]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

? ? ?
K?

W
K

W K

KKKKK

E F

K
K

K

K

W
KW .
W
.
F

KE

KW .

W
.
K


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

--

W
W

K .

K .
W
K
W
K??

--

EF

EF

W

W K
K

WQualitative Analysis

FQualitative analysis

WKE
W
.
F

KE

W .

KKKK
K
WQuantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis

Quantitative chemical analysisW
KQuantitative instrumental analysis

--

WQuantitative Chemical Analysis

W

yY + xX P

XReagentY

KP

E FX

KVolumetric analysis

PX

KGravimetric

WQuantitative Instrumental Analysis

FPhysical Properties

WK
E

. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
Physico-chemical Methods
K2CrO4Cr3+

--

W
W
K .
K .

K .

K .
K .

K .

WDefining the problem

K .
W .
K K

K K

K K

K K

W .
K K

K K

K K

K K

K K

--

WSampling
Bulk

HomogeneousKMaterial
Heterogeneous

KEKKKF

WWater sampling
K

WEKKKF450EPyrexF
K24

PTFEWJ

Kpolytetrafluoroethylene

WKE45F

KBiodegradation 4

K(pH = 2)

WSoil sampling

E 10FE30F

E2 1F

KPolyethylene

--

WSample preparation
110100
WWeighingDrying K

KDessicator 21
K

WSample ashing K
EF
WEF

700400WDry ashing

K24

WWet ashing
SulfuricNitric acid

WSample dissolution K

K
K

K(HCl-HNO3; 1:3)Aqua Regia

W

--

EaF

KK2S2O5

EbF

KNa2CO3

EcF

KNa2O2

K
WEliminating interferences

.Electrodeposition

Ion ExchangeChromatography .
KExtraction
KMasking .

WMeasurements

K .
K .
K .

--

W
.
KAutomatic methods

WCalculations and reporting data

Analyte

KRelative methodAbsolute method

Parts per percent

Kmillion

Replicate analysesE F

KMeanStandard deviation

KDeterminate errorRandom error

--

K
K K

K K

K K

K K

K K
K K

--

KEFEF

WEKKKFJ

450EPyrexF
K24

PTFEW J

Kpolytetrafluoroethylene

WKE45F

KEbiodegradationF4

K(pH = 2)
K

- -

W K
E
F

2. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc, International
edition, 1994.
3. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative
Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.
4. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An Introduction,
Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition, 1994.

- -

- -


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

F
KE

W
W

K .
K .

.
K

K .
K .
W
K
W
K??

- -

Volumetric Analysis - An Introduction

W K

E

F
W

KEF
W
K

()

)
(

- -

WEquivalence pointEnd point K

WEnd point

WK
KEF .

KpH-meter
WEquivalence point

Stoichiometric

W
W

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

KE1:1FNaOHHCl

W
W
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O

FNaOHH2SO4
KE2:1
- -

W K
K .
K .

KEF .
K .

W .

A+B C+D

WStandard solutions K
W
KPrimary standard .

KSecondary standard .

WPrimary standard
K

K .

K .

K .
K .
K .

K .

W
W .

KSodium carbonate, Na2CO3 K

- -

KSodium tetraborate, borax, Na2B4O7.10H2OEF K

KOxalic acid, H2C2O4 K

KC6H5COOH K

KPotassium acid phthalate,KH(C8H4O4) K

WSecondary standard

EF
KStandardization

NaOH

NaOH

NaOH

KH2SO4
W K
W .

W
KAcid-base titrations .
KPrecipitation titrations .

KComplexometric titrations .
KOxidationreduction titrations .

- -

W K
E F

EFEF

E
F EF

M1 V1 = M 2 V2

W
0.1FH2SO4 NaOH10

W9E

K K
KNaOH K

W
K

2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O4

1 mole : 2 moles

K
number of mmoles of NaOH 2
=
number of mmoles of H 2SO 4 1
M NaOH VNaOH 2
=
M H SO VH SO 1
2

M NaOH 10 2
=
0.1 9
1
0.1 9 2
= 0.18 M
M NaOH =
10 1
- -

W
WMole

WEF

KW
.
58.49 .
158.04

NaCl
.
KMnO4 .

194.20

K2CrO4

40.00

NaOH

W K

K23=

K16=

K1=
40K 40=

KNaOH

W K

46=23C2=NaC2

12=12C1= CC1
48=16C3 = OC3
K106=
- -

Acid-Base Titration Neutralization Titrations

W K

KOH-H+
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Na+ + OH- + H+ + Cl- Na+ Cl- + H2O

OH- + H+ H2O

W
KpH
pH-

Kmeter

W K

WArrhenius definition

Arrhenius

KHydronium ion, H3O+

HCl + H2O Cl- + H3O+

Arrhenius

KOH-

NaOH Na+ + OH- -

WBrnsted-Lowry definition
Brnsted and Lowry

KEF

H+

HA

H+

A-

BH+

HA +

BH+

A-

WLewis definition
W Lewis
Electron acceptor
KElectron donor
W
H3N: +

BF3 H3N+ + BF3

- -

W K
pH

K
W

0.150HCl

WK

K10090605551504840200

W
K0=NaOH
K0.1= HCl
pH = log[H + ]
pH = log(0.1)
pH = log(101 )
pH = (1) = 1

KNaOH20
WReacted HClmillimoles
Reacted HCl (millimoles) = 20 0.1 = 2 mmoles

KHCl
no. of HCl mmoles = 0.1 50 = 5 mmoles
- -

Wunreacted HCl mmolesEFHCl

no. of unreacted HCl mmoles) = 5-2 = 3 mmoles

WHCl
no. of mmoles
volume(ml)
3
Molar HCl =
= 0.04 M
70
Molar HCl =

WpH
pH = log(0.043)
pH = (1.37) = 1.37

pH
WEFNaOH
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
0

pH

20

40

60

80

100

14

14

12

12

10

10

(8.3-10)

(3.3-4.4)

2
0
0

20

40

60

( )
- -

80

2
0
100

NaOHHClW

Equivalence point
K
K10.73.3

KMethyl OrangePhenolphthaleinW

K
W K
KEFW
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

14
12
10

pH

6
4
2
0
0

20

40

60

80

( )
W
- -

100

WCH3COONa

CH3COOH + Na+ + OH-

CH3COONa + H2O

10.77.7
K
W K
KEFW

NH4OH + HCl NH4Cl + H2O

12
10
8

pH

4
2
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

( )

- -

H+

NH4Cl

NH4OH + H+ + Cl-

NH4Cl + H2O

K
W K
KEF W
CH3COOH + NH4OH CH3COONH4 + H2O

12
10

pH

6
4
2
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

( )

- -

KMethylene blueNeutral blue
W K

K
K

WChemical equilibrium law

FW

E
K

W
A + B

C + D

FDCEFBAW

KE

W
v1 = k1 X [A] X [B]
v2 = k2 X [C] X [D]

k2k1

Wv1 = v2

k1 X [A] X [B] = k2 X [C] X [D]

- -

k1 [ C][ D ]
=
k2 [ A ][ B]

Kk2k1
KChemical equilibrium constant
W
cC + dD

aA + bB

Kdcba

[ C] [ D]
K=
[ A ] [ B]
c

W
Le ChatelierK
KW
W
W
H+

HIn

EF

In-

EF

- -

K In =

[H + ] [In ]
[H In ]

KOH-H+
W
KH+H+

KEFln-

H+
+ In EFH+EF
HIn

HIn H+ OH-

KEF

H+
+ In EFOH-EF
HIn

W
K

W
W

OHIn

OH-

- -

In+

OH-H+W
In+ OHIn

In+OH-W

OHIn

K

W
K
W
.

. .

2.9 . Methyl .
4.0
yellow

3.1 . Methyl .
4.4
orange

6.8 . Phenol .
8.4
red

.
.

.
Phenolphthalein
7.2 . Cresol .
8.8
red
8.3 .
10.0

- -

Precipitation Titrations

W K

BAK

KC,

A + B C + D

Silver nitrate, AgNO3

WSilver chloride, AgCl

AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

W K
K
Mohr's W

KFajan's methodVolhard's methodmethod

WMohr's method

Chromate ion,CrO42-

K E
KEF

- -

Ag+

Cl-

Cr2O42-

KMohr's methodW

E F
K
E F
K

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl

(1)

EFEF

E2FE1FK

2Ag+ + CrO42- Ag2CrO4

- -

(2)

W
WpH = 8

.
.

CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O

K
K

Ag+ + OH- AgOH

WVolhard's method

Fe3+

KEFThiocyanate ion, SCN WK

W
KEF

- -

SCN-

Ag+

Fe3+

KW

E F K
KAg+
-

SCN + Ag AgSCN

(3)

Ag+

WEFFe3+

Fe3+

+ SCN-

Fe(SCN)2+

(4)

KEFE3F
W
Chloride, Cl-Halides

KThiocyanate, SCN-Bromide, BrKE

Cl-F

KEF
- -

Ag+ EF + Cl- AgCl (s) + Ag+ EF

K
KBack titration
W
SCN- + Ag+ EF AgSCN (s)

WEF

Fe3+ + SCN- Fe(SCN)2+

W
W

F W
0.1234E
12.2E F

MillimolesK0.930Molarity
K300

- -

W
W

aA

EF

bB

EF
cC

EF

+A

()

EF

+
dA

EAF

()

WBA
Number millimoles A = ( volume A Molar A ) ( volume C molar C
Number millimoles B = number millimoles A

b
a

b
Number millimoles A atomic weight A 100
a
%B =
Sample weight

KWCWBWAW
W
Number millimoles AgNO3 = ( 40 0.1234 ) (12.2 0.093)
Number millimoles AgNO3 = 4.94 1.13
Number millimoles AgNO3 = 3.81 millimoles

W
1
1
Number millimoles Cl = 3.81 millimoles

Number millimoles Cl- = 3.81

- -

W
3.81 35.4 100
300
% Cl = 44.96%
% Cl- =

WFajan's method
F
Fluorescein indicatorE

KEF

Ag+

Cl-

In-

KW

KIn-

- -

Cl- W

Adsorbed
KEF

Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl-
Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl-Ag+ ClCl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+

KW
AgCl
Ag+

KEFIn-

In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In+

Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag

Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl-Ag+ ClCl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+

KW

- -

Reduction-Oxidation Titrations

W .

K
K

EFW

EFEF EF EF
K

EFEFW

WOxidation and reduction .

WOxidation

2+

Zn Zn + 2e

W
WReduction

K
Cu2+ + 2e- Cuo

- -

WOxidizing and reducing agents .

WOxidizing agent

Aox + ne- Ared

WReducing agent

Bred Box + ne

WOxidation number .

S2-Fe2+
WK
KS8P4,Ar, Cl2

Peroxides)(2-)

K(1-)
KH2O, Fe2O3W(2-)

H2O2, Na2O2W(1-)

K(1-)(1+)

KH2S, NH3W(1+)

BaH2, LiHW(1-)

- -

KClO4- Cl W

KCl=x
(4*-2) + x = -1
(-8) + x = -1
x = +7

KCr2O72- Cr W

KCr=x

(2x) + (7*-2) = -2
2x 14 = -2
2x = -2 + 14
2x = +12
x = +6

WHalf-reactions .
W

Fe3+ Fe2+
Fe3+ + e- Fe2+
Cl2 ClCl2 2ClCl2 + 2e- 2Cl-

W
WPermanganate ion (MnO4-)J

MnO4- Mn2+
MnO4- + 8H+ Mn+2 + 4H2O
MnO4- + 8H+ +5e- Mn+2 + 4H2O

- -

WDichromate ion (Cr2O72-)J

Cr2O72- Cr3+
Cr2O7-2 + 14 H++ 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Cr2O7-2 +14H++ 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

W
WW

l2 lS2O32 S4O62l2 + 2e 2l2S2O32- S4O6-2 + 2e-

(i)
(ii)

l2 + 2S2O32- S4O6-2 + 2I-

W(ii)(i)

WW

MnO4- Mn2+
Fe2+ Fe3+
+

2+

MnO4 + 8H + 5e Mn + 4H2O
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e-

W
(i)
(ii)

W(ii)
(iii) 5Fe

2+

3+

5Fe + 5e

W(iii)(i)
MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ Mn2+ +5Fe3+ +4H2O

WW

MnO4- Mn2+
C2O42- CO2
- -

2+

MnO4 + 8H + 5e Mn + 4H2O
C2O42- 2CO2 + 2e-

W
(i)
(ii)

W(ii)(i)
2MnO-4 + 16H+ + 10e- 2Mn2+ +8H2O
5C2O42- 10CO2 + 10e-

(iii)
(iv)

W(iv)(iii)
2MnO4- + 5C2O42- + 16H+ 2Mn2+ + 8H2O +10CO2

WW

Cr2O72- Cr3+
Fe2+ Fe3+

W
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Fe 2+ Fe3+ + e-

(i)
(ii)

W(ii)

6Fe3+ 6Fe3+ + 6e-

(iii)

W(iii) (i)
Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ + 2Cr3+ 7H2O + 6Fe3+

- -

W .
KCe4+100Fe2+100

KNernst equation

RT [Ox ]
ln
nF [Re d ]b
a

E = E0 +

[Ox ]
0.0591
log
n
[Re d ]b
a

E = E0 +

K=E
K=E0
8.314 JK-1mol-1=R

K=[Ox]
K=[Red]
K96485 C (coulombs)=F
K=T
Klog2.303==ln
K=n

WCe4+ Fe3+

Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- [E0 = 0.75V]

Ce4+ + e- Ce3+ [E0 = 1.45V]

- -

WFe2+Ce4+10

E = 0.75 + 0.0591log

10
90

E = 0.69V

WEF
1.5

E, Volt

1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0

20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160 180 200

Cerium (IV), mL

Ce4+W
W .
WPotassium permanganate

%2
StandardizationK

KFe2+

K
- -

W(i)

MnO4- + 8H+ +5e- Mn+2 + 4H2O

W (ii)
MnO4-

+ 2H2O + 3e MnO2 + 4OH

W(iii)

MnO4- + e- MnO42-

W
K1500 .
K .

F .
E

K .

.
K
E F .
K

WCerium (IV)

Ce4+ + e-

Ce3+

- -

Sn

K, H2O2 , Fe , V , Mo, W , Ti , U
WPotassium dichromate
K2Cr2O7

KEF

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

K
WPotassium bromate

KBrO3
WBr2
BrO3- + 5Br- + 6H+ 3Br2 + H2O

Br2

KBr

K
WKI
-

2I + Br2 I2 + 2Br

Na2S2O3
K

- -

WIodine

WI3-Potassium iodide, KI

I2 + I -

I3-

KW
WDirect methods

As(III)

SO32-H2SSn(II)Sb(III)
K

WIndirect methods

KI

Aox + I- Ared + I2

KA

W
I2 +

2S2O32-

2I +

S4O62-

KCr3+Cu2+ClO-Br2Cl2Cr2O72-
W

Cr2O72-Cr3+0.2
E
I-FKI
- -

0.1SCN-
KK22.15

W
+

Cr2O72-

3+

+ 14H + 6e 2Cr + 7H2O

2I I2 + 2e-

(i)
(ii)

W3C(ii)

Cr2O72- + 6I- + 14 H+ 2Cr3+ + 3I2

(iii)

K KI-EiiiF
W

2SO32- S4O62- + 2eI2 + 2e- 2I-

(iv)
(v)

WEvFEivF
2-

2-

2S2O3 + I2 S4O6 + 2I

(vi)

W
2Cr3+ Cr2O72- 3I2 6S2O32Cr
2
1

3+

:
:
:

S2O32-

6
3

- -

KS2O32-
22.15
0.1
1000
moles = 2.215 103 moles

number of S2O3 2 moles =

number of S2O3 2

KCr3+
1
number of Cr 3+ moles = number of S2O3 2- moles
3
1
number of Cr 3+ moles = 2.215 103
3
3+
number of Cr moles = 7.38 10 4 moles

Cr 3+ (%) =

number of moles atomic weight 100

sample weight (g)

7.38 104 52.0 100

0.2
(%) = 19.19%

Cr 3+ (%) =
Cr 3+

WReducing agents and their applications .

WIron (II)

Fe2+Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O

0.5F

KE
- -

Fe2+

K
WPotassium thiosulfate

WNa2S2O3
K .
K .

WS4O42-

2S2O32- S4O62- + 2e-

K
WRedox titration indicators .

K
K
WSelf indicator

KMnO4

WMn2+Fe2+
+

+2

MnO4- + 8H +5e Mn + 4H2O

E FFe2+E F

Mn2+MnO4-
- -

MnO4-Fe3+Fe2+F
KMnO4-

WSpecific indicators
K

E F
K
EFFe3+KSCN-

E FTi3+
Ti3+Fe(SCN)2-

W
Fe3+SCN-Fe3+
W
Fe (SCN)

2+

3+

Fe

+ SCN

E F
K

WTrue oxidation-reduction indicators

K
-

Inox + ne Inred

EFEF

E = E 0In

[ In ]
0.0592
log red
n
In ox

- -

EF(II)10,1

K(Phen)3Fe2+

N
Fe

2+

(II)10,1W
1.06 V

(Phen)3Fe3+ + e-

(Phen)3Fe2+ (E0 = 1.06 V)

W
K
KE

EFCe4+Fe2+

1.10 V

KEF(II)10,1

- -

+1.1V

II{

+0.85V

+0.28V

E0ln

- -

W

Complexometric Titrations

W .

Complexing
agent
KELFLigands

M(H2O)n + L M(H2O)n-1L + H2O

L
KKMLn

EDTA
K
W .

Lewis acidK
KLigands Lewis base

WUnidentate ligands

: NH 3 H 2 O :

HN3: + M H3N: M

- -

WBidentate ligands
K

EFEthylenediamine
ChelationKEF

KChelating agents

H2

C H2

KEthylenediamineW

H2

C H2

N
H2
N C
Co

N C

H2

H2
H2

- -

WPolydentate ligands

EDTAEthylenediamine tetraacetic acid

KEF
CH2COOH

HOOCCH2
N

CH2

CH2

N
CH2 COOH

HOOCCH 2

Coordination covalent bonds

KCarboxyl group, COOH

W .
EDTA .

KWEDTA .

M2+ + H2Y2-

MY2- + 2H+

FNa2H2YH4Y .
KEDTA E
- -

CH2COONa

HOOCCH2
N

CH2

CH2

N
CH 2 COONa.2H2 O

HOOCCH 2

Na2H2YW
WEDTA .
EDTA

M2+ + HY-2 MY2- + 2H+

M3+ + H2Y2- MY- + 2H+

K
KpH
KKMYEF

- -

KMYEDTAW
KMY .

KMY .

KMY .

5.0 .
4.2 .
1.0 .
Bi3+ .
Ca2+ .
Ni2+ .
10
18
23
x 10
x 10
x 10
4.9 .
3.2 .
1.3 .
Mg2+ .
Zn2+ .
Fe3+ .
8
16
25
x 10
x 10
x 10
MY

K Y
M + Y
H+}~
HY, H2Y,

MY

W Y

K

KFe3+Bi3+

KBuffer solutions

- -

W .
EDTA

K .

K .
K .
KKMEDTA>>KInd .

WEriochrome black TK
KEFErio-T .
KNaH2D .

W .

pH = 6.3
pH =11.6
2
D3
H 2 D
HD

OH

OH
N

NaSO3
NO2

Eriochrome black TW
- -

WErio-TK
WEFpH = 10Erio-TEDTAMg2+
Erio-T .
W
HD

2-

+ Mg

2+

MgD

KEErio-TFMg2+E.DT.A
Mg2+ + EDTA

Mg-EDTA + 2H+

KMgD-EDTA
MgD- + EDTA Mg-EDTA + HD2-

KEF

- -

EDTA
Erio-T

Mg2+

pH = 10

KpH = 10Erio-TEDTAMg2+W

WMurexide indicatorK
Ammonium salt of purpuric acid
W

pH = 9

pH =1

H 4 In H 3In 2 H 2 In 3

K
KCalcichromeCalmagite

- -

WEDTA .
WDirect titration

KEDTA
W

K EDTA
WBack titration

W
K .

K .

KEDTA .

K .

EDTA
KErio-TEDTA

W
KZr4+

E 0.0502F10W

Zr4+

2.08E 0.0540FF
Kmillimoles

W
W
- -

EDTA + Zr (IV) Zr-EDTA + EDTA EF

Bi3+ + EDTA EF Bi-EDTA

WW
Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = number of mmoles of EDTA (before reactions) - number of mmoles of Bi3+

Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = ( vol. of EDTA molarity of EDTA ) vol.of Bi3+ molarity of Bi3+

Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = (10.00 0.0502 ) ( 2.08 0.0540 )

Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = 0.502-0.112
Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = 3.9 mmoles

Concentration of Zr 4+ (mg) = 0.39 91.22

Concentration of Zr 4+ (mg) = 35.5 mg

WMixture titration

WK

PbBi
pH = 5
EF Bi pH =2
KPb
WMasking and demasking agentsK
CN-Cyanide ion, CN-
KPb, Mg EFCo, Cu, Hg, Zn, Cd, Ni
- -

Mg(CoFCoCN-Co, Mg

KCoFormaldehyde, HCHO
Co(CN)42- + 4H+ + 4HCHO Co2+ + 4HO.CH2C

- -

EF

K
K .

K .
K .
K .
15CH3COOH10 .
KK0.04

- -

EF

0.150pH

K55504550WNaOHK0.1
K

K
KK
KK
KK

- -

EF

W
W .

KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF

KKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KEF .
W .
KK
KK
KK
F .
KE

- -

EF

W
K

KH2O2EFCr2O72-EFFe2(SO4)3EFKNO3EFFeCl3EF
W

N2O4 N2OEFOCl- ClO3-EFSO2 SO3EFMnO2 MnO4EF

Cr2O72- Cr3+
Fe2+ Fe3+

KEF
KEF
KI2EFEF

- -

EF
W

KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFK
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF

KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF

- -

EF

W .
K .
K .

KEF .
K .

K .

W .
K .
K .

K .
K .

.
KStoichiometric

K .

K0.06 .

- -

EF
KpH = 1.00NaOH0

KpH = 1.09NaOH5
KpH =1.09NaOH45
KpH = 7.00NaOH50
KpH = 11.68NaOH55

KKK

H+
NH4Cl

NH4OH + H+ + Cl-

NH4Cl + H2O

K
pHK K
K
K
WCH3COONa

CH3COONa + H2O

CH3COOH + Na+ + OH-

K
K

- -

EF

KKEFKEFKEFKEFKEFKEFK
WpH = 8K
K
.
CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O

K K
K

Ag+ + OH- AgOH

K
KWWWK
KSCN- + Ag+ AgSCNK
KFe3+ + SCN- Fe(SCN)2+K

Fluorescein indicatorE
F
K

KIn-

- -

Cl-W
Adsorbed
K

AgCl

Ag+

KIn-

- -

EF

K
K
KK
S = +6Fe = +3O = -2EFN = +5O = -2K = +1EFFe = +3Cl = -1EFK
KH = +1O = -1EFCr = +6O = -2EF
KEFEFEFEFK
KCr2O72- + 6Fe2+ + 2Cr3+ 7H2O + 6Fe3+K
EFEFEFK

KI
K

- -

EF

KEFEFEFEFEFK
KCarboxyl group, COOHK
K
CH2COOH

HOOCCH2
N

CH2

CH2

CH2COONa

HOOCCH2
N
HOOCCH 2

CH2 COOH

HOOCCH 2

CH2

CH2

CH 2 COONa.2H2 O

EFK
KEF
Erio-T .
W

HD

2-

+ Mg

2+

MgD

KEErio-TFMg2+E.DT.A
Mg2+ + EDTA

Mg-EDTA + 2H+

- -

KMgD-EDTA
MgD- + EDTA Mg-EDTA + HD2-

KEF

- -

.
E
FW
K

2. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc, International
edition, 1994.
3. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative
Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.
4. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An Introduction,
Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition, 1994.

- -

W
W

- -

- -

- -

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

- -


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
W
K .

K .

K .
K .
K .

W
K
W
K??

- -

Gravimetric Analysis

W .

K
K

K
K

W .
W

WSample dissolution

K120100 .

.
W

W
K K

K K

K K

K K

WPrecipitation

- -

WIgnitionDrying
120100

W
Fe(OH)3
K
Al(OH)3

KPrecipitated form

Al2O3Fe2O3
W
2Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 + 3H2O
2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O

F
IgnitionE

Weighed

KAl2O3 Fe2O3Kform

W .
KEF K

K
KFilter

K K

K K

- -

WSolubility Product Rule .

W

K
AaBb

aAm+ bBn-

AaBb

WKEF

A m + Bn
K=
[ AaBb]

A m + Bn = K [ AaBb ]
a

(1)

(2)

kK AaBb

W[AaBb]

W(2)

A m + Bn = kK

(3)

Solubility product KspkK

Wconstant

- -

Ksp = A m + Bn

(4)

WW

Ba(IO3)2

2+

Ba

+ 2IO3

WKsp

Ksp = [Ba2+] [IO3-]2

WAgClAgClSW

Ksp = 1.02 x 10-10

Ag+ = SCl- = SW
K sp = Ag + Cl
K sp = S S
K sp = S2
K sp = 1.02 1010 = S2
S = 1.02 1010 = 1.01 105 mol / L

(BaSO4)SO42-W
KBaSO4KL1.14 X 10-5

- -

WW
BaSO4

Ba2+ + SO42-

K sp = [Ba 2+ ] [SO 4 2 ]

K sp = (1.14 10 5 ) (1.14 10 5 )
K sp = 1.3 10 10

W .
W
K

KBaSO4H2SO4
BaSO4
H2SO4

Ba2+ + SO422H+ + SO42-

Ba2+SO42-

K
W

K
W

KGravimetric factor

WGravimetric factor

WGravimetric factor (GF)

- -

GF=

MW (or atomic weight) of analyte

MW of weighed substance

a
b

W
KWMW
KWanalyte
KWWeighed substance
KWa
KWb

AgCl

Cl-

Fe2O3

Fe

Hg5(IO6)2

HgO

- -

W
Weight of analyzed substance (g) = GF weight of precipitate (g)

W
W

Weight % of analyzed substance =

GF weight of precipitate (g)

100
weight of sample (g)

0.204W
35.5
Cl143.3
AgCl(AgCl)

K0.5

35.5
143.3
GF = 0.2478
GF =

Weight of Cl- = 0.2478 0.204

Weight of Cl- = 0.05 g
Cl- (%) =

0.2478 0.204
100 = 10.11%
0.5

- -

W
K .

K .
Ag2CrO4(S) .
KKsp = 1.9 x 10-12
Fe2O3Fe0.2010 .
KK0.1106

- -

KEFEFEFEF K

KEF K

K
K(Filter)

K K

K
K

K
K
K7.8 X 10-5=S K
K38.49=0.07735= K

- -

W K
E
F

2. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc, International
edition, 1994.
3. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative
Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.
4. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An Introduction,
Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition, 1994.

- -

- -


]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K
W
W
K

K
W
K

W
K?? K
K K

K K

- -

W .

WSolubility product rule .

KEF

WCommon ion effect .

WEFAgCl

AgCl(s)

Ag+ + Cl-

(1)

KNaCl

NaCl Na+ Cl-

- -

(1)
KCl-K

W
Pb(NO3)2PbI2S
KKsp(PbI2) = 1.4 X 10-8K0.1
W

0.1+S 0.1* .
2S .

+S .

0.1

+2S .

0.0 .

Pb2+

I- .

K0.1S*
WKsp(PbI2)
Ksp = [Pb2+] X [I-]2

WI-Pb2+Ksp

Ksp = (0.1)(2S)2 = 1.4 X 10-8

4S2 = 1.4 X 10-7
S2 = 3.5 X 10-8
S = 1.9 X 10-4 M
- -

WFormation of precipitates .

KKsp

A m + Bn > Ksp

Cl-Ag+E25FW
K1X10-4
W
K25KspAgCl = 1.7X10-10 EF

[Ag+] X [Cl-] = (1 X 10-4) X (1 X 10-4)

[Ag+] X [Cl-] = 1 X 10-8

KKspAgCl[Ag+] X [Cl-]
WPrecipitation of chlorides
KPb2+, Ag+, Hg22+W

1.7X10-10EF
K1.7X10-10[Ag+] X [Cl-]

0.1HCl
KK0.01Cl

WK(Ag+, Cl-)

- -

K(Ag+, Cl-) = [Ag+] X [Cl-] = 0.1 X 0.01

K(Ag+, Cl-) = 1 X 10-3

KK(Ag+, Cl-) > Ksp(AgCl)

WPrecipitation of sulfides

Cu2+, Cd2+, As3+, Sb3+,

Zn2+, Sn4+, Hg2+,Bi3+

KMn2+, Co2+, Ni2+

WH2S

2H+ + S2-

H2S

(1)

WH2S
K=

[H + ]2 [S2 ]
[H 2S]

(2)

1.1X10-23K

K0.125

[H + ]2 [S2 ]
= 1.1 1023

0.1
+ 2
[H ] [S2 ] = 1.1 1022
K=

W[S2-]

[S2 ] =

1.1 1023
[H + ]

(3)
- -

H+S2-
KH+
W
S2-

-28

Ksp(CdS) = 1 X 10
Ksp(Bi2S3) = 1 X 10-97
Ksp(CuS) = 9 X 10-36
Ksp(HgS) = 4 X 10-53

KHCl
H2S
2H+ + S2HCl H+ + Cl-

H+HClLe Chatelier
K

KS2-

KHCl 0.3

W(3)S2

[S2 ] =

1.1 1023
[H + ]

1.1 1023
[S ] =
0.32
[S2 ] = 1.2 1026
2

- -

K1.0 X 10
WMSM2+

Ksp(MS) = [M2+] X [S2-]

Ksp(MS) = (1 X 10-4) X (1.2 X 10-22)
Ksp(MS) = 1.2 X 10-26

K1.2 X 10-26

W
S2-EF
W

Ksp(ZnS) = 1 X 10 -21
Ksp(MnS) = 1.4 X 10-15
Ksp(NiS) = 3.0 X 10-19
Ksp(CoS) = 5.0 X 10-22

H+
WNH4OH + HN4Cl
- -

WNH4OH
NH4OH

NH4+ + OH-

(1)

WH2S

H2S

2H+ + S2-

(2)

H+FH+NH4OH

(2)EOHS2-

FE F
KE

WPrecipitation of hydroxides

NH4OH + NH4ClKAl3+, Cr3+, Fe3+, Fe2+W

K

K
KOH-

- -

WPrecipitation of carbonates
Ammonium carbonate

(Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+)

K
W

(NH4)2CO3

2NH4+ + CO32-

(1)

NH4Cl NH4+ + Cl-

(2)

CO32-NH4+(2)(1)

Ca2+ + CO32-

CaCO3

([Ca2+] X [CO32-] > Ksp(CaCO3))

Ba2+ + CO32-

BaCO3

([Ba2+] X [CO32-] > Ksp(BaCO3))

Sr2+ + CO32-

SrCO3

([Sr2+] X [CO32-] > Ksp(SrCO3))

MgCO3

([Mg2+] X [CO32-] < Ksp(MgCO3))

Mg2+ + CO32-

- -

NH4+ + OH-

NH4OH

NH4Cl NH4+ + ClMg2+ + 2OH-

Mg(OH)2

[Mg2+] X (OH-]2 < KspMg(OH)2

W .

KK

A m+ Bn < Ksp

W
K K
K K

K K
K K
WFormation of a weak electrolyte
KW

WAg3PO4AgNO3
2Na2HPO4 + 3AgNO3 Ag3PO4 + 3NaNO3 + NaH2PO4

WAg3PO4

Ag3PO4

3Ag+ + PO43-

- -

PO43-W
Ag3PO4
WH3PO4H+

PO43- + 3H+

H3PO4

Ksp[Ag+]3 X [PO43-]PO43-

WKAg3PO4

Ag3PO4 + 3H+

3Ag+ + H3PO4

WFormation of a precipitate
K0.2KClAg3PO4W
KCl

Ag3PO4

3Ag+ + PO43-

KCl K+ + ClAg+ + Cl- AgCl

WNaIAgCl

AgCl
A+ + I-

Ag+ + ClAgI

Ksp(8.5 X 10-17)KspW
AgIAgCl
K(1.7 X 10-10)
- -

WFormation of a complex ion

KAgClW

WHCl
AgNO3 + HCl AgCl + HNO3

AgCl

Ag+ + Cl-

WNH4OHAgCl

Ag+ + 2NH3

[Ag(NH3)2]

NH4OH

NH3 + H2O

Ag+

WKsp

[Ag+] X [Cl-] < Ksp(AgCl)

- -

WValence change of an ion

KEF
K

WEFW
S2-

WS

CuS

Cu2+ + S2-

3S2- + 2NO3- + 8H+

3S + 2NO + 4H2O

- -

KAl(OH)3Ksp K
0.001 K
KEFEF K
KK
KK
KK
KKSpK
KKspK
K
K K

- -

Ksp = [Al3+] X [OH-]3 K

KKsp[Ag+] X [Cl-] K
F[Ag+] X [Cl-]1.7 X 10-10KspEF
KKspE1.0 X 10-6
K K
K
K
KOH-

EFEFEFEF K
K

- -

K
W

- -

- -

E25FKspWEF
Ksp

1.7X10
1.6X10-5
2.0X10-18
3.2X10-25
5.0X10-15
2.1X10-6
-10

8.5X10-17
1.4X10-8
3.5X10-8
9.0X10-9
9.3X10-10
8.9X10-9
7.4X10-14
1.0X10-97
1.0X10-28
9.0X10-36
8.0X10-28
1.410-15
4.0X10-53
1.0X10-49
1.0X10-21
7.1X10-12
6.5X10-6
2.0X10-15
1.1X10-36
2.0X10-33
5.0X10-26
1.2X10-11
1.6X10-14
4.8X10-20
4.5X10-19
2.0X10-4
3.2X10-7
1.5X10-9
6.3X10-7
1.5X10-5
1.0X10-4
2.4X10-10
1.9X10-12
1.8X10-14
2.3X10-3

AgCl

PbCl2
Hg2Cl2
AuCl2
AgBr
PbBr2
AgI
PbI2
MgCO3
CaCO3
SrCO3
BaCO3
PbCO3
Bi2S3
CdS
CuS
PbS
MnS
HgS
Ag2S
ZnS
Mg(OH)2
Ca(OH)2
Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)3
Al(OH)3
Sn(OH)2
Mn(OH)2
Ni(OH)2
Cu(OH)2
Zn(OH)2
CaSO4
SrSO4
BaSO4
PbSO4
Ag2SO4
CaCrO4
BaCrO4
Ag2CrO4
PbCrO4
AgC2H3O2

- -

THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

IA
1

Metals

H
1.01
3

Atomic number

11

Li Be

Chemical symbol

Na

Atomic weight

22.99

6.94
11

9.01
12

Na Mg
22.99 24.31
19
20

Non-metals

Semimetals

IIA
4

0
2

He
IIIA
5

IVB
22

VB
23

VIB
24

VIIB
25

26

VIII
27

VA
7

VIA
8

VIIA
9

4.00
10

B C N O F Ne
10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
13
14
15
16
17
18

---------------------------------Transition metals -------------------------------IIIB

21

IVA
6

28

IB
29

IIB
30

Al Si P S Cl Ar

26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95

31
32
33
34
35
36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98.91 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.29
55
56
57
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86

Cs Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
H a lo g e n s

Fr Ra **Ac Unq Unp Unh Uns

A lk a lin e E a r th M e ta ls

A lk a liin e M e ta ls (E x c e p t H

223.02 226.03 227.03 261.11 262.11 162.12 262.12

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 144.91 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.5 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97

**

N o b le G a s e s

132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.20 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 208.98 209.99 222.02
87
88
89 104 105 106 107

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

La

a
n th

n id

103

Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

ti
232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.06 243.06 247.07 247.07 242.06 252.08 257.10 258.10 259.10 260.11 A c

n id

.Halogens : - Noble gases : - Transition metals : - Alkaline earth metals : - Alkaline metals :

Non-metals : - Metalloids or semimetals : - Metals :

- -

WEF

Anion
-

Br
ClFHIN3S2O2S2-

Anion
C2H3O2NH4+
CO32ClO3ClO2CrO42CNSCNCr2O72HCO3HSO4HSO3OHClONO3NO2C2O42ClO4MnO4PO43SO42SO32S2O32-

Name of Anion
Bromide
Chloride
Fluoride
Hydride
Iodide
Nitride
Sulfide
Oxide
Phosphide

Name of polyatomic anion

Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate

Hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate

Hydrogen sulfite or bisulfite

Hydroxide

Hypochlorite

Nitrate

Nitrite

Oxalate

Perchlorate

Permanganate

Phosphate

Sulfate

Sulfite

Thiosulfate

Acetate
Ammonium
Carbonate
Chlorate
Chlorite
Chromate
Cyanide
Thiocyanate
Dichromate

- -

Cation
Al3+
Ba2+
Bi3+
Cd2+
Ca2+
Cu+
Cu2+
Au3+
H+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Pb2+
Pb4+
Li+
Mg2+
Hg22+
Hg2+
Ni2+
K+
Ag+
Na+
Sr2+
Sn2+
Sn4+
Zn2+

Name of Cation
Aluminum
Barium
Bismuth
Cadmium
Calcium
Copper(I) or cuprous
Copper(II) or cupric
Gold(II1)
Hydrogen
Iron(II) or ferrous
Iron (III) or ferric
Lead(II) or plumbous
Lead(IV) or plumbic
Lithium
Magnesium
Mercury(I) or mercurous
Mercury(II) or mercuric
Nickel(II)
Potassium
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Tin (II) or stannous
Tin(IV) or stannic
Zinc

WK
EF

K
W

3. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc,
International edition, 1994.
4. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of
Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical,
1989.
5. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An
Introduction, Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition,
1994.

- -

W
W

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

EF

GOTEVOT appreciates the financial support provided by BAE SYSTEMS