Chapter 4 THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Historical development
y Antoine Lavoisier (1743 1794)

- he drew up a list of simple substances, or elements - he classified elements into 4 groups

Group I Heat Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen Group II Carbon Sulphur Chlorine Fluorine Phosphorus Group III Silver Lead Tin Cobalt Bismulth Zinc Nickel Group IV Silica Magnesia Chalk Barita Alumina

- table Lavoisier not accepted because it contains: a) Non-elements such as heat and light b) Compounds such as silica, magnesia, chalk, barita and alumina

y Johann W. Dobereiner (1780 1849)  he observed that certain elements had similar properties  These elements occur in triads, or groups of three  Each triad, the atomic mass of the middle element is equal to the average mass of the first and last element
Triads Atomic weight Average weight Lithium 7 Sodium 23 Calcium 39

( 7 + 39 ) 2 = 23 = weight of Sodium

 Triad table was not accepted because the table only

true for a few elements only

y John Newlands (1837 1898)  He arranged the elements in order of increasing nucleon number in horizontal rows  He found that the chemical properties of every eighth element are similar ( law of octaves )
Li Na K Be Mg Ca B Al C Si N P O S F Cl

 His pattern not successful because :

a)

b)

The law of octaves was only accurate for the first 16 elements ( from Li to Ca ) There were no positions allocated for elements yet to be discovered

y Lother Meyer (1830 1895)  He stated that the properties of the elements are periodic. They follow their atomic weights  He devised a method to calculate the atomic volume of an atom : Atom volume = mass of the atom of the element density of the element
 From the value of the atomic volume, he was able to

plot a graph of atomic volume against atomic mass  From the graph, he conclude that elements with similar properties occupy similar positions in their graphs.

y Dmitri Mendeleev  He arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass

I 1 2 3 4 5 6 H Li Na K Cu Rb Be Mg Ca Zn Sr B Al ( ) ( ) Y C Si Ti ( ) Zr N P V As Nb O S Cr Se Mo F Cl Mn Br ( ) Ru,Rh,P d Fe,Co,Ni II III IV V VI VII VIII

 He was more successful for several reasons :

a)

b)

He left gaps for elements yet to be discovered. He even used the table to predict the existence and properties if undiscovered elements. He changed the order if the chemical properties are not similar

y Henry G.J.Moseley (1887-1915)  After he obtaining the proton number of the elements, he arranged the elements according to the increase proton numbers  Just like Mendeleev did, he left gaps ( ) for elements yet to be discovered.  Moseley work proved that elements should be arranged by proton number and not by atomic weight.  This is the way the elements of the Periodic Table are arranged today

Modern Periodic Table

y The elements are arranged in order of increasing proton number. y This order is also related to the electron arrangement of the elements y Elements with the same chemical properties are placed in the same group y Refer to you Periodic Table y The vertical columns are called group. there are 18 groups in the Periodic Table y Each member of a group shows similar chemical properties. y Physical properties such as density, melting point and colour may show a gradual change when descending the group

y Group 1 elements are called alkali metals y Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals y Group 17 elements are called halogens y Group 18 elements are called noble gases y A block of elements called transition elements

separates Group 2 and Group 13 y The horizontal rows are called periods. There are seven periods
Period 1 has two elements only b) Periodic 2 and 3 have eight elements each. The first three periods are called the short periods c) Periods 4 and 5 have 18 elements each. They called the long periods
a)

Period 6 has 32 elements. Not all the elements can be listed on the same horizontal row. These elements are separated below (Lanthanide Series) e) Period 7 has 31 elements. Not all the elements can be listed on the same horizontal row. These elements are separated below ( Actinide Series )
d)

y y

All members of the same group have the same number of valence electrons. Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost shell
Group 1 elements have one valence electron b) Group 2 elements have two valence electrons c) Group 17 elements have seven valence electrons
a)

y The number of valence electrons of Group 1 and

Group 2 elements is the same as its group number y Except for Helium. y Elements with more than 2 valence electrons (groups 13 to 18), the group number = 10 + number of valence electrons
 Periods 1 have one electron shell  Periods 2 have two electron shells  Periods 3 have three electron shells  Periods 4 have four electron shells

y So all elements in the same period have the same

number of filled electron shells

Group 18 Elements
y Physical properties  Called noble gas and make up almost 1% of the air  All noble gas do not
a) b) c)

Dissolve in water Conduct electricity Conduct heat Boiling point increase down the group Melting point increase down the group Atomic radius increase down the group Density increase down the group

 They are monoatomic gases at room temperature

a) b) c) d)

 All noble gas have low melting point and boiling

point compare to other gas because intermolecular force of attraction is low

y Chemical properties  Noble gas are unreactive because they have filled outer shells of electrons which are a stable electron arrangement  He have attained the stable duplet electron arrangement  The other noble gas have attained the stable octet electron arrangement  Therefore the noble gases do not need to accept, donate or share electrons with other elements  All chemical reactions involve either gaining, losing or sharing electrons

Uses of Group 18 Elements

y Helium  Used as super-conductors  Fill airships and weather balloons y Neon  Used in advertising light y Argon  Used to fill in light bulbs y Krypton  Used in laser surgery during eye surgery y Xenon  Used in lighthouse lamps. It gives a beautiful blue light

Group 1 Elements
y All element in this group are metals which react with water to form alkaline solutions

Physical properties
y They are all conductors of electricity y They have low boiling point and melting point y - Melting point decrease down the group

- Boiling point decrease down the group - Electropositivity increase down the group ( is a measure of the ability of an atom to lose its valence electron ) - Hardness decrease down the group - Density increase down the group

Chemical properties
y The alkali metals are the most reactive group of metals in the Periodic Table y The alkali metals atoms achieve the stability of a duplet or octet by giving away its valence electron and form positive ion

example: Li 2.1 Na 2.8.1

Li+ + e 2 Na+ + e 2.8

y The reactivity of alkali metal elements increase down the group

y Reaction with Oxygen 1) Alkali metals react with oxygen gas to form metal oxides example : Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O 2) Alkali metals react with water to form alkaline metal hydroxide solutions and hydrogen gas example : 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) 3) Alkali metal react easily with oxygen and water. To prevent this, alkali metals are kept in oil 4) The alkali metals become more reavtive down the group 5) Reaction of K, Rb, Cs, Fr with water is explosive. Thus ,a very small piece should be used during experiment

y Reaction with Halogen 1) Reaction with halogen will produce colourless, crystalline ionic salts called halides. Example :2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s) Sodium + chlorine sodium chloride 2) In the above reaction, every alkali atom will donate one electron to the halogen atom. Every halogen atom will receive one electron from the alkali atom Li Li+ + e Br + e Br Li+ + Br LiBr 3) The increase in reactivity is because.

Group 17 Elements
y Group 17 elements are also known as halogens y Halogens exist as diatomic molecules(F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At2) y Halogens are very reactive elements and naturally exist as halide salts.

Physical properties y - melting point increase down the group

- boiling point increase down the group - density increase down the group - size increase down the group - electronegativity decrease down the group (electronegativity measures the ability of an element to accept electrons)

y At room temperature. a) Chlorine is a gas b) Bromine is a liquid c) Iodine is a solid

y Chlorine, bromine and iodine are a) Not conductors of heat b) Not conductors of electricity

Chemical properties
y

Reaction with Aluminium

no reaction was seen until aluminium was heated b) Whitish, powdery solid halides were produced 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2AlCl3(s) Aluminium chloride
a)

y Reaction with Other Metals

halogens react with almost all metals in the Periodic Table to yield metal halides

2Al(s) + 3Br2(g)
y Reaction with Hydrogen

2AlBr3(s)

aluminium bromide

halogens react with hydrogen to form halides H2(g) + Br2(g) 2HBr(g) hydrogen bromide

y Reaction with Other Halogens

the halogen also react among themselves I2(s) + Cl2(g) 2ICI(s) iodine chloride

y Reactivity decrease down the group

Safety precautions in handling Halogen

y the vapor of fluorine, chlorine and bromine are poisonous y Astatine is a hazardous material because it is radioactive y The following precaution should be taken when handling halogen: a) halogen gas and liquid should be handled inside a fume chamber b) Safety goggles should be used when handling halogen fumes c) Gloves should be used when handling halogen materials

Elements In A Period
y The horizontal rows of elements in the Periodic Table are called periods y The elements are arranged from left to right. Each step will involve an increase in a) 1 proton particle b) 1 proton number c) 1 valence electron
Elements in Period 3 Proton number Electron configuration

Na 11 2.8.1 1

Mg 12 2.8.2 2

Al 13 2.8.3 3

Si 14 2.8.4 4

P 15 2.8.5 5

S 16 2.8.6 6

Cl 17 2.8.7 7

Ar 18 2.8.8 8

Valence electron

Changes in Properties Across Period 3

y The following properties increase from left to right of each period
a) Proton number b) The number of valence electron c) Electronegativity

The following properties decreases from left to right a) Electropositivity b) Radius c) Melting point d) Boiling point

y The elements changes from

Solid to gas b) Metallic to non-metallic c) Conductor to non-conductor

a)

Uses of Semi-metals(metalloid) in Industry

Silicon is a semi-metal. It is widely used in the semiconductor industry 2) Silicon is used to make
1)
a) b) c) d)

Transistor Diode Electric components Microchips

3)

Germanium is another semi-metal. It is also used extensively in the electronic industry

Transition Elements
y The transitional elements lie in between group 2 and group 13 in the Periodic Table y All elements in this block of Periodic Table have similar properties

Physical properties
y The transition elements are. a) Hard b) Shiny c) Dense y They are good.

Conductors of heat b) Conductors of electricity

a)

y They. a) Are malleable and ductile b) Have high tensile strength y The radius of all the transition elements is almost constant y

The following properties decrease from left to right

Boiling point b) Melting point
a)

The following increase from left to right

Proton number b) Density
a)

Electronegativity is low for all the elements. However, it increase slowly from left to right in the Periodic Table

Special Characteristic of Transition Elements

1. Majority of the transition elements have more than one oxidation number in their compound
Elements Chromium Iron Nickel Copper Compound Potassium dichromate(IV) Chromium(III) chloride Iron(II) chloride Iron(III) chloride Nickel(II) sulphate Nickel(III) bromide Copper(I) chloride Copper(II) oxide Formula K2Cr2O7 CrCl3 FeCl2 FeCl3 NiSO4 NiBr3 CuCl CuO Oxidation number +6 +3 +2 +3 +2 +3 +1 +2

2. Most transition elements form coloured ions

Ions Chromate(VI) Dichromate(VI) Iron(II) Iron(III) Copper(II) Cobalt(II) Manganate(VII) Formula of the ions CrO42Cr2O72Fe2+ Fe3+ Cu2+ Co2+ MnO4Colour (aqueous) Yellowish Orange Greenish Brownish Bluish Pale reddish Purple

3. Many of the transition elements are able to form complex ions

Elements Copper Chromium Complex ion Copper(II) tetra amine Chromium(III) hexa amine Formula Cu(NH3)42+ Cr(NH3)63+

4. Many of the transition elements can act as a catalyst 5. Catalysts are used in chemical reaction to speed up the rate of a reaction
Transition elements Nickel Vanadium(V) oxide Iron Platinum Catalyst used in (process) Used in hydrogenation of alkenes to produce alkane and hydrogenation of margarine Used in Contact process to produce sulphuric acid Used in Haber process to produce ammonia Used in Ostwald process to produce nitrogen oxide and finally to produce nitric acid

Precious Stones
1. All precious stones have brilliant colours 2. These colours are due to the present of transition elements in the stones

Precious stones Emerald Ruby Sapphire Turquoise Amethyst

Colour Green Red Deep blue Blue-green, blue, or green Violet

Transition elements Nickel, Iron Chromium Iron, Titanium Copper Manganese, Iron

Uses of Transition Elements in Industries

We use catalysts in industries to speed up manufacturing processes
Manufacture of Ammonia Margarine Sulphuric acid Nitric acid Catalyst Iron Nickel Vanadium(V) oxide Platinum, Rhodium

The Importance of Diverse Elements and Compounds

y The uses of elements in our everyday lives
Elements Hydrogen, H2 Helium, He Oxygen, O2 Nitrogen, N2 Aluminium, Al Silicon, Si Phosphorus, P Iron, Fe Uses Used to cut or weld metals Used to hydrogenate palm oil to make margarine Used to fill up weather balloons and air ships Used during respiration of all living things Use during the burning or oxidation of materials Used to make ammonia Used to make electric cables, alloys, windows and doors Used to make microchips Used to make matches Used to produce steel which is used to make metal objects such as cars

y The uses of compounds

Compounds Ammonia, NH3 Silver bromide, AgBr Carbon dioxide, CO2 Chlorofluorocarbon, CFC Uses Fertilisers, nitric acid Photographic film Fire extinguisher, carbonated drinks Freon in air conditioner and refrigerator

Ethanol, C2H5OH Liquor and Flavour Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 Iron pills for anaemic patients Magnesium oxide, MgO Antacid for gastric patients