IilIIIAL

BOLIS

UNDER TO{AL TENSIO}T ftr'!I

APPLTED D(TERI{AL LOAD

iP"

(r[rriALLY

zERo)

ent,
n

Figure I Simple Bolted Assembly

1948

rf

Soetrole,

rry at
large
\\-nr
c

rr a4cl tities. .ns to

arrel
s

Bending iAoments qnd Leokoge At Flqnged Joints

PART
I

rupcd

Nord
bar:arbyGetr-

ROBERT G. BLICK
, vvrrl.

apply more load only by stretching, and if they stretch, the flanges separate. As the {langes tend to separate the bolts immediately tend to force thern together again). The gasket load will then be zero, and has deereased at a uniform rate as P lr.as increased. If the load P is further increased, the total bolt load rvill increase to equal P, but the gaskets will have lost contact rvith the {lange faces. 2) If the bolts and flange are relatively inflexible compared to the flexibility of the gasket, the bolt load will increase as the load P increases. The gasket load will remain constant, and in contact with the flange faces. 3) If the bolts and flange are of about the same order of flexibility as the gasket, the gasket load rvill decrease and the bolt load rvill increase, to about the same extent. Behaviorl is more or less implied in standard flange design methods, as shorvn bv reference to the API-ASI\{E
code, Section W-317, rvhere 116 (which amounts to the gasket load) is taken

I) If the gasket is relatively inflexible, compared with the flexibility of the bolts and flange, the bolt load will remain constant2 until P equals the total (initial) bolt load lsince the bolts can

d the

tire concries , the

co11Liorrs

rn

concerned directly with the problem of finding simple criteria which will show whether the joint mentary problem of determining the stresses in the flange material (under

IHIS article is

Dressure on the compression side

of the ''rreutral" axis, and de-

rvill or rvill not leak. The comple-

creased pressure on the "tension"

the
been
.o11S,

Pethe

:of
kers

pressure load) has been well covered by many investigators, notably Messrs. Waters, Vesstrom, Rossheim and Williams in the United States. Some extension is necessary, however, to include the effect of bending moment. If the published gasket coefficients and constants are aecepted as a pro-

side of the axis. and that the bolt Ioad is not affected. Before using such a simplifying assumption, it is lvorthwhile to try to

It can in part be justified by reference to Figure l, rvhich reprejustify it.

sents a simple kind of bolted assembly.

external moment is restrained almost exclusivelv bv a redistribution of the

gasket pressuies. British investigations

as W-H (.H : total hydraulic endload,, W tetal bolt load). It should be noted -that despite the fact that the code goes to great lengths Io auoill. defning tlrc gasket load,. the implication is there. So that, using behaviorl as the most probable, we partly justify the simplifying assumption that the

rdeI-os
'eal.
,,lecr

visional basis, the analysis is fairly simple. These various coefficients and constants are presumably deterrninate for pressure loads, and have been established with the idea of providing

the initial bolt tension, is 100 pounds, then G, the initial gasket compression, must be 100 pounds. With P given some value, several types of behavior are possible.
ol major importonce petroleum plonts. Yet the problem ol their behovior under lorces other thon pressure lodds has received little recorded thought. If a llange /eoks in service,
FLANGED JOTNIS dre

If P is zero, and I,

have also indicated that there

great change

plication of hydraulic load. The

is no in bolt load during apgas-

in the design of

tively in{lexible thing, compared to the axial flexibility of the bolts and the twisting or rotating {lexibility of the flange. Figure 2 shows the gasket
acting as a fulcrum, the metallic flange

ket, once yielded, is most likely a rela-

a pressure-tight, or leakproof design.l If external bendine moments can be broken dorvn in sote simple manner
that sholvs ho'rv they affect gasket pressures, then these modified gasket pressures can be compared rvith the gasket coefficients, and the pressure-tightness

In extrcme coses the piping may he revised. The problem, once repoired lor a particular cdse, con ogoin return in onother
handle.

the gosket is replaced. Or perhops the construction crew just heaves up on the wrench

"trvisting" effect of the flange as a thin rod in torsion,3 capable only of

supplying a nloment load, and the ex-' ternal load represents any kind of

segment acting as a stiff leter, the bolts represented as a spring, the

of the joint including the

effect of
-s1and-

bending-moment evaluated along

promptly lorgotten. Unfortunotely it moy periodically recur os o mdintenonce heddache.

plant-generolly is again repoired,

and

ard lines. Since simplifying assumptions often lead to clarification of problems, it is of value to search for some simpli{ication at this point. One possible assumplion is the folloning:
strained (r'nternally at the iunction of the Ilanee faces) eicluThat the external moment is rethe

This orticle presents a simple method lor the onalysis ol llonged joints under a bending-moment load due to weight, expansion, or the like, acting obout the ioint. The conclusions hove been derived lrom o basis ot theory, becouse ol the obsence of experimentol dota. Since every set ol experimental dota needs some theoreticol bosis-first to determine what dotd to occumulate, ond second to make possible on evoluation ol thot

axial load (hydraulic, axial thrust, etc.) applied to the pair of flanges. Inspection of the figure shows that, if the external load equals the bolt load, then the fulcrum load is zero. Since
keep the system

the flange can supply only the "twisting" resisting momenta necessary to

in equilibrium, artd no force-loads, it is evident that the gasket load must always equal the
aleebraic sum of the bolt load and the external load,5 It should be re-emphasized here,
101

sivell by a rediitribution of
February,

gasket pressures. That is. increased

onalysis is presented also with the thought in mind that some such invesfigotion might be stimuloted,

ddto-the

that this article is concerned immedi-

1950-A Gulf Publishing

Com,pany Pttblication

( SPRING)

Tlris establishes the maximum

associated gasket).
Figure 2. Flonge Segment Symbolized
EXTEF.I.{AL

g4s.

BOLT LOID

ket pressure not to have gasket crrish. ing (and, presumably, leakage will be

rh
1e

\\'ith any crushing of

ths

rl)

Referring
GASKET ( FI'LcRUM)

L0ti

fined quantity "H1;r)' (the yield load necessarv to initially seal the gasket)" bv a ferv mathematical operations ii
can then be determined that:6 I. to avoid gasket crushing (and pre. sumably atterrdant leakagei.
,'l|L\

the above tr.o relationships plus a dgl

to Figure 4, and

usine

IT

t(

I
I i

I],AN 3E

I9I S1!- MOi,fENT ("mRsroNu RoD)

rJ 1+ H",.-H,'
)

IL to avoid leakage
u ith criteria for determinins if tlre joint rrill or rrill not leak. Alllrouglr. natural l1-. if tlre flanse is rroI strorrq etrorrgh 1o Legin rritlr" tlre joint 1,r.esumably rvill leak. Ho.tvever. the ?act

due to

in-s1ff1-

ately, not with the flange stresses. but

the gasket. and next to it a "maximurn l)ossibilit)." for the r,r.ay the gasket carr be loaded. under direct and bendine loads. Several other confisurations ar! examined irr llre last sections of tlris

cient gasket pressure.

rl'', \
rr

Lr . Ho2
\l

H,,r.

that the fl.ange malr not be orrr.:rslrcs.sed does not cleterminc that the ioint l'ill not leak. Preserrl flanee slr.esi arralr.is methods are rcialirelrl lel l-knorrrr ind

article, Since one

reliable.

lr'ould be the "maximum possibilitv" case. minirnum requirements can I'e deternined b1- rvorkine rrith that case.
si,s forms in the excellent tleatise "Modern Flange Design" published hv the Taylor Iiorge Company. the rvriter rrill use the same notation. The nomenclature cross-references some of these
Since manv designeis use the analy.

of the "best"

conditiorrs

lrclt' H," : ---, atrrl f [ - extcrnal nr()lnent in inch porrnds. If gasket crushing is discounted as the factor in lea-kage, then II becomes the criterion for deterrnining leakage.

Having hypotheticallv establi-qhed the idea tlrat tlrc exterrril ni()melI i: restrained alrno-st exclusivell- by a re-rrressures" distribution oi the gasket it is necessarr. to dciermine po-.sible redistribution l)rtlerns. so tlrat sonre kind of boundaries for this "no leakleak" criterion can be rvorked up. Since the gasket is not acting in an elastic rarrgc. and for all practical prrr-

"'' exceed. H,t -H.''"' tlren the 2 flange most certainly rr.ill leak. Pro. uided, that the initial a-qsumption. that
r. rlf 11the gasket is relativel,v incompressible, holds true.

terms 'r,ith those

stanL

in the API-ASME

code.

poses can be considered

sigrrificantlr irr thickness.

to change inser-er.ai Ito.-

"m," the minimum total gasket load ean he cxpressed as ''rz''-timcs the internal pressure times the effective gasket area. Stated matbematicallv.

Using the recommended g-asket con-

flange lor 3:l.ineh o.d. pipe. operatirrg at a pressure of 400 psi. and 750o F.):
Hc

H"--I"" criterion ['sitrg the H. on the example shorvn in "NIodern Flange Design" (a 4t/s-ir'ch thick :
f

.i1,000
r

siL,ilities preserrt llremselres. Figrrie 3 shows a cross-section of the saskct" and next to it a ''standard possibiliti" for the lva,v the gasket is loaded, .rvhen under direct (bolt and pressufe) loads

This establislres the minirnum tolal

gasket load not to have leakage. mends that the

Hun :2lr:;(irlrl

Hcr

107,000

H-

" l\f :fl.0tl{J )a"'

3.1,116

and berrdinpr loads. Figure 4 sholr.s

''l\lodern FIange Design! recomunit load on the eross gasket area shou]d nol excecd irrir.t'
the sasket yield load.

lf

_4.1.000

x 3-1 : 475,000 inch pounds

exceeds

cross-section of

If the moment

that

r.alue,

r TENSIONfl

MOMENT LOAD

lDot Tm nn

GASKEI THRU
FLANGE FAC

Figure 3.

"Stondord Possibility"

for Gosket Looding

CASKET

COWRESSION

LARGE COI,IPRESSION

GASKET UNDTR IJNIFORM

GASEET

UNDER

LOAD FROM BOLTING

AND

HIDRAIJLIC

PRE.SSURE

TARrING LOAD FROM IMMElrl

RSSI'LTANT CASTET LOADING

102

PL:trolcunt,

Refner-l7ol. 29,

Ittro. 2

5qD-

rsh-

then the

lbe
the

;ing
de-

pounds moment less than 475,000 inch cause leakage, since the l ould not natcifiLunl possible value has been de' termined.

joint almost certainl,v rvill ieak.t This does not mean that a

I I I

NOMENCLATURE

""

or Hcp
2b

Total gasket load required to hold pressure 'i.vithorrt leagage

Effective operating u'idth of gasket trIean gaskct diarneter Gasket coefficient-ratio of the requirccl gasket pressure to t
interr-ral hydraulic pressure

oad

er),

sit

It is interesting to note that- using half-inch rvall pipe in this case, tlte
pipe stress involved due lo the 475.000-

nl
p

pre-

in"h-pound moment tonlv) would be about 1200 psi.-rvhich is indeed a small value, compared with the allol'' able stress of 10,400 psi. This shorvs
that there is wisdom in trying to locate flanges at points of lorv bending mo'

internal hydraulic pressrrrc (psi.) H, or Hcy Totai gasket load required to initialll' yield (sct) the gasket

'rffi-

ment-but unfortunately this

ahvays be done.

cannot
eco-

The writer does not possess

rnal

l{e Total gasket load \{ Bending moment (inch porrnds) n Total gasket nidth y Gasket constant-"yic1rl" stress (psi.) of the gasket nraterial Ar or Ar Total bolting area (sq. in.) Sr or S,p Operating bolt stress (psi) C Diameter of bolt circle 1^ -l- Loeflrcrent use(1 to nultipl]' the h1'draulic encl load to obtain K folmulas the charrge in bolt load Iassumecl to decreasc

nomic breakdorvn shon'ing the evils of

las
mes
*b''

flanged-joint leakage. However, it is certain that there is appreciable eartr' ings-loss from periodic maintenance shutdowns. If a reasonably practical
method can be'rvorked out to determine the effects of moment-loads on flanged joints, therr certainlv tlre small invest-

u Ar" A.r En
A

(10) and (11)l (.lrangc i. L,,,lr lerrstl,

Changc in bolt folcc | Change in rnornellt E,lastic constant of half the bolt

Tr.ni.^l '^

t""ett;-4(.,ier"u
Lctrtfth

X,,p,,

the
Pro-

that
ble,

ment in engineering cost

justified.

rion lern
hick

u'ill be rvell It is surprising that nothing has been done to establish "moment raiings" for flanges, considering that
codes specify the pressure-temperature ratings. This is probably because the p r e s s u r e - temperature characteristics are more obviously related to safet-v, lvhereas the presence of bending mo-

El:rstic constant of the flange: "f /Radian : Total Bolt Load X I-ever Arttr R"s,tltittg A"grtiir Rot"ti* G Rt,li,,tt

Iralf the ga-sket thickr't.ss: #/" = _.-Gasket Contact Are:r X "li" -C;rip Ciasket Thickness /2

72 -

ting
F.)
,

ment primarily influences the pressuretightness of the joint. But if flanges leak, an explanation rvhy this happens, and a simple analysis procedure to pre-

vent
.rncls

it, is certainly desirable. The fol' lowing sections of this article further

Llue,

expand several ideas

in the direction

of developing such a procedure.

NO'f!ls t llcduce.l to essenlials, the I)ressure oll the gasket coltiiitt surflces should not be iess than "rD" ljnes the internal pressure' nor be so g:reat ttrat an "uliirnate compression allowabtc' (that clcllerlds or1 tlle gAsliet ]'ield lroint) is er|eedcii. 'I'hese constalrts a.e Eienerally found in the API--ASN{E co.le, Se(ltion \\.-31?. 1'het are Dot rnancliltory. 2 c)r in fact lrral_ de(rrease sonrelthat. 3 Although, of ( ourso, the flange is nor under "torsi!rn" i1s such. { Tending to turrl it inside-out. 5 If the bolt load is assumed to decrease with application of external load, the gasket load must allYays equal ress th&n the algebraic sum of the 1:7?r:Iiol bott load and the ext'rnal load. By proceeclilrg on the assumption of a corlstant bolt load. results nlay be obtaiDed

rvhich &rc less obscure, aDd whi.rh do rlot prevent subsequenL corrcctions for changing holt-load- Il can be reaclily seen, for iilstance, that if tlre flange is extrernely flexible rotationally, il Nill behave cxactl},- likc & le!er, ln that casc, the bott load reduction lvould depend on the reletive distance of the external toad to the fulcruD and the bolt loa.c1 to the
6 Assuming the siml)lest typc of gasket. ? "Lealiage" is a vague term. -{lrnost all joints continuously leak to some small extent. It would l)e more correct to say that, "the joint is definitelt' operating: outside the recommendeal linril.s Ior reasonable assurance of n.glicil'lp l'.Nkrg..

fulcau rn.

End. ot' Part

in an early

I.

Part

II uill

appear

issue.

MO},TENT

LOA! APFLIED TO
GASKET

FtA\GE FACES
Figure 4.

lity"
ing

"Moximum Possibility" for Gosket

Looding
COMPRESSION

LARCE CCI.PRESSION

GASKET IJNDER

INIMRM

LOAD FROM BOLTING AND HYDRAIJLIC PRESSIJRE

TVARYINGtr LOAD
FROht M0MENT
+

GASKET IJNDE1

RESIJLTAilT G.{SKET LOADING

o.2

February,

1950-A Gulf Publishirry

Companv Prftlication

trTENSION|r
Ies

From formula (2):

Jto

rh,

ro
les
est

fo < fc-"for*f"offaor ( fe-"' fcu ( fc-""-fc"-f6,

ICriterion for excessive gasket pressure]
(s)

le.

It is now necessary
assumptions:

to determine

f611.

This may be done rr.ith the following

(a) That each circle defined by the

gasket surfaces remains plane
at the flange faces.

(b) That the unit load

hen
GASKET

distribution

COIIPRESSION

on the gasket due to bending

the
l1-

Figure

5. Gosket Under Rondom Stress Due to Moment'

moment has the customary'otri.

ch-

ard
the
acr

ri-

ses

cts of,'

rto
iie-

Bending Xloments ond Leokoge At Flonged Joints

PAR.T II

angular" pattern, increasing uniformly from the centroidal axis, or: (b)'That the unit gasket load distriliution due to bending moment has some other pattern.

Assuming (a) and (b),

rrc\I M Section modulus of gasket
I\{

esitu

ROBERT G. BLICK
Box 232, Sun VolleY, Colif.

- n/4 G'2b Then formula (4) becomes:

II Gp 1 Ae S"o ;/icr:r \ 2bnc - 8b -"'u or. "o;t""-'f(++b-)
And formula (5) becomes:

)er

ler
to nihe

T_l IJ

ng

f tnSf

nry, nd

nt

id.
rl.
:(l

the basic assumption is made the bending moment t'ill be re' that strained exclusively by a redistribution of the gasket loads' The unitl gasket load necessary to hold the pressure without leakage:

The "extreme fiber" unit gasket load due to a bending moment:

(6)

: (t) fau
Total unit gasket
fc : fcs

(3)

load:
f,r,,

7+c'5o

II

ln

rr - Zbnc -

AB

S"" ,

Gp
sb

fc*r": *mp
)n
S<e

(1)

fco

-F fe.t

r\f <n_itG' r rG')'rL_ -r-24

G_aq!er(7)

The unit gasket load not to be exceeded rvithout danger of crushing the
gasket:2

An

S,o * 8b zb,iic - -QP:

lc

ih
a le

Hou'ever, this is the maximum value computed over tlre gross gasket area, ruheiea. the effeetivi operating gasket rvidth is 2b. The apparent erushing

),,
eJ

From formula ( 1)

la 2 fc",t" fcB*{co-fc.t ) fc""" ) fc-,"-fc"-fco -fc.r ( fct*fco-fc''t' ferr ICritcriorr for srrfficielrt gasket Pressurel
(4)

On the other hand, assuming (a) and (b)', one may refer to figure 5, rvhich shon's the gasket under some symmetrical (but random) stress pattern due to bending moment. Working with this figure, equilibrium requires
that:

stress allowable rvidth of 2b is:

tc^"": n rl.2h.

on the basis of
: . l'n b.

/)\ \.1
the

v =zJG/z o
such that

f*ry y da
fcot",

The unit gasket load due to

bolting:
rub

auolitotive nqture were discussed, towqrd the develoPment of o simple method to deline the

lN PARI I

several ideas

ol

Let f", : some mean value of xt

b,,,

- | | AoS"n - --zwc-

Bolt Load Effective opcrating gasket area

moment caPocitY ol llonged ioints. Part ll Presents o mothe'moticol of

zt,,

Ja,

(G/2

1' rla

to

The unit gasket load due to hydrau' \ lic end load:

more accuratelY deline this copocity. Introduced is s "leokoge enieloPe," o groPh on which
moment-Pressure

oPProoch deriving some those relotionshiPs necessory

fG'2 :''1^.= Q oI {asKet

trI
trm

Statical ntoment bG'

:2f*
-

:2f-

t,f -4,.lD Lr'

. r"r'
rcn:-

HYdraulic End Load

Effective operating gasket al'ea

the operating

pored with the coPobilities of

the ioint, ond the morgin agoinst leokoge reodily determined.

condiiions may be Plotted, com'

Lct the maxirnum perrnissible f- be f", : fart

tIG\I -

rralue for

__,ir/4Grp ___9p 8b 2birc

May, 1950-A Gulf Publi'shing
C

2b G"
t 19

orn,pany P u'blicttion

Then formula
2b 11

(4)
-

becomes:
F-rilP 6D

{-- _ :
(8)

N{ / AB S"" G" - 2bqr G

Go

Hydraulic end loarl Bolting Area

-;r/4 Gz
A

"leakage envelopes" may be dralvn for anv fl ange, bolt, and gasket cornbination. Figure 8 has been made for an B-inchflange_

q -G4i!es -\ ti -o(-G" *2bG'm) 4

The bolt stress due to the minimum gasket load requiremenr (to hold pressure):
rBs

And formula (5) becomes:

,- _ Area of gasket times (nr p)

ISolring Area

zbc"\b2a.c -' -8b u<o 9' f2G'yn--941 S'" (s) 4

ceivable3 (under the basic assumntion) without leakage. Thev correspond to th_e "maximr- pos.ibility" ease of

MzYn

An

S,,o

Grr

qzb:lp Z
Ar to bending moment:
_t

The bolts are assumed to he A-96. Grade A. The florv temperature is taken as 5000 F., and the bolt temDerature is assumed to be 4500 F. (90 per cent of flo'n temperature) . Under these cir. cumstances. the flange is operating at
150 psi. Norv. assumi'ng thnt tlte llanse u,ould not /ail, inasmuih as rhe'speiified bolts have an allorrable streis of 16,250 psi., at a "factor of safety', of l. the follorring data can lre sei up:

150-pound raised face carbon steel rvith a compressed asbestos gasye.t 8l/z inches i.d. by tl inch rvide.

The "extreme fiber" bolt stress

its-primlry service pr".rut" rating of

due

Ihe maximum possible moments con-

Relationships

(8) and (9)

express

Assumine that the bolt stress due to moment is "trianeularly" distributed:

l_ rB\I -

Bolts

Fieure 4.

of Figure (r have been d-rarvn. shorving maximum bending moment versus pressure. The ordinaies for the "rectangular" distribut iot-t are 4/r times the ordinates for trianeular disvelopeso

Again using the example in ,,N[odern Flange Design." the "leakage en.

tr{oment Sectiorr n)o(kllus of l,6l1i11g nr"^

Gasket

at t7t,, clta.

S,,r

16,2-50 psi.

G:9" b: tA"
rr-/(nn

l\I ,, r. (ttalileter.. i,IrnJl 1. , ol r. 61r.1a; a (..\r,. .: The total bolt ,.tress must not exceed
Sno.

.\,,

2.JJ sq. in

Referring to formula (6)

the allorvable bolt

stress.
,

II
+II
C-{"

It is of interest. at this point. to compare another assumption. other than that the moment is'resisted exclusively by a redistribution of gasket
ket load does not chunge rvith ap'plication of bending moment, the 6olts must resist the nroment. This is the (improbable) "Behavior No. 2,' mentioned earlier. Another "leakage envelope" may be conslnrcted on this hasis. end load:
pressures._Assuming that the

tribution.

> fr,,*f"**fnn, 2rtil'rrrp c : f,G'I -1.4,' ' Ao

S.o

""
l}r \

oiS:,

-r,'.":( 3 .b,,)
-+

rr.9\1.+lYt6,2-r0
3'1-11rt

trl <CA"S,

unil

gas-

- 1,icc/t:

\ j't'' -1"''' -e ( trI

u,ould this envelope

"( : + 8it,J00-222p

I,x2.s)

Fi-gure 7 defines the "leakage enve-

\\-hcn p : O,

lopeo' under this assumption.

The bolt stress due to hvdraulic

an "allo.rvable liolt stress envelope," l'ith this type of behavior, the flange rvould not' ieak until the bolts failed. The .rvriter n'ould speculate that, if joints leaked onlv l'hen bolts
since,

be more correct to call

It

fI < 88,300 inch pouncls \\'l,crrlr -{).p: -i:TO -JOSpsi.

intersecting

these poinls, forrning part age envelope.

3.1.116
l()

. A straight line is drau'n

of the leakl
:

f
lor0oor0@

(IICf,.POIII{DS)

lerv ferv
age.

failt'd. tlrele slrouirl irr,leed

cases

Referring to for-mula (7)

of joint

he

leak-

rt(p
t
14lq

x f.

-f

-{s arr example of horr these

Xj

X {0t\ 2,, 2q

\l

!? x t6140_

II < 143 p + 287,000-88,300

\t<143pf198,700 at p -: O, \I : 199,769 it.r."
lrour rls at p

81000,000

100,

}I :213,669

1tr.',

porrn ds

6rooorooo

4,ooo r0oo

A straight line is drarvn inter,secting these points. Since it does not inter-sect the first line. it is cr ident tlral "crushirrg" the gasket is not a factor in this case. This rvould shorr that a better

i
,i

2,0oo,0o0

Figure
P

robo ble

Leokoge
E

nve lo pes

p
(

prr)

t20

Pctroleunt Reftner-l/ol. 29, Ilro. 5

dralvn for mbination,

an B-inch-

rbon

steel

lrgure /
lmproboble

10,ooo,ooo

bestos gasinch wide.

"Leokoge"
Envelo pe

be A.96,
rre is taken

8,00o 1000

)mperature 0 per cent : these cirrerating at

6rooo rooo

I rating of the t'lange the specie stress of

/+

1000 r0O0

safety" of )e set up:

sket

- 9t'
= %,,

2,0o0,0o0

.4500

=2 \

.P

(psl)
\)l

;\ -+Dnr

choice of gasket materialt could have been made. A gasket rvith a lorver y

generallv has

f-xzs)
ch pounds

a loner m, and consequently uould be more efficient. It

the leakage envelope leads to the follolvine conclusion: Thal lf the flanse will not be overstressed

would raise the rieht-hand end of the

then

first line [from foimula (6)], allowing greater moments at higher pressures.

rvith 4-96. Grade A bolts, probably not be overstressed at 150 psi. with a bend'ing

it rvill

spite this mathematical obstacle. Fieure t has been constructed for this same example on a quite different, conservative, basis. Starting with the

conservative assumption that

the

398 psi.

tersecting the leak-

Getting Lack to the primary pressure rating of the flange, a heavy line has been drarvn vertically from I50
pounds on Figure 8. Study-

moment ol 55,000 inch pounds simul' taneously applied.o Some readers may care to run a check on this flange for

flange-gasket-bolt combination can (at 150 psi.) carry no bending moment rvithout danger of leakage or danger

these operating conditions. rvith the specified bolting. It should be noted rhar some of thJ B l6E flanges do not

of

flange failure, the following

:

can

be deduced:

Referring to formula (6)

of the mo-

ment defined bv its intersection \\'ith

hold up under a standard pressure analysist-but rvork satisfactorily de'

\r<co;t''-o'?"(f+r*1

I
x]!]so
I BB,3OO

(r!{cH-P0urDs)

-l-200 ro0o

198,

inch 1@,ooo

) inch

wn interce

ine, it is the gas.his

case.

it

does

120 r0oo

Figure 8 Leokoge Envelope for 8-lnch,

1SO-Poun{ Flonge

NA

--t

better

80,0o0

40,ooo p

(plt)
l2L

No. 5

May, 1950-A Gulf Publishing Company Publtcation

,f
tl
rl

There are several factors that influ.

NOMENCLATURE
Hn or rf^
2b G
IN

ence

th_e_

internal hydraulic pressure intcrnal hydraulic pressrrre (psi.) H" or lf6, Total gasket load reclrrirc<l to initiallrp

trfean gasket dianreter Gasket coefficient-ratio of the requiretl gasket pressure to the
1..ielcl

Total gasket load required to ho1c1 pressllre n,ithorrt Effective operating $,idth of gasket

leagage

joints. Chief among these is the chaige in bolt-load that occurs rvhen intern"al pressure aud bending momenl are ap-

leakage envelopes

of

flanged

tors are evaluated. and an analytical that include the effect ol the dlnamimetlrod is developed to drarv envelopes

plied. In Part III some of these fai.

Total gasket load

(set) thc gasket

callv changing bolt-load. tn on earLy

Bending moment (inch pounds) Total gasket s,idth Gasket constant-"yielcl" stress (psi.) of the gaskct n.raterial Total bolting area (sq. in., Operating bolt stress (psi) Dianreter of bolt circle

End ot' Part

II.

Part

III will

appear

t,ssue,

ceolng example,

L,Ising the same gasket as

in the

pre_

trI

< 'A
p

o (Ao S"o)

servative leakage envelope of Figure 9 is drarvn for this joint. That this is a conservative envelope maY l)e demon.strated as follorvs:

)))

at

pressure rating)
9
A

: 150 psi ( rlre primarl.

(AR S.,,)

service

o<

222

Ar S,,', : l4,ggg Ilnt Ar :2.42 sq. in.

150

e _

'1A" S^,)

-222 z.zl

X 159

ra xrro

14,800 : ""': -'2llL'

61oo Psi'

Using this value of (AB S,,") to obtain a maximum permissible moment at

p: o, II< ftla.s00;- 222X0 4

tr{

:33,200 inch

pounds

psi. rvould be excessive for these flanges. In fact, these bolts r-ould not even,develop the load necessar)' to initialll'_yield the gasker for proper
setting. Figure 8 is probably the mbre
corre_ct envelope

In other lvords. on this basis even the use of Grade A-107 carbon steel bolts, rvith an Sop allowable of 6875

By dran'ing a line intersecting this point and M: O at 150 psi." the con-

vided 4-96-4 holts are used).

for this joint

(pro-

\OTES rlt is $ortlri" 0f note that ISritish investigations tend to indicate that the ratio of the (total ) h]-draulic load t.o the net (total) g:rsltet load is deterntinate, rather thaln the |atio of the htdraulic l)fessure to a unit Bask.it load. This $-oulcl tend to require a gasliet load per inch of circunference (not r.lated to gasl<et \ridilr) dependent on {llalrleter, }rressule an(l a q:1sket constant. :l'he unit gasket loa{1 trot to be ex{.eeded \\-ithout danraBing thc fl.rtrge contact fa(.e-s is not (.onsidcfed here. 3 (larcful retiglrterriDg oi the bolts after :rpplicatioD of pressure Dlight in effe.t pro,lu, o llri{ ,listril,uri^rr l,iltprn, if it \routd llot occur normall]-. { These tnight ilot. (orre.tly be called "leak&ge en\-elopes lrith fixed bolt load_,, since the installeal bolt load rvill determiie the gasket lo.d. -{s arl example of what this rneans, the bolt load has been taken as Asrct (41.6 sq. in.) times ttle allo\yatlle ol)erating irolt stress of 13,11)r) l)si. If the bott load had L,ppn takpn as (ABAc, I, .{n-inr : 2, a smaller !alue. thF Frrt ploppj s orrl,l L,p smallpr, The "crushin8" part of thc envelope would move up, but the "insufficient g.ashet pressure,'part s-oul(l nloye to the left. If the bolt area and/or bolt stfess lrcre increased, the "crushing" part of the envelope would move dos'n, but the "insufficient gasket pressure" part \rould move to ilre .ignr, 5 Or perhaps a smaller width. 6 Due to the relatively sman effect on the ilango-monrpltls oi shifring 1,art of tlrp Hc luad to HD, and vi.e r This will inl rorluci an effective "torsion' "rsa.the cross-section of on the flange, lvhich.ran lrobablt be ignored, r lrua lo hA rilrq I,epn ill .ommon u."e betore the de|elopnent of ilre present method of flange stress anal)-sis. 1.his particular case shoulcl proye satisfactory. 8An "effcctive bolting,', so to speak.

200,000

160,0o0

120,000

r
Figure 9 Conse rvotive Leokoge
Envelope

40,000

33'

300

Pctrolettm I?efiner-\,'ol. 29, No. 5

Bending lAoments qnd Leokoge At Flqnged Joints

PAR.T III

lN PARI It ol this series, mothemoticol relotionshiPs lor iointtiofitness were derived that ostii" o constont boltJood' Also, the ideo ol q "leokoge envelopel' plotting Performonce cadiscusses seYerol other lactors
necessorv

B1

Ei

oitititi"t ol the- ioint, wos deter'i,in"a. This concluding orticle

and derives the mathemotics

ol

to evoluate the effect the dynamicollY chonging

bolt-load. ROBERT G. BLICK Box 232, Sun VolleY, Colif

Dlete cvcle.l That there must be a net

io.. foi an\

TT

as' U P fO this point. it lras heen the t'neutral'' axis of .ilred that the n".1", ..i""ides rvith the centroidal l*L. ftti. is ttot necessarily so' Horrever. it is a logical assumption" an! for all PractrProbablv a correct one

nlication of Pressure lo some final i'alue. and tlren reduction of pressure

[o zero. The return-path has a greater sloPe
than the increase'path-that is' the-gas-

also he deduced - for otherrvise it rvould be possible to oPerate over a Dortion of-the cycle and obtain pernetnal motion.

Portion

of the cvcle

can

cal purposes.

["i-i. 4tln*" unier a decreasing tt un una.t an increasing load'

lo-ad

Tlris

Figuie l0 is a qtralitative represeltatioi of the stress-strain characteris-

can be deduced from purely theorellcal considerations. Assuming that the,gas-

' Since gaskets lre stiffer utrder reau"i"g lou,l. th"t" will be a shift of *r"::"?"".f ;' axis torvard the "tension" .iJ" of the centroid. Figure^ lI shorvs an exaggerated piclure of tllts hehavior. ictuallr-. the shif t of tlre "neu' irut;; u*i. l'ill'probablv be extremely
sl

ii.. of

compressed aslreslos' lt shou s -thut ttupp.ns rvhen a load is gradually anplied't'o and released from the gas'

i[i- R.tott. on the curve indicate

1S

the

Jir""tio., of the cvcle, from initial ap'

ket rvill take a permanent set' ther-e *lif U" a positive amount of rvork Jrt* i" tlre total compression cycle' The shaded area in the figure represents the net loss of enerqv for a com-

-Ja" o" tlre

assrrrnption that cides rvith the centroidal axis'

iglrt- so tlrat calcrrlations ma) lre

it

coirr'

rd

n-

Compressed Asbestor Figure 10. Lood-Deflection Curve for

load-deflection tesls olr Practrccl gasKet material . The load catt hrst lle run-up to..ih" ittltiul bolt-load value, and then

Sonre invcstigators 1nay care to run

r"a*"a to the operating vah'e (that

oh,"in. rrhen llre joirrt is under lres'
sure). Then the load can lre reduced

ry

to the valrre

corresporrdin s to . ( n:p ). irt otte lest- arld inercascd an equllalenr

ii

amount (or to a load corresPondlng io tlt. gu.k"t ''cruslritrg" load) in an'

other test. These tests clll l)e rePeatecl for a number of cvcles' From the re' ."i,i"* "tit"s the relative stiffness -of if'"' *l.f."t urtcler increasing and de' .r"u.ing loads mav Ite determined' l he .l'r;t, oi the neutral axis can be com' puted from this data' Similar load-deflection tests mal- be

,.'s

1i*

'&

tfr ,E

t""i" f.t

the {lange and bolt combinaiion toithout a gasket' or the flange rotations arrd bolt deflections may he computed. The lesulting curves may be compared uith tlre gasket curves' In this rval'. it can readrt)' tt9. o9' termined rvhether tlre gaskel really rs appreciablv stiffer than the bolt ano nii'-.t .";Uination. and rthether the 'U"ti?-.i-piiiving asiumption is a valid
one.

Corrections for Change in Bolt-Load The logical starting point. for correr:tion ol tlre leakage envelopes I or change in bolt'load is to determine -tl'r"tii"t the bolt'load decreases or in'

..""."" after Iunc, 1950-4 Gulf Publishirtg Contlany

Publication

clusions ma1 tlren be reaclred regard'

Con' ltressure is appli.ed'

t29

r+_
I

SMATL COMPRESSIOH

Figure

"Neutrol" Axis

ll.

Shift of

_L
I

i:

--TCOMPRESSION

SIITT

CHANOED GASKET LOAD DI'E K} iOMENT

TAL COMPRESSIOIf INGE COMPRESSION

ing its behavior when moment is ap- holds for the effect of moment on the plLd. If the bolt-load d,eueases,'it tension and compression sides of the means that the joint will start to leak, neutral axis, then the adiusted boltand the gasket to crush, sooner (at a load on the tension side (with no pressmaller moment). The converse will sure) will be approximarelybe true if there is an increase in boltload.'z The simplest, and probably an

corrected for both pressure and mo. ment can then be called (Ar Sop)prrt: (A" S*)" -

(Ar S.o)u.

altering the value of As So, in the criteria formulas. Actually, A" Son will be a function
this further, assume that the bolt-load will decrease as internal pressure is applied. Then the value of As S", will decrease as pressure is applied. The maximum pressure capacity of the

effective, correction may be made by

(A, S.")"

- +-

rrc' I I l-41f-l K ^ 4 - KL;TI "

become
ry (12/(-! \

and this value used in formula (6),

which

ffi'J,,;"',l1

of the pressure and of the moment, rather than a constant. To illustrate

as the summation of the easket stress due to moment. and a triangular distribution is assumed, this force will equal

:::;:"-.*",,,,, i,,u1'

will

M<

G/4 ( ABS,')"

";(; + bm) - r ----_--.1 + _-1 l!

97-

Fv':

G/4

E;l ll r,
t:

ntj
Hti

8.'

fii'
fl1

joint with no moment will be smaller than figures based on the initial boltload would imply. Assuming the joint to be under some intermediate pres. sure, and moment to be applied, the maximum value of the allowable mobased on the initial bolt-load, or for bolt-load corrected for pressure only,

neutral axis may be taken

so that the bolt-load corrected for amount on the "tension" side of the
as

- it=1 ' Kz'

to
rected

''

7Gt
16K
(r0)

Formula (10) then expresses the max.

imum moment not to have leakaee due

(A"Son)'.- (AnS"").- 1 [4I\tl "- K L' c-l

and on the compression side may
taken
as

be

#i ni

ment would be smaller than formulas

(Ar Sq)u"

(A"

S.o)^

"+

K L;dJ

I [4

The bolt.load on the "tension" side.

insufficient gasket p."su.", cor. for the effect of a change in bolt-load. assuming that the boltiload decreasesa when pressure is applied. In the same manner as tle foregoing, formula (7) may be reworked to read

fl{

would imply. This would be so for two reasons, On the "tensiontt side of the neutral axis, the bolrload will be decreasing, This will tend to open up the joint sooner. On the compiession side of the neutral axis. the bolt-load will be increasins.3 This rvill tend to crush the gasketlooner. Assuming that the no-pressure, nomoment bolt-load is (As Son)o, and
that when internal pressure is applied, "picked up" as a d,ecrease in bolt-load,
tlren the bolt-load at a pressure

NOMENCLATURE
I -;,
N

Coefficient used to multiply the hydraulic end load to obtain

the change in bolt load [assumed to decrease in formulas

Change

AB

(10) and (11)l in bolt length

Att
AM

I/K of the hvdraulic end tt'ua it

will
p (with
be approximately I

F.

Change in bolt force ) Change in moment

Elastic constant of half the bolt length

Ec Er

no moment) (Ar
S.p)o

Elastic constant of half the gasket thickness Elastic constant of the

----6tFrsth /,
- #/"

= Total Bolt Area X "E"

"E"

#/"

= Gasket Contact Area X

- (AB S.D). -

nG
A

KP

flange-"f/Radian: Total Bolt Load X Lever Arm

Resulting Angular Rotation in Radians

Gasket Thickness /2

Assuming that this same

130

ratio

(f)

Petroleum Refiner-Vol. 29, No. 6

M<

pr--9" azGlyn__c '1624

-l

iA,S"o).

The f ollowing equilibrium equations may be written: (Summation of forces)

ttr t

- Krt' PTG
16K

-F 1l

,'K,

(11)

(evaluation of change in flange moment)

These equations may be rewritten as:

LPern-

Aru

(L * L'; '-

4ot

Formula (11) then expresses the maximum moment not to have crushine of the gasket, corrected for the effeci of

a change in bolt.load, assuming that

the bolt-load decreasesa when prissure is applied.

EoAc : 0 A+ *-Ac)L- EB - -AP" (13) En (L A+ and Eo Ao L, - Ac)(L*Lz):EuA e1 As [EoL,*Er (L*L)] *a+ _

or

At"
Ao

(-En

Eu

(L'A +
Ec)

Comparison With Test Data 5 contains test data on the behavior of an experimental ffange when internal pressure is applied. It will be informative to use formula (IB) on this test flange, com' pute the bolt-load change after internal pressure is applied, and compare the computed value with the actual test figure. The data on flange C-l of this reference is as shown in Table 1.
Reference No.
IABLE I

[_En Lr (L, S L,)

""r _ro!
be

Evaluation of the Change in Bolt-Load Factor

1

Equations

(13) and (J4) may

K
as

has been conveniently defined so

solved simultaneously to yield the following results:

to permit a simple correction for change in bolt-load. Off hand it may

e and mo'

A Jc

[EnL'(L'+L,)+E'] -A tp' rp"+ p") + p" g" Ht - rP' (1s)

lEr

G:26'!4"
(Assuming E:29r 106, and discount

fEc:4960x106

6lrGJ

T_441

appear difficult to evaluate. However, this may be done without too niuch labor. Figure 12 shows a segment of the flange rvith loads applied at the gasket, bolt circle, and mean diameter of the

A4 :Ap.
and, since

lEelrtlelL+ L)l
(EB

ing any oiher flexibilities) * Computed from the data in reference. i Some question can be raised as to what constitutes the "gasket" in al assembly of ihis stifiness.

Ec)

Es Eo

L"]

(16)

Ar- L' Ao

pipe. Intitially,

it is assumed that the

\-JB-

rmula (6),

_!t

/9+ u-) t \8

flange has been bolted-up to some ini. tial bolt-load, the bolts have extended somewhat, the gasket has compressed somewhat, the flange has rotated through some angle, and that the value represented by the solid-lined figure. The dashed outline shows the new picture when the load Ap" is given some

equation (12),
that: I _-

tEslrL-ld ^- te'tn;+E;)T-E" ilH By substituting equation (17) in

a?F

Aa:

From this data, using formula (17),

l_10"K-* 1tl'^
K \{rhen the internal pressure is 300 psi., the hydraulic end lbad Ap" will be: Lp.t: "tr /4 G2 p : 'n/,1 (26 7 /8)' X 300
.s6z

it

can be determined

of Ap" is zero. This is the condition

L L,- Er] [Er (EB + Ea) + Ea Ec L1] (18)

Er [Eo

e214960 X.938 X .726-861 86 [92 + 496A] + 92:X 4960 X .938',

,
J

(10)

;
:es the max'

leakage due

gSSUr, col.

change in he boltiload
s applied.

re reworked

tle

forego'

finite value. Ac is (half) ihe change in thickness of the gasket (assuming that the center of the gasket does not move). A 6 is the change in rotation of the flange. ' Inspection of the geometry of the figure will yield the following results: Aa'- half the chanse An - L 46 in length of bolts Apn- change in bolt-load

That value of f may then be used in formulas (10) and (ll). Inspection of the terms of equation (lB) t shows that t *"y be either positive or negative (that the bolt-load may either decrease or increase) depend' ing on the relative magnitudes of (EcL,L,) and (Er).

# ,l from the value

170,000
ApB :-^-I
Ape

of

ii

computed above,

the change in bolt-load should be:

:.362X

170,000

:61,500 pounds

where En

-A") stiffness of - pounds per the bolts inch deflection Sign convention assumes bolt load
- change in gasket : EoAc
P,q

:EsA" :Eo(LA+

(12)

decreases when answer is oositive.

Apc

load

where

- stiffness of gasket - pounds per inch deflection Sign convention assumes gasket load

decreases when answer is oositive.

AM

: cha{rgg in internal flange resrstlng moment :E"Ao where Er- rotational stiffness of flange ': inch pounds per radian
Sign convention assumes moment increases when answer is positive.

Figure 12. Loods on

,nffi

i.

29, No.

Iune, 7950-A Gulf . Publishing Company Publicotion

That is, the bolt-load should de. by 6I,500 lbs. By comparison, the test values ransed from 46.000 to
crease
I

plained by decreasing "twisting stiffness" of the flange as flange moments are increased. The smaller flange stiff-

able zone. Inspection of the figure will shol'that even for this rvide range of

24.000-rhe mean'value being 73.000 pounds. Assuming this mean value to be "correct," the discrepancl. betrveen the computation and the test is about

actor u'ould then make for a thus it can greater value of rra
ness-f
1

15 percent, In terms of the many factors that can contribute to this discrepancy, the agreement betrveen the values is quite good. In terms of "safety-factors" generally employed and the small over-all effect on the leakage envelope. the discrepancy is prol'ablr negligiLle. Figure 13 shows the effect o" K of varying each of the stiffness factors rvhile holding the. others constant. It will be seen thatf is not sensitive to changes in E6, in the neigJhborhood of the operating value. That is, the gasket

be seen that the results of the formulas agree rvith ttre trend of the test data.

-and

Use of the Formulas

The general suggestion of this arti' cle is to use formulas (6) and (7) to construct leakage. envelopes ignoring the influence of -i. The formulas are

it can be demonstrated mathematicallv that the maximum positive /r \': value (* rf can have, for any combi. nation of the various stiffness factors, is ( i:) t.r tnis example, (h) is .25; the . boundary corresponding /l\ to that [*J 'r-alue lies uithin the
(10t and (11) u,ith u rro.iUu" ({)
value taken equal to (rt-r) "'iff af. \\'a)-s be conservative. If formulas (6) and (.7) place the moment-pressure

f values, the results of formulas (6) and (7) are of good accuracy. Also"

easj to apply and should be of accuracv sufficient for practical design'

Evaluation of the various stiffness factors. normalll a somervhat complicated undertaking. is thereby avoided. It is nossible for the formulas to be either somer-hat conservative or somewhat unconservative. Figure 14 has been constructed to shorv the influence of -" on the leakage envelope. It has been
made from formulas (10) and (11). for the 8-inch-150-pound flange of the

lolver part of the shaded area. l,eakage envelopes constructed using formulas

is behaving rather effectively as

what sensitive to changes in Ep and Ee. Readers familiar t'ith Reference No. 5 may note that the value of ]o
that lvould be required bv the test data increascs as the irrternal pressure is

fulcrum. On the other hand. it is some-

increased. This

mar in

pa

rt he

previous example. i is permitted to vary from f.50 to .50. The shaded

area in the figure de{ines the questionFigure l3

of the envelope. formulas l0) and ( l I ) mar I'e used rrirh an assumed ( l- ) t"t,," not greater than \ !"/ ( ;; ) .As a Iast resort. the rarious
extremes
t

problem is adequatelv solved. If the operating condition falls close to the

condition rvell rvithin the envelope, the

ex-

,stiffness factors mav be calculated and

&F &lo N.1

I'K o

l.rl

Ats 2

H F H

*2,
-t{

.739

!= I

.n5

EB

rc,F

.0182

0. r0

. 6.tn=L3 v Lr -A r@*

SETTING rn= 0 IN REALITI DEFINES THAI TXE FLANGE WILL SEHAVE AS LEVER AEOUT THE GASKET N'LCRU}I POIIIT.

SETIIN0
SETTII|G

O-

%- o llt REALIII En- 0 IN REALITI

DEFINES A CONSTA$! BOLT-LOAD.

THEREFORE"THE BOLTS ffUST

iE5fu-loof

DEFII{ES A CONSf,[}ll GASXET OF TXE LOAD.

L0lD---

Petroleunt Refiner-l'-ol. 29, No. 6

l:

il'

t (r*ot

PourDs)

1- -.fu
K

20or00o

I )
a

I
I

160rooo

)
l)

t
:

1201000

'e
re

te
IE
l.c

80,o0o

.n

tn
_ls

/+0 rOO0

rd

1t0
Figure

200
of

400
on Leokoge EnveloPe

Psi,)

I4. lnfluence

-a
I

used to correctly evaluate (* ) tnti usins that value in formulas (10) and {11)". These latter formulas have been arranged so that the numerical com' putati-ons of (6) and (7) are used' ihar calculation labor is reduced'
so

life characneed correlation l'ith static ieristics

be evaluated. And service
These are but a fen' of "iru.u"t"ti.ti"s. avenues along rr'hich tethe manl

(lliIer' "Tcsts ol 1{r'al Exchall'er Flarlgeg -'l'ransitItions of the -\SIIE, 193E' 6 The readcr mal_ rewrite the tornlulas to use i wlri.h t'as used to avoid "Ii instrrad ., i-l ('ontusi()ll Nith -q. Labro\\''s lacior' BIBI,IOGR.{PHY E. O. \\-atcrs, D. B. lvesstrom' Il Il' Rossfreim. l', S. G' Williams. Forlnulas for Stresses i" fiori.O ]'lange Oonnections - Transactiotrs Also I)iscussion' Transot tft" eSlfo,1937. actions of 1938. l). B. Rossheim, E. I{' Gebhardt' II' G' Oliver. Tests of rJcat Exchanser FlaDgesTr.rnsaclions of tl e ASNE, 1938' 'I'hc 1fa:'lor Forie Clo. Modern Flange L)esign' Fitst Rcport of the PiI)e Flanges Researeil r""titution of Me':hanical EnEicn--itf"" 1936, volume 132 (British)' """1"1-ij*.""a;nas of the Pipe Flaneies Research -qecond Report ,',i--il."n -i 1n'.li1qtion of Ifechanical Engi-ilo"""ainas 1939, \'olume 141 (British)' r"..", S. I-al)row Design of lrlanged Joints-I-nstitoiinti or tr{e.rha;ical }lniineels Proceedings 191?, Volume 156 (British)' (iasket Ll. R. Ros-rheirn and A. Ii (l l'Iarkl tri{echani( al EnBineerlng' T,oading Constants Septembcr 1943. Coale for lrnfired I'ressu|e Ves,lf'f-,lSUp
Steel Flanges A5-L 13161') ASA Clode for Pressure I'jl)ing'

', ,,i

r**
, '.1 .l:& i{."
1.8

searclt must travel until the llanged been thoroughly explored' 'i"i"i ft". Part III and series') (End ol
I{O'I'DS AND III]}'ERENCNS I l-lrp npl l,,ss rr itl senprill] l'c slnaller ^ftor "t'i!tXt"itit"T;rs mal' note that ttre terl'lencl' .t "-"."if,t*i"" ot t ott-toad is to exaggeRte -;;"ss-pattern -under morlent-thtrt ;h";;"k;

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General Conclusions The rvriter hoPes that the conclusions drawn in this article may stimulate further research, bring into pub]ication anY private test data that may be availabie, and point a direction for further experiment. Despite the f act that the methods of this article are rational. the problem is by no means completelv solved' Additional data on the elastic and plastic charaeteristics of gasket material are needed' The tor.ional effect on the flange of the non-uniform flange'momenls needs lo

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il"iri itr tiris nature ltould be urisleading' t'ill have the nesatire ; "tt";tt ?t"i'-tlEtti" "t*" or all ternrs inrolvlhe formula lvill reacl the \:alue ob,"* *, lrrin..l tf rll. I olI-lojr'l.increilscs' :l'. B. lios-llpirr. U. H 'lpl'h'rdt lI (l'

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