Porphyry-type orebodies are low-grade, high-tonnage accumulations of mineralized rock associated with intrusive magmatic bodies.

They are most commonly mined by open-pit methods, and because of their great size have led to the creation of some of the largest man-made excavations on Earth. Porphyry-type deposits are by far the biggest single orebodies exploited at present; they can range from hundreds to thousands of millions of tonnes of ore. An example is the giant Chuquicamata deposit in Chile, which originally comprised over 9000 million tonnes of mined ore and reserves. The igneous rocks that are intimately associated with these deposits are normally porphyritic (that is, they contain large crystals). They range from intermediate to felsic in composition, and include diorites, monzonites, granodiorites, granites, and tonalites. The most common commodity of interest is copper (hence the name porphyry copper deposit) but they are also important sources of molybdenum and gold. Smaller quantities of other metals, including silver, tin, tungsten, and palladium, can also be refined from porphyry copper ores. Mineralization in porphyry deposits in widely disseminated throughout the host rocks and ore grades are very low, but because of their large size, the orebodies can be mined profitably. Although closely associated with plutonic igneous rocks, porphyry mineralization commonly encompasses large volumes of the surrounding host rocks to the intrusion. These can include igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Phanerozoic. The emplacement of porphyry bodies is usually controlled by regional fault structures and zones of fractured rock. The intrusive bodies themselves may be composed of a single intrusion or of multiple intrusions. The intrusions are passively emplaced into the surrounding host by stoping and assimilation. (Stoping is a process in which pieces of country rock are wedged off by magma sink, and are assimilated.) Geological evidence shows that the igneous bodies that generated porphyry ores were emplaced at relatively shallow levels in the crust (less than 4 km) and that they may have provided the magma source for the generation of large volcanoes on the surface which have since been eroded away. Where several intrusions of magma are present, it is common for mineralization to be related to the latest intrusions, which tend to be most differentiated. The presence of phenocryts in the intrusions indicates that their magmas were partially crystalline when emplaced and that crystallization of the remaining melt occurred rapidly. The worldwide distribution of porphyry deposits is controlled by orogenic belts, where deformation of the crust is caused by the collision of two of the Earth's tectonic plates. Two types of orogenic belts host porphyry deposits: those created by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust along a continental margin and those found along island arcs where two oceanic plates are colliding. The numerous deposits located along the west coast of South America are perhaps the best example of a group of porphyry deposits formed by subduction along a continental margin. Those in the Philippines and Papua New Guinea are examples of deposits generated in island arcs formed by colliding oceanic plates. Most deposits are of Mesozoic or Cenozoic age, but some Palaeozoic examples are known, such as those in the Appalachian orogen of Canada and the United States. Older Precambrian deposits are difficult to recognize because of later deformation and erosion, but some rare examples have been found. The magmas that form porphyry copper deposits are thought to be generated by the melting of subducted oceanic crust. This crust contains a high concentration of water because of the presence of minerals, such as chlorite, that contain water in their structures. When oceanic crust

is heated, it dehydrates and then melts to produce magma into which the water can dissolve. The magma is less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks; it rises and penetrates the lower crust, where further melting and assimilation of crustal rocks can occur. These modified magmas can rise up to high levels in the crust. During their ascent, the pressure drops, causing the water dissolved in the magmas to separatea process referred to as first boiling. The rising magma may also begin to crystallize as it ascends, generating crystals of minerals such as plagioclase. These crystals eventually form the phenocrysts found in porphyritic rocks. The exsolution of water cools the remaining magma and induces more rapid crystallization before it can reach the surface. Further crystallization results in more water being expelled in a process called second boiling. The outer surface of the intrusive body cools more rapidly, forming a carapace of essentially solid rock at temperatures much lower than its centre. This confines the remaining partially molten interior and any water exsolving from it, resulting in a large increase of pressure (Fig. 1a). When the internal pressure builds up to a high enough level, the carapace fractures and the high-temperature fluids are released upwards into the solidified porphyry and its surrounding host rocks (Fig. 1b). The release of these fluids and the concomitant drop in pressure induces crystallization deeper in the intrusive mass, and the cycle begins anew. This cyclic process continues and the carapace and the fractures generated within it migrate downward to greater depths (Fig. 1c). Eventually, confining pressures, caused by the overlying rocks, rise to the point where fracturing cannot occur, and the process ceases. Fig. 1. Idealized model for the generation of porphyry copper deposits. (a) Early-stage crystallization of the outer regions of the intrusion confines partially crystallized magma and its exsolved brine. This causes a build-up of pressure in the intrusion, which is released by fracturing of the carapace and its surrounding host rocks. (b) High-temperature brines are released into the fractured rocks, resulting in potassic alteration and low-grade copper mineralization. The release of pressure and loss of fluid cause further crystallization deeper into the intrusion. (c) As the influx of magmatic fluids wanes, meteroic waters invade the solidified intrusion, become heated, and react with the rock, causing phyllic alteration. These circulating fluids can also generate argillic alteration of the periphery of the phyllic zone as well as propylitic alteration further from the intrusion.

Although water is an important component released from the magma as it crystallizes, other components can also be expelled from the melt. In particular, chloride salts such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and iron chloride also partition between the magma and the aqueous fluid forming brines, which can contain salt concentrations of up to 70 per cent by weight. Trace metals in the magmas may also partition into the brines, causing enrichment of valuable metals in these high-temperature fluids. When the brines are expelled during fracturing, they pass through rock with which they are no longer in chemical equilibrium. This results in an exchange of chemical components between rock and fluid, a process known as hydrothermal alteration. This exchange causes changes to the fluid as well as to the wall rock. At the same time, cooling of the fluid can occur. Taken together, these two processes induce gradual changes in the physical and chemical properties of the fluid. These changes bring about the precipitation of ore minerals in the fractures, together with other gangue minerals such as quartz and potassium feldspar. Ads by Google Food Grade Mineral Oil Buy White Mineral Oil in 1g, 5g, 55g 330g and bulk www.STEOil.com Haliburton Rocks Amazing minerals in the Highlands Unique learning adventures www.yoursoutdoors.ca Geological Consultants Mining and exploration consultants. Africa focussed specialists. www.rockstock.co.za Gravity-Magnetic Surveys for Minerals, cavity detection Oil & Gas- India www.parsan.biz The hydrothermal alteration generated during the formation of porphyry deposits is one of their distinctive features. Its study has led to great advances in the understanding of hydrothermal ore deposits of many types. In 1970, Lowell and Guilbert published a study of the alteration zones of the San ManuelKalamazoo porphyry deposit and compared these with the alteration found at 27 other porphyry deposits. This led to the LowellGuilbert model for the alteration zonation of porphyry deposits. In this idealized model, alteration zones are centred on the porphyry intrusion and consist of the potassic, phyllic, argillic, and propylitic zones. The central potassic zone is characterized by the presence of potassium-bearing minerals such as orthoclase (a potassium feldspar) and biotite. Other minerals that may be present include anhydrite, chlorite, and sericite. Veins in the potassic zone are filled with minerals similar to those found in the altered wall rock. Fluid inclusion and isotopic evidence shows that potassic alteration is caused by brines which are composed of a high proportion of magmatic fluid and have very high temperatures (400700 C). It appears that in the early stages of development these magmatic fluids are expelled

upwards and outwards into fractured rock which, at the same time, prevents the incursion of more dilute fluids at lower temperatures from the surrounding wall rock (Fig. 1b). Phyllic alteration surrounds the potassic core and is distinguished by the mineral assemblage quartzsericitepyrite. During its formation, most of the original silicate minerals in the rock are broken down by the hydrothermal fluids and replaced by sericite or clay minerals, or both. These reactions generate large amounts of excess silica, which goes to form quartz. Iron released from the alteration of iron-bearing minerals, as well as iron and sulphur added by the fluid, form pyrite. Fluid inclusion and isotopic evidence show that the fluids responsible for the formation of phyllic alteration were less saline (less than 15 per cent salt), lower in temperature (250450 C), and had only a small magmatic component. Phyllic alteration is considered to be the result of the incursion of cooler meteoric water into the porphyry environment. This water becomes heated and rises, reacting at the same time with the host rocks (Fig. 1c). A continuous supply of meteoric water causes convection around the periphery of the intrusion, allowing large volumes of fluid to pass through the rock. As the porphyry cools, less magmatic water is expelled and the convecting fluids can penetrate deeper into the intrusion, overprinting the pre-existing potassic assemblage. Argillic alteration is normally found on the periphery of the phyllic zone, and is characterized by the presence of clay minerals such as kaolinite and montmorillonite. These minerals typically form when hydrothermal alteration is caused by acidic heated fluids. Most minerals are unstable when in contact with such fluids and break down, releasing most of the metals in their structures. During this process, the rock acts as a neutralizer of the acidic fluid, and metals are exchanged for hydrogen ions. Metals such as silicon and aluminum are less soluble in these fluids and remain as quartz and clay minerals. Isotopic evidence shows that argillic alteration is caused by hydrothermal fluids composed mainly of meteoric water. The propylitic alteration zone extends outward from the intrusion into less altered host rocks. It is identified by the common occurrence of chlorite and calcite as alteration products of biotite and hornblende in the host. Other minerals that are present in this zone include pyrite and epidote. Propylitic alteration represents the weakest alteration found in porphyry coppers. It is caused by heated convecting meteoric water. The LowellGuilbert model represents an idealized porphyry deposit; many variations exist, mainly because of differences in the composition of the host intrusion and its wall rocks. Ore minerals in porphyry deposits are commonly found in concentric zones around the intrusion, much like the alteration zones. This is not unexpected considering that the ore minerals themselves are alteration minerals and are formed by the same chemical processes that resulted in the hydrothermal alteration. The central potassic core normally contains low-grade mineralization consisting of minor chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and pyrite. These minerals occur in dense microfractures in the altered host intrusion. Along the contact between the potassic and phyllic alteration zones, higher-grade ore is found; this consists of chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and pyrite hosted in microfractures and larger fracture networks. The total sulphide mineral content may be as high as 1015 per cent; copper concentrations vary from 5 to 10 kg per tonne of ore. Mineralization in the argillic and propylitic alteration zones is typically of low grade and uneconomic.

Bruce W. Mountain Ads by Google Hoffmann Mineral Functional Filler for elastomers, paint and varnish, polishes, www.hoffmann-mineral.com Caterpillar Power Plants From 2.8 to Over 100MW, Turnkey Services And Engineered Equipment www.catpowerplants.com MetSoc.org Metallurgical Society of CIM Your home for Metallurgy&Materials metsoc.org Zircon for Opacifiers, Refractories, Flour India's only Private Manufacturer www.vvmineral.com Read more: porphyry copper deposits - Fig. 1 - Alteration, Minerals, Rocks, Water, Intrusion, and Rock http://science.jrank.org/pages/48023/porphyry-copper-deposits.html#ixzz0xnaXugSU