1/19/2009

Endocrine System

What is a gland?
Gland is a organ that produces secretion Endocrine glands secrete into blood stream Paracrine glands exert effect locally Exocrine glands secrete into a lumen/ duct

William Budd Virginia Commonwealth University Center for the Study of Biological Complexity Medical Careers Institute
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Functions of endocrine system

Secrete hormones that coordinate and direct activities of target cells/ organs Regulates mood, growth, development, metabolism, sexual function, reproduction, blood pressure, heart rate Most systems are under combined control of endocrine and nervous systems

Negative Feedback Loops

Endocrine system operates under negative feedback mechanisms
Think about your homes thermostat and furnace!

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Hormones
Requirements for feedback
Hormone- chemical released from endocrine gland that exerts effect elsewhere Target Cell- cell that responds to hormone
Must have receptor for hormone Number of receptors on target cells are in state of flux

Three categories of hormones Proteins

Freely circulate in blood Available for use quickly, short lasting effects

Amines Steroids
Require special transport proteins Unavailable when bound Allows for a gradual, longer term response

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Mechanism of Action
Hormone binding to receptor triggers the event Hormone binding to receptor causes a transduction event to occur in cell and thus causes an event to occur
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Nervous System Control

Adrenal Medulla can be stimulated to release hormones by sympathetic nervous system Releases epinephrine (adrenalin)

Commonly called signal transduction

Pituitary Gland
Known as master gland Major influencer of bodys activities Stimulated to release hormones by the hypothalmus
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Hormones of the Pituitary Gland

Hormone
Growth Hormone (GH) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) Prolactin Hormone(PRL) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Hormones of the Pituitary Gland

Hormone
Lutenizing Hormone (LH) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Interstitial cellstimulating hormone (ICSH)

Effect
Natural growth of bodys tissues; cell division and protein synthesis Stimulates growth and activity of thyroid cells; encourages thyroid to release T3 and T4 Increases skin pigmentation by stimulating melanocytes Develops breast tissue and stimulates milk production Stimulates growth and secretion of adrenal cortex

Effect
Stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum Stimulates production of estrogen in females and sperm in males Production of sperm by interstitial cells in testes

Vasopressin (ADH) Maintains water balance by conversion into ADH Posterior Pit. Oxytocin Causes contractions of uterus Posterior Pit.

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Thyroid Gland
Butterfly shaped gland; sits inferior to cricoid cartilage Very vascular and rich in blood supply Secretes three hormones Receives feedback from pituitary gland via TSH

Thyroid Histology
Cells of thyroid form follicles with colloidal fluid in the extracellular space Follicular cells release hormonal precursor into colloid, where iodine is added Hormone leaves colloid and enters capillaries

www.scottsdalethyroid.com

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Thyroid Hormones
Overall rate of bodys metabolism is controlled by the thyroid gland Most of the iodine taken into body goes to thyroid for storage and use in thyroid hormones Triiodothyronine (T3) Thyroxine (T4)

Triiodothyronine (T 3) Thyroxine (T4)

Prohormone- used as a storage for T3
In tissues it is converted to T3

T4 is primarily transported bound to proteins

Bound T4 is unavailable for use Measurement of free T4 is important

Imported into cell and bind to thyroid hormone receptor on nuclear surface

Triiodothyronine (T 3) Thyroxine (T4)

Induces changes in gene expression Increases basal rate of metabolism
Dictates how cells use glucose and oxygen

Calcitonin
Manufactured by parafolicular cells of thyroid gland Involved in maintenance of blood calcium levels
What can happen if calcium levels drop?

Heat production and oxidation of cells In liver cells, cause the liver to breakdown glycogen into glucose Implicated in diverse disease processes from depression to obesity

When Ca levels rise, calcitonin is released

Decreases osteoclastic activity Increases osteoblastic activity Inhibits intestinal absorption of calcium Inhibits reabsorption of calcium in kidneys

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Parathyroid Glands
Four glands found on posterior thyroid gland Secretes hormone parathyroid hormone (parathormone) Involved in calcium metabolism Opposes calcitonin
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Parathyroid Hormone
Causes an increase in number and size of osteoclasts Increased absorption of calcium 99% of calcium is stored in bone Bone broken down, Ca ions released into blood

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Thymus Gland
Endocrine and lymphatic organ Secretes hormone thymosin Stimulates production of lymphocytes

Adrenal Glands
Located on top of kidney Contains two regions
Medulla Cortex

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Adrenal Cortex
Under influence of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) Causes release of corticoids (steroid hormones) Requires cholesterol as a precursor Mineralocorticoids- primarily aldosterone
Increases reabsorption of sodium and thus causes retention of water Increases active secretion of potassium Under influence of angiotensin II and ACTH

Adrenal Cortex
Glucocorticoids Primarily cortisol and cortisone Cortisol is the most important glucocorticoid and essential for life Regulates or supports cardiovascular function, immunologic, metabolic, and homeostatic functions Stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver cells Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and fat tissue

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Adrenal Cortex
Glucocorticoids Stimulates breakdown of adipose Mobilizes aminoacids for use in manufacture of glucose Causes breakdown of glycogen into glucose Mediates inflammation process and reduces pain

Cortisol

Dexamethasone

Adrenal Cortex
Androgens- male sex hormones; secreted in both men and women Post menopause women may develop some male characteristics Levels are masked by gonads

Adrenal Medulla
Assists with maintenance of cardiac output Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system Epinephrine
Causes an increase in glucose release Increases stroke volume Increases heart rate Increases basal metabolic rate Dialates broncial passages Pupillary dialation

Adrenal Medulla
Norepinephrine
Greatest effect is to cause vasoconstriction of blood vessels Increases blood pressure

Gonads
Sex glands Females produce estrogen and progesterone Estrogen stimulates development of reproductive organs Progesterone causes a build up of uterine lining every 28 days to prepare for POC implantation; depends upon FSH Testosterone causes development of male reproductive organs

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Pancreas
Endocrine and exocrine gland located behind stomach Exocrine function is to secrete digestive enzymes into duodenum Endocrine function is to regulate glucose metabolism Regulates own function through paracrine signaling

Pancreas

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Islets of Langerhans
Contain endocrine cells of pancreas Alpha (A) cells (15-20% of islet cells) secrete glucagon Beta (B) cells (65-80%) secrete insulin

Insulin
Releases when blood glucose level is high Promotes cellular glucose uptake by causing an increase in transmembrane glucose transport protein Encourages fatty acid transport and fat deposition into adipocytes Promotes glucose storage in muscle cells as glycogen Decreases breakdown of proteins Decreases breakdown of fatty acids

Glucagon
Antagonistic of insulin Released when blood glucose level is low Causes glycogen to be broken into glucose Released during periods of sympathetic stress

Pineal Gland
Releases melatonin; causes sleepiness Assists with temperature regulation Involved in mood regulation
Possibly linked to depression

Stimulated by level of light input Darker it is the more melatonin released Lighter it is the less melatonin released What happens in Alaska?

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Prostaglandins
Derived from fatty acids Secreted in most tissues at small levels Involved in many exocrine and paracrine functions Involved in vasomotor control Important in modulation of pain Cell growth and differentiation

Placenta
Serves as a temporary endocrine gland during pregnancy Secretes the hormone HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
Before placenta is made, HCG is made by the embryo

HCG prevents destruction of corpus luteum and maintains progesterone production

Diseases of the endocrine system

Can be caused by many factors May be genetic
Diabetes melitus Dwarfism

Diseases of the endocrine system

Can be caused by glandular hyperactivity or hypoactivity Common cause of admission to health care facilities Endocrine system controls most functions of body

Infectious
Type I diabetes may be induced by CMV

Autoimmune
Hashimotos thyroiditis

Pituitary Disorders
Hyperfunction
Increased production of GH Giantism- caused by overgrowth of long bones Acromegaly- overgrowth of cartilage and joints

Thyroid Disorders
Hyperthyroidism
Enlarged gland Hungry Loss of body fat Feel hot Increased BP, pulse, tremors, blood glucose In later stages, bulging eyeballs

Hypofunction
Dwarfism Diabetes inspidious
Decrease in ADH which results in loss of water and electrolytes

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Thyroid Disorders
Hypothyroidism
Inadequate secretion of T3 and T4 Low level of iodine Dry, itchy skin Brittle hair Constipation Muscle cramps Weight gain

Parathyroid Disorders
Hyperfunction leads to increased blood calcium levels
Bone loss

Hypofunction leads to low levels of calcium

Tetany Muscle Clotting disorders

Adrenal Disorders
Cushings syndrome
Hypersecretion of glucocorticoid hormones High blood pressure Moon face Obesity Muscular weakness Poor wound healing

Adrenal Disorders
Addisons Disease
Weakness and fatigue Low blood glucose Low blood pressure Diarrhea Weight loss Hyponatremia

Diabetes Mellitus
Caused by decreased secretion of insulin from islet cells or insulin resistance Impaired carbohydrate metabolism Type I- Juvenile diabetes Type II- Adult diabetes Sugar Sugar everywhere but not a drop Glucose accumulates in blood and cells starve Increased glucose causes osmotic diuresis

Diabetes Mellitus
Body metabolizes fats and proteins for energy production Incomplete oxidation of fats causes buildup of ketones Ketones lead to accumulation of acids in blood pH drops and coma may result

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Diabetes Mellitus
Symptoms of DM
Polydipsia Polyuria Polyphagia Weight loss Possible coma Hyperventilation Ketone breath Ketone sweat

Treatment of DM
Careful monitoring of blood sugar Insulin from animals or recombinant sources Dietary control Oral hypoglycemic agents for TypeII Weight reduction for TypeII Pancreas transplant Islet cell transplant Benefit of stem cells

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