Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry www.traditionaltree.

org

April2006 ver.3.1

Mangifera indica (mango)

Anacardiaceae (cashew family)
kangit (Chuuk, Pohnpei), idele (Palau), mago (Niue, Samoa, Tuvalu), manako (Hawaii), manggo, am (Fiji), mangko (Kiribati), mango (English), mango (Tonga), mangot, mangue, manguier (French), mangueira (Yap)

Ian S. E. Bally
photo:I.S.E.Bally

Mango tree with heavy crop.

In brIef
Distribution Alltropicalandsubtropicalregions. Size Reachesheightsof1530m(50100ft);cultivatedtrees areusually310m(1033ft)highwhenmature. Habitat Growsfromsealevelto1200m(3950ft)intropical latitudes;however,mostcommercialvarietiesaregrownbelow600m(1950ft);rainfall4003600mm(16140in),fruits bestwithawelldefinedwinterdryperiod. Vegetation Growswithawiderangeofcultivatedspecies. Soils Toleratesarangeofsoils;optimalpH5.57.5.

Growth rate Fast,>1.5m/yr(5ft/yr)inidealconditions. Main agroforestry uses Homegardens,silvopasture. Main uses Fruit,flavoring,medicinal,timber. Yields Typically,yieldsareoftenlessthat5mt/ha(2.2t/ac) butcanreach2030mt/ha(913.5t/ac);singletreescanproduce 200300 kg (440660 lb) of fruit in heavy cropping yearsandaslowas5kg(11lb)inbadyears. Intercropping Compatible with other similarly vigorous species,aswellasanimalgrazing. Invasive potential Notanaggressivelyinvasivespecies.

IntroductIon
MangosbelongtothegenusMangiferaofthefamilyAnacardiaceae.The genus Mangifera contains several species thatbearediblefruit.MostofthefruittreesthatarecommonlyknownasmangosbelongtothespeciesMangifera indica.TheotheredibleMangiferaspeciesgenerallyhave lowerqualityfruitandarecommonlyreferredtoaswild mangos.

Mangos are well adapted to cultivation and have been growncommerciallyforcenturies.Today,mangosarerecognizedandeatenthroughouttheworldandareregarded asoneofthemostpopularandesteemedtropicalfruits.

dIStrIbutIon
ThegenusMangiferaoriginatesintropicalAsia,withthe greatestnumberofspeciesfoundinBorneo,Java,Sumatra, andtheMalayPeninsula.Themost-cultivatedMangifera species, M. indica (mango), has its origins in India and Myanmar. Mangoisnowcultivatedthroughoutthetropicalandsubtropicalworldforcommercialfruitproduction,asagarden tree, and as a shade tree for stock. In the Pacific region, allmangoswereintroducedfromotherpartsoftheworld. TheearliestrecordedintroductionsintoHawaiiwereprior to1825;however,mostintroductionstothePacificislands haveoccurredoverthepast100years.FewotherMangifera speciesarefoundinthePacific.Mangifera gedebe,M. minor, andM.mucronulataarefoundintheSolomonIslandsand M. minorinMicronesia,buttheseeitherdonotfruitorthe fruitisinedible.

Mango has become naturalized and adapted throughout thetropicsandsubtropics.Muchofthespreadandnaturalizationhasoccurredinconjunctionwiththespreadof humanpopulations,andassuch,themangoplaysanimportantpartinthedietandcuisineofmanydiversecultures. Thereareover1000namedmangovarietiesthroughoutthe world,whichisatestamenttotheirvaluetohumankind. Mangoisacommongardentreethroughoutthetropics.

Native range

Current distribution

Althoughgrownwidely,mangospreferawarm,frost-free climate with a well defined winter dry season. Rain and high humidity during flowering and fruit development reducesfruityields.Thetreegenerallyflowersinmid-to latewinter,withfruitmaturingintheearlytomid-summermonths.Mangotreesareusuallybetween3and10m (1033ft)tallbutcanreachupto30m(100ft)insome forestsituations.Thecanopyisevergreenwithagenerally spreadinghabit.Theheavycanopyofthemangoisasource ofshelterandshadeforbothanimalsandhumans.

Whenripe,thisdeliciousdessertfruitisparticularlyhigh invitaminA.Thefruitisalsoeatengreen,processedinto pickles,pulps,jams,andchutneys,andisfrozenordried. Thefruitisalsoanimportantsourceofsustenanceforbirds, bats,insects,andmammals.

Mango fruits of the world. photo:I.S.E.Bally

 Mangifera indica(mango)

botAnIcAL deScrIPtIon
Mangifera indicaL.

Preferred scientific name and author Family

manggo,am(Fiji) mangko(Kiribati) mango(English) mango(Tonga) mangot,mangue,manguier(French) mangueira(Yap)

Anacardiaceae(cashewfamily) Mangifera amba Forssk. M.anisodoraBlanco M. arbor Bontii M.austroindica Kosterm. M. balbaGen. M. domesticaGaertn. M.equinaGen. M.fragransMaingay M. gladiataBoj. M.kukulaBlume M. integrifoliaGen. M. linnaei Korth. M. maritimaLechaume. M.mekongensisanon. M.montanaHeybe M.oryzaGen. M. racemosaBoj. M.rostrataBlanco M. rubraBoj. M.sativaRoem.&Schult. M.siamensisWarb. M.sugendaGen. M.sylvaticaRoxb. M.viridisBoj.

Non-preferred scientific names

Commonnamesfromotherregionsinclude: aam,am,amb(Hindi) ampleam(Tamil) bobbiemanja,kanjannamanja,maggo,manggaboom,manja (Dutch) ma muang(Indochina) mamung(Thailand) manga,mango (Spanish) manga,(Portuguese) manga,mempelam,ampelam(Malaysia) mangga(Tagalog) mangga,mempelam(Indonesia) mango(Ilokano) mango(NewGuinea,Pidgin) Mangobaum(German) mwngx(Laos) paho(Bisaya)(Philippines) svaay(Cambodia) tharyetthi(Myanmar) xoi(Vietnam)
Mangos are long-lived evergreen trees that can reach heights of 1530 m (50100 ft). Most cultivated mango treesarebetween3and10m(1033ft)tallwhenfullymature,dependingonthevarietyandtheamountofpruning. Wild,non-cultivatedseedlingtreesoftenreach15m(50ft) whenfoundinfavorableclimates,andtheycanreach30m (100ft)inforestsituations.Thetreescanliveforover100 yearsanddeveloptrunkgirthsofover4m(13ft). Mangotreestypicallybranch0.62m(26.5ft)abovethe ground and develop an evergreen, dome-shaped canopy. Variability in canopy shape and openness occurs among varietiesandwithcompetitionfromothertrees.Mangos growninheavilyforestedareasbranchmuchhigherthan solitarytreesandhaveanumbrella-likeform. The mango has a long taproot that often branches just belowgroundlevel,formingbetweentwoandfourmajor anchoringtaprootsthatcanreach6m(20ft)downtothe watertable.Themorefibrousfinerroots(feederroots)are

Size

Common names

Mangoshavebeengrownthroughoutthetropicalandsubtropicalworldforthousandsofyearsandhavebecomean integralpartofmanycultures.Themanydifferentnames formangoaroundtheworldtodayreflecttheculturesand languagesspokenbypeoplewhogrowthem.Manyofthe nameshavecommonderivations,reflectingtheoriginsand spreadofthemangotreealongwiththespreadofhuman communities.Themorepopularnamesformangofruitin thePacificandAsiaarelistedbelowwiththecountriesor languagesfromwhichtheycome.

Canopy

Pacificislandnames: idele(Palau) kangit(Chuuk,Pohnpei) mago(Niue,Samoa,Tuvalu) manako(Hawaii)

Roots

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found from the surface down to approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) and usually extend just beyond the canopy diameter. Distributionofthefinerrootschangesseasonallywiththe moisturedistributioninthesoil. Mangoflowersarebornonterminalinflorescences(panicles)thatarebroadlyconicalandcanbeupto60cm(24in) longonsomevarieties.Inflorescencesusuallyhaveprimary, secondary, and tertiary pubescent, cymose branches that arepalegreentopinkorredandbearhundredsofflowers. Themangohastwoflowerforms,hermaphroditeandmale, withbothformsoccurringonthesameinflorescence.

Flowers

Hermaphrodite flowers are small (510 mm, 0.20.4 in) withfourtofiveovate,pubescentsepalsandfourtofive oblong, lanceolate, thinly pubescent petals. Only one or two of the four to five stamens that arise from the innermarginofthediscarefertile.Thesingleovaryisborn centrallyonthediscwiththestylearisingfromoneside. Thediscisdividedintoareceptacleoffourorfivefleshy lobesthatformsthenectaries.Themaleflowersaresimilartothehermaphroditeflowersbutarewithoutthepistil, whichhasbeenaborted. Theleavesaresimple,withoutstipules,andalternate,with petioles 112 cm (0.45 in) long. The leaves are variable in shape and size but usually are oblong with tips varyingfromroundedtoacuminate.Leafformdiffersamong varietiesbutismoreconsistentwithinavariety.However, arangeofleafsizescanbeseenonasingletree.Mature leavesaredarkgreenwithashinyuppersurfaceandglabrous lighter green lower surface. New leaves emerge in flushes (episodic growth spurts) of 1020 leaves. Leaves emergegreen,turningtan-browntopurpleduringleafexpansionandthengraduallychangingtodarkgreenasthe leavesmature.Thecoloroftheyoung,expandingleafvaries withvarietyandcanbefromlighttantodeeppurple;this canbeusedasadistinguishingcharacteramongvarieties.

Theratioofhermaphroditetomaleflowersonaninflorescencevarieswithvarietyandseasonandisinfluencedby thetemperatureduringinflorescencedevelopment.

New leaf flush. photo:C.ElEvItCh

Leaves

lb).Thefruithasadarkgreenbackgroundcolorwhendevelopingonthetreethatturnslightergreentoyellowas itripens.Somevarietiesdeveloparedbackgroundcolorat fruitsetthatremainsuntilthefruitsripen.Inadditionto thebackgroundcolor,manyvarietiesalsohaveanorange, red,orburgundyblushthatdevelopslaterinthefruitdevelopment,whentherindisexposedtodirectsunlight.The mesocarpisthefleshy,ediblepartofthefruitthatusually hasasweetandslightlyturpentineflavor.Whenripe,its color varies from yellow to orange and its texture from smoothtofibrous. Mango varieties can be classified as having either monoembryonic or polyembryonic seed embryos. In monoembryonicvarieties,theseedcontainsonlyoneembryothatisatruesexual(zygotic)embryo.Monoembryonic seedsareacrossbetweenthematernalandpaternal(pollen)parents.Fruitfrommonoembryonicseedlingswilloftenvaryfromtheparenttrees,sopropagationbygraftingis usedtoproducetrue-to-typemonoembryonictrees.Polyembryonic seeds contain many embryos, most of which areasexual(nucellar)inoriginandgeneticallyidenticalto the maternal parent. Polyembryonic seeds also contain a zygoticembryothatistheresultofcross-pollination.The monoembryonicseedlingusuallyhaslessvigorthananu-

Seed

Fruit

Mango fruit is classed as a drupe (fleshy with a single seedenclosedinaleatheryendocarp).Fruitsfromdifferent varieties can be highly variable in shape, color, taste, andfleshtexture.Fruitshapesvaryfromroundtoovateto oblongandlongwithvariablelateralcompression.Fruits canweighfromlessthan50g(0.35lb)toover2kg(4.4

 Mangifera indica(mango)

a handful of improved varieties supplemented with local varietiesthatarelesssuitedtotheexporttrade.

Varieties in the Pacific

Mango flower types: male (left) and hermaphrodite (right).

photo:I.S.E.Bally

InHawaii,Indian,Floridian,Mexican,andWestIndian mango varieties have been introduced and grown since the beginning of the 20th century. Since that time, many improvedseedlingselectionshavebeenmadeandgrown. Popular monoembryonic varieties in Hawaii include Haden,AhPing,Gouviea,MomiK,Fairchild,Pope, Rapoza, andHarders. In the Solomon Islands and Fiji, the Australian variety Kensington Pride has been introducedandgrownsuccessfully.InSamoa,themangovarietiesMomiK,Fiji,Mapulehu,WhitePirie,Rapoza, Jara,andKensingtonPridearecommon.InTahiti,Kopu Revaisapopularvariety. Thecharacteristicsbywhichmangosaretypicallyselected are a mix of eating quality, keeping, and growing characteristics.Fruitqualitycharacteristicssuchasflavor,aroma, fleshtexture,andfiberaregenerallyofhighimportance,as arefruitsize,externalappearance,andyieldperformance.

ThemangovarietiesfoundinthePacificislandshavebeen introduced mainly from India, Florida, and Southeast Asiancountriesduringthepast100years.MostoftheearlyIndianvarietiesweremonoembryonic,whichproduced seedlings that did not reproduce true to type. Planting and selection of these seedlings has changed these varieties,withmanybecomingknownasacommonvariety. Commonvarietiesaregenerallyofinferiorfruitqualityto named,introducedvarietiesandareusuallyfoundgrowing wildoronroadsidesandabandonedhomesites.

Selection of mango varieties

A monoembryonic seed is a true sexual cross and has one embryo. A polyembryonic seed has several embryos, many of which are identical to the parent tree. photo:I.S.E.Bally

cellarseedlingforuseasarootstock.Insomevarietiesthis isreversedandthezygoticseedlingisthemostvigorous. Theoccurrenceofoff-typesinorchardsisoftenattributed touseofzygoticseedlings.

GenetIcS
Varieties
There are over a thousand mango varieties around the world, with India having the greatest number (over 500 named).The commercial industries of the world rely on

Theadaptationsofavarietytoenvironmentalpressuresof drought,wetweatherduringflowering,temperature,pests, anddiseasesarealsoimportantselectioncriteria,because theydeterminethecroppingconsistencyandfruitquality.

Preferencesformangovarietiesoftendifferamongcountries,regions,ethnicities,andcuisinesofmarketsinwhich theyareconsumed.Locallygrownandconsumedvarieties oftendifferfromcommerciallyexportedvarietiesthatare selectedfortheirabilitytomaintainfruitqualityafterlong periodsofpostharveststorageandtransport.

Related species

InadditiontothemanyvarietiesofMangifera indica,there are several other Mangifera species that also have edible fruit.ThemostprominentoftheseareM. pentandra(MalayPeninsula),M. foetida Lour.(throughoutSEAsia),M. odorata Griff. (Philippines, Malay peninsula, Java), and

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 

Some PoPuLAr PAcIfIc vArIetIeS

Tree:mediumtovigoroustree Fruitwt:450900g(12lb) Fruitcolor:yellowwithacrimsonblush Fruiteating:goodflavor,lowfiber Seedembryo:monoembryonic Harvesttime:mid-season Comments:originatedatMapulehu,Molokai,andmainly grownintheHawaiianIslands

Ah-Ping

Kopu Reva

Tree:medium-vigortreewithadense,uprightcanopy Fruitwt:150250g(0.330.55lb) Fruitcolor:lightpinkwitharedblush Fruiteating:turpentineflavor;highfiber Seedembryo:polyembryonic Harvesttime:mid-tolateseason Comments:originTahiti Tree:largetreewithanuprightcanopy Fruitwt:300400g(0.66-0.88lb) Fruitcolor:yellow/greenwithpinkblush Fruiteating:sweet-acidturpentineflavor;lowfiber Seedembryo:monoembryonic Harvesttime:mid-tolateseason Comments:originallyfromIndia;popularinSamoa;is synonymouswithJoeWelchfromFlorida

Fairchild

Mapulehu

Tree:smalltreewithdense,spreadingcanopy Fruitwt:150340g(0.330.75lb) Fruitcolor:green/yellowwithanorangeyellowblush Seedembryo:polyembryonic Fruiteating:mild,slightlyacidicflavor;mediumfiber Harvesttime:earlyseason Comments:originatinginPanama,thisvarietybears reasonablywellinwetterclimates.Suitableasa homegardenvariety Tree:large,vigoroustreewithspreadingcanopy Fruitwt:300400g(0.660.88lb) Fruitcolor:lightgreenwithmottledredandyellow shoulders Fruiteating:rich,acidicflavor;lowfiber Seedembryo:monoembryonic Harvesttime:earlytomid-season Comments:selectedinHawaii1964;lightyielding. Tree:vigorous,treewithspreadingcanopy Fruitwt:500700g(1.11.5lb) Fruitcolor:yellowwithbrightredblushoverhalfofskin Fruiteating:goodflavor,mediumfiber Seedembryo:monoembryonic Harvesttime:mid-season Comments:unreliableirregularbearing;susceptibleto internalbreakdown;notacommercialvariety Tree:vigoroustreewithspreadingcanopy Fruitwt:300600g(0.661.3lb) Fruitcolor:yellow-greenbackgroundwithlightblush Fruiteating:excellentflavor,mediumfiber Seedembryo:polyembryonic Harvesttime:earlyseason Comments:themainstayoftheAustralianmango industry;widelygrowninSamoaandFiji

Momi-K

Gouviea

Tree:mediumtolargetree,slightlyspreadingcanopy Fruitwt:280400g(0.620.88lb) Fruitcolor:lightyellowwithalightred/orangeblushover thetophalfofthefruit Fruiteating:mildflavor;lowfiber Seedembryo:monoembryonic Harvesttime:earlytomid-season Comments:originatinginHawaii,irregularlybearing

Pope

Haden

Tree:mediumlargetreewithadense,spreadingcanopy Fruitwt:250450g(0.551.0lb) Fruitcolor:green-yellowgroundcolorwithared/pink blush Seedembryo:monoembryonic Fruiteating:spicyflavor,strongeraroundthefruit shoulders Harvesttime:lateseason Comments:originatedasaseedlingoftheFloridavariety Irwin;regular-bearingandhigh-yielding

Kensington Pride

Rapoza

Tree:smalltreewithanopencanopy Fruitwt:7001000g(1.52.2lb) Fruitcolor:yelloworangewitharedorangeblush Fruiteating:excellentflavor;lowfiber Seedembryo:monoembryonic Harvesttime:mid-tolateseason Comments:yieldsheavilyandregularly

 Mangifera indica(mango)

M. caesia Jack. (Malay peninsula, Papua New Guinea, Java, and the Philippines). Although thesespeciesarefoundgrowinginthePacific rimregion,nonearefoundnaturallyinthePacificislands.

envIronmentAL PreferenceS And toLerAnceS

Climate
Mango grows over a wide range of frost-free climates.Thetreesproducebestinclimatesthat have a well defined, relatively cool dry season with high heat accumulation during the flowering and fruit development period. Rain or free moisture (high humidity, heavy dew, and fog) during the flowering and fruiting period isconducivetothedevelopmentoffungaldiseasesthatcauseflowerandfruitdrop.Mangos areoftenfoundgrowinginthewetterregions, buttheyrarelybearfruitthere.

Elevation (bottom left), Rapoza (bottom right). photoS:I.S.E.Bally Mango grows and produces fruit over a wide rangeofelevationsfromsealevelupto1200m 81F).Theywillgrowoutsidethisrange,however,butfrost (3950ft)intropicallatitudes.Mostcommercialvarietiesdo will kill small mango trees and severely defoliate mature notproduceconsistentlyabove600m(1950ft)elevation. trees. Temperature has a direct effect on tree and fruit growth rates. A leaf flushing cycle takes approximately Rainfallpattern 20weekswhengrowingunder20C(68F)daysand15C Mango trees grow over a wide range of rainfall volumes (59F)nights;thisisreducedto6weeksunder30C/25C andpatterns.Thetreesproducebestwhenthemostrain (86F/77F)temperatures.Thetimetakenforfruittoreach falls during summer months and there is a well defined maturity is also influenced by temperature. Under highwinterdryperiod.Inhot,wet,tropicalclimates,wheresoil temperature and low-humidity conditions, mangos phomoisturedoesnotlimitgrowth,thetreesremainvegetative tosynthetic efficiency is reduced and respiration is high, withlittleornofruitproduction.Rainfall,foggyweather, resulting in low carbon accumulation, which lowers the andpersistentdewsduringthefloweringandfruitingseatrees ability to hold heavy crop loads. Low temperature sonspredisposetheflowersandfruittothefungaldisease stressisnecessaryforfloralinduction(seeFloweringsecanthracnose.Bearingisbestwhenthedryperiodlastsfrom tionbelow). 1to2monthsbeforefloweringtoafterharvest. Meanannualrainfall 4003600mm(16142in) Dryseasonduration(consecutivemonthswith<0 mm[1.in]rainfall) Cantoleratedroughtforupto8monthsincertainsituations. Temperature Mangos optimum growing temperature is 2427C (75 Meanannualtemperature 2427C(7581F)

Popular varieties: Haden (top left), Kensington (top right), Mapulehu

Minimumtemperaturetolerated Frost(0C[32F])
Mangosaretolerantofarangeofsoilsfromalkaline,calcareoussoilstoheavyclaysoils.TheoptimalpHrangeis 5.57.5,butthetreewillgrowoutsidethisrange,withlow

Soils

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pH (acid) being the most deleterious to growth. Productionisbestonwelldrainedsandyorgravellysoilsthatdry out rapidly after the wet season, forcing the trees into a dormantperiod,essentialforheavyflowering.Mangoswill growoncoralatollsbutusuallyproducepoorlyduetothe lack of fresh water. On some of the larger, wetter atolls suchasButaritariandotherislandsinKiribati,mangosare knowntoproducewell.Mangosdonotgroworproduce wellinsalinesoils,buttherootstockvariety13-1 fromIsraelhassomesalttolerance.

Frost Young trees will be killed outright by the mildest frosts, but larger mature trees can regenerate, although defoliationanddeathofsomebrancheswilloccur.Heavyfrosts willkilllargemangotrees. Waterlogging Mangotreesvaryintheirtoleranceofflooding,withsome treesabletotoleratemedium-termflooding(1050days) by developing hypertrophic (swollen) lenticels on the trunk just above the waterline to aid in the removal of toxicby-productsofanaerobicmetabolism.Treesthatdo notdevelophypertrophiclenticelswilldieafter45daysof inundation.Hypotrophiclenticelsseeninseedlingsinpots areasignofoverwateringorunsuitablepottingmedia.

Soil texture Mangostoleratelighttoheavysoiltextures(sands,sandy loams,loams,sandyclayloams,clays,clayloams,andsandy clays). Soil drainage Welldrained,lightersoilsarepreferred. Soil acidity TheoptimumrangeispH5.57.5.

Tolerances
Drought Mangoisconsideredadroughttolerantspecies,beingable towithstandseasonaldryperiodsforupto8months.The mango has many adaptive features that give it drought tolerance,suchasdeeptap/sinkerroots,long-lived,tough leaveswiththickcuticlesfornutrientretentionandrecycling,resinductstoreducewilting,andirregularfruiting patterns, depending on resource availability. Dry conditions during fruit development will cause excessive fruit dropandverylowyields. Fullsun Mangogrowsbestinfullsunbecauseitsflowersandfruit are produced at the edge of the canopy (the outside of thetree)infullsun.Thebestfruitsarefromsun-exposed branches. Shade Vegetative growth, flowers, and fruits from shaded areas arepronetoincreasedpestanddiseases. Fire Young mangos are easily burned beyond regeneration by grassorforestfires.Largermaturetreesaremoreableto regenerateafterfire,althoughtheircanopiesarenomore tolerantoffirethanyoungertrees.
Hypotrophic lenticels on stem of seedling. photo:I.S.E.Bally

Saltspray Mangoswillnottoleratecontinuoussaltspray,butifthe treesaregrowingwithhigh-qualityfreshwater,mild,infrequentsaltspraywillnotadverselyaffectmatureleavesif itdoesnotaccumulateonthem. Wind Mangos are relatively wind resistant and are sometimes usedinwindbreaks.Windbreaksofotherspeciesareoften

 Mangifera indica(mango)

Simultaneous leaf flushing and flowering on different branches. photo:C.ElEvItCh

Young seedlings trees may benefit from staking if over 0.8m(2.5ft)highorplantedinabrasive,calcareoussoilsin wind-exposedsituations.

usedtoprotectcommercialmangoorchardstoreducedisease,improvepollination,andreducewind-rubblemishes onthefruit.

GroWtH And deveLoPment

Mango trees start producing fruit 24 years after field plantingandcancontinuetoproducefruitformorethan 100 years. Under ideal conditions, trees can grow to 2 m (6.6 ft) in the first year. Once trees start cropping, their growthratewillslow. Phenologyistheannualcycleofgrowthevents.Inmature mangos,thephenologicalcycleissimilarformostvarietiesandenvironments,varyingonlyintimingandduration. Theexceptionisseenintreesgrownclosetotheequator, where the seasonal fluctuations are minimal and floweringandcroppingcanoccurseveraltimesayear.Themajor phenologicalgrowtheventsarediscussedbelow. In a typical tree there are two periods of dormancy.The firstisimmediatelyafterharvestorripefruitdrop,when the tree becomes dormant for 28 weeks, depending on the soil moisture conditions and previous crop load.The second dormant period is after the summer flush period, whendryerconditionssetin.Theseconddormancyperiod iscriticalforfloralbuddevelopment.

Stormwindscanbeespeciallydamagingtomangos,causingbreakageofmajorlimbsoruprootingthewholetree. Although preventing damage from cyclonic winds is difficult,goodpost-stormmanagementcanhastenrecovery and minimize secondary effects. Fallen trees should be straightened immediately following the storm, while the soilissoft,topreventre-damagingroots.Damagedlimbs should be removed to prevent disease infections and to promotenewgrowth.

Phenology

AbILItIeS
Regeneraterapidly Mangos are tolerant of severe pruning and will regain croppingwithinonetotwoseasons.

Dormancy

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The postharvest dormancy is broken by the first summer vegetativeflush,whichusuallycoincideswiththewetseason.Vegetativeflushingusuallycontinuesthroughoutthe wet season, slowing as the climate and soil dry out.The leaf-flushing period can have one to five flushing events, withthewholecanopyflushinginsynchronyorinpatches. Inyearsofpoorfloweringandcropping,severalleafflushes can occur during the flowering and fruiting period. Althoughmangoisanevergreentree,largequantitiesofold leavesareshedduringvegetativeflushing.Thefallenleaves becomemulchunderthetree,wherenutrientsarerecycled fromoldleavestothenewleaves.

Leaf flushing

Flowering

Mangofloweringoccursduringthecoolestmonthsofthe year. Flowering requires 46 weeks of shoot dormancy andcoolnighttemperaturestotriggerfloralinductionof the terminal buds. The absolute temperature needed for floral induction varies among varieties and climates, but nighttemperaturesbetween8Cand15C(4659F)with daytemperaturesaround20C(68F)aretypicallyneeded. Betterfloweringisseenintreesgrowinginthesubtropics where the seasonal temperature differences are stronger andmorereliablethaninthehottropics.InHawaii,the mainfloweringisbetweenDecemberandApril.

Mango inflorescence (flower stalk). photo:I.S.E.Bally

Wind and insects such as wasps, ants, flies, and bees are themainpollinatorsinmango.Temperaturesbelow10C (50F)duringfloweringarenotconducivetoproductionof viablepollen,andtemperaturesbelow15C(59F)during pollination can prevent effective pollen tube growth and fertilization of the ovary. Pollen is generally compatible withinandbetweenvarieties. Youngseedlingorgraftedmangotreeswillproducefruit between 2 and 4 years after field planting. Initially, hundredsoffruitscanbesetoneachfloweringinflorescence. Thetreenaturallythinsthecropbysheddingfruitthroughoutthefruit-developmentperiod.Atfullfruitmaturityon heavy bearing trees, most mango varieties will hold one fruitforeverytwoorthreeinflorescences. Thevolumeoffeederrootsofthemangovariesduringthe annual cycle, with most root development occurring duringthewetperiodsoftheyearanddecliningduringthe

Pollination

dryperiods.Rootgrowthisperiodical,slowingorstopping duringmajorcanopygrowthevents. Mango fruit can take 36 months to mature, with temperaturebeingtheprimaryinfluenceonmaturitytiming. Fruitsgrowfasterandmatureearlierinwarmerclimates. The variety of mango also has an influence on maturity timing,withvarietiesbeingclassifiedasearly,mid-orlate season.Themangoharvestseasonisgenerallyinthehottersummermonthsbutcanbeoutsidethisperiodinclimatesclosetotheequator,whereout-of-seasonflowering iscommon.InHawaii,theharvestseasonisbetweenJune andSeptember,andinFiji,betweenJanuaryandFebruary. Mango fruit yields are generally low compared to other tropicalandsubtropicalfruitspecies.Theyieldsoftenreflectirregularannualbearingpatterns,andtheyvarygreatlyfromseasontoseason.Theyieldingcapacityofatreeis dependant on variety, tree age, tree size, seasonal conditions, and previous cropping history.Typically, yields are oftenlessthat5mt/ha(2.2t/ac)butcanreach2030mt/ ha(913.5t/ac)inwellmanagedorchards.Singletreescan producebetween200and300kg(440660lb)offruitin

Fruit development

Fruiting

Crop yield

Root growth

10 Mangifera indica(mango)

heavycroppingyearsandaslowas5kg(11lb)inbadyears. Goodirrigationanddiseasemanagementcangreatlyimprovecropyields.

ProPAGAtIon
Mangoispropagatedbyseedandvariousvegetativemethods.Thegeneticqualityofamangoseedlingdependson theembryotypeoftheseed.Polyembryonicseedswillusuallyproducethreetotenseedlingsfromeachseed,most ofwhichwillcometruetotypewiththetreetheycame from.Polyembryonicseedsalsocontainoneembryothatis geneticallydifferentfromtheparents;i.e.,thisembryowill produceanoff-typeseedling.Incontrasttopolyembryonic seeds,monoembryonicseedsproduceonlyoneseedlingfor eachseedthatisalwaysgeneticallydifferentfromtheparents. For this reason, most monoembryonic varieties are propagatedbygraftingontopolyembryonicrootstocks.

orientedontheirsidetofacilitateastraightstemandroots. Monoembryonicseedscanbeplanted1-2cm(0.40.8in) deepinto5-20liter(15gal)potscontainingaloose,well drained potting medium. Polyembryonic seeds, which producemorethanoneseedlingperseed,arecommonly plantedintoseedlingbedsofsandwithanimpenetrable rootbarrierat15to20cm(68in)depth.Therootbarrier makesiteasiertolifttheseedlingswhenpottingup.This is usually done when the seedlings are approximately 30 cm(12in)high.Withhealthypolyembryonicseedlingsit is common to have germination rates of over 600% and pottingupratesof300400%.Whenpottingup,onlyuse thethreeorfourmostvigorousseedlingsfromeachseed, discardingtherest.Choosingonlythemostvigorousseedlingswillavoidselectingthezygoticembryothatisoften thesourceofoff-typetrees.

Propagating seedlings
Seedcollection Seeds are best collected from fully mature or ripe fruits beforethefruitshavebeguntodecaywithpostharvestdiseases. Seeds from the larger fruits generally produce the mostvigorousseedlings.Ifpossible,selectseedsfromtrees that are free of seed weevils (Sternochetus mangiferae [F.] Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Only polyembryonic seeds will produce seedlings that are true to type (see polyembryonic/monoembryonicdiscussionabove). Seedprocessing Thebestgerminationresultsareachievedwhentheseedis removedfromtheleatheryendocarpofripeornearlyripe fruit that has not been chilled. After removing the flesh, cuttheendocarpopenusinghandprunersandremovethe kernel. During this operation, it is important not to cut anddamagetheseed. Seedstorage Mangoseeddoesnotstorewell,andseedviabilityisgreatly reducedfrominfectionbyfungiifitisnotremovedfrom the fruit when the fruit begins to ripen. Once the seeds areremovedfromtheleatheryendocarp,theylooseviabilityveryrapidlyduetodesiccationandshouldbeplanted immediatelyorsoakedinwaterforupto24hoursbefore planting.Germinationpercentageswilldropoffrapidlyif seedsarestoredformorethanafewdaysafteropening. Plantingtechniques Seedsshouldbeplantedtoadepthof2cm(0.8in)and

Growingarea Nurseryseedlingsarebestraisedinashadehouseunder 5080% shade and hardened up in full sunlight prior to fieldplanting.Avoidraisingseedlingsunderthecanopies oflargermangotrees,asthispracticepromotesinfection oftheseedlingswithfungaldiseases. Timetooutplanting Young mango trees can be field-planted when approximately12monthsoldandlargeenoughtocompetewith minor weeds. At the time of planting, seedlings should be at least 1 m (3.3 ft) tall and have a stem diameter of at least 15 mm (0.6 in). If irrigation is available, the best timetofield-plantisinearlyspringwhentheweatheris mild;otherwise,treesshouldbeplantedattheonsetofthe wetseason.Toavoidtransplantshockwhenfieldplanting, treesshouldbehardenedbyholdinginfullsunlightforat leastaweekpriortofieldplanting.Iftreesareexcessively vigorousatthetimeoffieldplanting,theycanbepruned toreduceleafareaandwaterdemandontheestablishing rootsystem.

Grafting and budding

Almostallmethodsofgraftingcanbeadaptedformango. Twopopularmethodsformangosarethecleftgraftand thewhip-and-tonguegraft.

Manyofthebettermangovarietieshavemonoembryonic seedswhich,whenplanted,willnotreproducetruetotype. Grafting is the preferred method of propagating mango varieties.Graftingisusedtojointheupperpart(thescion) ofaselectedvarietytothelowerpartofanother(therootstock)theupperpartisanidenticalcloneofthedesired tree.Graftingisnormallydonewhentheyoungseedlings areinnurserypots.

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Thewhip-and-tonguemethodissimilartothewedgebut usesinterlockingcutsthatgiveastrongergraftandgreater surfaceareaforhealingofthegraft. Scionwoodshouldbeonlycollectedfromactivelygrowing treesthatshownosignsofdiseaseinfection.Scionwood isbesttakenfromterminalshootswithswollenterminal buds about to burst. The scion thickness should match thestockthicknesstowhichitistobegrafted(615mm [0.250.6in]diameter)andbebetween100and200mm (2.55in)long. Afterselectingandremovinganappropriatepieceofscion wood from the tree, all leaves should be immediately removedtoreducemoisturelossthroughtranspiration.The scionshouldbeplacedinaplasticbagandheldinacooled boxat510C(4150F).Ifthescionwoodisnotbeused within12hoursofcollection,itshouldbewrappedinmoist papertowelinginsideaplasticbagandstoredinthevegetable crisping section of a domestic refrigerator. Scion woodcanbekeptinthiswayforupto2weeks.

surethecambiumlayersofbothmatchup.Thewholejoint isthenwrappedwithgraftingtapetoholditinplace,and aplasticbagisusedtocoverthescionanduniontoprevent excessivemoisturelossduringthehealingprocess.

Scion selection

Scion collection and storage

Prepared stock showing cambium. photo:I.S.E.Bally

Inthewedgemethod,thescionispreparedbymakingtwo slopingcutsthatformaVshape.Astraightcutismade onthestocktothesamedepthastheVshapeonthescion. TheV-shapedscionistheninsertedintothestock,making

Toachieveasuccessfulgraftitisimportanttohavehealthy, actively growing rootstocks and select scion wood with swollenbudsthatarereadytoburst.Itisalsoimportant tomatchthecambiumlayersinboththestockandscion, asthecambiumiswherethecellsareactivelydividingand thejoiningofthegrafttakesplace.Thisismosteasilydone whenthestockandscionwoodarethesamediameter.In mango the cambium layer is the white woody layer just belowthebark.

Pre-grafting

Scion budwood should be dipped in a fungicide and insecticidesolutiontopreventthespreadofinsectpestsand disease.

Wedge graft

Whip and tongue graft

1 Mangifera indica(mango)

Left: Healed graft union 3 months after grafting. Right: Mango graft 5 days after bag removal. The wedge graft is still wrapped in white tape at bottom. photoS:I.S.E.Bally

Graftingisusuallydoneinthewarmermonthsoftheyear whentreesareactivelyflushingandnighttemperaturesare between 18 and 21C (6470F). Grafting of young seedlingsisbestcarriedoutinashadehousewithgreaterthan 50%shade.Whentopworkingestablishedtreesinthefield (seebelow),completedgraftsshouldbeshadedwithlarge paperbags. Remove any sucker growth below the graft. The scion shouldstarttoshootbetween10and14daysaftergrafting. Whenthishappens,theplasticbagshouldberemovedbut notthegraftingtape.Thetapemustbeleftonthegraftuntilthetreehasflushedtwicefromthescionandthegraft unionisfullyhealed. Toachieveconsistentsuccessfulgrafting,agoodgrafting knifeisneeded.Theseknivesdifferfromordinaryknives becausetheyarebeveledonlyononeside;theotherside is flat to ensure a straight cut. You will also need some

Growing area

graftingtapeandplasticbags.Graftingknivesandtapeare availablefrommostgardeningshops.

Field planting

Post-graft care

Materials used

Excessivelyvigoroustreesshouldbeprunedpriortotransplantingtoreducethewaterdemandontheestablishing rootsystem.Animalswillgrazeonyoungmangoleaves,so thetreesshouldbeprotectedfromgrazinganimals.

Graftedtreesarebestplantedoutinthefieldafterthesecondgrowthflush,whenthegrafthasfullyhardened.Thisis usually12yearsaftergermination.Atthisstagethetrees areusually60120cm(2448in)tall.Iffield-plantedwhen smaller, competition from weeds can slow establishment. Ifthetreesareleftinpotsforlongerthan2years,theybecomeroot-boundandwillnotdevelophealthy,spreading root systems when field-planted.Transplanting shock at thetimeoffieldplantingcanalsohinderatreesestablishment.Toavoidtransplantshock,itisbesttohardenthe treesbyplacingtheminfullsunlightforaweekormore beforetransplanting.

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affectedbyarangeofinsectpestsanddiseases.These,however,canusuallybeadequatelymanagedincommercialorchards.

Pests

Manyinsectsliveinandfeedonmangotrees,butonlya fewoftheseareconsideredmajorpests.

Scaleinsects Several species of scale insects are known to be pests of mango, including Phenacaspis dilatata, P. cockerelli, Ceroplastrs rubens, and Aulacaspis tubercularis.Theinfestedareas turn pale green or yellow and eventually die.The insects attackallpartsofthetreeandareoftenaseriouspestin thenursery. Tipborers Therearetwomainspeciesoftipborers,Penicillaria jocosatrix and Chlumetia euthysticha.Thelarvaeofthesespecies boreintoandkilltheyoungdevelopingflushes.Thepest activityisworstduringhot,wet,summerseasons. Fruitflies(Dacus sp.,Strumenta sp., Bactrocera dorsaila, andPardalaspis sp.).
Fruitflyspeciesdifferamongregions.Adultflieslayeggs innear-ripeorripefruit,andthelarvaetunnelandfeed throughouttheflesh,destroyinganddecayingit.
Tree grafted in the field (topworked). The upper part of the trunk is painted white, and the new scion wood is grafted to the three slender shoots. photo:I.S.E.Bally

Graftingisalsousedtochangethevarietyofatreealready growinginthegroundwithoutsacrificingtheestablished rootstock.Thistechniqueisoftenreferredtoastopworking. Topworkedtreeswillcomeintoproductionwithinacouple ofseasons,muchfasterthanplantingnewseedlings.

Other comments on propagation

Seedweevil The mango seed weevil(Sternochetus mangiferae, S. gravis) bores into the seed early in the development of the fruit,withlittleornodamagetotheediblefruit.Inthe seed,thelarvaedestroythecotyledons,thusreducingseed germination.Thepresenceofseedweevilsisamajorquarantinebarrierfortheexportofmangotomanycountries. Otherpests Otherinsectandmitepestsofmangoincludefruitspottingbugs(Amblypelta lutescens,A. nitida),seedcaterpillars, planthoppers, flower-feeding caterpillars (Geometridae, Lymantriidae, Noctuidae, Pyralidae, andTorticidae families), thrips (Selenothrips rubocinctus), leaf miners (Acrocercops sp.), fruit piercing moths (Othreis sp.), termites (Isopetra sp.), mites (Eriophyes mangifera, Oligonychus coffeae), andcoccids(Coccussp.).
A range of leaf, fruit, and soil diseases can affect mango, many of which can be adequately controlled with good management and judicious use of fungicides and bactericides.Detaileddiscussionsofindividualdiseasescanbe

dISAdvAntAGeS
Mangosgrowandproduceinmanytropicalandsubtropical climates, although fruit production is limited by wet weather during the flowering and fruiting period. Inconsistent yields and fruit quality from season to season are also limiting characteristics of many mango varieties. These variations are partly due to the vigorous nature of manymangotypesthattendtogrowleavesandvegetation attheexpenseofflowersandfruit. Fruitproduction,and(rarely)treegrowth,canbeseverely

Diseases and disorders

1 Mangifera indica(mango)

foundinthebookslistedintherecommendedreadingsection.Abriefdescriptionofthemajordiseasesofconcern arelistedbelow.

Anthracnose Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporiodies) is a serious fungal disease of flowers, fruit, and leaves. At flowering andearlyfruitdevelopment,anthracnosecausestheflowersandyoungfruittodevelopblacklesionsandbeaborted from the inflorescence. Wet conditions during flowering promoteanthracnosedevelopment.Afterthefruitreaches approximately 4 cm (1.6 in) in diameter, the fruits natural defense mechanisms protect it from anthracnose by inducing the fungus into a quiescent period. When the fruit softens during the ripening process, the natural defense mechanisms break down, and latent infections of anthracnosedevelopintoblacklesionsthatrotthewhole fruitindays.Postharvestanthracnoseisthemajorreason forlossesofmangosduringstorageandtransport. Mangoscab Mango scab (Elsinoe mangiferae) is a fungal disease that affects leaves, stems, and young fruit. On the stems and leaves, scab lesions form numerous, slightly raised, gray, oval to elliptical lesions. In young fruit, black, scabby lesionsdevelopthatinsevereinfectionscancausethefruit todropoff.Asthefruitsgrow,scartissuedevelopsaround theblacklesions,makingthemunmarketableduetoblemishes.Thelesionsdonotexpandafterharvest.Mangoscab ismoreprominentinwetterregions. Bacterialblackspot Bacterialblackspot(Xanthomonas campestrispv.Mangiferaeindicae)isabacterialdiseaseoftheleavesandfruit.The diseaseisworseinwindyareasandintreeswithlowvigor. The disease is identified on the leaves by raised black lesions with greasy margins delineated by leaf veins. Fruit lesions initially appear as small, irregular, water-soaked spotsaroundlenticels.Later,lesionsbecomeraisedwitha greasyappearance,cracking,andoozingbacteria-ladensap. Thediseaseisspreadinwind-drivenwaterfromlesionsto naturalopeningsandwoundsonthetree. Internalphysiologicaldisorders Severalinternalphysiologicaldisorderscanaffecttheflesh and eating quality of mangos. Some common forms of thesedisordersare
jelly seedpremature ripening from around the seed

Symptomsvaryamongvarietiesofmango,butallofthe abovedisordersarethoughttobeassociatedwithlowfruit calciumlevels.

internal breakdownpremature ripening and cellularbreakdownoftheflesh.

spongystemendbreakdownofthefleshandvasculartissueatthestemend

Otherfruitdiseases Alternariarot(Alternaria alternata) Powderymildew(Oidium mangiferaeBerthet) Stemendrot(Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Dothiorella dominicana or Phomopsis mangiferae) Mangomalformation(Fusarium sp.)
Thesapthatspurtsandoozesfromthefruitandpeduncle whenharvestingishighlycausticandtoxic.Contactwith humanskincancauseseveredermatitis,rash,andblisteringthatrequiresmedicalattention.Thesearecommonailmentsofmangopickers.Somepeoplearehypersensitive ,andcontactthroughpicking,peeling,oreatingamango cancauseswellingofthelips,throat,face,andotherskin. During harvesting, any sap that contacts the fruit will burntheskin,leavingdark,unattractive,sunkenblemishes known as sap burn. Commercial mango farmers go to a lotofefforttopreventthesapfromcontactingthefruit orcontaminatingthewashwaterduringtheharvestand packingoperations.

Other disadvantages

Potential for invasiveness

Mango is not an aggressively invasive species, but some wildtreescanbefoundinnativeforestareassuitedtotheir growth.Theseedscanbecarriedbybirds,bats,andother animals.

AGroforeStrY/envIronmentAL PrActIceS
Cropshade/overstory Mangosdonotmakeagoodoverstorytreeforcropping shade-tolerantspeciesbecausetheirdensecanopyproduces100%shade. Livestockshelter Thedensecanopyandtoleranceofsoilcompactionmake themangoanidealtreeforshelteringlivestockfromsun andrain.Treesmustbeprotectedfromanimalsuntilthe canopyishigherthangrazingheight.

soft nosepremature softening of the nose of the fruit

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fruit,seed,andprocessedproductssuchasachars,chutneys, preserves,etc.Thefruitiseatenforitsnutritionalvalue,its medicinalvalue,andforitspleasantflavor.Thefruitand its by-products are used for animal fodder, and the timberisusedforcanoebuildingandmakingcharcoal.Today mangoanditsflavorareaddedtomanyproducts,suchas fruitjuices,icecreams,wines,teas,breakfastcereals,muesli bars,andbiscuits.

Sap oozing from mango stem attachment is highly caustic.

photo:I.S.E.Bally

Homegardens Mangosareusedasshelterandshadetreesinvillagesand homegardens. Two or three trees make an excellent additiontotropicalhomegardensinareasfavorabletofruit production. Fenceposts Mangowoodissoftandrotsrapidlywhenexposedtothe elements, so it is not suitable for fence posts. However, mangoshavebeenusedaslivingfenceposts. Windbreaks Mangosaresometimesusedinmixed-specieswindbreaks, buttheirdensecanopiescausewindturbulence,reducing windbreak effectiveness. Fruit production and quality is pooronwind-exposedtrees. Silvopasture Mangosgrowwellinpastures,althoughcattlewillgraze offlowerleaves.Itisnecessarytofenceoffyoungtreesfor thefirst34yearstoprotectthemfromlivestock. Nativeanimal/birdfood Mangofruitsareafoodsourceformanybirds,fruitbats, wildpigs,androdents.

Fruit Mangosarepredominantlygrownfortheirfruit,whichis mostlyeatenripeasadessertfruit.Maturegreenmangos arealsoeatenfreshoraspickles.Greeneatingvarietiesare distinguishedfromothersbytheirsweet,non-starchy,nonastringentflavoratthegreen-maturestageoffruitdevelopment.Maturegreeneatingmangosareeateninseveral waysthroughouttheworld.InThailandtheyareslicedor gratedinfreshsalad,pickled(mamungdong),soakedin waterandsugar(mamungchaien),saltedanddried(ma mungkhem),slicedinvinegarorfishsauce(mamungpla waarn),oreatenasacrunchyfruit.Inmanyplaces,e.g., Samoa,thefruitsareeatengreenbecausesomeoneelsewill eatthemifonewaitsforripeningorbecausefruitflylarvaearenotyetdeveloped.Freshmangosareprocessedand preserved into a wide range of products including pulps, juices,frozenslices,driedslices,pulp(fruitleather),chutneys,jams,pickles,cannedinsyrup,andslicedinbrine.
Mangos are a highly nutritious fruit containing carbohydrates,proteins,fats,minerals,andvitamins,inparticular vitamin A (beta carotene), B1, B2, and vitamin C (ascorbicacid).Asthefruitripens,concentrationsofvitaminC decreaseandglucose,fructose,andsucroseconcentrations increase. Mangos make a significant seasonal contributiontodietofmanyPacificislandersthatprimarilyhavea starch-baseddiet.

Flavoring/spice Mangopureesandessencesareusedtoflavormanyfood productssuchasdrinks,icecreams,wines,teas,breakfast cereals,mueslibars,andbiscuits. Nut/seed InpartsofIndiatheseediseatenasaboiledorbakedvegetableorgroundintoastarchyflour. Leafvegetable Youngleaves,stillroseorbronzecolored,canbeboiledto renderthemedible.Althoughthecookedleavesholdtheir shapeandareattractive,theirresinousflavorisanacquired taste. Some varieties are more suitable for eating in this manner (Martin et al. 1998). Young leaves of the related

uSeS And ProductS

Mangoshavelongbeenrecognizedasmorethanjustedibleripefruit.Theedibleusesofthefruitincludenon-ripe

1 Mangifera indica(mango)

species Mangifera pajang are eaten as vegetablesinSarawak.

Beverage/drink/tea Alcoholic beverages made from mangos includewinesandliquorsmadeinAustraliaand India. Specialty teas are occasionally flavored withfragrantmangoflowers. Medicinal In addition to mangos food value, it has also beenusedforitsmedicinalvalue.InSamoa,a barkinfusionhasbeenatraditionalremedyfor mouthinfectionsinchildren(palagutu),andin Tonga,infusionsofleavesofmango,theorange (Citrus sinensis), and other species are used to makeapotiontotreatrelapsesickness(kita).

In India, a drink made from unripe mango Mangos make a wonderful addition to homegardens, such as here in Apia, fruit is used as a remedy for exhaustion and Samoa where other popular homegarden trees include breadfruit, coconut, heatstroke.Half-ripefruiteatenwithsaltand citrus, and vi (Spondias dulcis).photo:C.ElEvItCh honeyisusedforatreatmentofgastro-intestiFuelwood naldisorders,biliousdisorders,blooddisorders,andscurvy. Mangowoodmakesexcellentcharcoal. RipemangosarearichsourceofvitaminA,andareused to treat vitamin A deficiencies such as night blindness. Canoe/boat/raftmaking DiabeteshasbeentreatedwithadrinkmadefromtheinInFrenchOceaniaandtheCookIslands,mangowoodis fusion of fresh mango leaves. Dried mango seed ground usedforcanoeconstruction. into flour is used to treat diarrhea. Diarrhea and throat disordersaretreatedbygarglingbarkextractsmixedwith Tannin/dye water.InIndia,fruitsaphasbeenusedtotreatthepainof Ayellowish-browndyeusedforsilkisextractedfromthe bee and scorpion stings. Many of the traditional Indian bark. medicinal uses of mango involve eating unripe fruit. It shouldbenotedthatunripefruitcontainsalotofthetoxic sap that when eaten in excess can cause throat irritation, urbAn And communItY indigestion,dysentery,andcolic.

foreStrY

Animalfodder Livestockwillgrazeonmangoleavesandeatfallenfruit. The leaves can be toxic if consumed in large quantities. Seedsandby-productsofprocessingfruithavebeenused tofeedcattle,poultry,andpigs. Honey Mango flowers are a rich source of nectar collected by honeybees. Timber Mangotimberwhenproperlyseasonedhasbeenusedin furniture,forcarving,aswallandfloorpaneling,andutensil manufacture.The timber is gray-brown, often with a pinktinge.Itiscoarse-texturedhardwoodthatiseasyto workandfinisheswell.Thetimberbreaksdownrapidlyif exposedtotheelementswithoutpreservationtreatment.

Mangos have traditionally been grown as garden and community trees in many countries.The trees are prized primarilyfortheirdeliciousfruit,butalsovaluedfortheir dark green foliage with its periodic splashes of new redbrownleaves.Otheraspectssuchasfloodanddroughttoleranceandadensespreadingcanopythatprovidesshade andshelterforhumansandanimals,makemangosvalued gardentrees.Traditionally,mangoshavealsobeengrown asshadetreesinstreetsandparks,buttheirhighmaintenanceandpublicnuisancehavebroughtthemintodisfavor inmanypublicsituationsinrecenttimes. Mangocanreachheightsof1530m(50100ft).Inurban environmentscultivatedtreesareusuallymaintainedtoa heightofbetween3and10m(1033ft)whenmature.

Size

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Mangosarefast-growingtrees,oftengrowinginexcessof 1.5m(5ft)peryearwhenwelltendedinurbanconditions.

Rate of growth

Roots

Nutritional value of 100 g fresh mango pulp. (Source: USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 14 July 2001) Amountin100g Constituent freshpulp
Water Energy Protein Fats Carbohydrates Totaldietaryfiber Ash Minerals calcium iron magnesium phosphorus potassium sodium zinc copper manganese selenium 81.7g 65kcal(272kj) 0.51g 0.27g 17.00g 1.8g 0.50g 10mg 0.13mg 9.0mg 11mg 156mg 2mg 0.04mg 0.11mg 0.027mg 0.6mcg 27.2mg 0.056mg 0.57mg 0.584mg 0.16mg 0.160mg 14mcg 3894IU 389mcg_RE 1.120mg_ATE 1.12mg 0.066g 0.101g 0.051g 0.00mg 0.008g 0.019g 0.018g 0.031g 0.041g 0.005g 0.017g 0.01g 0.026g 0.019g 0.012g 0.051g 0.042g 0.06g 0.021g 0.018g 0.022g

Mango roots are extensive and build up around water sourcessuchasleakingpipesandwaterspigots.Inmature trees,majorrootswillcometothesurfaceandmaydisrupt lawnsorpavedsurfacesforadistancefromthetrunkequal tothespreadofthecanopy.Asidefromtheareaunderthe canopy,thereislittledangermangorootswillraisepavementorfoundations.

Thefruitfromthemangocanbeeatenasaripefruitor processedintoarangeofproductssuchasachars,chutneys, jams,pulps,juices,andcannedorfrozen.Theunripegreen fruit is commonly eaten throughout the Pacific, picked freshasasnackordippedinsaltorsoysauce.Thegreen fruitisalsocommonlypickled,peeled,andsliced.

Household uses

Light requirements

Mangospreferfullsun.Wheregrowninshadedsituations, thecanopybecomesthinandweak.Fruitingisgreatlyreducedandthefruitlosetheirattractiveblush. Mangosgrowinmostsoiltypesfromheavyclaystolight sandsbutpreferwelldrainedlightersoils.Mangosaregenerally tolerant of many harsh soil conditions. Over hard, compactedsubsoilorsmoothlava(suchaspahoehoe)that isimpenetrablebytheroots,treesmaybecomeunstablein highwinds,bemoresubjecttodrought,andgrowthmay becomestunted. Mangotreesarelong-livedandcanbeexpectedtosurvive asmaturetreesforover100years.

Water/soil requirements

Vitamins vitaminC(totalascorbicacid) thiamine riboflavin niacin pantothenicacid vitaminB6 totalfolate vitaminA,IU vitaminA,RE vitaminE tocopherols,alpha

Expected life span in a homegarden

Lipids totalsaturatedfattyacids totalmonounsaturatedfattyacids totalpolyunsaturatedfattyacids cholesterol Amino acids Tryptophan Threonine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Tyrosine Valine Arginine Histidine Alanine Asparticacid Glutamicacid Glycine Proline Serine

There are many named and unnamed mango varieties grown throughout the Pacific islands.The most suitable varietiestogrowinthehomegardenisamatterofpersonal tasteandhowthetreeistobeused.Smallordwarfmango varieties are suitable for smaller gardens where space is limited.SomeofthesevarietiesincludeKeitt,Fairchild, Rapoza,Willard,andIrwin.Largermorevigorousvarietiesaresuitablewherethetreesaretoprovideshadeand shelter.Someofthesevarietiesinclude:Haden,KensingtonPride,Gouviea,Mapulehu,andAhPing.Ifthereis

Varieties favored for use in a homegardens

1 Mangifera indica(mango)

A quick-bearing crop such as papaya can be grown between mango seedlings for the first few years, after which the mangos start filling the open space and begin bearing a fruit crop.photo:C.ElEvItCh

roomformorethanonemangotree,twoormorevarieties with different bearing seasons can be selected to extend thetimeripefruitisavailable. Mangosgenerallyflowerinthecoolestanddriestpartof theyearandthefruitsdevelopthroughthespringandearly summertoripeninthehottestpartoftheyear.Leafflushing(periodicgrowthofnewleaves)canoccurthroughout theyear,butisusuallyconcentratedinthesummermonths afterthefruitsripenandoftencoincideswithsummerrains. Mangosshedleavescontinuouslythroughouttheyear,but mostoftheannualleafsheddingoccursimmediatelyafter eachnewgrowthflush. Mangoflowercolorsdifferamongvarietiesandrangefrom greenthroughyellowandpinktodarkred.Inflorescences (flowerstalks) varyin lengthfrom12to 50cm (520in). Theinflorescencesareusuallyabundantandprovideanattractivecontrasttothedark-greenfoliage.Inmanymango

varietiestheyoungexpandingleavesareadarkchocolate brownorpurplecolorthatturnsgraduallytodarkgreenas theleavesreachfullsizeandharden.

Seasonality of leaf flush, flowering, fruiting

Bird/bee/wildlife

Mango trees attract a range of wildlife (birds, bats, and other fruit-eating creatures). During the fruiting season, fruit bats and fruit-eating birds are attracted to the tree. Beesvisittheflowers,butmostpollinationisdonebyflies.

Maintenance requirements

Ornamental values

Watering Although mangos are able to withstand periodicdrought,itisbesttowaterthetreesduringthedryer months.Wateringmangotreeswhentheflowersandfruit areonthetreewillimprovethefruitsetandsizeofthe fruitatharvest.

FertilizerMangosgrowninthehomegardengenerallydo notneedregularfertilizer;however,ifthefoliageappears lightgreenoryellowish,itcanbegreenedupbytheapplicationof0.52kg(1.14.4lb)ofawellbalancedfertilizer onceortwiceayear.

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WHen to PIck mAnGoS

Themaximumeatingqualityoffreshmangosisobtainedwhenthe fruitsareharvestedwhenfullymature.Earlyorimmaturepicking canreduceeatingquality.

forbranchestosnapundertheweightofapersonclimbingthetreetopickthefruit.

Nuisance issues

Notallmaturityindicatorsareusefulonallvarieties.Someuseful maturityindicatorsare

theshouldersandbeakofthefruitarewellfilledout,andthe skinintheseareastakesonasmoothappearance thebackgroundgreencoloringofthefruitbeginstolighten

Fruit that is allowed to ripen and fall to the groundquicklybeginstorot.Becausetheyare smelly as they rot, ripe fruits attract vermin suchasrodentsandferalpigs.Decayingfruit kills grass in patches and clogs up mowing equipment. Mangotreesinurbanspacessuchascarparks, sports fields, and public walkways can be a problemduringthefruitingseason.Ripefruit falling from trees is not only a hazard when falling,butrottingfruitsonthegroundpresent ahazardastheyareslipperyifsteppedon(just like banana peels).The sap that exudes from the stems of fruit is highly caustic and toxic, and contact with unprotected skin can cause severe blistering and rashes that can require medical attention. Skin and eye protection shouldbeusedwhenpickingthefruit.Inhypersensitive people, consumption of the fruit cancauseswellingofthelips,throat,andface.

the fruit pedicle (stem) begins to shrivel and is more easily separatedfromthefruit fleshcolorchangesfromwhitetoauniformpaleyellow.

Hazards

Oncemature,fruitareusuallypickedasmature,hard,greenfruit andthenripenedincratesorbaskets.Ifthefruitislefttoripenon thetree,birdsandbatsusuallyeatthefruitfirst.

Pickingthefruit

Careshouldbetakentoavoidsapcontactonthefruitorhuman skinduringthepickingoperation,asitishighlycausticandwill causefruitblemishesandburnhumanskin.Pickingthefruitwith longstems(>10cm,4in)andde-stemmingthefruitafterdipping indetergentwillhelpovercomesap-relatedproblems.

PruningIfleftunpruned,mangoscanbecomeverylarge trees (1530 m [50100 ft]). Pruning to limit tree size or provide clearance from buildings and roads is common practiceandusuallyneedstobedoneevery12years.Pruningmayalsobenecessarytothinthecanopyandremove anydeadbranchesinsidethecanopy.Mangosareverytolerant of pruning and limbs of any size can be removed. Afterheavypruningitiscommonfortreestoflowerand crop poorly the next season, with increasing harvests in followingseasons.

Mangosaresusceptibletoarangeofpestsand diseasesthataffectthetreeandfruit.Ingeneral,thepests in garden trees exist at low levels in balance with their predatorsanddonotrequireanyspecificcontrolmeasures. Forseverepestinfestations,seethePestssectionabove. Along with coconut and breadfruit, mango is one of the mostcommonhomegardenfruitsinthePacific.Thepopularity of the mango comes from the almost universallylovedfruit,whichcanbetoocostlyformosthouseholds topurchase.Amaturetreeofaselectedvarietycanreliably produceenoughfruitforafamily,withextratopreserve invariouswaysorsharewithfriendsandneighbors.The shadeandshelterprovidedbythedense,spreadingcanopy ofthemangohastraditionallybeenafocalpointforwork andsocialgatheringsinthePacific.

Common pest problems

Other

Drawbacks

Mangosareconsideredamessytreebecausetheytendto continuouslydropleavesandothermaterial.Atlateflowering/earlyfruitset,thetreedropstheabortedflowersand inflorescencebranchlets,whichcanstainconcreteorcars parked beneath. Mangos naturally thin their fruit crop, shedding aborted fruit from flowering until fruit are almostfullsize.Thesefruitshaveahighsapcontentthatcan stainconcrete,killgrass,andstrippaintfromcars. Mango branches are brittle and can break during heavy windstormsorwithheavycroploads.Itisalsocommon

commercIAL ProductS
Commercial mango production is carried out in several

0 Mangifera indica(mango)

Pacific nations including Hawaii, Fiji, and the Solomon Islands. Tree spacing is governed by the variety and climate.Traditionalspacingswerewide(upto12x12m,70trees/ha; 40x40ft,28trees/ac)astreeswereallowedtogrowtofull size.Inmorerecenttimes,treespacinghasbeenreduced and trees are maintained at smaller sizes.This facilitates pestanddiseasecontrolandharvestingoperations.Smaller compactvarietiescanbeplantedascloseas7x4mor375 trees/ha(23x13ft,152trees/ac).

Irrigation

Tree spacing

Irrigation during the flowering and cropping period can greatlyincreasethenumberofflowersandthenumberand sizeoffruitsatharvest.

Pruning

Managedorchardtreesrequireregularannualpruningto maintainanopencanopyofmanageablesize.Thisallows airandsunlighttopenetrate,whichreducespestsanddiseases and enhances internal fruit color. Mangos can be heavily pruned with little effect on tree health, although heavypruningmaystimulateexcessivevegetativegrowth attheexpenseoffloweringandfruiting.

Asarule,mangosdonotrequirelargeamountsoffertilizer. Overfertilization can be detrimental to yield, promoting excessivevegetativevigorattheexpenseoffloweringand fruiting.Mangosareespeciallysensitivetonitrogen,which notonlypromotesvigorbutalsoreducesfruitcoloratharvestandreducesthefruitstoleranceofpostharvestdisease. Various fertilizer schedules can be found in the publicationslistedinthebibliographybelow.

Fertilizer

Crop manipulation

Manipulation of flowering to increase fruit set is a commoncommercialpractice.Twopopulartreatmentsarethe applicationofpotassiumnitrate(KNO3)orpaclobutrazol to promote flowering. Potassium nitrate works only on some varieties in some climates. Soil drenches with pa-

Regular annual pruning to maintain an open canopy and control the size of the tree is necessary for commercial production. Pruning by climbing into the canopy is a common method for small growers. photo:C.ElEvItCh

SpeciesProfilesforPacificIslandAgroforestry(www.traditionaltree.org) 1

contemPLAtInG GroWInG mAnGo commercIALLY?

Many issues have to be considered when embarking oncommercialmangoproduction.Inadditiontothe obviousproduction-relatedissuessuchashow,where, andwhattogrow,therearemarketing,finance,license, and regulatory issues that need to be considered. A goodplacetostartisbyreadingagoodgrowingand productionhandbookandgettingadvicefromanadvisoryservice.Someofthesearelistedattheendof thispublication. clobutrazol generally increase flowering, encourage early flowering,andreducevegetativevigor(useofpaclobutrazol is subject to registration requirements of the chemical,whichmayvarywithcountries).Othertechniquesthat have been used with variable results include cincturing, whichinvolvesmakingashallowsawcutaroundthetrunk or limb to temporarily ring bark it and restrict the flow ofcarbohydratesdownthelimb.Smudging(lightingfires underthetreestosmokethecanopyforseveralweeks)was popular in the Philippines before potassium nitrate becamewidelyused.InsomepartsofIndia,rootpruningor disruptionthroughcultivationorexposuretotheairwas usedasaflower-inducingtreatment.

InterPLAntInG/fArm APPLIcAtIonS
Mangoisoftenusedinamixedcroppingorinterpolating situation.Whenmangotreesareyoung,theycanbemixed withsmallercropssuchaspapaya,coffee,andvegetables. Asthetreesbecomelarger,theycastheavyshade,andtheir rootsout-competesmallerspecies.Maturemangoscanbe successfully mixed with other similarly vigorous species such as jackfruit, avocado, breadfruit, coconut, guava, or rambutan.

PubLIc ASSIStAnce And AGroforeStrY eXtenSIon

Extension offices for agroforestry and forestry in the Pacific:<http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html>.

GermPLASm reSourceS
Collections of mango varieties and related species are maintained in many tropical and subtropical countries onmostcontinents.Becauseoftheshortstorageviability of the seed, collections are held as mature growing trees, usually maintained by research organizations involved in mangoimprovementintheregion.InthePacific,themajor collections are held in Hawaii, Australia, and Fiji as listedbelow.CollectionsofMangiferafromotherpartsof theworldarelistedintheInternationalPlantGeneticResources Institute (IPGRI) web site <http://web.ipgri.cgiar. org/germplasm>.

Harvesting

Fruits are usually harvested by hand or with the help of pickingdevices.Thefruitsarehandledgentlyastheyare easilydamagedbyabrasionandsapcontamination.Care shouldbetakentoavoidsapcontactingthefruitduring theharvestingandpackingoperations,asitiscausticand causesdark,unsightlyblemishesonthefruit.Sapcanalso burnhumanskin.Mangobranchesarebrittleandcansnap withoutwarning.Thisisacommoncauseofinjurytopeopleclimbingtreesduringharvest.

Locations of major mango collections for the Pacific region

Australia QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries POBox1054,MareebaQLD4880,Australia E-mail:ian.bally@dpi.qld.gov.au Fiji BotanySection,KoroniviaResearchStation POBox77,Nausori,Fiji Philippines InstituteofPlantBreeding,CollegeofAgriculture,UPLB College,Laguna,Philippines E-mail:opd@ipb.uplb.edu.ph United States including Hawaii SubtropicalHorticulturalResearchUnit,National GermplasmRepositoryMiami

Tomaximizethestoragelifeofmangos,fruitsaregenerallydippedinhotwaterandfungicidestoslowthedevelopmentofpostharvestfungalrots.Controlledcooltemperaturesarealsoessentialiffruitqualityistobemaintained duringstorage.Temperatureswillvarydependingonthe stageoffruitripenessandvariety.Ethylenegassingisused totriggerevenripeninginstoredfruit. Specific detailed information on the various aspects of commercialmangoproductioncanbefoundinthepublicationslistedinthebibliographybelow.

Postharvest care

 Mangifera indica(mango)

13601OldCutlerRoad Miami,FL33158USA E-mail:mia@ars-grin.gov

Internet
QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryindustriesmangoinformation: <http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/thematiclists/1088. html>. General crop information: <http://www.extento.hawaii. edu/kbase/crop/crops/I_mango.htm and http://www. crfg.org/pubs/ff/mango.html>. The Mango: Asias King of Fruits. (Douthett, D.G. 2000. Southern Illinois University Carbondale): <http://www. siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/mango.html>. Mangovarietiessuitedforunripeeating:<http://www.dpi. qld.gov.au/horticulture/5332.html>. Grafting mangos: <http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5328.html>. Mango crop production questions and answers: <http:// www.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5240.html>. Postharvest processing: <http://www.ba.ars.usda.gov/ hb66/contents.html>. Anthracnose: <http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/business/7318. html>. Fruitsinthehomegarden:<http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/business/8391.html>.

bIbLIoGrAPHY
(indicatesrecommendedreading) Brown,F.B.H.1935.FloraofsoutheasternPolynesia.III.Dicotyledons.BishopMuseumBulletin130:1416. Anonymous. 1975. Mango Profile: A Program for the Development of the Commercial Mango Industry in Suva. AgriculturalCommodityCommittee,Suva. Anonymous.1986.GeneticResourcesofTropicalandSubTropicalFruitsandNutsExcludingMusa.International BoardforPlantGeneticResources,Rome. Alcorne,J.L.,K.R.E.Grice,andR.A.Peterson.1999.Mango scab in Australia caused by Denticularia mangiferae (Bitanc.&Jenkins)comb.nov.AustralasianPlantPathology 28:115-119. Alexander, D.M., and W.J. Lewis. 1988. Grafting and BuddingofFruitTrees,aPracticalGuide.CSIRO,Collingwood,Australia. Bally,I.S.E.1999.MangoVarieties,GreenEating.Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane, Australia. Bagshaw J., B.I. Brown, A. Cooke, I.C. Cunningham, G.Johnson,P.Mayers,andI.R.Muirhead.1989.Mango

PestsandDisorders.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimary Industries.Brisbane.Australia. Bompard,J.M.1993.ThegenusMangiferare-discovered:the potential contribution of wild species to mango cultivation.ActaHorticulturae341:6977. Campbell,R.J.1992.AGuidetoMangosinFlorida.Fairchild TropicalGarden,Miami,Florida. Campbell,R.J.,C.W.Campbell,andN.Ledesma.2002. Tropical Mangos: Growing theWorlds Most Delicious Fruit.FairchildTropicalGarden,CoralGables,Florida. Chia,C.L.,R.A.Hamilton,andD.O.Evans.1997.Mango. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, UniversityofHawaiiatManoa,Honolulu. CoatesL.,T.Cooke,D.Persley,B.Beattie,N.Wade,andR. Ridgway.1995.PostharvestDiseasesofHorticulturalProduce:TropicalFruit.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimary Industries,Brisbane,Australia. Conde, B.D., R.N. Pithethley, E.S.C. Smith, V.J. Kulkarni, K.Thiagalingam, L.I. Ulyatt, M.I. Conelly, and D.A. Hamilton. 1997. Identification of mango scab caused by Elsinoe mangiferae in Australia. Australian Plant Pathology26:131. Davenport,T.L., and R. Nunez-Elisea. 1997. Reproductive physiologyofmango.In:Litz,op.cit. Hamilton, R.A., C.L. Chia, and D.O. Evans. 1992. Mango Cultivars in Hawaii. College ofTropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Hartmann,H.T.,andD.E.Kester.1983.PlantPropagation PrincipalsandPractices.Prentice-Hall,NewJersey. Iqbal,M.1982.Reviewofmangoresearchandproductionin Fiji.FijiAgriculturalJournal44:2126. Kernot,I.,N.Meurant,R.Holmes,N.MacLeod,G.Fullelove, and I.S.E. Bally. 2000. Agrilink-Mango InformationKit.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustries, Brisbane,Australia. Kostermans,B.1993.TheMangos,TheirBotany,Nomenclature,HorticultureandUtilisation.AcademicPress,London. Kusummo, S., T. Lye, V. Vangani, S.K. Yong, and L.O. Namuco.1984.CommercialMangoCultivarsinASEAN. In:Mendoza,J.R.,andR.H.B.Wills(eds.).MangoFruit Development,PostharvestPhysiologyandMarketingin ASEAN. ASEAN Food Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur. Lim,T.K.,andE.M.Fleming.1998.Foodandothercrops inFiji:anannotatedbibliography.AustralianCentrefor InternationalAgriculturalResearch(ACIAR),Canberra, Australia. Lim,T.K.,andK.C.Khoo.1985.DiseasesandDisordersof MangoinMalaysia.TropicalPress,KualaLumpur. Little, E.L. Jr., and R.G. Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). Agriculture

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Handbook no. 679. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. Litz,R.E.(ed.).1997.TheMango;Botany,Productionand Uses,1stedition.CABInternational,Wallingford,UK. MartinF.W.,R.M.Rubert,andL.S.Meitzner.1998.Edible LeavesoftheTropics,ThirdEdition.ECHO,NorthFort Myers,Florida. Morton,J.1987.FruitsofWarmClimates.JuliaMorton, Miami,Florida. Reddy, B. 1975. Insects, Other Pest and Diseases Recorded in the Southeast Asia and Pacific Region: Mango Mangifera indica.FoodandAgricultureOrganizationof theUnitedNations,Bangkok. Rehm,S.,andG.Espig.1991.TheCultivatedPlantsofthe Tropics and Subtropics. Verlag Josef Margraf Scientific Books,Weikersheim,Germany. Salim, A.S., A.J. Simons, C. Orwas, J. Chege, B. Owuor, and A. Mutua. 2002. Agroforestree database. World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. <http://www. worldagroforestrycentre.org>. Smith,A.C.1985.FloraVitiensisNova:ANewFloraofFiji, Vol.3.Lwai,Kauai,Hawaii. Singh,L.B.1960.TheMango:Botany,CultivationandUtilisation.LenordHill,London. Thaman,R.R.,andW.A.Whistler.1996.AReviewofUses andStatusofTreesandForestsinLand-UseSystemsin Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati and Tuvalu with RecommendationsforFutureAction.SouthPacificForestryDevelopmentProgramme,Suva,Fiji. Verheij, E.W.M. 1991. Mangifera indica L. In: Verheij, E.W.M., and R.E. Coronel (eds.). Plant Resources of South-East Asia 2, Edible Fruits and Nuts. PROSEA, Pudoc,Wageningen. Wagner,W.L.,D.R.Herbst,andS.H.Sohmer.1999.Manual oftheFloweringPlantsofHawaii,rev.ed.Universityof HawaiiPress,Honolulu. Whiley,A.W.1994.Mango.In:P.E.Page(ed.).TropicalTree FruitsforAustralia.QueenslandDepartmentofPrimary Industries(QDPI),Brisbane,Australia. Whistler,W.A.1992.TonganHerbalMedicine.IsleBotanica, Honolulu. Whistler, W.A. 1996. Samoan Herbal Medicine. Isle Botanica,Honolulu. Whistler, W.A. 2000. Plants in Samoan Culture: The EthnobotanyofSamoa.IsleBotanica,Honolulu.

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Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)

Mangifera indica (mango)

Author:IanS.E.Bally,HorticultureandForestrySciences,QueenslandDepartmentofPrimaryIndustriesandFisheries,28PetersSt (POBox1054),Mareeba,QLD,4880,Australia;Tel:+61(0)740484644;Fax:+61(0)740923593;E-mail:ian.bally@dpi.qld.gov.au Acknowledgments:TheauthorandpublisherthankRichardCampbell,DaleEvans,HeidiJohansen,DianeRagone,andArtWhistlerfortheirinput. Recommended citation:Bally,I.S.E.2006.Mangifera indica(mango),ver.3.1.In:Elevitch,C.R.(ed.).SpeciesProfilesforPacific IslandAgroforestry.PermanentAgricultureResources(PAR),Hlualoa,Hawaii.<http://www.traditionaltree.org>. Sponsors:PublicationwasmadepossiblebygeneroussupportoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureWesternRegionSustainableAgricultureResearchandEducation(USDA-WSARE)Program;SPC/GTZPacific-GermanRegionalForestryProject; UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)NaturalResourcesConservationService(NRCS);USDAForestServiceForestLandsEnhancementProgram;StateofHawaiiDepartmentofLand&NaturalResourcesDivisionofForestry&Wildlife; Kaulunani,anUrbanForestryProgramoftheDLNRDivisionofForestryandWildlifeandtheUSDAForestService;andMuriel andKentLighter.ThismaterialisbaseduponworksupportedbytheCooperativeStateResearch,Education,andExtensionService,U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,andAgriculturalExperimentStation,UtahStateUniversity,underCooperativeAgreement 2002-47001-01327. Series editor:CraigR.Elevitch Publisher:PermanentAgricultureResources(PAR),POBox428,Hlualoa,Hawaii96725,USA;Tel:808-324-4427;Fax:808-3244129;E-mail:par@agroforestry.net;Web:<http://www.agroforestry.net>.Thisinstitutionisanequalopportunityprovider. Reproduction:Copiesofthispublicationcanbedownloadedfrom<http://www.traditionaltree.org>.Thispublicationmaybereproducedfornoncommercialeducationalpurposesonly,withcreditgiventothesource.2006PermanentAgricultureResources.All rightsreserved.

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