiccantareusedtoamplifythemoisturecontentmeasurement.Usuallyoneplateofthe capacitorisporoustoallowfastequilibrationbetweenthemoisturelevelofthedielectric andtheair. Advantages:Nomovingparts. Disadvantages:Complexelectronics. Keywords:capacitancehygrometer
ChilledMirrorHygrometer
Measuresthetemperatureatwhich vaporbeginstocondenseona chilledsurface.Themirroris constructedfromamaterialwith goodthermalconductivitysuchas silverorcopper,andproperly platedwithaninertmetalsuchas iridium,rubidium,nickel,orgold topreventtarnishingandoxidation. Themirrorischilledusinga thermoelectriccooleruntildewjust beginstoform.Asophisticated Figure28ChilledMirrorHygrometer controlsystemmonitoringthe reflectedlightmaintainsthemirrortemperatureatthedewpoint.Atemperaturesensor embeddedinthemirrormonitorsthemirrortemperatureattheestablisheddewpoint. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Complexelectronics.Requiresairflowoverthesurface. Keywords:chilledmirrorhygrometer
ElectrolyticHygrometer
Measurestheelectrolysis(ofwaterintooxygenandhydrogen)current.Sincetwo electronsarerequiredforelectrolysisofeachwatermolecule,theelectrolysiscurrentisa measureofthewaterpresentinthesample.Ifthevolumetricflowrateofthesamplegas intotheelectrolysiscelliscontrolledatafixedvalue,thentheelectrolysiscurrentisa functionofwaterconcentrationinthesample. Advantages: Disadvantages:Requiresflowintotheelectrolysiscell. Keywords:electrolytichygrometer
ImpedanceHygrometer
Thisinstrumentmeasuresthewatercontentofasamplebymeansofaprobewhose electricalimpedanceisafunctionofthevaporpressureofmoistureinthefluid. Impedanceistheapparentoppositiontotheflowofalternatingcurrent.Theprobe consistsofanaluminumstrip,whichisanodizedtoformaporouslayerofaluminum oxide.Athincoatofgoldisappliedoverthealuminumoxide.Leadsfromthegoldand aluminumelectrodesoftheprobeconnectthesensingelementtothemeasuringcircuitry. Watervaporpenetratesthegoldlayerandequilibratesonthealuminumoxide.The numberofmoleculesadsorbedtothealuminumoxideisafunctionofthewatervapor pressureinthesample. Eachwatermoleculeadsorbedcontributesadistinctincrementtothetotalconductivityof thealuminumoxide.Thetotalprobeimpedance,thereciprocalofprobeconductivity,is thusameasureofwatervaporpressureinthesample.Watervaporpressureofagas sampleuniquelydeterminesthedewpointtemperatureandmoisturecontentofthe sample.Theoutputisnormallycalibratedtotheseunitssincetheyaremoreconvenientto usethanvaporpressure. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Costlyprobes.Complexelectronics Keywords:impedancehygrometer
PiezoelectricHygrometer
Measuresthechangeinfrequencyofanoscillatingcrystal.Thecrystalissensitivityto depositsofforeignmaterialonitssurface.Commerciallyavailablecrystalswillshowa frequencychangeof2000cyclespersecond(cps)permicrogramofmaterialdeposited. Formoisturemeasurement,thequartzcrystalsarecoatedwithahygroscopicmaterialand exposedtothesample;waterfromthesampleisabsorbedbythecrystalcoating,thus increasingthetotalmassanddecreasingtheoscillatingfrequencyofthecrystal.Inorder tomeasurechangesofdecreasingmoistureconcentrationandtosimplifythefrequency measurement,twocrystalsareused.Onecrystalisexposedtowetsampleandtheother toadryreferencegasforashortperiod.Thensampleandreferencegasflowsare switchedsothatmoistureisabsorbedbyonewhilebeingdesorbedbytheothercrystal. Sampleswitchingiscontrolledbyacycletimerintheinstrument.Thefrequency differencebetweenthetwocrystalsisinproportiontotheirmassdifferenceandthe moisturecontentofthegas. Advantages: Disadvantages:Referencedrysamplerequired. Keywords:piezoelectrichygrometer
HeatAdsorptionHygrometer
Measurestheheatgeneratedbyamaterialadsorbingwater.Theprocessofadsorption anddesorptioninvolvesanexchangeofenergy.Duringadsorption,energyisreleasedto andduringdesorptionenergyisremovedfromtheenvironment.Whenwetgasispassed
InfraredAbsorptionHygrometer
Waterabsorbselectromagneticradiationintheinfrared(IR)regionofthespectrum. Specifically,infraredradiationof1.4and1.93micronwavelengthisabsorbedstrongly bywater.Bymeasuringtheattenuation(decreaseoflightintensity)ofabeamofthis wavelengthasitpassesthroughasample,themoisturecontentofthesamplecanbe determined.However,otherfactorssuchasreflectionanddispersionoftheradiant energywillcontributetotheattenuation.Therefore,itisnecessarytoeithercalibrate thesefactorsoutofthemeasurement,ortouseareferencewavelengthwhichisnot absorbedbymoisturebutisaffectedbyallotherfactorstothesameextentasthe measuringwavelength.Thedifferenceinattenuationofthemeasurementandreference wavelengthisthenafunctionofmoisturecontentonly. Advantages: Disadvantages: Keywords:infraredabsorptionhygrometer
MicrowaveAbsorptionHygrometer
Inthemicrowavefrequencybandof20to220Hz(Kband),thewavelengthisabout13 to15mm.Inthisfrequencybandmoisture(freewater)ismostspecific,asitisonlythe watermoleculethatproducesmolecularresonance.Themicrowaveradiationcanbe guidedbywaveguidesorbetransmittedthroughtheprocessstreamfromsourceto receiver. Theprincipleofoperationofthisinstrumentisthesameasthatoftheinfraredabsorption hygrometer;namely,selectiveabsorptionofelectromagneticenergybymoistureinthe sample.However,inthiscase,radiantenergyinthemicrowavelengthisused.A transmitterprovidesamicrowavebeam,whichcaneitherbetransmittedthroughor reflectedbythesamplematerial.Thereceivingunitsenseswaveattenuationandphase shiftandprovidesareadout.Theunitsensesthemassofmoistureinthebeampathso thatthereadoutisnormallyintermsofthemassofmoistureperunitvolume.However, withcalibration,readoutinweightpercentcanbeachieved. Severalprobeconfigurationsarepossibledependingontheapplication.Ontypehasthe transmittingandreceivingprobesweldedintoasectionofpipe.Internally,Teflon contactsthesample.Thistypeofarrangementcanbeusedtoadvantageonslurriesand pastessincetherearenoobstructionstoflow.Theunitsdescribedabovemeasurethe attenuationbymoistureofamicrowavebeaminthesample.Thereflectancetypeunit containsthesourceanddetectorinonehousing.Ratherthandetectingthetransmitted
Radiometer(Pyranometer,Pyrheliometer) CadmiumSulfidePhotocell
MeasuresthechangeinresistanceofCadmiumSulfidewith lightexposure. Advantages:Inexpensive($.52). Disadvantages:Slowresponse.Limitedspectralresponse. Keywords:CdSphotocellCadmiumSulfidephotocell
Photodiode
Figure29CdSPhotocell
Measuresthecurrentproducedbycharge carrierierscreatedbyradiationinaPNjunction. Therearealargenumberoftypesof photodiodesbasedonmaterial,fabrication process,configuration,andsoon. Advantages:Inexpensive.Fast.Goodspectral response. Disadvantages:UVsensitivedetectors(200 390nmwavelengthor290325nmforamore limiteddefinitionofUV)areexpensive. Keywords:siliconcarbidephotodiode,SiC photodiodesiliconphotodiode,germanium Figure30Photodiode photodiodeindiumgalliumarsenidephotodiodeGaAlAsphotodiode
Phototransistor
Measuresthecurrentproducedbychargecarrieriers createdbyradiationinaPNjunction.Unlikea photodiode,phototransistorshavecurrentgain.Three commontypesarebipolar,photodarlingtonandphoto fieldeffecttransistors. Advantages:Largegain(suitableforlowlightlevels). Disadvantages::Slow.Canbesaturatedbytoomuch light. Keywords:phototransistorphotodarlingtonphoto FET
Figure31Phototransistor
Photomultiplier
Measuresthevoltageproducedbyphoton amplificationinavoltageladderspecially constructedinanevacuatedtube. Advantages:Low(electronic)noise.Very largegain(suitableforextremelylowlight levels). Disadvantages::Highvoltagepower supplyrequired.Poorredsensitivity.Cost. Canbesaturatedbytoomuchlight. Keywords:photomultipierPM Figure32Photomultiplier photomultipiertubePMT
Thermopile
Measurestheheatgeneratedbyradiation strikinga(usuallylarge)arrayof thermocouples.Manythermocouplesareused toincreasethesensitivity.Oftenablack absorptionmaterialcoversthehotjunctions. Advantages:Widespectralresponse. Disadvantages::Costly. Keywords:thermopile
Figure33Thermopile