Baslhc M Rjoc Epk. Kajhghtc Efarmosmnwn Majhmatikn Genik Tmma Poluteqnikc Sqolc A.P.

MEJODOLOGIA GIA TIS ASKHSEIS A' MEROS

LOGISMOS I

Jessalonkh 2008

1 Akoloujec Pragmatikn Arijmn kai Arijmhtikc Seirc

1.1 Monotona kai Frgma
Gia na diapistsoume th monotona miac akoloujac efarmzoume nan ap touc paraktw trpouc

Jewrome thn diafor an+1 an kai an an+1 an > 0, n N, h akolouja enai gnsia axousa. An an+1 an < 0, n N, h akolouja enai gnsia fjnousa. H akolouja ja enai axousa fjnousa an an+1 an 0, n N, an+1 an 0, n N kai pou h isthta isqei gia mia toulqiston tim tou n. An oi roi thc akoloujac diathron prshmo kai o genikc roc autc parousizetai me th morf summetrikn ginomnwn, mporome na jewrsoume to lgo an+1 an
kai na sugkrnoume autn me thn monda. Ap th sgkrish aut bgzoume sumprasma gia thn monotona thc akoloujac.

An zhtme na dexoume na sugkekrimno edoc monotonac p.q gnsia axousa, tte xekinme me th sqsh pou prpei na deiqte kai me isodunamec katalgoume se alhjin sqsh gia kje n N. An h akolouja orzetai me anadromik tpo diapistnoume thn monotona autc me thn epagwgik mjodo. Gia na dexoume akolouja fragmnh, ja xekinme me thn apluth tim tou niosto rou kai ja enisqoume, megalnontac ton arijmht mikranontac ton paranomast kai ta do, me skop na katalxoume se arijm anexrthto tou n. Prpei na prosxoume h ensqush na gnetai ste o bajmc tou arijmht na mh gnei megalteroc ap to bajm tou paranomast. Genik na gnwrzoume ti fragmnh ja apodeiknetai tan o bajmc tou arijmht enai mikrteroc soc ap to bajm tou paranomast, an blpoume touc rouc tou klsmatoc wc polunuma tou n.

1.2 Basik ria

1. An an =
1 ,n nk

= 1, 2, 3, . . . kai k stajerc jetikc rhtc arijmc tte lim an = 0.

2. An an = 1/n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . kai > 0 ttelim an = 1. 3. An R me || < 1 kai an = n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . tte lim an = 0.

n+1 4. An gia thn akolouja (an ) qoume an = 0 n N kai lim aan = < 1 tte lim an = 0.

Paratrhsh 1. H mejologa pou gnwrzete gia ton upologism twn orwn sunartsewn miac metablhtc efarmzetai katllhla kai stic akoloujec. An o barjmc twn poluwnmwn tou arijmht kai tou paranomast enai o dioc, tte h akolouja ja qei rio to phlko 2

twn suntelestn twn megistobjmiwn rwn. An o bajmc tou arijmht enai mikrteroc ap to bajm tou paranomast tte to rio thc akoloujac enai mhdn klp. Paratrhsh 2. Otan jloume na dexoume ti mia akolouja den sugklinei sto R arke na dexoume ti den enai fragmnh. Paratrhsh 3. An h akolouja enai montonh kai fragmnh tte sugklnei se pragmatik arijm kai mlista an enai axousa sugklnei sto elqisto nw frgma kai an enai fjnousa sto mgisto ktw frgma.

2 Dunamoseirs Seirc Taylor

Jewrome thn pragmatik sunrthsh f(x) orismnh sto disthma [a, b] (to opoo mpore na enai kai olklhro to snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn), gia thn opoa upojtoume ti qei paraggouc mqri kai n + 1 txewc. Zhtme na prosdiorsoume to polunumo ekeno p(x) pou apotele thn kalterh prosggish thc f(x) bsei tou exc krithrou: Oi timc twn f(x) kai p(x) kajc kai twn paraggwn touc mqri n txhc sumpptoun sto shmeo a:

p(a) = f(a), p (a) = f (a), p (a) = f (a), . . . , p(n) (a) = f(n) (a).
Ekola mpore kanec na elgxei ti oi prohgomenec sqseic ikanopoiontai ap to polunumo

f (a) f(n) (a) (x a)2 + . . . + (x a)n . 2! n! To "sflma thc prosggishc autc sto shmeo x enai so me: p(x) = f(a) + f (a)(x a) + R(x) = f(x) p(x) = f(n+1) () (x a)n+1 , (n + 1)!

(1)

(2)

pou shmeo tou diastmatoc (a, x). Shmeinoume ti to sflma se aut thn morf onomzetai uploipo Lagrange. Isodnamh kfrash tou sflmatoc thc poluwnumikc prosggishc enai to uploipo Cauchy

Rc (x) =

(x a)n+1 (1 )n f(n+1) (a + (x a)), n!

(0, 1).

Mia tupik apdeixh twn prohgomenwn isqurismn h opoa baszetai sto Jerhma Mshc Timc tou diaforiko logismo enai h exc: Jewrome thn up melth sunrthsh f(t) orismnh sto disthma [a, x]. Estw k R ttoio ste sto kro x tou diastmatoc na isqei ti:

f(x) = f(a) + f (a)(x a) +

f(n) (a) f (a) (x a)2 + . . . + (x a)n + k(x a)n+1 . 2! n! f (a) f(n) (a) (t a)2 . . . (t a)n k(t a)n+1 , 2! n!

Jewrome epshc thn suneq kai paragwgsimh sunrthsh

g(t) = f(t) f(a) f (a)(t a)

gia thn opoa parathrome ti:

t [a, x],

g(a) = 0, g(x) = 0, g (a) = g (a) = . . . = g(n) (a) = 0.

3

Etsi, qrhsimopointac to Jerhma Mshc Timc qoume:

g(a) = g(x) = 0 1 (a, x) : g (1 ) = 0, g (a) = g (1 ) = 0 2 (a, 1 ) : g (2 ) = 0, ... g(n) (a) = g(n) (n1 ) = 0 (a, n1 ) : g(n+1) () = 0.
Omwc, g(n+1) (t) = f(n+1) (t) k(n + 1)!. Epomnwc,

g(n+1) () = f(n+1) () k(n + 1)! = 0 k =

Ara,

f(n+1) () . (n + 1)!

f(x) = f(a) + f (a)(x a) + . . . + f(x) = p(x) +

f(n) (a) f(n+1) (a) (x a)n + (x a)n+1 n! (n + 1)!

f(n+1) () (x a)n+1 (n + 1)! f(n+1) () (x a)n+1 (n + 1)!

R(x) = f(x) p(x) =

Axzei epshc na tonisje idiatera ti sthn perptwsh pou h sunrthsh f(x) enai aperiristec forc paragwgsimh kai to antstoiqo sflma prosggishc tenei sto mhdn, tte o bajmc tou proseggistiko poluwnmou mpore na jewrhje ti tenei sto peiro. Etsi epitugqnetai h isthta (kai qi h prosggish pia):
+

f(x) =
n=0

f(n) (a) (x a)n . n!

(3)

To anptugma (3) thc f(x) se seir dunmewn onomzetai anptugma Taylor(MacLaurin an to kntro thc seirc epilege to shmeo a = 0) kai sugklnei, smfwna me to kritrio thc rzac, tan:

lim

f(n) (a) (x a)n n! 1

< 1 |x a| < lim

n

1 |f(n) (a)| n!

onomzetai aktna sgklishc thc seirc Taylor. Etsi |f(n) (a)| lim n! h seir sugklnei gia louc touc pragmatikoc arijmoc x pou ankoun sto disthma (a , a + ) to opoo kai onomzetai disthma sgklishc. O arijmc r :=
n

2.1 Anaptgmata Taylor basikn (stoiqeiwdn) sunartsewn

Sthn pargrafo aut ja dsoume ta anaptgmata se seirc Taylor twn basikterwn stoiqeiwdn sunartsewn. 4

H ekjetik sunrthsh f(x) = ex , x R

+

e =
n=0

1 n x2 x3 x =1+x+ + + .... n! 2! 3!

(4)

H logarijmik sunrthsh f(x) = lnx, h opoa enai epshc aperiristec forc paragwgsimh sto pedo orismo thc (0, +), epilgoume wc kntro to shmeo a = 1 kai qoume
+

lnx =
n=1

(1)n1 (x 1)n , n

|x 1| < 1.

(5)

Isodnama o tpoc (5) mpore na grafe kai wc exc:

+

ln(x + 1) =
n=1

(1)n1 n x2 x3 x4 (x) = q + + ..., n 2 3 4

|x| < 1.

(6)

H aktna sgklishc thc up melthc dunamoseirc enai prgmati 1 afo: 1 r := = lim n n = 1. n1 (n 1)!| n |(1) lim n!

Taylor me kntro mhdn: sinx =

Oi trigwnometrikc sunartseic sin x, cos x qoun ta aklouja anaptgmata se seirc

+

k=0 +

(1)k 2k+1 x3 x5 x7 x =x + + ..., (2k + 1)! 3! 5! 7! (1)k 2k x2 x4 x6 x =1 + + ..., (2k)! 2! 4! 6!

x R,
(7)

cosx =
k=0

xR

H sunrthsh f(x) =

1 1+x
+

qei to akloujo anptugma MacLaurin gia |x| < 1:

1 = 1+x

(1)n xn = 1 x + x2 x3 + . . . ,
n=0

|x| < 1.

(8)

Oi seirc Taylor qrhsimopoiontai suqn gia ton upologism orwn aprosdiristwn morP(x) 0 = , fn. Pio sugkekrimna, en P(x), Q(x) enai pragmatikc sunartseic kai lim xx0 Q(x) 0 mporome na analsoume ton arijmht kai paranomast se seirc Taylor kntrou x0 kai na upologsoume ta zhtomena ria met ap aplopoiseic twn koinn paragntwn pou ja emfaniston oi opoec ja roun thn aprosdiorista. sinx2 Na upologiste to rio lim 2 . x0 x To anptugma Taylor (kntrou 0) tou arijmht enai:

sinx2 = x2
kai to rio gnetai

x6 x10 + ... 3! 5! = lim x4 x8 1 + ... 3! 5! = 1.

1 x6 x10 sinx2 2 = lim 2 x + ... lim x0 x x0 x2 3! 5!

5

x0

2.1.1 Proseggistiko upologismo

H prosggish sunartsewn ap polunuma Taylor mpore na qrhsimopoihje kai wc bsh gia ton proseggistik upologism parastsewn pou prokptoun ap mh poluwnumikc sunartseic. Ac upojsoume, gia pardeigma, ti jloume na upologsoume proseggistik thn tim tou e. Enai profanc ti aut prokptei wc h tim thc (mh poluwnumikc) sunrthshc f(x) = ex sthn jsh x = 1. Qrhsimopointac tsi to anptugma Taylor thc ekjetikc sunrthshc (4) qoume antikajistntac pou x = 1: Prosggish me polunumo 1hc txhc: 1 + x 1 + 1 = 2. Prosggish me polunumo 2hc txhc: 1 + x + Prosggish me polunumo 3hc txhc: 1 + 1 + Prosggish me polunumo 4hc txhc: 1 + 1 + Prosggish me polunumo 5hc txhc: 1 + 1 + Prosggish me polunumo 6hc txhc: 1 + 1 + klp. An jlame loipn ston prohgomeno proseggistik upologism mac akrbeia 2 dekadikn yhfwn ja mporosame na stamatsoume sto polunumo 5hc txhc afo aut kai to epmeno (6hc txhc) dnoun to dio apotlesma sta prta 2 dekadik yhfa.

1 2 1 x 1 + 1 + 12 = 2.5 2! 2! 1 2 1 3 1 + 1 = 2.6666666. 2! 3! 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 + 1 + 1 = 2.70833. 2! 3! 4! 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 2.716666. 2! 3! 4! 5!

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 2.718055. 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

2.2 Mejodologa gia tic Askseic

Paratrhsh 1. Gia na anaptxoume mia sunrthsh se dunamoseir tpou Taylor ( Maclaurin) ergazmaste wc exc: (i) Elgqoume an h sunrthsh ikanopoie tic propojseic tou jewrmatoc Taylor. (ii) Anaptssoume th sunrthsh se dunamoseir Taylor ( Maclaurin). (iii) Elgqoume an h seir tou bmatoc (ii) sugklnei apluta sth sunrthsh upologzontac thn aktna sgklishc R thc seirc kai elgqontac an h tim thc enai pragmatikc arijmc 0 . Se arketc periptseic gia ton upologism thc aktnac sgklishc kai tou antstoiqou diastmatoc sgklishc jewrome to antstoiqo anptugma Taylor ( Maclaurin) wc dunamoseir. Paratrhsh 2. Gia na elgxoume an mia dunamoseir sugklnei apoklnei ergazmaste wc exc: (i) Upologzoume to rio tou lgou ("Kritrio D Alembert "Kritrio tou lgou") to rio thc rzac ("Kritrio Cauchy "Kritrio thc rzas"). (ii) Elgqoume an h tim tou orou enai 0 jetik kai upologzoume thn aktna sgklishc kai to antstoiqo disthma sgklishc. 6

3 Askseic proc eplush

'Askhsh 1.1
Na melethjon wc proc th monotona oi akoloujec (an ), (bn ), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . me an =

1, 2, 3, . . . kai bn =

'Askhsh 1.2

n2 + 3 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. n

n2 + 2 ,n = n

Na deiqte ti oi akoloujec (an ), pou dnontai me toc paraktw genikoc rouc, enai montonec kai na breje to edoc thc monotonac autn,

(a) an = 2n2 + 3n + 1,

(b) an =

n+1 , 5n 2

(c) an =

n+2 3n

'Askhsh 1.3
Na deiqte oti oi paraktw akoloujec enai fragmnec

(a) an =

n2 , 2n3 + 1 (1)n , n2 + 1

(b) an = (e) an =

n2 , n3 10 n sin 2n , n2 + 1

(c) an =

n2 1 2n2 1 n 2

(d) an =

(f) an = sin

'Askhsh 1.4
Na exetaston wc proc thn sgklish oi paraktw akoloujec kai na brejon ta ria twn

an = an =

2n2 + 1 , n2 + 3n + 2

n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

3n + 2 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . n2 + n + 1 (1)n n an = , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . 2n + 1

an =

n2 + 1 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . 4n2 + 3n 5n + 2n an = n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . 25 + 3n n+2 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . an = 3n

'Askhsh 1.5
Exetste thn sgklish thn apklish twn paraktw seirn

n=1

(n!)2 , 2n!

n=1

n! , 3n

2n n!nn
n=1

'Askhsh 1.6
Na apodexete touc exhc tpouc

(cos1 x) =

1 , |x| < 1, 1 x2
7

(tan1 x) =

1 , 1 + x2

(sinhx) = coshx, (sechx) = sechxtanhx,

(coshx) = sinhx,

(tanhx) = sech2 x sinh2x = 2sinhxcoshx

coshx + sinhx = ex ,

'Askhsh 1.7
Na prosdiorsete tic paraggouc f (x), sth kje perptwsh upojtoume ti h sunrthsh f enai orismnh gia louc touc pragmatikoc arijmoc x gia touc opoouc o antstoiqoc sunarthsiakc tpoc qei nhma.

x f(x) = tan1 sin , 2

f(x) = tan1 (tan2 x), 1 x2 ), 1 + x2

1x f(x) = cos1 (cos ), 2 f(x) = tan1 1+x , 1x

f(x) = sin1 (sin xcos x) 1 x

f(x) = sin1 (sin

f(x) = cos1

'Askhsh 1.8
Upologste thn axhsh f(x, h) = f(x + h) f(x) kai to diaforik df(x, h) gia tic timc twn x kai h twn paraktw sunartsewn

f(x) = x3 2x + 1 (a) x = 1, h = 1, (b) x = 1, h = 0.1, f(x) = 1/x (a) x = 1, h = 0.02, (b) x = 1, h = 0.02 (c) x = 1, h = 0.1

'Askhsh 1.9
Na breje h aktna kai to disthma sgklishc twn paraktw dunamoseirn:

n=1

xn , n!

n=1

xn , n(n + 1)

n=1

n!xn , nn

'Askhsh 1.10
Na breje to anptugma MacLaurin thc f(x) = sin1 x kai to antstoiqo disthma sgklishc. Na anaptxete kat Taylor, to sinx sto shmeo /4 kai to cosx sto shmeo /6.

'Askhsh 1.11 Qrhsimopointac dunamoseirc dexte ti:

(i) lim ex esinx 1 = , 3 x0 x 6 (ii) lim coshx cosx = +, x0 sinhx sinx (iii) lim ex ex = 2. x0 sinx

PARADOSH ASKHSEWN 25 NOEMBRIOU 2008 11.00-12.00

c 2008-2009 Baslhc M. Rjoc

8

rothos@gen.auth.gr