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Appendix 102
Appendix 102
2
AN EXAMPLE OF AIRPLANE
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
PROCEDURE - JET TRANSPORT
E.G.Tulapurkara
A.Venkattraman
V.Ganesh
REPORT NO: AE TR 2007-4
APRIL 2007
An Example of Airplane Preliminary Design
Procedure - Jet Transport
E.G.Tulapurkara
A.Venkattraman
V.Ganesh
Abstract
In this report, we present an application of the preliminary design
procedure followed in aircraft design course. A 150 seater jet airplane
cruising at M = 0.8, at 11 km altitude and having a gross still air
range(GSAR) of 4000 km is considered. The presentation is divided
into eight sections
Data collection
Preliminary Weight estimation
Optimization of wing loading and thrust loading
Wing design
Fuselage design, preliminary design of tail surface and prelimi-
nary layout
c.g. calculation
Control surface design
Features of designed airplane
Details of performance estimation
.Consequently
S = W
g
_
S
W
_
= 107.02m
2
(1)
The wing span(b) can be calculated from A and S
b =
SA = 31.55 m (2)
The root chord(c
r
) and tip chord(c
t
) can now be found using the following
equations :
c
r
=
2S
b(1 +)
= 5.47 m (3)
c
t
= c
r
= 1.31 m (4)
1.2.3 Empennage
As explained earlier,we have chosen the conventional rear-tail conguration.
The geometric parameters of the horizontal and vertical tails are obtained
here.
The values of S
h
/S and S
v
/S are obtained from the data set of similar
airplanes.
We have chosen
S
h
S
= 0.31
S
v
S
= 0.21
Hence,
S
h
= 33.18 m
2
S
v
= 22.47 m
2
We choose suitable aspect ratios(A
h
, A
v
) from the data set. Our choices
are A
h
= 5 and A
v
= 1.7. Using eq.(2), we get the spans(b
h
, b
v
) as
b
h
=
_
A
h
S
h
= 12.88 m (5)
10
b
v
=
_
A
v
S
v
= 6.18 m (6)
The chosen values for the taper ratios(
h
,
v
) from the data set are
h
=
0.26
v
= 0.3. We can now compute the root chord (c
rh
, c
rv
) and tip chord
(c
th
, c
tv
) of tails as
c
rh
=
2S
h
b
h
(1 +
h
)
= 4.09 m (7)
c
th
=
h
c
rh
= 1.06 m (8)
c
rv
=
2S
v
b
v
(1 +
v
)
= 5.59 m (9)
c
tv
=
v
c
rv
= 1.68 m (10)
From the data set, we choose quarter chord sweep back angles of
h
= 30
and
v
= 35
Hence, for the equivalent trapezoidal wing, the chord distribution is given
by
c(y) = c
r
c
r
c
t
b/2
y
= 5.47 0.264y
Taking fuselage diameter of 3.79 m, the chord at y = 1.895 m is
c
r(exposed)
= 4.97 m
b
exposedwing
= 15.78
3.79
2
= 13.89 m
29
S
wet
= 2S
exposed
_
1 + 1.2(t/c)
avg
_
(31)
S
exposedwing
=
1
2
(4.97 + 1.31) 13.89 2 = 87.23 m
2
Assuming (t/c)
avg
of 12.5%
S
wet(exposedwing)
= 2
_
1 + 1.2(0.125)
_
87.23 = 200.63 m
2
Hence,
(C
Do
)
W
= 0.0025
200.63
107.02
= 0.004687
F
1
= 1.52 0.004687 = 0.007124
We also know that the drag polar is
C
D
= 0.0161 + 0.0482C
2
L
F
2
=
C
Do
F
1
W/S
= 1.632 10
6
m
2
/N
The above drag polar will not be valid at M greater than the M
cruise
.
Hence we need to estimate the drag polar (values of C
Do
and K) at M
max
.
The drag divergence Mach number(M
DD
) for the aircraft is xed at M = 0.82
which is 0.02 greater than M
cruise
. This would ensure that there is no wave
drag at M
cruise
of 0.80. To estimate the increase in C
Do
from M = 0.80 to
M = 0.84, we make a reasonable assumption that the slope of the C
Do
Vs
M curve remains constant in the region between M = 0.82 and M = 0.84.
The value of this slope is 0.1 at M = 0.82. Hence, the increase in C
Do
is
estimated as 0.02 0.1 = 0.002.
From the data on B 787 available in website[2] we observe that the varia-
tion in K is not signicant in the range M = 0.82 to M = 0.84. Hence,value
of K is retained as in subcritical ow. However better estimates are used in
performance calculations presented later.
Consequently the drag polar that is valid at M
max
is estimated as
C
D
= 0.0181 + 0.0482C
2
L
(32)
30
The change in the C
Do
is largely due to change in the zero lift drag of the
wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail. This means that the change in C
Do
aects F
1
value alone.
Hence at M
max
F
1
= 0.009124
The value of F
3
depends on the dynamic pressure at V
max
.
V
max
= M
max
_
speed of sound at h
cruise
= 0.84 295.2 = 248.1m/s
q
max
=
1
2
V
2
max
= 0.5 0.364 248
2
= 11200.95
F
3
=
0.0482
11200.95
2
= 3.84 10
10
m
4
/N
2
To obtain the optimum value of W/S, we minimize the thrust required
for V
max
. The relation between t(ie T/W) and p is
t
V
max
= q
max
_
F
1
p
+ F
2
+ F
3
p
_
(33)
On minimizing t
V
max
, we get
p
optimum
=
_
F
1
F
3
p
optimum
=
_
0.009124
3.84 10
10
= 4873.31N/m
2
The t
V
max
value at p
opt
is found from eq.(33) as
t
V
max
= 0.06022
Allowing a 5 % extra thrust and using the new t
V
max
in eq. (33) gives two
values of p viz.
p
1
= 3344 Nm
2
p
2
= 7101 Nm
2
Thus, any p between p
1
and p
2
would be acceptable from V
max
consider-
ations with a maximum of 5% deviation from optimum.
3344 < p < 7101 N/m
2
31
3.3 (R/C)
max
consideration
The value for (R/C)
max
at sea level was chosen as 700 m/min (11.67 m/s)
which is typical for passenger airplanes.The thrust required for climb at cho-
sen ight speed(V ) is related to (R/C) in the following way(section 4.2.4 of
text).
t
R/c
=
R/C
V
+
q
p
C
D
(34)
But, C
D
is
C
D
= F
1
+ F
2
p + F
3
p
2
(35)
q =
1
2
0
V
2
(36)
t
R/C
=
R/C
V
+
1
2
V
2
p
(F
1
+ F
2
p + F
3
p
2
) (37)
The ight speed for optimum climb performance is not high and values
of F
1
and F
2
correspond to their values for M < M
cruise
. F
3
is a function of
the dynamic pressure.
Our motive is to nd the minimum sea level static thrust (t
s
R/c
) for various
values of V and then choose the minimum amongst the minima. For a given
V ,
p
opt
=
_
F
1
F
3
Therefore, a table is prepared for dierent values of velocity(Table 4)
and the corresponding t
R/C
is obtained using eq.(37) and the corresponding
value of F
3
. This t
R/C
is converted to t
s
R/C
by using the plots provided in
Reference 1.13, chapter 9. These plots provide the climb thrust variation for
engine with bypass ratio 6.5 as a function of velocity and altitude. Using
these plots,the t
R/C
is converted to t
s
R/C
.
32
V (m/s) p
opt
t
R/C
t
s
R/C
80 1507 0.1893 0.2868
100 2355 0.1637 0.2641
120 3391 0.1487 0.2507
140 4615 0.14 0.2469
150 5298 0.1373 0.2483
160 6028 0.1356 0.2510
170 6805 0.1346 0.2554
180 7629 0.1343 0.2617
190 8500 0.1345 0.2691
200 9419 0.1354 0.2780
Table 4: Variation of t
R/C
with p for (R/C)
max
We observe that the value of t
s
R/C
remains low and almost constant for
a range of V values from 120 to 170 m/s. This provides a range of values of
p as given below
p
1
= 3391 N/m
2
p
2
= 6793 N/m
2
Therefore, for
3391 < p < 6805 N/m
2
the climb performance is near the optimum.
3.4 Based on Minimum Fuel for Range (W
f
min
)
In cruise ight, the weight of the fuel used (W
f
) is related to the range(R)
and wing loading(p) as follows(section 4.2.5 of [5])
W
f
=
R
3.6
_
0
2
TSFC
q
_
F
1
p
+ F
2
+ F
3
p
_
(38)
The values of F
1
, F
2
, F
3
corresponding to cruise conditions are as follows
F
1
= 0.007124
F
2
= 1.632 10
6
33
V
cruise
= M
cruise
295.2 = 0.8 295.2 = 236.3 m/s
q
cruise
= 0.5 V
2
= 0.5 0.364 236.3
2
= 10159.59 N/m
2
F
3
=
0.0482
10159.59
= 4.67 10
10
m
4
/N
2
Using eq.(38) we minimize W
f
and obtain p
optimum
as
p
optimum
=
_
F
1
F
3
(39)
p
optimum
=
_
0.007124
4.67 10
10
= 3905.84 N/m
2
Using this value of p in eq.(38) along with R = 4000 km and TSFC =
0.6hr
1
, we get W
fmin
as
W
fmin
= 0.1514
Allowing an excess fuel of 5 % i.e. W
f
min
= 0.1590 and using eq.(38) we
get two values p
1
and p
2
as
p
1
= 2676 N/m
2
p
2
= 5700 N/m
2
Thus, any p within p
1
and p
2
would be acceptable from the point of view
of minimizing W
f
.
2676 < p < 5700N/m
2
3.5 Based on Absolute Ceiling
At absolute ceiling, the ight is possible at only one speed. Observing the
trend of H
max
as h
cruise
+ 0.6 km we choose the absolute ceiling to be H
max
= 11.6 km. To nd the t
H
max
, we solve the following two equations(section
4.2.3 of [5]).
34
t
h
=
_
4K(F
1
+ F
2
p) (40)
t
h
= 2q
hmax
_
F
1
p
+ F
2
_
(41)
The F
1
and F
2
values corresponding to this case are
F
1
= 0.007124
F
2
= 1.632 10
6
In the absence of a prescribed velocity at H
max
, the velocity corresponding
to ight at (L/D)
max
is taken to calculate q
max
. C
L
value corresponding to
ight at (L/D)
max
is given by
C
L
=
_
C
Do
K
=
_
0.016
0.048
= 0.577 (42)
q
h
max
=
(W/S)
C
L
=
5500
0.577
= 9532.06
The solution for p
opt
is obtained by solving eqs.(40) and (41).
p
opt
= 5500 Nm
2
as it should be.
t
h
max
corresponding to p
optimum
is
t
h
max
= 0.05581
Allowing a 5 % variation in Thrust, we get
t
hmax1
= 0.05302
t
hmax2
= 0.05860
The solutions to eq.(40) with the new t
h
max
values are
p
1
= 4567 Nm
2
p
2
= 6547 Nm
2
Similarly, using in eq.(41), we get
35
p
1
= 4942 Nm
2
p
2
= 6201 Nm
2
From the above four values, the nal lower and upper bounds from the
ceiling considerations are
p
1
= 4942 Nm
2
p
2
= 6201 Nm
2
4942 < p < 6201 N/m
2
3.6 Summary of Constraints
We now tabulate the various constraints on the choice of W/S
Performance Criteria Allowable range of W/S in (Nm
2
)
s
Land
3639 - 5328
V
max
3344 - 7101
(R/C)
max
3391 - 6805
W
f
2676 - 5700
h
max
4942 - 6201
Table 5: Choice of (W/S)
From the table, we see that the allowable range of W/S values is
4942 < p < 5328 N/m
2
3.7 Consideration of Wing Weight (W
w
)
The weight of the wing depends on its area. According to Raymer[4], chapter
15, for passenger airplanes, the weight of the wing is proportional to S
0.649
.
Thus a wing with lower area will be lighter and for lower wing area, the W/S
must be higher. Hence we examine the advantage of choosing a higher wing
loading than that indicated by minimum fuel requirement. It may be pointed
out that the weight of wing structure is about 12% of W
g
.
36
The optimum W/S from range consideration is 3906 N/m
2
whereas with
a 5% increase in W
f
, the wing loading could go up to 5700 N/m
2
. If the
wing loading of 5700 N/m
2
is chosen, instead of 3906 N/m
2
, the weight of
the wing would decrease by a factor of
_
3906
5700
_
0.649
= 0.782
Taking weight of the wing as 12% of W
g
, the saving in the wing weight
will be 2.6%. However this higher wing loading will result in an increase in
the fuel by 5% of W
g
. In the present case, W
f
would be around 20% and
hence 5% of W
f
means an increase in the weight by 0.05 0.2 = 1%.
Thus by increasing W/S from 3906 to 5700 N/m
2
, the saving in the W
g
would be around 2.6 - 1 = 1.6%. Thus it is advantageous to have higher
W/S.
3.8 Choosing a W/S
We see from the Table 5 that a wide range of p is permissible which will still
satisfy various requirement with permissible deviations from the optimum.
To arrive at the nal choice we consider the take-o requirement and choose
highest wing loading which would permit take-o within permissible distance
without excessive (T/W) requirement. From data collection, the take-o
distance, balanced eld length, is assumed to be 2150 m. From gure 5.4
of Raymer(Reference 1.11) the take-o parameter {(W/S)/C
L
t.o
(T/W)} for
this eld length is 180. With (W/S) in lb/ft
2
. We take = 1 (take-o at sea
level),C
L
t.o
= 0.8 C
L
max
= 0.8 2.5 = 2. Generally these types of aircraft
have (T/W) of 0.3.Substituting these values we get,
p
final
= 108.2 lb/ft
2
= 5195 Nm
2
It is reassuring that this value of p lies within the permissible values
summarized in Table 5.
3.9 Thrust Requirements
After selecting the W/S for the aircraft, the thrust needed for various design
requirements is obtained. These requirements decide the choice of engine.
37
3.9.1 Requirement for V
max
We use the chosen value of p in the following equation
t
V
max
= q
max
(
F
1
p
+ F
2
+ F
3
p) (43)
and get the thrust required for V
max
at cruise altitude as
_
T
W
_
M
max
= 0.0602 (44)
Referring to engine charts in Jenkinson[8], chapter 9, for a turbo fan
engine with bypass ratio of 6.5, the sea level static thrust is
T
W
=
0.0602
0.18
= 0.334 (45)
In our case, this would mean a Thrust requirement of
T
req
= 193.9 kN
3.10 Requirements for (R/C)
max
As in the case for V
max
, we use our nal design choice for (W/S) in the
following equation,
t
R/c
=
R/C
V
+
1
2
V
2
p
(F
1
+ F
2
p + F
3
p
2
) (46)
Substituting appropriate values, we get
_
T
W
_
R/C
= 0.252 (47)
In our case, this would mean a thrust requirement of
T
req
= 146.3kN
3.11 Take-O Thrust Requirements
The take of (T/W) is taken to be 0.3(choice is motivated by similar aircraft).
This implies a thrust requirement of
T
to
= 0.3 W
g
= 174.2 kN
38
3.12 Engine Choice
From the previous section, we see that the max. Thrust requirements occurs
from Take o considerations.
T
max
= 193.9 kN
As we have adopted a twin engine design, this means a per engine thrust
of
T
max
= 96.95 kN/engine
We look for an engine which supplies this thrust and has a TSFC of
0.6hr
1
and bypass ratio of around 6.5. Some of the engines with perfor-
mance close to these numbers are taken from Jenkinson[8], chapter 9 and
website[1].
Finally, we chose CFM56-2B model of turbofan with a sea level static
thrust of 97.9 kN as this engine satises nearly all our requirements.
3.13 Engine Characteristics
For performance analysis, the variation of thrust and TSFC with speed and
altitude are required. Jenkinson[8], chapter 9 has given non dimensional
charts for turbo fan engines with dierent bypass ratios. Choosing the charts
for bypass ratio = 6.5 and sea level static thrust of 97.9kN, the engine curves
are presented below.
39
F
i
g
u
r
e
5
:
C
r
u
i
s
e
T
h
r
u
s
t
p
e
r
e
n
g
i
n
e
f
o
r
v
a
r
i
o
u
s
a
l
t
i
t
u
d
e
s
40
F
i
g
u
r
e
6
:
V
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
C
l
i
m
b
T
h
r
u
s
t
w
i
t
h
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e
a
n
d
M
a
c
h
N
o
.
(
B
y
p
a
s
s
r
a
t
i
o
=
6
.
5
)
41
4 Wing Design
4.1 Introduction
The weight and the wing loading of the airplane have been obtained in sec-
tions 2 and 3 as 59175 kgf(579915 N) and 5195 N/m
2
. These give wing area
as 111.63 m
2
. The wing design involves choosing the following parameters.
1. Airfoil selection
2. Aspect ratio
3. Sweep
4. Taper ratio
5. Twist
6. Incidence
7. Dihedral
8. Vertical location
In the following subsections, the factors aecting the choice of parameters
are mentioned and then the choices are eected.
4.2 Airfoil Selection
The airfoil shape inuences C
L
max
, C
D
min
, C
L
opt
, C
mac
and stall pattern.
These in turn inuence stalling speed, fuel consumption during cruise, turn-
ing performance and weight of the airplane.
For high subsonic airplanes, the drag divergence Mach number(M
DD
) is
an important consideration. It may be recalled that (M
DD
) is the Mach
number at which the increase in the drag coecient is 0.002 above the value
at low subsonic Mach numbers. A supercritical airfoil is designed to increase
M
DD
. NASA has carried out tests on several supercritical airfoils and recom-
mends the use of NASA-SC(2) series airfoil with appropriate thickness ratio
and camber.
42
4.2.1 Design Lift Coecient
The airfoil will have a C
l
opt
at which its drag coecient is minimum. For
general design the airfoil is chosen in such a way that the C
L
cruise
of the
airplane is equal to the C
l
opt
of the airfoil.
C
L
cruise
=
(W/S)
q
cruise
(48)
Using the value of (W/S) = 5195 Nm
2
and the q corresponding to
M = 0.8 at 11 km altitude, we get
C
l
cruise
= 0.512 (49)
For choice of thickness ratio and wing sweep, we take C
l
opt
= 0.5.
4.2.2 Airfoil Thickness Ratio and Wing Sweep
Airfoil thickness ratio(t/c) has a direct inuence on drag, maximum lift, stall
characteristics, structural weight and critical Mach number. A higher t/c im-
plies a lower critical Mach number but also a lower wing weight.Thus we need
to choose an optimum t/c for the airfoil.
C
l
opt
= 0.5 has been chosen and the cruise Mach number is 0.8. In order
to ensure that the drag divergence Mach number is greater than M
cruise
, we
choose M
DD
as 0.82. This is based on the consideration that there should
be no increase in drag at M
cruise
, C
D
wave
is 0.002 at M
DD
and the slope of
the C
D
Vs M curve around M
DD
is 0.1 . NASA[3] gives experimental results
for several super-critical airfoils with dierent (t/c) and C
l
opt
. Curves for
C
l
opt
= 0.4, 0.7, 1.0 are available in the aforesaid report. We interpolate and
obtain the curve for C
l
opt
= 0.5.
The M
DD
for the wing can be estimated in the following manner.
M
DD
= (M
DD
)
a/f
+ M
A
+ M
(50)
where M
A
and M
, C
D
i
and wing weight. The value of C
L
de-
creases as A decreases. For example, in the case of an elliptic wing,
C
L
=
A
A + 2
(C
l
)
a/f
(52)
The induced drag coecient can be expressed as
C
D
i
=
C
2
L
A
(1 + ) (53)
where depends on A, and . A high A increases the span of the wing
which in turn requires more space in the hangar. A higher Aspect ratio would
also result in poor riding quality in turbulent weather. All these factors need
careful optimization. However at the present stage of design we choose
A = 9.3 based on trends indicated by data collection.
Correspondingly, the wing span would be
b =
AS = 32.22m
44
4.3.2 Taper Ratio
Wing taper ratio is dened as the ratio between the tip chord and the cen-
terline root chord. Taper ratio aects the
Induced drag
Weight
Tip stalling
Induced drag is low for taper ratios between 0.3-0.5. Lower the taper ratio,
lower is the weight. A swept wing also has higher structural weight than
unswept wing. Since the present airplane has a swept wing, a taper ratio of
0.24 has been chosen based on the trends of current swept wing airplanes.
4.3.3 Root and Tip Chords
Root chord and tip chord of the equivalent trapezoidal wing can now be
evaluated.
c
r
=
2S
b(1 +)
= 5.59 m
c
t
= c
r
= 1.34 m
c =
2
3
(1 + +
2
)
(1 + )
c
r
= 3.9 m
Location of the quarter chord of the mac from wing leading edge at the
root is 4.76 m
4.3.4 Dihedral
The Dihedral is the angle of the wing with respect to the horizontal when
seen in the front view .Dihedral of the wing aects the lateral stability of the
airplane.Since there is no simple technique for arriving at the dihedral angle
that takes all the considerations into eect we need to initially choose a di-
hedral angle based on data collected(Table A). Hence we choose a reasonable
value for the dihedral as
= 5
o
4.3.5 Wing Twist
We have assumed a linear twist of 3
o
.
45
4.4 Cranked Wing Design
If we observe the design of current high subsonic airplanes, we see that the
trailing edge is straight for a part of the span, in the inboard region. A
larger chord in the inboard region has the following advantages
1. more space for fuel and landing gear
2. the lift distribution is changed such that more lift is produced in the
inboard section which reduce the bending moment in the root.
This type of design is called a wing with cranked trailing edge. The value
of the span upto which the trailing edge is straight has to be obtained by
optimization. However at the present stage of design, based on the current
trends, the trailing edge is made unswept till 35% of semi span. Root chord
of the cranked wing is
c
rcranked
= 7.44 m
Span of wing portion with unswept trailing edge = 0.35 32.22 = 11.28 m
Figure 7: Plan View of Cranked Wing
46
4.5 Wing Incidence(i
w
)
The wing incidence angle is the angle between wing reference chord and
fuselage reference line. Wing incidence angle is chosen to minimize drag at
some operating conditions,usually cruise.The incidence angle is chosen such
that when the wing is at the correct angle of attack for the selected design
condition,the fuselage is at the angle of attack for minimum drag(usually at
zero angle of attack). Usually wing incidence is ultimately set using wind
tunnel data.However, for an initial estimate for our preliminary design we
proceed as follows
C
L
cruise
= C
L
(i
w
0L
) (54)
In the present case,
C
L
cruise
= 0.512
C
L
=
2A
2 +
_
4 +
A
2
2
(1 +
tan
2
max
2
)
(
S
exp
S
ref
)(F) (55)
where,
2
= 1 M
2
= 1
F = 1.07
_
1 +
d
b
_
2
S
exp
= area of exposed wing
Substituting various values, we get
C
L
= 6.276 rad
1
L=0
for the airfoil was calculated using camber line of the supercritical
airfoil with 14% thickness ratio. The value is 5.8
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
Fus,Nac
+
a
t
a
w
V
t
_
1
d
d
__
1
C
h
C
h
_
+
_
dC
m
dC
l
_
power
(61)
The value of x
c.g
from above equation is termed the stick-free neutral
point,since it is the c.g location at which the static stability is neutral.
60
7.2.3 Forward center of Gravity Limit
The forward c.g. limit is not generally dependent on maintaining stability.
As the c.g is moved forward ,the stability contribution x
c.g
x
a.c
of the wing
becomes more and more negative ,thereby increasing the static stability.In
order to keep the airplane in equilibrium as the c.g is moved forward,the
elevator must be capable of trimming out the resulting negative pitching
moment.The pitching moment will be the greatest when the airplane is at
C
Lmax
when the airplane is landing and ground eects decrease the down-
wash at the tail.
The equation of pitching moments may be solved for the position of the
most forward c.g by assuming the airplane trimmed(C
mcg
= 0) at C
Lmax
as
follows(Section 9.2 of [5])
(x
cg
)
forward
= x
ac
C
m
C
Lmax
_
emax
+
w
G
i
w
+ i
t
+
C
mac(flaps)
+ C
m(fus)
+ C
m(power)
C
m
_
(62)
7.2.4 Determination of initial parameters
(
dC
m
dC
L
)
Fus
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
Fus
=
K
f
W
2
f
L
f
Sca
w
(63)
The value of K
f
is obtained as 0.0119 from graph 1-9:1 of K.D.Wood[10].
a
w
=6.276 /radian = 0.1095 /degree
from the value obtained in section 4.5 on wing design.
Therefore,
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
fus
=
0.0119 3.59
2
33
111.63 3.9 0.1095
= 0.1036
The contribution of nacelle to (dC
m
/dC
L
) is neglected.
d/d
d
d
=
114.6 a
w
A
(64)
61
d
d
=
114.6 0.1095
9.3
= 0.4297
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
power
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
power
=
Tt
p
Wc
(65)
t
p
is the distance of thrust line from c.g(the distance is measured per-
pendicular to the thrust line).For the designed airplane we make an
estimate of t
p
to be 0.19 m.At the cruise altitude, we choose a (T/W)
of 0.06.
Therefore,
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
power,cruise
=
0.06 0.62
13
= 0.00292
(C
L
)
max
is taken as 2.5 from Section 3. (C
L
)
max
with no aps is 1.4.
(C
L
)
flaps
= 1.1.
a
wg
is the lift curve slope of the wing close to the ground. It is ob-
tained by calculating the value of a
w
at lower velocities. A value of
V = 1.3 49 = 63.7m/s corresponds to a value of M = 0.19 and hence
gives a value of
(a
w
)
landing
= 4.57/radian = 0.0796.
The a
wg
is obtained by adding the ground eect to the (a
w
)
landing
ob-
tained.Hence
(a
wg
)
landing
= 1.1(a
w
)
landing
= 5.027/radian = 0.0877/deg (66)
Wg
Wg
=
(C
L
)
max
a
wg
k
(67)
k is the ground eect factor obtained from Fig 1-9:4 of Wood[10].
(C
L
)
max
is the value without aps and corresponds to 1.4. k was ob-
tained as 1.1((for height of a.c above ground)/semi span of 0.1).
Wg
= 10.16
62
a
t
and a
tg
a
t
is obtained as 0.0828/deg by using the tail parameters in eq.(55).
a
tg
is the lift curve slope of the wing close to the ground. It is ob-
tained by calculating the value of a
t
at lower velocities. A value of
V = 1.3 49 = 63.7m/s corresponds to a value of M = 0.19 and hence
gives a value of
(a
t
)
landing
= 3.91/radian = 0.0682/deg.
The a
tg
is obtained by adding the ground eect to the (a
t
)
landing
ob-
tained.Hence
(a
tg
)
landing
= 1.1(a
t
)
landing
= 5.027/radian = 0.0877/deg (68)
i
w
is taken as 1
from Section 4.
C
mjet
at landing = 0
C
mac(flaps)
C
mac(flaps)
= C
mac
+ C
mac(f)
S
f
c
f
Sc
(69)
C
mac
for the airfoil is taken as 0.1 from airfoil database.C
mac
is
taken as -0.4 from Perkins and Hage[11], Figure 5.40.
C
mac(flaps)
= 0.1 0.4 0.56 1.1 = 0.3464
C
m(Fus)
_
dC
m
d
_
fus
=
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
fus
C
L
alpha
(70)
Hence using the value of C
L
)
fus
= 0.1036 0.0877 = 0.0091
C
m
fus
= 0.0091 (
w
i
w
) = 0.0091(10.16 1) = 0.0834
63
C
h
and C
h
The values of C
h
and C
h
are obtained from Fig 1-9:5 of Wood[10].
Since not much detail is available about the nature of elevators we
assume the standard design and obtain the following values.
C
h
=-0.00660
C
h
=-0.01140
C
m
C
m
= a
t
S
t
S
l
t
c
t
(71)
C
m
= 0.08095 0.95 0.57 V
H
= 0.04438V
H
emax
emax
is chosen as 25
is
approximately equal to -1.15 for transport airplane at M = 0.8(Raymer[4],
chapter 16). Assuming c.g at a.c
_
dC
m
dC
L
_
=
1.15
6.276
= 0.183
Hence
x
cg(aft)
c
x
ac
c
= 0.183
Substituting in eq.(61), we get
0.183 = 0.1036 0.2958V + 0.00292
V = 0.98
We obtain the horizontal tail area to be
64
S
ht
=
0.98 3.9 111.63
14.86
= 28.71m
2
Remark: Keeping in view the large number of approximations involved in
calculation of parameters during landing and take-o, the cross check for
forward c.g. location and nose wheel lift-o conditions are not carried out at
this stage.
7.3 Lateral Stability and Control
7.3.1 Specications
The directional stability criterion,dC
n
/dC
e
=
1.34
5.116
= 0.262
c
e
=
2
3
_
5.116
_
1 + 0.262 + 0.262
2
1 + 0.262
__
= 3.596m
(b/2)
e
= 16.11 1.795 = 14.315m
M = 0.6, a = 295.07m/s V = 177.12m/s. Also = 3.90536 10
5
.
Hence,
Re =
177.12 3.596
3.90536 10
5
= 16.31 10
6
k = 1.015 10
5
m corresponds to standard camouage paint, average
application (from [4]). Hence
l
k
=
3.596
1.015 10
5
= 3.543 10
5
The Re
cutoff
corresponding to the above l/k is 30 10
6
. The C
f
w
is then
measured from the graph in [6] as
C
f
w
= 0.00265
(t/c)
avg
= 14% and (t/c)
max
at x/c > 0.3 L = 1.2.
S
exposedplanform
= 14.314
_
5.116 + 1.341
2
_
2 = 92.41m
2
S
wet
w
= 2 92.41(1 + 1.2 0.14) = 215.8m
2
Hence,
(C
D
f
)
w
= 0.00265 (1 + 1.2 0.14)
215.8
111.63
= 0.00598
(C
D
o
)
B
is given as:
(C
D
O
)
B
= (C
D
f
)
B
+ (C
D
p
)
B
+ C
D
b
(C
D
O
)
B
= C
f
B
_
1 +
60
(l
b
/d)
3
+ 0.0025
_
l
b
d
__ _
S
wet
S
B
_
fus
+ C
D
b
S
base
S
ref
73
l
f
= 33.0m and d
max
= 3.59m
Re
b
=
177.12 33
3.905 10
5
= 149.6 10
6
k = 1.015 10
5
m corresponds to standard camouage paint, average
application. Hence
l
k
=
33
1.015 10
5
= 32.51 10
5
The Re
cutoff
corresponding to the above l/k is 2.610
8
. The C
f
w
is then
measured from the graph in [6] as
C
f
w
= 0.0019
(S
wet
)
fus
= 0.75 3.59 33 = 279m
2
S
B
=
4
3.59
2
= 10.12m
2
Hence.
(C
D
f
)
B
= 0.0019
279
10.12
= 0.0524
(C
D
p
)
B
= 0.0019
_
60
(33/3.59)
3
+ 0.0025 (33/3.59)
_
279
10.12
= 0.00524
C
D
b
is assumed to be zero, since base area is almost zero. Hence
(C
D
O
)
B
= 0.0524 + 0.00524 + 0 = 0.0576
(C
D
)
canopy
is taken as 0.002. Hence (C
D
O
)
B
= 0.0596
Finally we have:
(C
D
o
)
WB
= 0.00598 + 0.0596
10.12
111.63
= 0.01138
9.1.2 Estimation of (C
D
o
)
V
and (C
D
o
)
H
The estimation of (C
D
o
)
H
and (C
D
o
)
V
can be done in a manner similar to that
for the wing. However the details regarding the exposed tail area etc. would
be needed. In the absence of the detailed data on the shape of fuselage at
rear etc., a simplied approach given in [6] is adopted, wherein C
D
f
= 0.0025
for both horizontal and vertical tails.
74
S
W
= 2(S
h
+ S
v
)
Hence,
(C
D
o
)
hv
= 0.0025(28.71 + 25.43)
1
111.63
= 0.0024 (79)
9.1.3 Estimation of Misc Drag - Nacelle
For calculating drag due to the nacelles we use the short cut method for
which we have:
(C
D
o
)
nacelle
= 0.006
S
wet
S
ref
where, S
wet
is the wetted area of nacelle. Here S
wet
= 16.79m
2
. Since we
have two nacelles the total drag will be twice of this. Finally we get:
(C
D
o
)
nacelle
= 0.006
16.79
111.63
2 = 0.0018
9.1.4 C
D
o
of the airplane
Taking 2% for the interference drag (from [6]), we get the C
D
o
of the airplane
as
C
D
o
= 1.02 [0.01138 + 0.0024 + 0.0018] = 0.0159 (80)
9.1.5 Induced Drag
The induced drag component has the Oswalds eciency factor e which is
estimated by adding the eect of all the aircraft components on induced drag.
The rough estimate of e can be obtained from:
1
e
=
1
e
wing
+
1
e
fuselage
+
1
e
other
From [9]
e
wing
= (e
w
)
=0
cos( 5)
where is the wing sweep. (e
wing
)
=0
= 0.97 for AR = 9.3, = 0.24
from [12].
Hence e
wing
= 0.97 cos (27.69 5) = 0.8948. Also
1/e
fus
(S
f
/S)
= 0.8 for a round
fuselage. Hence
1
e
fus
= 0.8
10.122
111.63
= 0.0725
75
1
e
other
= 0.05
Finally we have:
e =
1
0.8948
1
+ 0.0725 + 0.05
= 0.8064
Hence
K =
1
Ae
=
1
9.3 0.8064
= 0.04244
9.1.6 Final Drag Polar
C
D
= 0.0159 + 0.04244 C
2
L
(81)
Figure 9: Subsonic Drag Polar
76
Remark
The polar given by 81 is valid at subcritical Mach numbers. The in-
crease in C
D
o
and K at higher Mach numbers is discussed in section
4.2.
The maximum lift to drag ratio ((L/D)
max
) is given by
(L/D)
max
=
1
2
_
C
D
o
K
Using equation 81, (L/D)
max
is 19.25, which is typical of modern jet
transport airplanes.
It may be noted that the parabolic polar is an approximation and is not
valid beyond C
L
max
. It is not accurate close to C
L
= 0 and C
L
= C
L
max
9.2 Engine Characteristics
To calculate the performance, the variations of thrust and SFC with speed
and altitude are needed. Chapter 9 of [8] contains these variations for turbo-
fan engines with various bypass ratios. The Thrust variations versus Mach
number with altitude as parameters are given in non-dimensional form for
take-o, cruise and climb ratings. The values were read from the curves and
later smoothed. The values multiplied by 97.9 kN, the sea level static thrust
rating for the chosen engine, are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Figure 10
also contains (a) the variation of thrust with Mach number at sea level with
take-o rating. (b) variations of climb thrust with Mach number at
h = 38000 and 39000 ft; these are obtained by interpolating values at 36000
and 40000 ft and are used for computation of performance at these altitudes.
The SFC variation is also given in [8], but is taken as 0.6hr
1
under cruise
conditions based on the value recommended by [4].
77
F
i
g
u
r
e
1
0
:
T
a
k
e
O
f
o
r
s
e
a
l
e
v
e
l
a
n
d
C
l
i
m
b
T
h
r
u
s
t
p
e
r
e
n
g
i
n
e
f
o
r
v
a
r
i
o
u
s
a
l
t
i
t
u
d
e
s
78
F
i
g
u
r
e
1
1
:
C
r
u
i
s
e
T
h
r
u
s
t
p
e
r
e
n
g
i
n
e
f
o
r
v
a
r
i
o
u
s
a
l
t
i
t
u
d
e
s
79
9.3 Level Flight Performance
In steady Level ight, the equations of motion, in standard notation are
T D = 0 (82)
L W = 0 (83)
L =
1
2
V
2
SC
L
= W =
1
2
V
2
SC
L
(84)
D =
1
2
V
2
SC
D
= T (85)
9.3.1 Stalling speed
In level ight,
V =
_
2W
SC
L
_
(86)
Since C
L
cannot exceed C
L
max
, there is a ight speed below which level
ight is not possible. The ight speed at C
L
= C
L
max
is called the stalling
speed and is denoted by V
s
V
s
=
_
2W
SC
L
max
_
(87)
Since decreases with altitude, V
s
increases with height. We note that
W/S = 5195N/m
2
, C
L
max
= 2.7 with landing aps and C
L
max
= 1.4 without
aps. The values of stalling speed at dierent altitudes and ap settings are
tabulated in Table 6 and shown in Figure 12.
80
h V
s
(C
L
max
= 1.4) V
s
(C
L
max
= 2.7)
(m) (kg/m
3
) (m/s) (m/s)
0 1.225 77.83 56.04
2000 1.006 85.86 61.83
4000 0.819 95.18 68.54
6000 0.659 106.06 76.37
8000 0.525 118.87 85.59
10000 0.412 134.09 96.56
11000 0.363 142.80 102.83
12000 0.310 154.52 111.27
Table 6: Variation of stalling speed with altitude
Figure 12: Stalling speed Vs Altitude
81
9.3.2 Variation of V
min
and V
max
with Altitude
To determine the V
min
and V
max
at each altitude, the following procedure is
adopted.
The engine thrust as a function of velocity at each altitude is obtained
from the smoothed data.
The drag at each altitude is found as a function of velocity using the
drag polar and the level ight formulae given below.
C
L
=
2 (W/S)
V
2
(88)
C
D
= C
D
o
+ KC
2
L
(89)
Drag =
1
2
V
2
SC
D
(90)
T
avail
= f(M) (91)
Where C
D
o
= 0.0159 and K = 0.04244.
However, the cruise Mach number (M
cruise
) for this airplane is 0.8.
Hence C
D
o
and K are expected to become functions of Mach number
above M
cruise
. To get some guidelines about variations of C
D
o
and K,
we consider the drag polars of B-727 given in Volume 6, Chapter 5 of
[13]. These drag polars are shown in the Figure 13 as discrete points.
82
Figure 13: Drag polars at dierent Mach numbers for B727-100; Symbols are
data from [13] and Solid lines are the parabolic ts
These polars were approximated by the parabolic polar expression
namely C
D
= C
D
o
+K C
2
L
. The values of C
D
o
and K for the various
Mach numbers are given in the Table 7. The parabolic t is also shown
in Figure 13.
M C
D
o
K
0.7 0.01631 0.04969
0.76 0.01634 0.05257
0.82 0.01668 0.06101
0.84 0.01695 0.06807
0.86 0.01733 0.08183
0.88 0.01792 0.103
Table 7: Variation of C
D
o
and K with Mach number (Parabolic t)
The variations in C
D
o
and K with Mach number are plotted in the
Figures 14 and 15. It is seen that there is no signicant increase in
83
Figure 14: Variation of C
D
o
with Mach number
C
D
o
and K upto M = 0.76. This is expected to be the cruise Mach
number for the airplane (B727-100). Following analytical expressions
have been found to closely represent the changes in C
D
o
and K from
M = 0.76 to M = 0.86.
C
D
o
= 0.01634 0.001 (M 0.76) + 0.11 (M 0.76)
2
(92)
K = 0.05257 + (M 0.76)
2
+ 20.0 (M 0.76)
3
(93)
In the case of the present airplane, the cruise Mach number is 0.8. The
variations of C
D
o
and K above M
cruise
and upto M = 0.9, based on
B727-100 data is taken as follows.
C
D
o
= 0.0159 0.001 (M 0.8) + 0.11 (M 0.8)
2
(94)
K = 0.0455 + (M 0.8)
2
+ 20.0 (M 0.8)
3
(95)
84
Figure 15: Variation of K with Mach number
The thrust available and thrust required curves are plotted at each
altitude as a function of velocity. The points of intersection give the
V
min
and V
max
at each altitude. To arrive at V
min
, the stalling speed
also needs to be taken in to account. Hence in the Figures. 16 to 21,
the portion of the V
min
curve below V
s
is shown as dotted lines, as the
drag polar is not valid there. V
s
is taken for C
L
max
without aps.
The calculations are carried out for h = 0, 10000, 15000, 25000, 30000
and 36000 ft, i.e S.L, 3048, 4572, 7620, 9144 and 10972.8 m using T
avail
as climb thrust and cruise thrust. Results are presented only for climb
thrust case.
85
h h V
s
V
min
(m/s) V
min
(m/s) V
max
(m/s) V
max
(m/s)
(in ft) (in m) T
cr
T
climb
T
cr
T
climb
S.L 0 77.833 < V
s
< V
s
258.711 269.370
10000 3048 90.579 < V
s
< V
s
272.060 280.595
15000 4572 98.131 < V
s
< V
s
275.613 283.300
25000 7620 116.292 < V
s
< V
s
272.929 279.291
30000 9144 127.278 < V
s
< V
s
267.854 271.755
36000 10972 142.594 176.054 169.071 253.671 258.154
38000 11582 149.557 217.386 200.896 243.676 248.630
38995 11884 153.159 235.471 229.865 235.483 238.649
Table 8: Variation of V
min
and V
max
Figure 16: Available and Required Thrust at S.L
86
Figure 17: Available and Required Thrust at h = 3048.0m
Figure 18: Available and Required Thrust at h = 4572.0m
87
Figure 19: Available and Required Thrust at h = 7620.0m
Figure 20: Available and Required Thrust at h = 9144.0m
88
Figure 21: Available and Required Thrust at h = 10972.8m
Figure 22: Variation of V
min
and V
max
with altitude
89
9.4 Steady Climb
In this ight, the C.G of the airplane moves along a straight line inclined to
the horizontal at an angle . The velocity of ight is assumed to be constant
during the climb. Since the ight is steady, acceleration is zero and the
equations of motion can be written as:
T D W sin = 0 (96)
L W cos = 0 (97)
To calculate the variation of rate of climb with ight velocity at dierent
altitudes, we adopt the following procedure.
Choose an altitude.
Choose a ight speed.
Noting that C
L
= 2W cos /SV
2
, we get
C
D
= C
D
o
+ K
_
2W cos
SV
2
_
Also
V
c
= V sin
cos =
_
1
V
2
c
V
2
Using the above equations,
A
_
V
c
V
_
2
+ B
_
V
c
V
_
+ C = 0 (98)
A =
kW
2
1
2
V
2
S
; B = W; C = T
avail
1
2
V
2
SC
D
o
2kW
2
V
2
S
(99)
Since altitude and ight velocity have been chosen, the thrust available
is read from the climb thrust curves in 10. Further the variation of C
D
o
and K with Mach number is taken as in Equations 94 and 95.
90
Equation 98 gives 2 values of V
c
/V . We choose the value which is less
that 1.0 as sin cannot be greater than unity. Hence
= sin
1
(V
c
/V ) (100)
V
c
= V sin (101)
This procedure is repeated for various speeds between V
min
and V
max
.
The entire procedure is then repeated for various altitudes.
The variations of (R/C) and with velocity and with altitude as pa-
rameters are shown in Figure 23 and 25. The variations of (R/C)
max
and
max
with altitude are shown in Figure 24 and 26. The variations
of V
(R/C)
max
and V
max
with altitude are shown in Figure 27 and 28. A
summary of results is presented in table 9.
h h (R/C)
max
V
(R/C)
max
max
V
max
(in ft) (in m) (in m/min) (in m/s) (in degrees) (in m/s)
0 0.0 1086.63 149.7 8.7 88.5
10000 3048.0 867.34 167.5 6.0 111.6
15000 4572.0 738.16 174.0 4.7 125.7
25000 7620.0 487.41 198.2 2.6 164.1
30000 9144.0 313.43 212.2 1.5 188.0
36000 10972.8 115.57 236.1 0.5 230.2
38000 11582.4 41.58 236.9 0.2 234.0
38995 11885.7 1.88 235.8 0.0 235.8
Table 9: Climb Performance
91
Figure 23: Rate of Climb Vs Velocity for various altitudes
Figure 24: Maximum Rate of Climb Vs Altitude
92
Figure 25: Angle of Climb Vs Velocity for various altitudes
Figure 26: Maximum angle of Climb Vs Altitude
93
Figure 27: Velocity at Maximum Rate of Climb Vs Altitude
Figure 28: Velocity at Maximum angle of Climb Vs Altitude
94
Remarks
1. The discontinuties in slope in Figures 27 and 28 at high velocities are
due to the change in drag polar as the Mach number exceeds 0.8.
2. From Figure 24, the absolute cieling (at which (R/C)
max
is zero) is
11.88 km. The service cieling at which (R/C)
max
= 50m/min is 11.55
km
95
9.5 Range and Endurance
In this section, the range of the aircraft in a constant altitude and constant
velocity cruise is studied. Range is given by the formula
R =
3.6V
TSFC
_
KC
d
o
_
tan
1
2W
1
V
2
S
K
C
d
o
tan
1
2W
2
V
2
S
K
C
d
o
_
(102)
where W
1
is the weight of the aircraft at the start of the cruise and W
2
is the weight of the aircraft at the end of the cruise.
The cruising altitude taken is h = 10972m. TSFC is taken to be con-
stant as 0.6hr
1
. The variation of drag polar above M = 0.8 is given by
Equation.94 and 95.
W
1
= W
o
= 59175 9.81N
W
f
= 0.205 W
1
Allowing 6% fuel as trapped fuel, W
2
becomes
W
2
= W
1
0.94 W
f
The values of endurance (in hours) are obtained by dividing the expres-
sion for range by 3.6V where V is in m/s. The values of Range(R) and
Endurance(E) in ight at dierent velocities are presented in Table 10 and
are plotted in Figures 29 and 30.
96
Figure 29: Constant Velocity Range at h = 10972 m
Figure 30: Endurance at h = 10972 m
Remarks
1. It is observed that the maximum range of 5600 km is obtained at a
velocity of 239m/s (860 kmph). Corresponding Mach number is 0.81
97
M V C
L
C
D
L/D R E
(in m/s) (in km) (in hours)
0.50 147.531 1.312 0.089 14.75 2979.0 5.61
0.55 162.285 1.085 0.066 16.48 3608.0 6.18
0.60 177.038 0.911 0.051 17.82 4189.6 6.57
0.65 191.791 0.777 0.041 18.72 4691.7 6.80
0.70 206.544 0.670 0.035 19.17 5095.6 6.85
0.75 221.297 0.583 0.030 19.23 5396.5 6.77
0.80 236.050 0.513 0.027 18.95 5599.8 6.59
0.81 239.001 0.500 0.027 18.78 5602.3 6.51
0.82 241.952 0.488 0.027 18.36 5527.0 6.35
0.83 244.902 0.476 0.027 17.65 5352.2 6.07
0.84 247.853 0.465 0.028 16.62 5070.1 5.68
0.85 250.803 0.454 0.030 15.29 4691.2 5.20
0.86 253.754 0.444 0.032 13.76 4242.3 4.64
0.87 256.705 0.433 0.036 12.13 3758.8 4.07
0.88 259.655 0.424 0.040 10.52 3275.3 3.50
Table 10: Range and Endurance in Constant Velocity ight at h = 10972m
(36000ft)
which is slightly higher than the Mach number beyond which C
D
o
and
K increase. This can be explained based on two factors namely (i)
the range increases as the ight speed increases (ii) after M
cruise
is
exceeded, C
D
o
and K increase thus reducing (L/D)
max
.
2. The range calculated above is the gross still air range. The safe range
would be about two-thirds of this. In the present case, the safe range
would be 3733km.
3. The maximum endurance of 6.85 hours occurs in a ight at V =
206m/s. (742 kmph). It can noted that the endurance is roughly
constant over a speed range of 190 m/s to 230 m/s.
98
9.6 Turning Performance
In this section, the performance of the airplane in a steady, co-ordinated,
level turn is studied. The equations of motion in this case are:
T D = 0
W Lcos = 0
Lsin =
W
g
where is the angle of bank.
These equations give:
r =
V
2
g tan
=
V
r
=
g tan
V
Load Factor n =
L
W
=
1
cos
where n = L/W ,
is the rate of turn and r is the radius of turn.
The following procedure is used to obtain r
min
and
max
1. A ight speed and altitude are chosen and the level ight lift coecient
C
LL
is obtained as :
C
LL
=
2(W/S)
V
2
2. If C
L
max
/C
LL
< n
max
, where n
max
is the maximum load factor for
which the aircraft is designed, then the turn is limited by C
L
max
and
C
LT
1
= C
L
max
. However if C
L
max
/C
LL
> n
max
, then the turn is limited
by n
max
, and C
LT
1
= n
max
C
LL
.
3. From the drag polar, C
DT
1
is obtained corresponding to C
LT
1
. Then
D
T1
=
1
2
V
2
SC
DT
1
If D
T1
> T
a
, where T
a
is the available thrust at that speed and alti-
tude, then the turn is limited by the engine output. In this case, the
maximum permissible value of C
D
in turning ight is found from
C
DT
=
T
a
1
2
V
2
S
99
From the above relation, the value of C
LT
is calculated as
C
LT
=
_
C
DT
C
D
o
K
However if D
T1
< T
a
, then the turn is not limited by the engine output
and the value of C
LT
calculated in step (ii) is retained.
4. Once C
LT
is known, the load factor during the turn is determined as
n =
C
LT
C
LL
Once n is known, the values of , r and
can be calulated using the
equations given above.
The above steps are then repeated for various speeds and altitudes. A
typical turning ight performance estimation is presented in Table 11. In
these calculations, C
L
max
= 1.4 and n
max
= 3.5 are assumed. The variation
of turning ight performance with altitude is shown in Table. 12. Figures
31, 32, 33, 34 respectively present (a) radius of turn with velocity and with
altitude as parameter, (b) minimum radius of turn with altitude, (c) rate of
turn with velocity and with altitude as parameter and (d) maximum rate of
turn with altitude.
v n C
lt
(in degrees) r (in m)
max
Vs Altitude
102
h r
min
V
r
min
max
V
max
(in m) (in m) (in m/s) (in m/s)
0.0 666 126.8 0.1910 127.8
3048.0 945 132.6 0.1410 133.6
4572.0 1155 135.1 0.1170 136.1
7620.0 1971 138.3 0.0731 165.3
9144.0 3247 151.3 0.0513 187.3
10972.8 8582 211.0 0.0256 231.0
Table 12: Turning ight performance
Remarks
1. The maximum value of
is 0.191 and occurs at a speed of 127.8m/s
at sea level.
2. The minimum radius of turn is 666 m and occurs at a speed of 126.8m/s
at sea level.
3. The various graphs show a discontinuity in slope when the criterion
which limits the turn changes from n
max
to thrust available.
9.7 Take-o distance
In this section, the take o performance of the airplane is evaluated. The
take-o distance consists of take-o run, transition and climb to screen
height. Rough estimates of the distance covered in these phases can be
obtained by writing down the appropriate equations of motion. However the
estimates are approximate and [4] recommends the following formulae for
take-o distance and balance eld length based on the take-o parameter.
This parameter is dened as:
Take O Parameter =
W/S
C
L
TO
(T/W)
(103)
where W/S is wing loading in lb/ft
2
, C
L
TO
is 0.8 C
Lland
= 0.8 2.7 =
2.16 and is the density ratio at take-o altitude.
In the present case:
W
S
= 5195N/m
2
= 108.2lb/ft
2
; C
L
TO
= 0.82.7 = 2.16; = 1.0(sea level)
103
and
T
W
=
2 97.9kN
59175 9.81
= 0.3373
Hence
Take O Parameter =
108.2
1.0 2.16 0.3373
= 148.86 (104)
From [4], the take o distance, over 50, is 2823
or 1829m.
Remark
It may be noted that the balance eld length is more than twice the take o
distance itself.
9.8 Landing distance
In this section the landing distance of the airplane is calculated. From [4]
the landing distance for commericial airliners is given by the formula
S
land
= 80
_
W
S
_
1
C
L
max
+ 1000ft (105)
where W/S is in lbs/ft
2
. In the present case:
(W/S)
land
= 0.85 (W/S)
takeoff
= 0.85 108.5 = 92.225lb/ft
2
C
L
max
= 2.7
= 1.0
Hence
S
land
= 80 92.225
1
1.0 2.7
+ 1000 = 3732ft = 1138m (106)
104
9.9 Concluding remarks
1. Performance of a typical commercial airliner has been estimated for
stalling speed, maximum speed, minimum speed, steady climb, range,
endurance, turning, take-o and landing.
2. The performance approximately corresponds to that of B737-200.
3. Figure 35 presents the variation with altitude of the characteristic ve-
locities corresponding to
stalling speed, V
s
maximum speed, V
max
minimum speed as dictated by thrust, V
min
thrust
maximum rate of climb, V
(R/C)
max
maximum angle of climb, V
max
maximum rate of turn, V
max
minimum radius of turn, V
r
min
105
F
i
g
u
r
e
3
5
:
F
l
i
g
h
t
E
n
v
e
l
o
p
e
106
10 Acknowledgements
The rst author(EGT) thanks AICTE for the fellowship which enabled him
to carry out the work at IIT Madras.
References
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107