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Unsaturated Soils. Advances in Geo-Engineering
Unsaturated Soils. Advances in Geo-Engineering
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Table of Contents
Preface XIII
Organisation XV
Keynotes
Unsaturated soil mechanics in earth and rockfill dam engineering 3
E.E. Alonso & N.M. Pinyol
Recent developments in the techniques of controlling and measuring suction in unsaturated soils 33
P. Delage, E. Romero & A. Tarantino
Developments in modelling the generalised behaviour of unsaturated soils 53
A. Gens, L. do N. Guimarães, M. Sánchez & D. Sheng
A thermo-hydro-mechanical stress-strain framework for modelling the performance of clay
barriers in deep geological repositories for radioactive waste 63
L. Laloui, B. François, M. Nuth, H. Peron & A. Koliji
V
Influence of sample height on the soil water characteristic curve 141
C.N. Khoury & G.A. Miller
Observations of unsaturated soils by Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy
in dynamic mode 145
S.D.N. Lourenço, D.G. Toll, C.E. Augarde, D. Gallipoli, A. Congreve, T. Smart & F.D. Evans
Recent advances in ESEM analysis of partially saturated geomaterials 151
C. Sorgi, V. De Gennaro, H.D. Nguyen & P. Delalain
Study of desiccation crack evolution using image analysis 159
S. Costa, J. Kodikara & N.I. Thusyanthan
Theoretical analysis of the effect of temperature, cable length and double-impedance
probe head on TDR water content measurement 165
A. Tarantino & A. Pozzato
Effect of dry density on the relationship between water content and TDR-measured
apparent dielectric permittivity in compacted clay 173
A. Pozzato, A. Tarantino, J. McCartney & J. Zornberg
Spatial Time Domain Reflectometry (Spatial TDR) – Principles, limitations and accuracy 181
R. Becker, A. Scheuermann, S. Schlaeger, C. Huebner & N. Wagner
Spatial Time Domain Reflectometry (Spatial TDR) – On the use in geohydraulics
and geotechnics 189
A. Scheuermann, A. Bieberstein, Th. Triantafyllidis, C. Huebner, R. Becker, S. Schlaeger & N. Wagner
Water content dynamics in unsaturated soils – Results of experimental investigations
in laboratory and in situ 197
A. Scheuermann
A new high capacity tensiometer: First results 205
J.C. Rojas, L. Pagano, M.C. Zingariello, C. Mancuso, G. Giordano & G. Passeggio
Evaluation of suction measurement by the tensiometer and the axis translation technique 213
S.D.N. Lourenço, D.G. Toll, C.E. Augarde, D. Gallipoli, F.D. Evans & G.M. Medero
A system for field measurement of suction using high capacity tensiometers 219
J. Mendes, D.G. Toll, C.E. Augarde & D. Gallipoli
Engineering behaviour
Water retention behaviour and hydraulic properties
Water retention properties of Boom clay: A comparison between different
experimental techniques 229
T.T. Le, P. Delage, Y.J. Cui, A.M. Tang, A. Lima, E. Romero, A. Gens & X.L. Li
Determination of soil suction state surface in pure and composite clays by
filter paper method 235
M. Biglari, A. Shafiee & I. Ashayeri
Soil water retention curves for remolded expansive soils 243
K.C. Chao, J.D. Nelson, D.D. Overton & J.M. Cumbers
Hydromechanical couplings in confined MX80 bentonite during hydration 249
D. Marcial, P. Delage & Y.J. Cui
VI
Effect of temperature on the water retention capacity of FEBEX and MX-80 bentonites 257
M.V. Villar & R. Gómez-Espina
Soil-water characteristic curves and void ratio changes relative to suction
for soils from Greece 263
M.E. Bardanis & M.J. Kavvadas
Prediction of soil-water retention properties of a lime stabilised compacted silt 271
M. Cecconi & G. Russo
Time dependency of the water retention properties of a lime stabilised compacted soil 277
D.V. Tedesco & G. Russo
Retention and compressibility properties of a partially saturated mine chalk 283
H.D. Nguyen, V. De Gennaro, P. Delage & C. Sorgi
Effect of grain size distribution on water retention behaviour of well graded coarse material 291
C. Hoffmann & A. Tarantino
Water retention functions of sand mixtures 299
E. Imre, I. Laufer, K. Rajkai, A. Scheuermann, T. Firgi & G. Telekes
Permeability of a heavily compacted bentonite-sand mixture as sealing and buffer element
for nuclear waste repository 305
S.S. Agus & T. Schanz
Volumetric behaviour
Volumetric behaviour of compacted London Clay during wetting and loading 315
R. Monroy, L. Zdravkovic & A. Ridley
Stress path dependence of hydromechanical behaviour of compacted scaly clay in wetting
and drying suction controlled oedometer tests at constant vertical net stress 321
C. Airò Farulla
Long-term behaviour of lime-treated expansive soil submitted to cyclic wetting and drying 327
O. Cuisinier & D. Deneele
Hydro-mechanical properties of compacted sand-bentonite in a semi-arid climate 335
H. Bilsel & A. Iravanian
Grain size effects on rockfill constitutive behaviour 341
A. Ramon, E.E. Alonso & E.E. Romero
The influence of suction on stiffness, viscosity and collapse of some volcanic ashy soils 349
E. Bilotta, V. Foresta & G. Migliaro
Role of critical volumetric water content and net overburden pressure on swelling
or collapse behavior of compacted soils 355
I. Ashayeri, A. Shafiee & M. Biglari
The changes in stress regime during wetting of unsaturated compacted clays
when laterally confined 361
J.L. Brown & V. Sivakumar
Compression-induced suction change in a compacted expansive clay 369
A.M. Tang, Y.J. Cui & N. Barnel
Theoretical modelling of the compaction curve 375
N. Kurucuk, J. Kodikara & D.G. Fredlund
VII
Prediction of the residual void ratio of clayey soils after drying based on their
initial state, physical properties and structure 381
M.E. Bardanis & M.J. Kavvadas
An evaluation of soil suction measurements using the filter paper method
and their use in volume change prediction 389
J.M. Cumbers, J.D. Nelson, K.C. Chao & D.D. Overton
Validation of a swelling potential index for expansive soils 397
J.L. Zheng, R. Zhang & H.P. Yang
Shear behaviour
Effect of moisture content on tensile strength and fracture toughness of a silty soil 405
M.R. Lakshmikantha, P.C. Prat, J. Tapia & A. Ledesma
Tensile strength of some compacted fine-grained soils 411
A.J. Lutenegger & A. Rubin
Unsaturated characteristics of rammed earth 417
P.A. Jaquin, C.E. Augarde & L. Legrand
Experimental study of the influence of suction on the residual friction angle of clays 423
V. Merchán, J. Vaunat, E. Romero & T. Meca
Ultimate shear strength of unsaturated soils 429
T.B. Hamid
Critical State conditions for an unsaturated artificially bonded soil 435
D.G. Toll, Z. Ali Rahman & D. Gallipoli
Determination of the shear strength behavior of an unsaturated soil in the high suction
range using the vapor pressure technique 441
T. Nishimura, H. Toyota, S.K. Vanapalli & W.T. Oh
Effect of suction on compressibility and shear behaviour of unsaturated silty soil 449
A.R. Estabragh & A.A. Javadi
Mechanical behaviour of an unsaturated clayey sand 453
A. Mirzaii, S.S. Yasrebi & B. Gatmiri
Shear strength of unsaturated soil and its influence on slope stability 459
O. Tomboy, V. Whenham, M. De Vos, R. Charlier, J. Maertens & J.-C. Verbrugge
Behaviour of a silt used in flood embankment construction in Indonesia 465
G. McCloskey, M. Sanchez, M. Dyer & M. Kenny
Strength and yielding of unsaturated compacted silt from Beijing – Kowloon
railway embankment 471
J.K. Liu & L.Y. Peng
Estimation of the shear strength of lean clay based on empirical equations
and a laboratory experiment on slope failure 475
J.V. Vasquez & L.M. Salinas
Effects of drying and wetting cycles on unsaturated shear strength 481
E.Y.M. Tse & C.W.W. Ng
Degradation of compacted marls due to suction changes 487
R. Cardoso & E.E. Alonso
VIII
Multiaxial behavior of partially saturated sand at high stresses 495
N. Massoudi, H.-Y. Ko & S. Sture
A simple method for the prediction of modulus of elasticity for unsaturated sandy soils 503
S.K. Vanapalli, W.T. Oh & A.J. Puppala
Suction effects on the pre-failure behaviour of a compacted clayey soil 511
J.A. Pineda, E.E. Romero & J.E. Colmenares
Influence of hydraulic paths on the low-strain shear modulus of a stiff clay 519
J.A. Pineda, A. Lima & E. Romero
Drying and wetting effects on shear wave velocity of an unsaturated soil 525
J. Xu, C.W.W. Ng & S.Y. Yung
Effects of unsaturated soil state on the local seismic response of soil deposits 531
F. D’Onza, A. d’Onofrio & C. Mancuso
Constitutive modelling
Thermo-plasticity in unsaturated soils, a constitutive approach 539
B. François & L. Laloui
A thermomechanical framework for modeling the response of unsaturated soils 547
S. Samat, J. Vaunat & A. Gens
Discussion on meta-stable equilibrium in unsaturated soils 553
E.J. Murray, B.J. Murray & V. Sivakumar
Advanced hydro-mechanical coupling for unified constitutive modelling of unsaturated soils 559
M. Nuth & L. Laloui
Generalised elasto-plastic stress-strain relations of a fully coupled hydro-mechanical model 567
M. Lloret, M. Sanchez, M. Karstunen & S. Wheeler
Effect of degree of saturation on mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils 575
A.R. Estabragh & A.A. Javadi
An improved constitutive model for unsaturated and saturated soils 581
K. Georgiadis, D.M. Potts & L. Zdravkovic
Modifying the Barcelona Basic Model to account for residual void ratio and subsequent
decrease of shear strength relative to suction 589
M.E. Bardanis & M.J. Kavvadas
A cap model for partially saturated soils 597
R. Kohler, M. Hofmann & G. Hofstetter
Boundary surfaces and yield loci in unsaturated compacted clay 603
A. Tarantino & S. Tombolato
Application to a compacted soil of a Cam Clay model extended to unsaturated conditions 609
F. Casini, R. Vassallo, C. Mancuso & A. Desideri
Mixed isotropic-rotational hardening to model the deformational response
of unsaturated compacted soils 617
C. Jommi & E. Romero
An anisotropic elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soils 625
K. Stropeit, S.J. Wheeler & Y.J. Cui
IX
An elasto-viscoplastic model for chalk including suction effects 633
F. Collin, V. De Gennaro, P. Delage & G. Priol
New basis for constitutive modelling of unsaturated aggregated soil with structure degradation 641
A. Koliji, L. Vulliet & L. Laloui
A damage model for unsaturated natural loess submitted to cyclic loading 647
J.M. Pereira, A.N. Ta, Y.J. Cui, J.P. Karam & H.Y. Chai
Desiccation shrinkage of unconstrained soil in the saturated phase 653
L.B. Hu, T. Hueckel, H. Peron & L. Laloui
Modelling of the collapsible behaviour of unsaturated soils in hypoplasticity 659
D. Mašín & N. Khalili
Swelling pressure in compacted bentonite: Laboratory tests and modelling 667
M. Sanchez, M.V. Villar, R. Gómez-Espina, A. Lloret & A. Gens
Modelling water retention characteristic of unsaturated soils 675
Y. Wang, G. Wu, S.M. Grove & M.G. Anderson
Temperature effect on hydric behaviour for unsaturated deformable soils 683
S. Salager, M.S. El Youssoufi & C. Saix
A study of applied pressure on the Soil Water Characteristic Curve 689
J. Zhou
Outline of the modelling of the excavated damaged zone in geological barriers 695
C. Arson & B. Gatmiri
Numerical modelling
Stress path dependency and non-convexity of unsaturated soil models 705
D.C. Sheng, D. Pedroso & A.J. Abbo
Implicit integration of an extended Cam-clay model for unsaturated soils 713
R. Tamagnini & V. De Gennaro
Parametric investigations on a three-invariant implicit integration algorithm
for unsaturated soils 721
L.R. Hoyos & P. Arduino
A multi-cell extension to the Barcelona Basic Model 727
W.T. Solowski, R.S. Crouch & D. Gallipoli
A numerical simulation of triaxial tests of unsaturated soil at constant water
and air content by using an elasto-viscoplastic model 735
F. Oka, H. Feng, S. Kimoto, T. Kodaka & H. Suzuki
Stress condition of an unsaturated pendular state granular soil 743
C. Medina & M. Zeghal
A numerical investigation of steady-state unsaturated conductivity tests 747
G. Steger, S. Semprich, M.P.H. Moncada, T.M.P. de Campos & E. Vargas Jr.
Numerical modelling of hydraulic hysteresis in unsaturated soils 755
A.A. Javadi & A.S.I. Elkassas
The drift shadow phenomenon in an unsaturated fractured environment 761
Claudia Cherubini, T.A. Ghezzehei & G.W. Su
X
Identification of hydraulic parameters for unsaturated soils using particle
swarm optimization 765
Y. Zhang, C.E. Augarde & D. Gallipoli
A precipitation boundary condition for finite element analysis 773
P.G. Smith, D.M. Potts & T.I. Addenbrooke
On boundary condition in tunnels under partial saturation 779
P. Gerard, R. Charlier & F. Collin
Numerical modelling of tree root-water-uptake in a multiphase medium 785
S. Hemmati & B. Gatmiri
Numerical modelling of the soil surface moisture changes due
to soil-atmosphere interaction 791
S. Hemmati, B. Azari & B. Gatmiri
Identification of coupled hydro-mechanical model parameters with application
to engineering barrier systems 797
T. Schanz, M. Datcheva & M. Zimmerer
Surface flux boundary simplifications for flow through clay under landscaped conditions 805
H.B. Dye, S.L. Houston & W.N. Houston
Preliminary analysis of tree-induced suctions on slope stability 811
N. Ali & S.W. Rees
Numerical predictions of seasonal pore water pressure fluctuations using FLAC tp flow 817
O.C. Davies, M. Rouainia & S. Glendinning
Infiltration analysis in unsaturated soil slopes 823
J.F. Xue & K. Gavin
Prediction of changes in pore-water pressure response due to rainfall events 829
M. Karthikeyan, D.G. Toll & K.K. Phoon
Modelling unsaturated soil slopes subjected to wetting and drying cycles 835
Y.D. Zhou, C.Y. Cheuk, L.G. Tham & E.C.Y. To
Numerical analysis of piezocone penetrometer testing in partially saturated
marine sediments 841
A. Haghighi, B. Gatmiri, V. De Gennaro & N. Sultan
Experimental and numerical studies of the hydromechanical behaviour of a natural
unsaturated swelling soil 847
H. Nowamooz, M. Mrad, A. Abdallah & F. Masrouri
Numerical modelling of shallow foundations on swelling clay soil using
the swelling equilibrium limit 855
G.A. Siemens & J.A. Blatz
Meshfree modelling of two-dimensional contaminant transport through unsaturated
porous media 861
R. Praveen Kumar, G.R. Dodagoudar & B.N. Rao
Numerical modeling of hydraulic behavior of bioreactor landfills 867
M.V. Khire & M. Mukherjee
Finite element modelling of contaminant transport in unsaturated soil 873
A.A. Javadi & M.M. Al-Najjar
XI
Case studies
Gulfs between theory and practice in unsaturated soil mechanics 883
G.E. Blight
The repeatability of soil water balances at the same site from year to year 889
G.E. Blight
Near-surface movement of water in unsaturated soil during evapotranspiration 895
G.E. Blight
Studies of rainfall-induced landslides in Thailand and Singapore 901
A. Jotisankasa, B. Kulsawan, D.G. Toll & H. Rahardjo
Field investigation on triggering mechanisms of fast landslides in unsaturated
pyroclastic soils 909
A. Evangelista, M.V. Nicotera, R. Papa & G. Urciuoli
Mechanical properties of unsaturated pyroclastic soils affected by fast
landslide phenomena 917
R. Papa, A. Evangelista, M.V. Nicotera & G. Urciuoli
Stability of a tailings dam considering the hydro-mechanical behaviour
of tailings and climate factors 925
M.T. Zandarín, L. Oldecop & R.R. Pacheco
A simplified model for the evaluation of the degree of saturation in slope
stability analysis of shallow soils 933
L. Montrasio & R. Valentino
Predicting the variation of stability with time for a slope in Switzerland 941
A. Thielen & S.M. Springman
In situ field experiment to apply variable high water levels to a river levee 947
P.A. Mayor, S.M. Springman & P. Teysseire
A new treatment for preventing landslides in expansive soil slopes 953
H.P. Yang, Y.X. He & J.L. Zheng
Flow processes in the unsaturated Chalk of the Hallue Basin (France) 959
N. Amraoui, H. Machard de Gramont, C. Robelin, A. Wuilleumier,
M.L. Noyer & M.J. Feret
Loading-collapse tests for investigating compressibility and potential collapsibility
of embankment coarse well graded material 967
C. Hoffmann & A. Tarantino
An example of the impact of loess soils on foundations and earthworks in Kazakhstan 973
S. Walthall & W.P. Duffy
Negative skin friction for cast-in-place piles in thick collapsible loess 979
Z.H. Chen, X.F. Huang, B. Qin, X.W. Fang & J.F. Guo
XII
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Preface
This volume of proceedings of the First European Conference on Unsaturated Soils is the first publication to
focus on European research developments in geo-engineering applications of unsaturated soils. The resurgence of
interest in unsaturated soil research within Europe in recent years has lead to major advances. We are fortunate
to have the latest developments reported here, in the 136 papers from leading international researchers and
practitioners. The volume contains 90 papers from 15 countries within Europe with a further 46 contributions
from 15 other countries. It hence represents European advances in geo-engineering together with an international
state-of-the-art perspective on unsaturated soils in 2008.
The volume addresses five areas: Advances in testing techniques, Engineering behaviour, Constitutive mod-
elling, Numerical modelling and Case histories. The areas of application include slope stability, foundations,
dams, contaminated land, landfill and nuclear waste repositories. It therefore provides a comprehensive collection
that we believe geo-engineers will come to treat as essential reference material.
Keynote papers from four international leading researchers are contained in the volume. We are grateful for
the participation of Professors Eduardo Alonso, Pierre Delage, Antonio Gens and Lyesse Laloui. There is no
doubt that these keynote papers will be seen as landmark contributions in unsaturated soil research.
The motivation for organising this First European Conference on Unsaturated Soils grew from the MUSE
project (Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils for Engineering: http://muse.dur.ac.uk) funded by the European Com-
munity. The editors (from Durham and Glasgow Universities) would like to thank our MUSE colleagues from
Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in France; Universitat Politécnica de Catalunya in Spain; Università
degli Studi di Trento and Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II in Italy for their support, both for this
conference and our joint research activities.
We would also like to acknowledge the vital role played by the Technical Advisory Committee members who
have contributed to the very thorough reviews that have ensured the high technical quality of the papers accepted
for inclusion in these Proceedings.
We also thank the International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, and in particular
Technical Committee 6 on Unsaturated Soils, for their support of the conference. Particular thanks are due
to Professor Pedro Seco e Pinto (President of ISSMGE), Professor Neil Taylor (General Secretary ISSMGE),
Professor Eduardo Alonso (Chair of TC6) and Professor Gerald Miller (Secretary TC6).
We hope that this first conference, and this volume of proceedings, will form the foundation and the impetus
for a future series of European Conferences on Unsaturated Soils. We look forward to many such successful
conferences and research collaborations in the future.
XIII
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Organisation
Organizing Committee
XV
Keynotes
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The paper examines a few relevant aspects of the design and performance of earth and rockfill
dams. It covers the behaviour of compacted soil and rockfill, the generation of pore pressures and deformations
during construction, the seepage phenomena during the operation of the dam, the important case of drawdown
and a case history of a dam failure at the end of impoundment. It is argued that unsaturated soil mechanics
offers today theories, experimental procedures and computational tools which provide a definite advantage over
classical design methods. It offers also a new insight into field observations.
3
The examples and cases presented are taken from process. However, it is not easy to distinguish between
the recent involvement of the authors in a number the effect of the structure and the effect of initial
of dam projects. Material parameters are real in the conditions established during compaction.
sense that they have been approximated from actual This section initially focuses in some aspects of soil
published on unpublished laboratory tests and field compaction and in the interpretation of soil behaviour
instrumentation results. Extensive use has been made within a context of an elasto-plastic framework for
of the coupled flow-deformation computer program unsaturated soils. The BBM model (Alonso et al,
CODE_BRIGHT described in Olivella et al. (1996) 1990) has been chosen as a reference model. Empha-
and DIT-UPC (2002). sis is placed in the dependence of initial conditions
and constitutive parameters with the compaction pro-
cedure. The effect of the initial condition induced by
2 COMPACTED SOILS compaction on the subsequent mechanical behaviour
of a core dam is presented. The construction of San
The design of earth dams and the analysis of Salvador Dam, an earth and rockfill dam designed
their behaviour require knowing the response of the to be built in Huesca (Spain), has been modelled
compacted fill materials under stress and humidity under different assumptions of compaction conditions
changes. The behaviour of fill materials depends on in terms of density and water content. The mechan-
the compaction procedure. During compaction, per- ical response and pore pressure generation during
manent strains are induced which modify the original construction will be discussed.
properties of the soil and its microstructure. The con-
ceptual bases of compaction of fine-grained materials
2.1 Basic properties of compacted materials
were established in 1933 by Proctor who defined the
compaction state by two variables: dry density (γd ) and The dry density (γd ) of a soil induced by
water content (w). For a given compaction procedure compaction depends on the water content (w), the
and compaction energy, the soil density reached at the compaction procedure (dynamic and static) and the
end of compaction depends on the water content of the compaction energy. Figures 1 and 2 show the static
soil. An optimum or maximum dry density can exist at compaction curves for different compaction stresses
certain water content, lower than the water content at of a low plasticity silty clay from Barcelona (wL =
saturation. In practice, the compacted soil behaviour is 30.5%, PI = 11.8%, % < 2 μm = 16.1%) and a
characterized by the pair of variables (γd , w) and their high plasticity soil—Boom clay—(wL = 56%, PI =
significant influence on the subsequent mechanical 27%, % <2 μm = 49.7%). Contours of equal degree
behaviour of the soil is widely accepted. For instance, of saturation and equal suction, obtained after com-
it is known that core dams compacted on the wet side of paction by interpolating measurements from transistor
optimum are more deformable and more impervious. psychrometers, are also plotted. As expected, suction
Therefore, the risk of cracking and hydraulic fracture increases as water content decreases. At high water
is reduced. However, high initial water content may contents, contours of equal suction follow the degree
induce the development of high pore water pressures of saturation contours, whereas, as water content
during construction, which increases the risk of insta- decreases, suction is controlled by the humidity with
bility. Dry of optimum compaction leads to more rigid negligible influence of the dry density. This behaviour
cores which are prone to collapse upon saturation if was explained by Romero (1999), who pointed out that
the density achieved in not high enough. Deforma- in fine grained soils, high values of suction are mainly
tion may crack these rigid cores and make them more controlled by the intra-aggregates voids. Since density
susceptible to hydraulic fracture. changes of a soil are basically associated with the vol-
Microscopic observations and porosimetry show ume of macropores, probably empty at relatively high
that the compaction procedure also induces substan- suctions, the effect of density on suction, for relatively
tial differences in the soil fabric. In particular, sev- dry states, is negligible.
eral authors have reported the relevant effect of the The shape of the compaction curve generally
compaction water content on the microstructure of depends on the compaction procedure. Honda et al.
fine-grained soils (Lambe, 1958; Seed & Chan, 1959; (2003) presented the relationship between dry density
Barden & Sides, 1970; Delage et al, 1996; Simms & and water content of a soil (wL = 33.5%; PI = 13.2)
Yanful, 2001). Compacted samples on the dry side compacted dynamically and statically (Fig. 3). The
exhibit a double-structure fabric due to the aggre- dynamic compaction curve has a clear maximum den-
gation of clay particles whereas dispersed fabrics sity unlike the curve obtained by static compaction.
are observed in samples compacted wet of optimum. A similar result may be observed in Figure 2 for Boom
Differences in the mechanical behaviour of a soil clay. However this feature was not observed in the case
due to compaction conditions are often attributed to of the low plasticity silty clay from Barcelona where
these microstructural differences acquired during the a clear peak was obtained for all static compaction
4
Figure 3. Dynamic and static compaction curves of a soil
(wL = 33.5%; PI = 13.2) (Honda et al., 2003).
Figure 1. Static compaction curves of Barcelona silty clay
and contours of equal suction (Suriol et al. 1998).
2.2 Microstructure of compacted materials
Differences in microstructure become evident when
samples compacted on the dry side are compared with
sample compacted on wet side at the same density.
Several authors have investigated the fabric of com-
pacted soils for different compaction conditions by
scanning electron microscopy and mercury intrusion
porosimetry (MIP): Barden & Sides (1970), Collins
(1983) and Suriol et al (1998) and Suriol & Lloret
(2007), for clays, Delage et al. (1996) for silt and
Simms & Yanful (2001) for clayey till, among others.
Consider, in Figure 4, the two compaction states
(Dry and Wet) of the Barcelona silty clay at approxi-
mately the same dry density. Samples were compacted
statically applying a compaction stress of 0.6 MPa. The
pore size distribution of the two states was determined
by MIP.
Differences in pore size distribution induced by the
Figure 2. Static compaction curves of Boom clay and compaction water content are clear in Figure 5: com-
contours of equal degree of saturation and equal suction pacting on the dry side induces a significant proportion
(Romero, 1999). of bigger pores (5 to 100 μm) which are absent in the
samples compacted on the wet side.
Consider now the application of a drying (or wet-
stresses. Well defined dry and wet branches could be ting) path to a sample initially compacted on the wet
identified in this case. (or dry) side (states DW and WD in Fig. 6 and 7). The
The value of suction reached for a given degree implied suction change is expected to induce defor-
of saturation depends on the material properties. This mations and therefore a change in soil microstructure.
fact can be observed if Figures 1 and 2 are compared. This is indeed the case, but the main question here
Equal values of degree of saturation correspond to dif- is to what extent the final state (density, water con-
ferent suction values depending on the clay nature. tent) explains the microstructure. Figure 5 indicates
For a given compaction water content, the higher that the origin of the specimen is maintained to some
the fine’s content and the soil plasticity the higher extent. In fact, the comparison of the DD and WD
the suction. Data in this regard was also given by states indicates that direct compaction on the dry side
Marinho & Chandler (1993) who measured suction in implies a larger proportion of larger pores than com-
samples of varying plasticity, compacted at different pacting on the wet side and later bringing the sample,
water contents. by means of controlled drying, to the same target
5
0.6
DD
0.5
WD
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1.E+00 1.E+02 1.E+04 1.E+06
Tamaño de poro (nm)
Figure 4. Moisture and dry density of samples of Barcelona Figure 6. Pore size distributions of compacted Barcelona
silty clay. DD: samples compacted on the dry side; WW: silty clay. DD: Sample compacted on dry side; WD: Sam-
samples compacted on the wet side; DW (WD): samples taken ple compacted on wet side and subsequently dried (Suriol &
to the dry (wet) side, after compacting on the wet (dry) side. Lloret, 2007).
Compaction stress: 0.6 MPa. (Suriol et al, 1998).
0.6
0.6
DW
0.5
WW WW
0.5
DD
0.4
Δe/Δlog D
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
1.E+00 1.E+02 1.E+04 1.E+06
0 Void size (nm)
1.E+00 1.E+02 1.E+04 1.E+06
Void Size (nm) Figure 7. Pore size distributions of compacted Barcelona
silty clay. DW: Sample compacted on dry side and subse-
Figure 5. Pore size distributions of compacted Barcelona quently wetted; and WW: Sample compacted on wet side
silty clay compacted on the dry (DD) or wet (WW) side (Suriol & Lloret, 2007).
(Suriol & Lloret, 2007).
a result of clay expansion. In all cases, the distribu-
state: (γd , w) of specimen DD. In a similar man- tion of micropores has remained essentially unaffected
ner (Fig. 7), wetting the specimen DD towards DW because microporosity depends on the mineralogy and
maintains a larger proportion of larger pores than the grain size distribution of the fine fraction of the
the specimen initially compacted on the wet side. soil which remain unchanged during compaction and
It is also interesting to check that drying develops suction-paths.
large pores in an initially wet specimen (compare The preceding experiments were performed on
pore size distributions of WD and WW specimens unloaded specimens. Loading them will modify
in Fig. 6 and 7). A comparison of states DW and the observed trends in a quantitative manner. It is
DD (Fig. 6 and 7) suggests that wetting leads to a concluded that compaction on the wet or dry side, for
reduction of the proportion of bigger pores, surely as the same dry density, leads to changes in pore size
6
distribution. In addition, the application of suction
paths (drying or wetting) after compaction induces
a continuous and significant modification of the
microstructure of compacted clayey soils. Fabric mod-
ifications induced by suction increase have also been
presented by Cuisinier and Laloui (2004).
In the next section, the volumetric response of
these samples, in one dimensional wetting tests, is
described.
Not only has the compaction water content had a rel-
evant effect on the fabric of compacted soils. Seed &
Chan (1959), based on indirect evidence (stress-strain
curves) pointed out the effect of shear straining dur-
ing compaction. They proposed that static compaction,
which involves comparatively smaller shear straining
than dynamic compaction, induce the aggregation of
clay particles even for compaction on the wet side.
The static and dynamic compaction curves given in
Figure 3 reflect also these effects.
7
Figure 9. Water retention curves of a low plasticity soil obtained by drying of compacted samples at different conditions.
(a), (b) and (c): Initial state. (d): Measured WRC (Marinho & Stuermer, 2000).
density value at different water contents or compaction of optimum water content involves lower collapse
to a given state followed by suitable application of a (or higher swelling if the attained density is high
stress-suction path. Most likely these alternate pro- enough). The microstructure described before gives
cedures lead to a different microstructure. In fact, a good explanation for the volumetric response during
microstructure changes during stress-suction paths. wetting. The proportion of large pores is associated
An example is presented by Simms & Yanful (2001) with the volumetric instability by compression and
who analysed the porosimetry of compacted clayey collapse.
till samples. Significant changes in the shape of pore Suction controlled tests on the described samples of
size distribution before, during and after the WRC test Barcelona silty clay (Fig. 1) corroborate the soil fabric
were obtained. This microstructural differences lead effect on the volumetric behaviour of the soil during
to differences in mechanical and hydraulic behaviour. wetting. Samples WD and DD, which have a com-
Regarding the mechanical behaviour, in general mon initial state (defined it terms of dry density, water
terms, compacted samples on the dry side exhibit content and suction) but they were compacted at differ-
higher stiffness and lower shrinkage during drying ent water contents, were loaded in a suction-controlled
than compacted samples on the wet side, at the oedometer cell and they were later saturated. (Suction
same dry density (Seed & Chan, 1959; Sivakumar & controlled loading is necessary if the effect of loading
Wheeler, 2000a, b). Compaction on the wet side and final wetting is to be isolated). Since they have the
8
relevant question is whether the compaction procedure
only modifies initial conditions or, alternatively, every
combination of compaction method, compaction water
content and achieved density effectively lead to dif-
ferent soils which have to be modelled with different
constitutive parameters.
As discussed previously, compaction is character-
ized in practice by the achieved dry density (γd ) and
the compaction water content (w). Undoubtedly, these
compaction conditions will determine the initial con-
ditions. Initial conditions (in the context of BBM)
are determined by the initial stress state, which will
Figure 10. Volumetric deformation measured at the final be a state of negligible stress immediately after com-
phase of saturation at different vertical stresses. Samples WD paction, before any subsequent load due to construc-
and DD of Barcelona red silty clay (from Suriol et al 1998). tion, the initial value of suction and initial position of
the yield surface. The rest of the effects of the com-
paction procedure on the mechanical response of the
same initial state, the different mechanical behaviour soil that can not be explained by initial conditions must
exhibited by the samples is attributed exclusively to be attributed to the constitutive parameters. The influ-
the fabric produced during compaction. Differences ence of the initial suction and the initial position of
attributed to initial conditions have been eliminated in the yield curve on the subsequent behaviour during
these tests. isotropic loading and wetting in the context of BBM
The volumetric deformation measured during the is described in Sivakumar & Wheeler (2000a and b).
final phase of saturation for the samples DD and Suction induced by compaction will be essentially
WD is presented in Figure 10. They exhibit a similar determined by the water content and, to a lesser extent,
behaviour, in qualitative terms. At low vertical confin- by the dry density achieved as shown in the previous
ing stress (σv = 0.2 MPa) a small swelling is measured. section. Numerical calculations with BBM require the
Collapse then increases with increasing stress. A max- independent determination of the WRC.
imum value was found for σv = 2 MPa. At higher The position of the yield surface after compaction
vertical stresses, the magnitude of the collapse reduces is closely related to the dry density achieved. The ini-
progressively. It is clear that the sample compacted on tial yield stress can be interpreted as the maximum
the wet side was able to develop collapse because of stress of compaction experienced by the soil. Honda
the drying episode after wet compaction. It can also be et al (2003) reported that the yield stress measured
observed that the samples compacted on the dry side in suction-controlled oedometer tests of samples pre-
(DD) exhibit higher collapse than specimens WD. viously compacted at two different static loads and at
different water contents almost coincide with the com-
paction pressure. At given water content, soils com-
2.4 Behaviour of compacted materials from
pacted with higher compaction effort will reach higher
the perspective of an elastoplastic framework
dry densities and will yield at higher stress. In BBM,
for unsaturated soils (BBM)
the position of yield surface is uniquely defined with
Modelling dam behaviour during construction and the yield stress at saturated conditions (p∗0 ). Then, for a
operation is an important consideration in design. given soil, p∗0 is determined by the dry density and it is
Existing constitutive models for unsaturated soils offer essentially independent of compaction water content
the possibility of a consistent analysis of dam per- (Alonso et al, 1987; Gens, 1995; Wheeler, 2000a).
formance. A fundamental initial step is the proper The compaction effort required to achieve a given
characterization of compacted soils. In this section, dry density depends on the soil properties, namely
the behaviour of compacted materials is interpreted in its plasticity and grain size distribution. In order to
the context of an elasto-plastic critical state model for know the preconsolidation stress of a compacted soil,
unsaturated soils: the Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) it is interesting to describe its value by the attained
(Alonso et al, 1990). dry density. In order to do so, a review has been
Compacted soil properties will be defined through made of published compression data of compacted
material parameters. In this way, different soils should specimens of a variety of soil types. In all cases,
be characterized by different constitutive parameters. except for some results from Honda et al (2003) and
It is widely accepted that variations in mineralogy Balmaceda (1991) results, samples were compacted
and in grain size distribution involve fundamentally statically. For each type of soil, tests were performed
different materials and, therefore, they should be char- on specimens compacted at different dry densities.
acterized by different constitutive parameters. But the The preconsolidation yield stress was derived from
9
oedometer, isotropic compression tests or considering suction and β controls the rate of increase of stiff-
the maximum stress applied to the compacted sample. ness with suction). It is then expected that r and β
The results are given in Figure 11. The derived will depend on the type of soil but also on compaction
value of p∗0 is plotted against the initial dry density of conditions.
the specimen. The results follow a definite pattern. Collapse susceptibility of a soil increases when the
The saturated yield stress increases exponentially with LC curve exhibits a rapid increase in yield stress with
the attained dry density. On the other hand, for a given suction. Therefore, in view of the previous discus-
dry density, the more plastic the soil, the higher p∗0 . sion, soils compacted dry of optimum should have
Figure 11 may be useful, in the absence of experi- an LC displaced towards the right, if compared with
ments, to approximate the p∗0 associated with a given soils compacted wet of optimum, at the same dry
dry density. density. This is shown in Figure 12, which was built
The simplest approach to describe the compaction using compressibility and collapse data of compacted
state in terms of the parameters of an elastoplas- Barcelona silty clay. The figure may also be interpreted
tic constitutive model such as BBM is therefore to in the sense that compaction dry of optimum leads
substitute the pair (γd , w) by the stress pair (p∗0 , s). to a larger elastic domain. Note also that the com-
However, the discussion on microstructure and its pressibility coefficient λ(0) for saturated conditions is
consequences in terms of mechanical behaviour (only higher for wet of optimum compaction. Modelling this
volume change has been examined here) suggests that material with BBM implies that specimens located at
material parameters are also controlled by the com- different point in the (w, γd ) compaction plane would
paction state. In particular, the shape of the LC curve require different sets of constitutive parameters. In
is a piece of information key to interpret the effect of other words, variations in compaction procedure lead
suction on the mechanical response of the compacted to different soils.
soil. In BBM the shape of the LC curve is given by However, the simplest approach: a unique set of
parameters r and β (r establishes a minimum value material parameters defining the type of soil (plas-
of the compressibility coefficient for high values of ticity, grain size distribution etc.) and an initial state
characterized by a pair (s0 , p∗0 ), exclusively deter-
mined by the initial compaction variables (w, γd ) may
2.2
be enough to reproduce with sufficient engineering
2 approximation the behaviour of a soil in the com-
paction plane. In fact, a unique set of parameters was
1.8 wL=56%, enough to model by BBM the volumetric behaviour
IP=27%
along loading—collapse paths of a compacted resid-
1.6 ual soil of low plasticity (wL = 23.9–30.1%, wP =
Yield stress (p0*) (MPa)
0.8
0.6 wL=28%
wL=43%, IP=8%
IP=13.4%
0.4
wL=30.5%
wL=33.5%, IP=13.2% IP=11.8%
0.2 NP
0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Dry density (g/cm3)
High plasticity Boom Clay (Romero, 1999)
Medium plasticity soil (Honda et al, 2003)
Medium-low plasticity soil (Honda et al, 2003)
Low plasticity silty clay from Barcelona (Barrera, 2002)
Non plastic silty sand (Balmaceda,1991)
Measured value of San Salvador silty clay
Estimated curve of San Salvador silty clay
Figure 12. Yield surface (LC) for samples of compacted
Figure 11. Relationship between the isotropic yield stress silty clay from Barcelona at dry side (D) and wet side (D) to
at saturated conditions and dry density of several soil types. the optimum value of water content.
10
silty sand and Lawton et al (1989, 1991) who tested Dam construction (expected to last one year long) and
compacted samples of slightly expansive clayey sands operation stages (reservoir impoundment and draw-
(wL = 34%, wP = 15%). Sivakumar and Wheeler down) were modelled by means of CODE_BRIGHT
(2000a and b) also concluded that most of the collapse during the design stage. Dam materials were mod-
potential of a compacted soil prepared by mixing dry elled through BBM. Constitutive parameters of the fill
speswhite kaolin powder and water, at low water con- materials and foundation soil used in the analysis are
tent, could be attributed solely to the value of suction collected in Table 1. These parameters were derived
after compaction. from conventional laboratory test (triaxial, oedometer
and permeability tests).
The effect of compaction conditions in the clay core
3 EFFECT OF COMPACTION CONDITIONS of the dam during constructions has been analysed.
IN THE BEHAVIOUR OF A DAM CORE Dam construction has been simulated considering four
DURING CONSTRUCTION different compaction states of the core material (a silty
clay having wL = 28%, IP = 8%). Figure 14 shows the
San Salvador dam will be built in the near future in compaction curve of this material and the compaction
the Province of Huesca (Spain). It is a 54 meters high states considered in terms of γ d and w (Cases 1, 2, 3
earthdam (a central section is indicated in Fig. 13). and 4). The influence of varying compaction conditions
has been attributed only to the initial conditions
3 2 3
4
Figure 13. Central section of San Salvador Dam; 1: Claystone with sandstone layers; 2: Clay core; 3: Clay and silty gravels;
4: Rockfill.
Value
11
(s0 , p∗0 ) (Tab. 2). Initial suction has been determined illustrate this comment. The soil compacted in 4 has,
with the estimated water retention curve, indicated in however, a higher density than the soil in 2. Therefore
Figure 15. its elastic domain will be larger than the domain for
In order to estimate the value of the saturated yield point 2. During dam construction the soil 2 will tend to
stress (p∗0 ) for the different compaction conditions, accumulate more (plastic) deformations and therefore
data given in Figure 14 was used. An oedometer test positive pore water pressures will also be larger than
performed on a saturated specimen, previously com- for compaction conditions in 4. This is also shown in
pacted at a dry density of 1.8 g/cc provided the yield Figures 16 and 17 although the effect is small because
stress shown in Figure 14. Then a trend for higher differences in p∗0 are also small.
and lower densities was approximated following the The effect on the initial conditions can also be
patterns observed in the figure for other materials. observed in vertical displacements (plotted for each
A curve in the (γd , p∗0 ) plane for the core material case in Figure 18). Higher displacements are expected
of San Salvador dam was established and the value of for Cases 2 and 4 because at low values of suction the
p∗0 for the four cases could be estimated. material is more deformable.
Pore water pressure distributions at the end of dam
construction are plotted in Figure 16. Figure 17 shows
the calculated evolution of pore pressure for a point 1000
located in the lower part of the core. The higher the ini-
tial water content, the higher the expected pore water
pressure generated during construction. In Cases 2
100
and 4 (clay core compacted at wet side of optimum)
positive pore water pressures develop during construc-
tion. However if the clay core is compacted at the
dry side (Cases 1 and 3), pore water pressures remain 10
negative.
In Cases 2 and 4 the soil is almost saturated
Suction (MPa)
0.1
0.01
0.001
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Degree of saturation
Figure 14. Compaction curve of silty clay used in the clay
core of San Salvador Dam. Tested samples from a trial Figure 15. Water retention curve for the silty clay of San
embankment. Salvador dam core.
Table 2. Initial conditions for the clay core of San Salvador dam.
Value
12
Note also that the evolution of settlements is also
controlled by the dissipation of pore pressures. When
positive pressures develop and the dissipation is slow
because of the low core permeability, settlements are
(a) Case 1 delayed. This behaviour is observed in Case 2, dur-
ing the first stage of construction. Later, the higher
deformability of wetter materials (Cases 2 and 4) lead
to higher settlements.
(b) Case 2
4 COMPACTED ROCKFILL
(a)
Figure 17. Pore pressure evolution during construction of
the point indicated in the figure.
(b)
Figure 19. Strength envelopes determined in suction con-
Figure 18. Calculated vertical displacements, during con- trolled triaxial tests on gravel of: (a) Pancrudo slate. (b) Hard
struction, of the point indicated in the figure. limestone.
13
Table 3. A comparison between unsaturated rockfill and Table 4. Constitutive parameters of the Rockfill Model
unsaturated soil. (RM).
14
0 5 10
Time [years]
15 20 25 30
assessment of dams for full reservoir height (or par-
0.0
tially filled), an appropriate conservative assumption
Time [years] involves the consideration of steady state conditions
0.2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.00 because pore pressure reaches maximum values. How-
Crest settlement [% of height over foundation]
Mackintosh
(75)
0.4
0.02 ever, the actual distribution of pore pressures in
Exchequer 0.04 shoulders and cores is difficult to determine by means
0.6
(150)
0.06 of a classical ‘‘saturated’’ analysis. The case described
Murchison
El Infiernillo
(146) 0.08 (94) Alicurá Chocón (90) below illustrate this comment.
(130)
0.8 0.10
In order to estimate actual pore pressure distribu-
Dix River
0.12
Cethana (110)
Alto Anchicaya (140) tions in the dam, unsaturated analysis and the charac-
(84)
1.0
Foz do Areia (160)
terization of the materials in the context of unsaturated
0.14
Nanthala
(80)
conditions (relative permeability and water retention
1.2 curve) are necessary. In the 1960s saturated flow was
CRFD/dumped rockfill
Beliche CRFD/compacted rockfill
adopted in the analysis of pore pressure distribution for
1.4 (54)
Central core/rockfill shells
the steady state condition. This analysis required find-
Rivera de
Central core/gravel shells ing explicitly the position of the free surface (pw = 0),
1.6 Gata (60)
imposing zero normal flow through the free surface,
Figure 21. Crest settlements of several types of rockfill
and then the steady state flow equation for saturated
dams built in the 20th century (Oldecop and Alonso, 2007). media (Laplace equation) together with Darcy’s Law
were solved in the saturated domain. This method-
ology assumes that no flow takes place through the
unsaturated zone. The analysis of transient seepage
settlements of rockfill dams built in the 20th cen- in unsaturated/saturated media was developed at the
tury. Concrete faced rockfill dams (CFRD) as well as end of the 1970s. The flow equation for partially satu-
zoned embankments are represented. Well compacted rated conditions could be solved in the entire domain.
gravely materials exhibit a very limited creep which More recently, coupled models for unsaturated condi-
is expressed in terms of the variation of the ratio of tions have been introduced (Naylor et al, 1997; Alonso
settlement with respect to dam height with time. et al, 1988, 1993, 2005; Khogo, 2002).
Two modern dams (Beliche and Rivera de Gata) Consider again the design of San Salvador dam
built in Portugal and Spain respectively, exhibit (Fig. 13). The set of material properties are given in
remarkably fast creeping rates. The reason, again, is Table 1. The analysis has been carried out by means of
the high sensitivity of the rockfill used (schist and the programme CODE_BRIGHT. The saturated per-
grauwackes in the case of Beliche and shales and phyl- meability and WRC of the different materials involved
lites in the case of Rivera de Gata) to degrade as a are indicated in the table. A cubic law describes the
consequence of particle breakage. A portion of the relative permeability:
apparent creep observed in Figure 21 is in fact due to
collapse deformations induced by atmospheric action 3
on the downstream shell of the dams. This point will Sw max − Sw
krel = (1)
be addressed later. Sw max − Sw min
15
0.4 0.6
Final construction
B Final impoundment
0.5 After 340 days at maximum
reservoir level
0.2 B
0.3
A
Pore pressure (MPa); Vertical displacement (m)
0.2
A
0.1
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
Time (days) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Net mean stress, p (MPa)
(a)
0.6
-0.2
0.5
B 0.4
Suction (MPa)
-0.4 0.3
Final construction A
Final impoundment
After 340 days at maximum
0.2 reservoir level B
0.1
-0.6
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
A
Net mean stress, p (MPa)
(b)
16
-1
Sherard et al. (1963) in their book on earth
and earth-rock dams describe several upstream slope
Final construction
failures attributed to rapid drawdown conditions. Inter-
Vertical stress (MPa)
-0.8
Final impoundment
After 340 days at estingly, in most of the reported failures the drawdown
-0.6 maximum reservoir level did not reach the maximum water depth but approxi-
mately half of it (from maximum reservoir elevation
-0.4
to approximately mid-dam level). Drawdown rates
-0.2 in those cases were not exceptional at all (10 to
15 cm/day). A Report on Deterioration of Dams and
0 Reservoirs (ICOLD, 1980) reviews causes of deterio-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(a) Distance (m)
ration and failures of embankment dams. Thirty-three
0.4
cases of upstream slips were collected and a third of
them were attributed to an excessively rapid draw-
0.3
down of the reservoir. A significant case was San
Pore Pressure (MPa)
HD
6 RAPID DRAWDOWN
6.1 Introduction
The drawdown condition is a classical scenario in
slope stability, which arises when totally or par-
HD
tially submerged slopes experience a reduction of
the external water level. Rapid drawdown conditions = HD w
17
water pressures are negative and suction is defined as where n is the soil porosity; Kskel , the bulk modu-
s = −pw . A drawdown of intensity HD takes the free lus of the soil skeleton, and Kw , the bulk modulus of
water to a new level M N O during a time interval water. Kw is close to Kw = 2100 MPa and, therefore,
tDD . This change in level implies: in practically all cases involving compacted materials
in dam engineering, Kskel Kw and B = 1. Even
– A change in total stress conditions against the slope. for an exceptionally stiff soil material (Kskel ∼
= Kw )
Initial hydrostatic stresses (OAB against the slope the value of B is close to 1. This is a well-known
surface; M N B C against the horizontal lower sur- result but it is often read, in connection with draw-
face) change to O A B and M N B C. The stress down analysis, that in cases of rigid materials the
difference is plotted in Figure 26b. The slope OB is (stress) uncoupled flow analysis is sufficiently accu-
subjected to a stress relaxation of constant intensity rate, implying that no stress-related changes in pore
( σ = HD γw ) in the lower part (BO ) and a linearly pressures are generated. It is clear that this is never the
varying stress distribution in its upper part (O O). case in practice.
The bottom horizontal surface CB experiences a Two wide classes of procedures have been devel-
uniform decrease of stress of intensity, HD γw . oped to analyze drawdown. The first class highlights
– A change in hydraulic boundary conditions. In the effect of changing boundary stresses in order to
its new state, water pressures against the slope calculate the pore water pressures immediately after a
are given by the hydrostatic distribution O’ A’ B (sudden) drawdown. The second class of procedures
on the slope face and by the uniform water pres- uses pure Darcy-type flow, and they are said to be
sure value pw = (H-H D )γw on the horizontal lower valid for rigid (!) and pervious materials. It is also
surface. common, at present, to find flow-based stress uncou-
pled analysis in practical applications and, therefore,
The change in hydrostatic pressures against the slope a distinction of the results likely to be found in case
surface is also a change in total stress which will mod- of stress coupled or uncoupled (pure flow) analysis is
ify the state of stress inside the slope. This stress useful for discussion.
change will induce, in general, a change in pore pres- Figure 27 shows in qualitative terms the expected
sure. The sign and intensity of these pore pressure evolution of pore pressures in a representative point
depend on the constitutive (stress-strain) behaviour of (P2 ) of the slope, plotted in Figure 26, during a
the soil skeleton. An elastic soil skeleton will result in drawdown which takes place in a time interval, tDD .
a change of pore pressure equal to the change in mean Points such as P1, in the upper part of the slope will
(octahedral) stress. If dilatancy (of positive or nega- experience a small change in stresses. During draw-
tive sign) is present, due to shear effects, additional down they will likely become unsaturated. Away from
pore water pressures will be generated. The result- the upstream slope (point P3 in Figure 26) stress effects
ing pore pressures will not be in equilibrium with associated with the slope geometry disappear and pore
the new boundary conditions and a transient regime pressures will follow the changing levels of the reser-
will develop. If soil permeability is high pore pres- voir. However, the behaviour of Point P2 , close to the
sures will dissipate fast, perhaps concurrently with the slope toe, is strongly controlled by the stress state
modification of boundary conditions. This situation induced by drawdown. The resulting pore pressures
will constitute a ‘‘drained’’ reaction of the slope. In during the drawdown process will be affected by the
fact, velocity of drawdown and permeability should
be considered jointly in order to decide if the slope
reacts in a drained or undrained manner. In practice,
however, drawdown rates vary between narrow lim-
its and the soil permeability becomes the dominant
parameter.
Skempton (1954) and Henkel (1960) provided
expressions for the development of pore pressures
(pw ) under undrained conditions before modern
constitutive equations were born. The B coef-
ficient of the well known Henkel expression is
given by:
⎛ ⎞
1 Figure 27. Change in pore water pressures in Point
B=⎝ K
⎠ (2) P2 for coupled or uncoupled analysis and pervious or
1+ n Kskel
w impervious fill.
18
rate of water level lowering, the ‘‘map’’ of initial pore
pressures, (which, in turn, depend on the stress field),
and by the source terms associated with the volume
change experienced by the soil skeleton—controlled
by soil stiffness- and any possible change in satura-
tion conditions. Figure 27 indicates that the uncoupled
analysis (which makes the assumption of rigid soil)
leads, in the case of an impervious soil, to the predic-
tion of the highest pore pressures inside the slope. If
the soil is definitely pervious no difference between
coupled or uncoupled hypothesis will be found. Most
cases in practice will remain in an intermediate zone,
which will require a coupled analysis for a reasonable
pore pressure prediction.
A reference to the usual expression of time to reach a
given degree of consolidation, U , in one-dimensional
consolidation problems, provides a clue on the effect
of soil stiffness:
L2 T (U )
t= γw (3)
kEm
19
published plots providing safety factors after draw- drawdown conditions may be found in Cedergren
down in terms of drawdown ratio (HD /H in Fig. 26) (1967).
for different values of slope angle, effective cohesion Finite difference approximations and, later, finite
and effective friction. The dam geometry was simple: element techniques were used in the 60’s and 70’s to
a homogeneous triangular dam on an impervious base. calculate the flow regime under drawdown conditions.
Much later, Lane & Griffiths (2000) solved a similar The major problem was to predict the location of the
case in term of geometry, but failure conditions were phreatic surface during drawdown. When Dupuit-type
calculated by means of a (c , ϕ ) reduction procedure of assumptions -horizontal flow- are made (Brahma &
built into a finite element program, which uses a Mohr- Harr, 1962; Stephenson 1978) the location of the
Coulomb failure criterion. They do not solve any flow zero-pressure surface comes automatically from the
equation in their program and it is not clear how they analysis. When solving the Laplace equation by finite
could derive the pore water pressures induced by total elements (Desai, 1972, 1977), some re-meshing pro-
stress unloading. cedures were devised. An additional example of a
Lowe & Karafiath (1980) and Baker et al. (1993) determination of the free surface is given in Cividini &
performed undrained analyses to calculate the safety Gioda (1984).
factors of slopes under rapid drawdown conditions. In parallel, the liquid water flow equation for unsat-
The analysis is applicable to relatively impervious urated porous media was being solved by means
soils and it does not require a determination of pore of finite difference or finite element approximations
pressures after drawdown (which is required for a (Rubin, 1968; Richards & Chan, 1969; Freeze, 1971;
drained analysis of the type performed by Morgen- Cooley, 1971; Neumann, 1973; Akai et al., 1979;
stern). Instead, the idea is to find the distribution of Hromadka & Guymon, 1980, among others). These
undrained strengths for the particular stress state just developments made it obsolete the involved numeri-
before drawdown. However, the emphasis in this paper cal techniques required to approximate the free surface
lies on the determination of pore pressures after draw- through the saturated flow equation. Berilgen (2007)
down so that general effective stress analysis could be published recently a contribution to the drawdown
performed. problem. The author used two commercial programs
Flow methods probably started with the contribu- for transient/flow and deformation analysis respec-
tion of Casagrande (1937), who developed a procedure tively. He reported a sensitivity analysis involving a
to find the time required to reach a certain ‘‘propor- simple slope geometry. Safety factors are calculated
tion of drainage’’ of the upstream shell of dams having by a (c , ϕ ) reduction method built into the mechan-
an impervious clay core. By assuming a straight sat- ical finite element program. The author emphasized
uration line, he was able to derive some analytical that the undrained rapid drawdown case and the fully
expressions. Later Reinius (1954) demonstrated the drained case (high permeability) are rough approxi-
use of flow nets to solve slow drawdown problems. mations for other intermediate situations likely to be
This contribution was based on earlier work published found in practice.
in Sweden. The key idea is that: Pauls et al. (1999) reports a case history. A stress-
uncoupled finite element program was used to analyse
[... ] the flow net at slow drawdown is determined the pore pressure evolution in a river bank as a result of
by dividing the time in intervals and assuming the a flooding situation. Consistently, predicted pore pres-
reservoir water level to be stationary and equal to the sures remained well above the measured piezometric
average value during the interval. data. One possible explanation, not given in the origi-
He also computed, based on the Swedish friction nal paper, is the uncoupled nature of the computational
circle method of analysis, safety factors during draw- code used. In fact, no riverbank failures were observed
down and plotted them in terms of a coefficient (k/nv), in this case despite the calculated safety factors, lower
which integrates the soil permeability (k), the porosity than one.
(n) and the rate of drawdown, v. He also explained, in
the following terms, the pore water pressure generation 6.3 Drawdown in a single slope
due to rapid drawdown:
Consider the case sketched in Figure 26. A fully
When the reservoir is lowered rapidly the total
submerged simple slope will experience a drawdown
stresses decrease. If the soil does not contain air bub-
condition when the water level acting against the slope
bles and the water content remains unchanged, the
surface is lowered. The actual geometry of the slope
effective stresses in the soil also remains unchanged
analyzed is given in Figure 29. The figure indicates the
provided that the compressibility of the water is
position of three singular points used in the discussion:
neglected. Hence the neutral stresses must decrease.
A point at midslope (PA ), a point at the slope toe (PB )
A similar statement may be found in Terzaghi and and a point away from the slope (PC ) which is rep-
Peck (1948). Examples of flow net construction for resentative of ‘‘bottom of the sea’’ conditions. Three
20
The initial state of pore pressure will be hydrostatic
50 m (Fig. 31). Consider first the case of a total and rapid
PA
PC PB 100 m drawdown. If the analysis is performed uncoupled, no
change in pore pressures inside the slope will be cal-
culated immediately after drawdown. This is the case
Profile 3 Profile 2 Profile 1 plotted in Figure 32, which was obtained with program
Code_Bright when only the flow calculation was acti-
Figure 29. Geometry of the slope. Labels indicate the vated. Note that Figures 31 and 32 provide essentially
position of three singular points mentioned in the discussion. the same distribution of water pressures.
A realistic condition concerning the drawdown rate
(v = 0.5 m/day) will be imposed in the cases presented
1000
1.E-08 here. During drawdown boundary conditions of the
100
1.E-09
upstream slope will follow a ‘‘seepage face condition’’:
the boundary is assumed impervious unless the calcu-
Permeability (m/s)
10 1.E-10
Suction (MPa)
Uncoupled
0.5
auxiliary vertical profiles will assist in the analysis of
results. 0.4
An elastic constitutive law will characterize the Coupled; E=10000 MPa and E=1000 MPa
21
0.5
Table 5. Drawdown of a zoned earthdam. Constitutive
0.45 parameters.
0.4 Uncoupled
Pore water pressure (MPa)
0.25
ROCKFILL HYDRAULIC BEHAVIOUR
0.2
Saturated permeability k m/s 10−6
Coupled; E =100 MPa Retention curve parameters
0.15
(Van Genuchten) p0 MPa 0.007, 0.2
0.1
λ – 0.33
0.05
Maximum degree of
0 saturation Sw max – 1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (days) Minimum degree of
saturation Sw min – 0
Figure 34. Pore water pressure evolution after progressive ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR
drawdown in the point PA (see Fig. 29). Elastic modulus E MPa 100
Poisson’s ratio ν – 0.3
INITIAL STATE
be generalized. It is also interesting to realize that the Initial degree of saturation Sw0 – 0.8
unrealistic uncoupled analysis leads to a lower pore Initial mean yield stress p∗o MPa 0.02
pressure prediction in the long term. This is a result of Initial porosity n – 0.3
the implicit assumption of infinite skeleton stiffness
of the uncoupled calculation, which leads to faster CLAY CORE HYDRAULIC BEHAVIOUR
dissipation rates than the coupled approach. Saturated permeability k m/s 10−8
Retention curve parameters
(Van Genuchten) p0 MPa 0.05, 2
6.4 Drawdown in a simple zoned earthdam λ – 0.33
Maximum degree of
In order to illustrate the behaviour of a dam dur- saturation Sw max – 1
ing drawdown, of a zoned dam with a central core, Minimum degree of
stabilized by means of two rockfill shells, has been saturation Sw min – 0
simulated. Once steady state conditions are reached,
ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR
at maximum reservoir elevation, a drawdown at a con- Elastic modulus E MPa 50
stant rate of 0.5 m/day was simulated. Table 5 indicates Poisson’s ratio ν – 0.3
the constitutive parameters selected for the rockfill
shells and the clay core. Linear elastic materials were INITIAL STATE
assumed in this case because drawdown is, in general, Initial degree of saturation Sw0 – 0.8
a case of mechanical unloading (see, however, Pinyol Initial mean yield stress p∗o MPa 0.02
et al, 2008). The values of saturated permeability are Initial porosity n – 0.3
indicated in Table 5. A cubic law describes the relative
permeability.
A sensitivity analysis against a variation of the
value of p0 (0.2 or 0.007 MPa), of the shell material,
was performed. The shell saturated permeability was
10−6 m/s. The second parameter of the retention curve, (a)
λ, was kept constant at the value given in Table 5.
This drawdown case is discussed in detail in (Pinyol
et al. 2008). Initial conditions result from the steady
state situation reached at maximum reservoir level.
Calculated pore pressures, at the end of drawdown, are (b)
plotted in Figure 35. Only positive pore pressure values
are indicated in the figures to make them clearer. Figure 35. Pore pressure distribution after total drawdown:
For the same permeability, the higher is p0 , the lower (a) p0 = 0.2 MPa and (b) p0 = 0.007 MPa (Pinyol et al.
is the pore pressure calculated . The amount of drained 2008).
water is similar in both cases. For p0 = 0.007 MPa the
relatively small zone that becomes unsaturated during higher than 0). If positive pore pressure values are con-
the drawdown has low values of degree of saturation. sidered in stability calculation, higher p0 may leads to
Whereas, for p0 = 0.2 MPa, the shell material is higher safety factors against slope failure than the case
practically saturated above the phreatic line (suction of a lower air entry value.
22
Table 6. Parameters for the drawdown analysis of San Salvador dam.
Upstream
Parameter Symbol Unit Foundation shell Core
500
Start
drawdown
400
200
Drawdown
100 completed
(a)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (days)
Coupled Mod. Uncoupled Mod.
600
500
6.5 Drawdown analysis of San Salvador dam
Drawdown
Some relevant results of the drawdown analysis per- 400
completed
formed on San Salvador earthdam, (Fig. 16), which 300
has recently been designed, are now discussed. Param- 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
eters for the analysis are given in Table 6. They were Time (days)
Coupled Mod. Uncoupled Mod.
determined from tests performed at the design stage
of the dam.
Figure 36 shows a comparison of calculated pore Figure 38. San Salvador dam. Evolution of pore pressures
in a point within the foundation, Ander the upstream shell
water pressures alter drawdown for the coupled and during drawdown and subsequent times.
uncoupled cases. The analyzed drawdown corre-
sponds to the design specifications: reservoir level
decreases 24 m in 60 days. Calculated pore pres- pore pressures under the bottom of the reservoir should
sures in the upstream shell, core and foundation under follow, in an essentially instantaneous manner, the
the hypothesis of uncoupled analysis are significantly variations of reservoir water level. The uncoupled
higher than in the coupled case. This is clear also in analysis results in pore pressures higher than the level
Figures 37–39 which provide the evolution of pore in the reservoir.
water pressures in three representative points of the A similar result is observed in a profile directly
dam: two in the foundation and a third one in the shell, affected by the dam (below the upstream toe; see
close to the core. Figure 37 indicates that non-coupled Fig. 40). Three cases are represented: initial profile,
analyses are unable to reproduce an elementary result: profile immediately after drawdown and long term. In
23
800
Start
700 drawdown
Water Pressure (kPa)
600
500
400 Drawdown
completed
300
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Time (days)
Coupled Mod. Uncoupled Mod.
x = 227 m
x = 180 m
x=4m
100
100 Figure 41. Beliche dam. Settlement record of surface
80
marker J54.
80
Height (m)
Height (m)
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 250 500 750 1000 0 250 500 750 1000
Water Pressure (kPa) Water Pressure (kPa)
Initial state Drawdown completed Long term Initial state Drawdown completed Long term
24
0.2
J54
-0.4
B -0.6
-0.8
(a) -1
100 0 360 720 1080 1440 1800 2160 2520 2880 3240 3600
Time (d)
, , , 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
90 (a)
80 0
Base Case
.
-0.2
70
1 -0.4
60
-0.6
50 3
-0.8
40
-1
30
2 -1.2
20 0 360 720 1080 1440 1800 2160 2520 2880 3240 3600
Time (d)
10 4 (b)
0
, y
Figure 44. (a) Evolution of vertical displacements of sur-
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
Vertical stress [MPa] face marker J54. Comparison of measured and calculated
(b) values when the rockfill permeability of shells is increased
ten times with respect to the base case. Also indicated
Figure 43. (a) Sketch of a deforming dam because of shell (b) is the calculated evolution of water pressure (suction) in
collapse (Soriano, 1993). (b) Interpretation of deformations a reference point within the inner downstream rockfill.
of point B (1–2: first wetting; 2–3: first drying; 3–4: second
wetting).
current yield line towards zero suction state. Only rain-
records exhibit a slow accumulation of deformations fall intensities exceeding previous rainfall events will
but they are no longer associated with rainfall events. have the chance of deforming the dam (Path 3–4 in
It is concluded that long term settlements of rockfill Fig. 43b). Eventually, if a rainfall event is capable
shells have two origins: a water content or suction of taking the entire downstream shell to 100% rela-
related mechanism and a true creep effect which is tive humidity the full collapse potential of the rockfill
not much dependent of water action. would be developed. Beyond this time no additional
The first effect may easily be explained by current water-induced settlements would be expected.
elastoplastic models of rockfill (or unsaturated soil For a given weather regime, the most significant
behaviour). Figure 43a shows the deformation of a property which would control the necessary time
dam due to the collapse of the upstream shell. Consider span to develop the entire collapse potential of the
now point B within the downstream shell of a dam. dam downstream shell is the shell permeability. Of
Compaction and subsequent construction of the entire course, the upstream shell is affected by reservoir level
dam will result in a given state of stress (Point 1 in a changes in a direct manner and saturation (and the
simplified vertical stress-suction space). Most likely, associated collapse) would be typically a consequence
loading of Point B during construction will follow a of the first impounding. In the downstream shell, the
yielding path and therefore Point B will end up in a resulting Relative Humidity at a given point for a given
yield line (the LC yield curve passing through Point B rainfall intensity will be smaller, the higher the rock-
in Fig. 43b). Rainfall will induce a suction reduction fill permeability, K. This is shown in Figure 44 in
(path 1–2). Irreversible compressible deformation will connection will Beliche dam. The history of calculated
take place. Drying during subsequent stages (path 2–3) pressure in a point of the downstream shell is given
will only result in negligible shrinkage. Once in Point 2 Figure 44b. When Kincreases suction remains higher
and given the current LC yield surface at that moment, and collapse strains are reduced. The calculate settle-
the only possibility for additional significant volumet- ments are now smaller than the values found for the
ric compression of Point B will be to drag again the ‘‘base case’’ which corresponds to lower permeability
25
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0
0.2MPa
0.4MPa
1 0.6MPa
0.8MPa
2 1.0MPa
1.2MPa
3 1.4MPa
1.6MPa
4 1.8MPa
2.0MPa
5
2.4MPa
6
2.8MPa
7
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
-1
0
0.2MPa
1 Figure 46. Time-dependent compressibility index, λt , mea-
0.4MPa sured in oedometer tests performed on compacted gravel of
2 a quartzitic slate (after Oldecop & Alonso, 2002).
3 0.6MPa
4
0.8MPa
5
1.0MPa
6
7 1.2MPa
1.4MPa
8
9 1.6MPa
10 1.8MPa
11
12
2.6 MPa
13
2.8MPa
14
26
experimental findings led to propose the following creek, but progressively decreased in height in the rest
phenomenological relationship for ε̇ in the case of of the dyke perimeter. In fact, the ground topography
volumetric creep. was used to reduce the length of the artificial dam and,
in some parts of the perimeter, the dam was not nec-
essary. Figure 48 shows the dam cross section at the
μp s + patm
ε̇vc = 1 − β c ln (4) position of the original creek draining the area later
t patm occupied by the pond.
On first impoundment, when the water level
where μ and β c are model parameters. reached 15 m over foundation, a section of the dam,
The following values were identified for the com- located directly above the position of the creek, failed
pacted Pancrudo shale: μ = 0.0012 MPa−1 and β c = causing a violent flood. Figure 49 shows the failed
0.083. No experimental information is available for section. The development of the failure was not
shear creep. In the analysis of Beliche dam (Alonso observed. When the photograph in Figure 49 was
et al, 2005) an equation similar to (3) was suggested taken, the reservoir was essentially empty.
for deviatoric creep. Under triaxial conditions it was Field observations (Fig. 50) indicated that the fill
the proposed to substitute p by qand to maintain the β c could have a significant collapse potential and, prob-
coefficient. However the μ coefficient was substituted ably, a susceptibility to internal erosion. Troughs and
by η = 0.3 μ. The calculations reproduced in Figure sinkholes were observed in the downstream slope of
44 were performed with a generalized constitutive the dam a few years after the collapse. The compacted
model for rockfill behaviour in which deformations soils (they are observed in the background of Fig. 50,
had tree origins: elastic, plastic and creep. The model where the almost vertical slope of the failed section
was able to reproduce in a satisfactory manner the remained stable a few years after the dam failure) were
recorded short and long term behaviour (10 years) of rather heterogeneous.
Beliche dam. Low plasticity sandy clays and high plasticity clays
Finally, in a recent work (Oldecop and Alonso, were compacted within short distances. There are also
2007) it was shown that the creep coefficient λt could indications that the achieved field densities were lower
be simply related with the stress-based compressibil- than the Optimum Normal Proctor values. Wetting
ity coefficient λ. This is shown in the Figure 47 which under load tests performed on some specimens indi-
shows the measured correlation between the two com- cated a high collapse potential. In two tests performed,
pressibility indices. The correlation depends on the collapse deformations reached values of 3.8% (for
current suction (λt /λ decreases as suction increases) a vertical load of 85 kPa) and 8.3% (for a vertical
but λt /λ for rockfill is similar to values reported in the load of 245 kPa). These two vertical loads are well
literature for granular soils. Further discussion of this within the range of vertical stresses expected within
topic is given in Oldecop and Alonso (2007 a, b). the maximum cross section given in Figure 48.
Existing trees along the creek were felled during
construction works. However, stumps were left ‘‘in
situ’’. A few years after the failure stumps grew green
8 DAM FAILURE DURING IMPOUNDMENT: again and gave rise to new trees in their ancient loca-
A CASE OF FILL COLLAPSE tions. This is an indication of the imperfect cleaning
operations of the creek, which implies that any rain
An homogeneous dam covered by an impervious mem- water falling into the pond area during construction
brane was built in an arid environment to create an was eventually drained out through the creek bed. This
artificial pond. The pond occupied a small watershed situation could only change in the final stage of the
area which was drained by a small creek. The dam works, when the HDPE membrane covered the pond
had a maximum height of 20 m at the location of the and the upstream slopes of the dam.
27
connecting the upstream and downstream slopes of
the dam.
28
parameters were approximated from some available
laboratory data. In particular, collapse tests provided
important information to approximate most of BBM
parameters. A simulated collapse test under a vertical
stress of 200 kPa is shown in Figure 52. The model in
this case predicts a collapse of 5.5% for a full wetting.
Starting at an initial suction of 3 MPa, these collapse
strains are believed to approximate actual ‘‘in situ’’
conditions.
BBM parameters selected to perform the calcula-
tions are summarized in Table 7.
The model dimensions are 100 m (horizontal
dimension) by 20 m (vertical dimension). It was
‘‘built’’ in 500 days, assuming an initial porosity n Figure 53. Evolution of vertical stresses against a plane
located 2 m above the base during wetting of the central lower
= 0.5 and initial suction s = 3 MPa.
point (creek).
Boundaries were considered impervious during this
phase. Then the suction in the lower centred point
was brought to zero. Vertical stresses around this wet-
ting point began to change at a rate controlled by
the assumed soil permeability. Results are shown in
Figure 53. Arching effects are clear in the figure.
Points above the creek position experience a reduction
in stress, compensated by an increase away from the
wetting point. The final result of collapse and unload-
ing phenomena is a decrease in porosity, indicating
a trend towards the development of open voids (this
is the case if the reduction in porosity concentrates
on preferential planes, namely the planes between
compaction layers).
This demonstration exercise was not developed in
more detail because its aim was to support, in a
qualitative way, a proposed mechanism for dam col-
lapse. The dam failure highlights the risks associated
with differential collapse inside an embankment struc-
ture. This differential collapse may be triggered by dif-
ferential wetting processes (this is the case discussed
here) or by other situations (differential stiffness, for
Figure 52. Collapse test simulated with the adopted BBM instance). Of course, the original and fundamental risk
Model. is associated with the inherent high collapse poten-
tial of an insufficiently compacted soil, especially if
compacted on the dry side.
Table 7. Set of model parameters used in the simulation of
collapse conditions of the fill.
κ Elastic compressibility 0.008 Compacted soils are first reviewed in the paper. An
λ(o) Saturated virgin compressibility 0.1 effort is made to relate the basic compaction variables
r Parameter defining LC curve 0.5 (γ d , w) with constitutive parameters needed to per-
β Parameter defining LC curve 12 MPa−1 form comprehensive analysis of earthdam structures.
pc Reference stress 0.02 MPa
ν Poisson’s ratio 0.3
The discussion was centered on the hypothesis and
M Critical state slope 1 parameters of the Barcelona Basic Model. It is shown
that a first reasonable approximation is to substitute
Hydraulic parameters
the pair (γ d , w) by the pair of stress variable (saturated
K Saturated intrinsic permeability (isotropic) 10−12 m2
po Parameter of V. Genuchten model 0.24 MPa isotropic yield stress, p∗0 , suction, s). A relationship
λ Shape of V. Genuchten model 0.5 between yield stress, p∗0 , dry density and soil plasticity
λr Power for relative permeability (Kr = Sλr r ) 3 has tentatively been provided on the basis of a num-
ber of experimental results. However, the paper also
29
highlights the relevant effect of microstructure to prop- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
erly define the mechanical and hydraulic properties of
compacted soils. The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of
The effect of compaction conditions on the Prof. S. Olivella, Prof. L. Oldecop and Eng. E. Ortega
behaviour of a zoned dam during construction is and C. Delorme to the preparation of this paper
then discussed. A sensitivity analysis of a recently
designed dam (San Salvador) was performed using the
computer code CODE_BRIGHT, for coupled thermo-
hydro-mechanical analysis of unsaturated/saturated
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32
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
P. Delage
Ecole des Ponts, CERMES (Université Paris-Est, UR Navier), France
E. Romero
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
A. Tarantino
Universita degli Studi di Trento, Italy
ABSTRACT: The difficulty of measuring and controlling suction in unsaturated soils is one of the reasons why
the development of the mechanics of unsaturated soils has not been as advanced as that of saturated soils. How-
ever, significant developments have been carried out in the last decade in this regard. In this paper, a review of
some developments carried out in the techniques of controlling suction by using the axis translation, the osmotic
method and the vapour control technique is presented. The paper also deals with some recent developments in
the direct measurement of suction by using high capacity tensiometers and in the measurement of high suction
by using high range psychrometers. The recent progresses made in these techniques have been significant
and will certainly help further experimental investigation of the hydromechanical behaviour of unsaturated
soils.
The coupled effects of changes in suction and stress 2.1 Axis translation technique
on the response of unsaturated soils is a fundamental
aspect to consider when dealing with unsaturated soils. 2.1.1 Introduction
The difficulty of measuring and controlling suction is The axis translation technique is the most commonly
one of the reasons why the development of the mechan- used technique of controlling suction. Early develop-
ics of unsaturated soils has not been as advanced as that ments of this technique started with the pressure plate
of saturated soils in which water pressure is positive. outflow technique (Richards 1941, Gardner 1956).
In relation with the significant increase in research The axis translation technique is associated with the
efforts carried out during the last two decades in the matrix suction component, in which water potential is
mechanics of unsaturated soils, various techniques of controlled by means of liquid phase transfer through
measuring and controlling suction have been adopted a saturated interface—usually a saturated high air-
and/or further developed. These techniques have been entry value (HAEV) ceramic disk or a cellulose acetate
described in detail in various papers (including Ridley membrane—which is permeable to dissolved salts.
and Wray 1996, Agus and Schanz 2005, Rahardjo and The procedure involves the translation of the refer-
Leong 2006). ence pore air pressure, through an artificial increase
Recently, significant advances have been per- of the atmospheric pressure in which the soil is
formed in the field of controlling and measuring immersed. Consequently, the negative pore water pres-
suction. This paper deals with some recent achieve- sure increases by an equal amount if incompressibility
ments gained in the use of the three techniques of of soil particles and water is assumed—i.e., if the cur-
controlling suction, i.e. the axis-translation technique, vature of the menisci is not greatly affected. The trans-
the osmotic technique and the vapour control tech- lation of the pore water pressure into the positive range
nique. Two techniques of measuring suction are also allows its measurement (Hilf 1956), and consequently,
considered, i.e. high capacity tensiometers and high its control if water pressure is regulated through
range psychrometers. a saturated interface in contact with the sample.
33
This technique has been experimentally evaluated with continuity between the pore water and the water in
soils having a continuous air phase and a degree of sat- the control system. In addition, the accumulation of
uration varying between 0.76 and 0.95 by Fredlund and air can lead to water volume change errors in drained
Morgenstern (1977) and by Tarantino et al. (2000) for tests and to pore-water pressure measurement errors in
degrees of saturation between 0.56 and 0.77. undrained tests. Consequently, an auxiliary device is
The axis translation technique has been criticised required to flush periodically air bubbles accumulated
concerning the following aspects: i) it is not represen- below the HAEV ceramic. The following expression
tative of field conditions where air pressure is under describes the rate of accumulation of dissolved air
atmospheric conditions; ii) there are some doubts in beneath the ceramic disk, which is based on the gradi-
how the air pressurisation process affects the water ent of air concentration being the driving mechanism
pressure when water is held by adsorption mecha- (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993, Romero 1999):
nisms; and finally iii) its application at nearly saturated
states in the absence of a continuous gaseous phase is dVd n A D h(ua − uw )
not straightforward. Nevertheless, the axis translation = (1)
dt (uw + uatm )tc
technique has proved to provide reasonable results and
a good continuity between vapour equilibrium results
where n, A and tc , represent the porosity, the cross-
at elevated suctions and nearly saturated states. An
sectional area and the disk thickness, respectively. h, is
example can be found in Figure 1, in which the over-
the volumetric coefficient of solubility of dissolved air
all picture of water retention results under constant
in water (h = 0.018 at 22◦ C). D, is the diffusion coef-
volume conditions obtained by combining different
ficient through the saturated interface. uatm , represents
techniques (high-range transistor psychrometers and
the absolute atmospheric pressure; ua and uw refer to
vapour control technique) jointly with axis translation,
air and water gauge pressures respectively. The quan-
shows an adequate overlapping.
tification of air diffusion has been recently carried out
The major experimental difficulties concerning the
by Romero (2001a), De Gennaro et al. (2002), Airò
application of the axis translation are associated with:
Farulla and Ferrari (2005) and Padilla et al. (2006).
i) the accumulation of diffused air beneath the HAEV
Lawrence et al. (2005) presented a pressure pulse tech-
ceramic disk, ii) the control of the relative humidity of
nique for measuring the diffused air volume by using
the air chamber to minimise evaporation or condensa-
pressure/volume controllers.
tion effects on the sample, iii) the application of the
Figure 2 presents values of the coefficient of dif-
air pressurisation process at elevated degrees of satu-
fusion of air through a saturated ceramic disk with
ration, and iv) the estimation of the equalisation time.
an air-entry value higher than 1 MPa as a function of
the applied matrix suction. Typical values are included
2.1.2 Air diffusion between 3 × 10−11 and 2 × 10−10 m2 /s (for suctions
Air diffusion through the saturated porous network
of the interface can induce the progressive loss of
100
Suction (MPa)
10 drying
wetting
1
vapor transfer
0.1
axis translation
0.01
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
Water content
Figure 2. Diffusion coefficients for air through saturated
Figure 1. Water retention curves obtained by combining ceramic disks as a function of the applied matrix suction
axis translation with other techniques (Hoffmann et al. 2005). (Airò Farulla and Ferrari 2005).
34
<0.7 MPa) with lower values than that of air diffusion dries the clay surface, and b) a liquid flux through
in water (around 2.2 × 10−9 m2 /s at 20◦ C). Factors the ceramic disk that regulates the imposed matrix
such as the tortuosity of the paths and a possible break- suction. A series of 1-D numerical analysis was car-
down of Henry’s law in curved air-water interfaces can ried out by Romero (1999) to simulate evaporative
be associated with this reduction (Barden and Sides fluxes and matrix suction changes during a wet-
1967). The figure shows how this coefficient tends to ting path. A maximum volumetric evaporative flux
increase as suction increases over 0.7 MPa and how it of 9.4 × 10−7 (mm3/s)/mm2 was computed when an
gets closer to the air-entry value of the ceramic (the initial relative humidity of 0.5 was imposed in the
value at which the gas convection transport is initi- air chamber. With measured volumetric evaporative
ated). As deduced from Equation (1), increasing the fluxes lower than this value, no important conse-
water pressure is an efficient way to reduce air diffu- quences are expected and relatively uniform matrix
sion rates for a given geometry of the interface element suction distribution is expected throughout the sample
and for a specified matrix suction. The conventional height (Romero 1999, 2001a, b).
technique of the pressure plate apparatus, in which
the pressure of water is maintained under atmospheric
2.1.4 Air pressurisation at elevated degrees
conditions, is the less efficient configuration to control
of saturation
the diffusion of air.
The application of air pressure at elevated degrees of
saturation (involving occluded air bubbles) can induce
2.1.3 Evaporation and condensation effects irreversible arrangements in the soil skeleton due to
Vapour transfers between the soil and the surround- pore fluid compression and to the fact that air pres-
ing air can be controlled by maintaining an adequate sure acts as a total stress when the continuity of air
relative humidity in the air chamber (around 95%). is not ensured. Bocking and Fredlund (1980) studied
Evaporative fluxes are originated by the difference the effect of occluded air when using the axis transla-
in vapour pressure between the soil surface and the tion technique. As a consequence, if nearly saturated
air chamber. Volumetric evaporative fluxes can be states are expected to be reached during the hydraulic
detected in the water volume change device as a non- paths, it is preferable to increase the air pressure when
stop inflow into the soil under steady-state conditions. the continuity of air is ensured (degrees of satura-
Condensation of vapour in the internal walls of the tion < 0.85) and then to maintain the continuous air
pressure chamber due to temperature variations has phase at constant pressure. After this initial stage it
also been reported by Oliveira and Marinho (2006). is possible to attain nearly saturated states, since the
Measured volumetric evaporative fluxes at differ- air pathways have already been created. This can be
ent porosities are presented in Figure 3 for a com- observed in Figure 1, in which the drying path followed
pacted clay specimen placed inside an air chamber at a wetting path that attained very low matrix suctions.
an initial relative humidity of 0.50 (Romero 1999). Nevertheless, if air pressure is required to be increased
As shown in the figure, two different water fluxes are at high saturation values, it is preferable to change it at
involved in the process: a) an evaporative flux that very slow rates to allow the system to create air path-
ways and to diffuse air through the liquid (Di Mariano
1.0E-00 6
2000, Romero 2001a).
Computed evaporative flux
at 22˚C and constant h r =50%
Volumetric evaporative flux ((mm 3 /s)/mm 2 )
35
impedance and the soil permeability to determine the membrane (permeable to water) while an aqueous
time evolution of the water volume change in a soil solution containing large sized soluble polyethylene
with a rigid matrix, it is possible to estimate an equal- glycol molecules (PEG) is circulated behind the mem-
isation time t95 for which 95% of the water outflow or brane. The PEG molecules cannot go through the
inflow has occurred (note that for simplicity only one membrane, resulting in an osmotic suction applied to
term of the Fourier series has been kept): the sample through the membrane. Being the mem-
2 brane permeable to the salts dissolved in the water, the
L2 α osmotic technique controls the matrix suction, like the
t95 ≈ − 2 ln 1 (a + csc2 α1 ) ; axis translation technique. The value of the imposed
α1 D 40
suction depends on the concentration of the solution,
π
aα1 = cot α1 with 0 < α1 ≤ ; (2) the higher the concentration, the higher the suction.
2 The suction/concentration relation will be discussed
kw δs later in some details.
D= Semi-permeable membranes are characterised by
nγw δSr
there molecular Weight Cut Off (MWCO) that is linked
where L is the soil height, D the capillary diffusiv- to the size of the PEG molecules that they can retain
ity that is assumed constant and dependent on the (MWCO 12 000–14 000 membranes are used with
water permeability kw and on the soil water capac- PEG 20 000, MWCO 6 000 with PEG 3 500, MWCO
ity, δs/δSr (being s the matrix suction, Sr the degree 4 000 with PEG 2 000 and MWCO 1 500 with PEG
of saturation respectively), n the porosity and γw the 1 000). Note that the smaller the MWCO, the higher the
unit weight of water; a the ratio of impedance of the membrane permeability. Semi-permeable membranes
ceramic disk with respect to the impedance of the soil are most often made up of cellulose acetate, but inter-
a = kw tc /(Lkd ) (being tc the ceramic disk thickness esting results using more resistant polyether sulfonated
and kd its water permeability respectively) and α1 the membranes have been published by Slatter et al. (2000)
solution of the equation in the indicated range. For low and Monroy et al. (2007). Semi-permeable mem-
disk impedance, a ≈ 0 and α1 ≈ π/2, the minimum branes are obviously thinner than the ceramic disks
equalisation time can be approximately estimated as: used in the axis translation technique, but, as shown
in Delage and Cui (2008a), they have comparable
L2 impedances I (I = e/k, being e and k the thickness
t95 ≈ 1.129 (3) and water permeability respectively). On a Spectra-
D
por 12 000–14 000 membrane, Suraj de Silva (1987)
For a clayey soil with L = 20 mm, n = 0.48, kw = obtained e = 50 μm and k = 10−12 m/s, giving
5 × 10−12 m/s and δs/δSr ≈ 2.8 MPa in the suction I = 5 × 107 s, compared to an impedance value
range 0.1 MPa < s < 0.5 MPa and with disk proper- of 7.5 × 10−7 s given by Fredlund and Rahardjo
ties characterised by tc = 7 mm and kd = 10−10 m/s, (1993) for a 6 mm thick 1 500 kPa air entry value
then a ≈ 0.018, α1 ≈ 1.543, D ≈ 3.0 × 10−9 m2 /s ceramic disk.
and t95 ≈ 2615 min. If no ceramic disk impedance The osmotic technique was used to control the
is considered, then t95 ≈ 2500 min. It is important osmotic pressure of culture solutions in biology by
to remark that this estimation is based on the hypoth- Lagerwerff et al. (1961) and the water matrix poten-
esis of a constant soil volume, which is not exactly tial in soil science by Painter (1966), Zur (1966) and
the case with a clayey soil. Nevertheless, it gives an Waldron and Manbeian (1970). Peck and Rabbidge
approximate estimation of the minimum time required (1969) designed an osmotic tensiometer for measur-
to reach suction equalisation. ing the osmotic suction applied as a function of the
As a conclusion, provided its specific problems are PEG concentration. The first application to geotech-
adequately considered, the axis translation method has nical engineering was by Kassiff and Ben Shalom
proven to be an efficient and reliable technique of (1971) with subsequent work carried out on a hollow
controlling suction. It remains widely used to deter- cylinder triaxial apparatus by Komornik et al. (1980)
mine the water retention and transfer properties and and on a standard triaxial apparatus by Delage et al.
the mechanical behaviour features of unsaturated soils, (1987). The Kassiff and Ben Shalom’s device (Figure
following the first adaptation to triaxial testing by 4), was further improved by Delage et al. (1992)
Bishop and Daniel (1961). with the introduction of a closed circuit comprising
a 1 litre bottle in which the solution was circulated
by a peristaltic pump (being the bottle placed in a
2.2 Osmotic technique
temperature controlled bath to allow water exchange
2.2.1 Introduction measurements by using a capillary tube). The close cir-
In the osmotic technique (see Delage and Cui 2008a) cuit was adopted by Dineen and Burland (1995) with
the sample is placed in contact with a semi-permeable the bottle being permanently weighted by an electronic
36
A technological advantage of the osmotic technique
is that there is no need to apply any air pressure (result-
ing in no air diffusion problems). High level of suctions
can easily be applied by using high concentration PEG
solutions. It has been showed that the higher limit
of the technique could be extended up to around 10
MPa (Delage et al. 1998) and an osmotically suction
controlled oedometer compression test at a suction of
8.5 MPa has been presented by Cuisinier and Masrouri
(2005a). This extension to high suction is obviously
easier than when using the axis translation technique
(Escario and Juca 1989).
In the triaxial apparatus, the application of high suc-
tions is facilitated by the fact that there is no need to
Figure 4. The osmotic oedometer of Kassif and Ben Shalom impose high values of confining stress to maintain con-
(1971). stant the net total mean stress σ − ua at the elevated air
pressures needed to impose high suctions. The highest
suctions applied in triaxial testing (1500 kPa) were by
using the osmotic technique (Cui and Delage 1996).
In clays, with air entry values frequently higher than
1 MPa, this advantage is significant to ensure sig-
nificant sample desaturation. In the oedometer, the
application of the osmotic technique is easy since no
air-tight device is necessary to apply the air-pressure
on the sample, resulting in less friction effects between
the piston and the ring. The adaptation of the osmotic
technique to the oedometer only consists in replacing
a porous stone (most often the bottom one) by a semi-
permeable membrane clamped between the oedometer
base and the ring. In the triaxial apparatus, the adapta-
tion is less straightforward, as compared to that of the
Figure 5. Comparison of the osmotic technique with var-
ious other suction control techniques (after Fleureau et al.
axis-translation technique, more often used.
1993). The main drawback of the osmotic technique is the
sensitivity to bacteria attacks of the cellulose acetate
membranes that have been most commonly used up
to now. When a semi-permeable membrane fails, the
balance to monitor the water exchanges. Tarantino and PEG solution can infiltrate the sample and suction is no
Mongiovi (2000) and Monroy et al. (2007) also used longer controlled. The problem seems to be more seri-
this device. ous when applying high suctions along wetting paths
Figure 5 shows a comparison carried out on a kaoli- (suction decrease), as observed by Marcial (2003). In
nite slurry submitted to changes in suction over a wide this regard, note that a concern recently evidenced by
range by using various suction control techniques, with Delage and Cui (2008b) is related to the possible pres-
a reasonable agreement observed between the various ence of PEG molecules of dimensions smaller than that
techniques. Ng et al. (2007) drew similar conclusions defined by the molecular weight given by the manu-
based on results from shear testing. facturer. The presence of these small molecules was
demonstrated by developing a novel filtration system
applied to PEG 6 000, filtrated by using a MWCO
2.2.2 Advantages and drawbacks 3 500 cellulose acetate membrane.
Compared to the axis translation technique, the When using cellulose acetate membranes, this
osmotic technique presents the advantage of exactly effect can be corrected by adding few drops of peni-
reproducing the real conditions of water suction, with cillin in the solution. In such conditions (Kassiff and
no artificial air pressure applied to the sample. This Ben Shalom 1971), the life duration of the membrane
advantage is believed to be significant in the range appears to be longer than 10 days. More recently,
of high degrees of saturation when air continuity is Slatter et al. (2000) suggested the alternative use of
no longer ensured with the apparition of occluded polyether sulfonated semi-permeable membranes. By
air bubbles and possible artefacts created by the air using these membranes, Monroy et al. (2007) carried
pressure application (see discussion above). out tests as long as 146 days. This option seems to
37
be an excellent way to enhance the reliability of the observed some difference when comparing calibration
osmotic method. points along a wetting path (suction decrease) com-
pared to that along a drying path (suction increase)
2.2.3 Calibration of the method with smaller suction obtained during the subsequent
Initially, the calibration curves giving the total suc- drying path. Actually, a similar membrane effect had
tion as a function of the solution concentration of also been observed from the data of Waldron and Man-
various PEGs were investigated by measuring the beian (1970) who developed a null type osmometer in
relative humidity above solutions of PEG by using psy- which the osmotic pressure was compensated by an air
chrometers (Lagerwerff et al. 1961, Zur 1966). The pressure applied to the solution for suctions included
data from various authors gathered by Williams and between 16 and 2480 kPa.
Shaykewich (1969) indeed showed no significant dif- As a conclusion, it seems that the use of more
ference between points obtained with PEG 6 000 and resistant membranes together with the completion
with PEG 20 000, the calibration curve being indepen- of specific calibrations based on the couple mem-
dent on the molecular mass of the PEG used. Based brane/PEG used will give good reliability to the
on this calibration, reasonable comparison with the osmotic technique. The advantages of the technique
axis translation techniques have been obtained by Zur should probably help for better experimental investi-
(1966) and Waldron and Manbeian (1970) on various gation and understanding of the transition zone at high
soils. This is confirmed by the data of Figure 5. degrees of saturation (Sr < 0.85), where the air con-
Further calibrations were carried out by Dineen tinuity no longer stands and where samples get closer
and Burland (1995) who used the high range ten- to saturation. The technique seems also particularly
siometer (up to 1500 kPa) developed by Ridley and suitable to study the behaviour of unsaturated plastic
Burland (1993). They made direct suction measure- soils with AEV higher than 1 MPa.
ments on a sample kept under a suction controlled by
the osmotic technique in a oedometer and they also 2.3 Vapour control technique
measured directly the suction by placing the probe
in contact, through a kaolinite thin layer, with the Vapour equilibrium technique is implemented by con-
semi-permeable membrane behind which the solution trolling the relative humidity of a closed system. Soil
was circulated. The same approach was adopted by water potential is controlled by means of the migration
Tarantino and Mongiovi (2000) and, more recently, by of water molecules through the vapour phase from a
Monroy et al. (2007). reference system of known potential to the soil pores,
The effect of the pair membrane/PEG used on the until equilibrium is achieved. The thermodynamic
calibration has been observed by these authors on relation between total suction of soil moisture and the
various membranes and PEGs, as seen in Figure 6. relative humidity of the reference system is given by
In accordance with Slatter et al. (2000), Mon- the psychrometric law (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993).
roy et al. (2007) observed that, for a given con- The relative humidity of the reference system can be
centration, the highest suctions were obtained by controlled by varying the chemical potential of dif-
using the polyether sulfonated membrane with PEG ferent types of aqueous solutions (Delage et al. 1998,
35 000 with suction values close to that of Williams Tang and Cui 2005).
and Shaykewich (1969). Monroy et al. (2007) also Oedometer cells installed inside a chamber with rel-
ative humidity control were used by Esteban (1990),
Bernier et al. (1997) and Villar (1999) and Cuisinier
1600 and Masrouri (2005b). The main drawback of this
Dineen and Burland (1997) experimental setup is that the time to reach mois-
1200
(PEG 20 000)
ture equalisation is extremely long due to the fact that
Tarantino and Mongiovi
T o (2000)
vapour transfer depends on diffusion (several weeks
suction (kPa)
Pa)
(Spectrum
r 14 000, PEG 20 000)
are required for each suction step in the case of high-
800
density clays as observed in Figure 7). In order to
Tarantino and Mongiovi (2000) speed up the process, vapour transfer—through the
400 (Viskase14 000, PEG 20 000) sample or along the boundaries of the sample—can be
Monroy et al. (2007)
forced by a convection circuit driven by an air pump
(PEF 15 000, PEG 35 000)
(Yahia-Aissa 1999, Blatz and Graham 2000, Pintado
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 2002, Lloret et al. 2003, Oldecop and Alonso 2004,
concentration (g PEG/L water) Dueck 2004, Alonso et al. 2005).
The mass rate transfer of vapour by convection
Figure 6. Dependency of the calibration curve of the (assuming isothermal conditions and constant dry air
osmotic technique with respect to the membrane and PEG pressure uda ) can be expressed in terms of mixing ratio
used (after Delage and Cui 2008a). (mass of vapour per unit mass of dry air) or relative
38
humidity differences between two points in the cir- expressed as ρv = Mmw uv0 hr /(RT ), where uv0 is
cuit (in and out) as (Oldecop and Alonso 2004, Dueck the saturated vapour pressure at absolute tempera-
2007). ture T , Mmw is the molecular mass of water, R is
Figure 7 shows the evolution of vertical strains the gas constant, and hr the relative humidity. Based
(expansive deformations are positive) of compacted on the same assumption and that dry air is also an
bentonite subjected to a reduction (from 150 MPa to ideal gas, the following expression is obtained x =
4 MPa) in suction under oedometer conditions (verti- Mmw uv /(Mmda uda ) = 0.622 uv /uda , in which Mmda is
cal net stress of 10 kPa), using both relative humidity the molecular mass of dry air mixture, uda the dry air
controlled chamber (pure diffusion of vapour) and pressure and uv the vapour pressure.
forced flow of humid air on both ends of the sample. One of the difficulties in using the vapour equilib-
As observed, the forced flow speeds up the process of rium technique is associated with maintaining thermal
suction change. equilibrium between the reference system (vessel with
The mass rate transfer of vapour by convection aqueous solution) and the sample. Assuming that the
(assuming isothermal conditions and constant dry air vapour pressure set by the reference saline solution is
pressure uda ) can be expressed in terms of vapour den- also present in the sample, the following correction is
sity or mixing ratio differences between the reference proposed, in which hr is the relative humidity and uv0
vessel with aqueous solution (superscript r) and the the saturation vapour pressure at temperature T
soil (superscript s) (a: Oldecop and Alonso 2004, b:
Jotisankasa et al. 2007) uv0 (Treference )
hrsample = hrreference (5)
uv0 (Tsample )
dw qMmw
a) Mdry = q(ρvr − ρvs ) = uv0 (hrr − hsr )
dt RT A possible way to minimise this thermal effect is
dw achieved by disconnecting the reference system that
b) Mdry = qda (xr − xs ) = qda x0 (hrr − hsr ) (4) regulates the relative humidity, and allow the equalisa-
dt
tion of vapour in the remaining circuit and the soil. This
where Mdry is the soil dry mass, w the gravimetric way, the mass of water being transferred from or to the
water content, q the volumetric air flow rate, ρv the soil is drastically reduced (there is no contribution in
vapour density in air (water mass per unit volume of water transfer between the vessel and the soil). An
air), qda the flow rate of dry air mass, and x the mix- equivalent testing procedure was used by Oldecop and
ing ratio (mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry Alonso (2004) to overcome the long equalisation peri-
air; x0 represents the saturated mixing ratio). Assum- ods of the conventional vapour equilibrium technique.
ing vapour an ideal gas, the vapour density can be Another problem that comes up when using the
forced convection system is associated with air pres-
25 sure differences created along the circuit. This fact
makes that the intended relative humidity applied by
the reference vessel cannot be assigned to the remain-
20
ing circuit and the soil. Dueck (2004) studied the
influence of air pressure changes in a forced convec-
forced convection tion circuit of vapour and their consequences on the
along boundaries applied relative humidity. Figure 8 shows the exper-
Volumetric strain (%)
15
imental setup and the evolution of differential air
pressures between two points of the circuit (before and
after the filter stones). The consequences on the evo-
10 lution of the relative humidity at the same two points
of the circuit are shown in Figure 9. An expression
to account for the effects of air pressure variations on
5 the relative humidity can be proposed based on the
assumption that the mixing ratio x = 0.622 uv /uda
pure diffusion (mass of vapour per unit mass of dry air) set by the
reference saline solution is also set in the sample under
0
100 1000 10000 isothermal conditions
Time (min)
x0 reference
hrsample = hrreference
Figure 7. Evolution of volumetric strain on compacted ben- x0 sample
tonite using humid air flow along the boundaries of the sample uda sample
(forced convection) or controlling the air relative humidity hrsample = hrreference (6)
inside a closed chamber (pure diffusion) (Pintado 2002). uda reference
39
tensiometer and comprises a water reservoir, a high air-
entry interface and a pressure gauge. Figure 10 shows
the second prototype developed by Ridley & Burland
(1995) which will be referred to as ‘IC tensiometer’.
This tensiometer includes an integral strain-gauged
diaphragm in contrast to the first prototype (Ridley &
Burland 1993) obtained by fitting a porous ceramic
disk to a commercial pressure transducer. Key elem-
ents of the IC tensiometer were the very thin water
reservoir (less than 4 mm3 ) and the use of a sufficiently
thick high air-entry value ceramic disk (Ridley 1993).
Provided adequate de-airing processes and pressurisa-
tion were carried out, the IC tensiometer could move
the maximum sustainable suction up to 1800 kPa,
a value significantly higher than 70–80 kPa typical
of standard tensiometers.
The IC tensiometer was particularly welcome by
the geotechnical community since suction was diffi-
cult to measure accurately in the range 0–1500 kPa
using other techniques such as the psychrometer. As
shown in Table 1, the concept of the IC tensiome-
ter had significant success and many similar devices
Figure 8. a) Experimental setup to study air pressure and
have been developed since that time with some specific
relative humidity changes along a forced convection circuit. technological improvements, as discussed in Tarantino
b) Time evolution of differential air pressures (at 80 min the (2004), Mahler and Diene (2007), and Marinho et al.
air is forced through the filter stones) (Dueck 2004). (2008). Design and use of high capacity tensiome-
ters have been satisfactorily documented. This mea-
surement technique now appears to be reasonably
affordable to develop and to use in the laboratory.
40
to measure a tensile stress of 140 MPa in a single crys- Table 1. High-capacity tensiometers developed by various
tal of water, a value believed to be very close to the authors including the pressure transducers used.
maximal tension that water can sustain.
The state of water under tension is thermodynami- Authors Pressure transducer
cally metastable (De Benedetti 1996) in the sense that Ridley & Burland (1993) Entran EPX (3.5 MPa)
a gas phase will rapidly separate in the liquid if tiny König et al. (1994) Druck PDCR 81 (1.5 MPa)
amounts of gas (cavitation nuclei) are pre-existent in Ridley & Burland (1995) Home-made (4 MPa)
the liquid. Marinho and Chandler (1995) reviewed the Guan & Fredlund (1997) Brand not given (1.5 MPa)
sources of impurities in the water which include i) Meilani et al. (2002) Druck PDCR 81 (1.5 MPa)
solid particles that contain gas micro-bubbles trapped Tarantino & Mongiovi
in crevices, ii) gas trapped in tiny crevices in the walls (2002) Home-made (4 MPa)
of the water container, iii) air bubbles stabilized by Take and Bolton (2002, Druck PDCR 81 (1.5 MPa)
2003) and Entran EPB (0.7 MPa)
ionic phenomena and iv) bubbles covered by surface
Toker et al. (2004) Data Instr. Inc. AB-HP 200
active substances. Note that in high range tensiome- Mahler et al. (2002) Ashcroft K8
ters, case i) also applies to the pores of the ceramic Chiu et al. (2005) Druck PDCR 81 (1.5 MPa)
porous stone. Lourenco et al. (2006, Ceramic transducer by
Since it is virtually impossible to completely 2007) Wykeham Farrance
remove air from the water reservoir and the porous (0.8 MPa)
ceramic filter, heterogeneous cavitation will inevitably Oliveira and Marinho
occur in the HCTs. The main challenge in tensiometer (2007) Entran EPX (3.5 MPa)
measurement is then to delay cavitation by minimis- He et al. (2006) Entran EPX (3.5 MPa)
Mahler & Diene (2007) Entran EPX (1.5 MPa)
ing the number of potential cavitation nuclei present in
Entran EPXO (0.5 MPa)
the tensiometer. This has essentially been achieved by Ashcroft (0.5–1.5 MPa)
adopting special design features and by implementing Cui et al. (2008) Home-made
specific procedures for saturating the porous ceramic
disk (initial saturation and subsequent re-saturation).
1997, He et al. 2006), araldite (Meilani et al. 2002,
Take & Bolton 2003, Lourenço et al. 2006) or copper
3.1.2 Design gasket (Toker et al. 2004).
The very small water reservoir designed by Ridley and In general, the best performance in terms of max-
Burland (1993, 1995) was assumed to decrease the imum sustainable tension and measurement duration
number of cavitation germs in free water and hence appear to be achieved by the integral strain-gauged
the probability of cavitation occurrence. In this regard, diaphragms. On the other end, concerns arise about the
Ridley and Burland (1999) mentioned that the change use of O-rings to seal the water reservoir. The change
in design from the 1993 to the 1995 IC tensiometer in design from the 1993 to the 1995 IC tensiometer
was aimed at reducing as far as possible the size of the was also aimed at eliminating O-rings and elastomers
water reservoir. According to their experience, this which are sources of nucleation sites (Take 2003).
reduction (with a water reservoir thickness close to Toker et al. (2004) also found that cavitation occurred
0.1 mm as shown in Figure 10) appeared to allow suc- at very low tensions when sealing the water reservoir
tion measurements with no cavitation along a longer using rubber O-rings and that significant improve-
period of time, with less random breakdowns of the ment could be obtained by replacing the O-ring with
measurements (Guan and Fredlund 1997 give a water araldite or copper gasket. The tensiometer presented
reservoir thickness between 0.1 and 0.5 mm). Reduc- by Guan & Fredlund (1997) which included an O-ring
ing the thickness of the water reservoir is believed to seal the water reservoir also exhibited relative
to be an important feature necessary to develop high poor performance. Despite the high pre-pressurisation
capacity tensiometers that has been followed in all the pressure (12 MPa), the maximum sustained tension
prototypes described in Table 1. In general, the reser- (1.25 MPa) was significantly lower than the nomi-
voir volume is of the order of 5–10 mm3 with thickness nal AEV of the ceramic disk (1.5 MPa). As shown
as low as 0.1 mm. in the next section, this is not the case of integral
Two types of design have been presented in the lit- strain-gauged diaphragms and araldite-assembled ten-
erature, integral strain-gauged tensiometers (Ridley & siometers where maximum sustained tension can sig-
Burland 1995, Tarantino & Mongiovì 2002, Cui et al. nificantly exceed the nominal AEV of the ceramic
2008) and tensiometers obtained by fitting a high AEV disk.
ceramic disk to a commercial transducer. The latter
can be further divided in three classes, depending on 3.1.3 Initial saturation
whether the water reservoir was sealed by means of Ridley and Burland (1999) emphasized the importance
O-Ring (Ridley & Burland 1993, Guan & Fredlund of careful initial saturation of the porous stone by
41
de-aired water under vacuum, prior to pressurisation.
They observed that a subsequent pressurisation at 4
MPa for at least 24 h could provide satisfactory suc-
tion measurements. Adopting these precautions, they
concluded that the maximum sustainable suction was
only depending on the air entry value of the ceramic
filter, most often equal to 1500 kPa in existing devices.
This observation is nicely illustrated by the results pre-
sented in Figure 11 (Ridley and Burland 1999) that
shows the maximum suction obtained with various
ceramic porous stones with air entry values (AEV)
of 100, 500 and 1500 kPa respectively.
It is interesting to note that the combination
of an initial saturation under vacuum and a pre-
pressurisation pressure about 2.7 times the AEV of
the ceramic disk could produce maximum sustained
tensions significantly higher than the nominal AEVs
of the porous ceramic disks (164/100 kPa, 740/500 kPa
and 1800/1500 kPa respectively).
The importance of the initial saturation under vac-
uum has also been discussed by Take & Bolton (2003).
Three procedures for initial saturation of the ceramic
disk were investigated i) saturation at atmospheric
pressure; ii) evacuation in presence of water fol-
lowed by saturation under vacuum; iii) evacuation in
absence of water followed by saturation under vac-
uum. In case i), the tensiometer could not sustain
any tension even after four pre-pressurisation cycle
of 1000 kPa. In case ii), once subjecting the ten-
siometer to a pre-pressurisation cycle of 1000 kPa,
a maximum sustainable tension of 460 kPa could be
attained (greater that the nominal 300 kPa AEV of the
ceramic disk). In this case, vacuum in presence of
water was somehow limited by the vapour pressure of
water (2.3 kPa at 20◦ C). Finally, in case iii), an absolute
pressure of 0.05 kPa could be attained when apply-
ing vacuum in absence of water and the maximum
sustainable tension, once subjecting the tensiometer
to a pre-pressurisation cycle of 1000 kPa, could be
increased to 530 kPa.
A procedure similar to case iii) was devised by
Tarantino & Mongiovì (2002) with the exception of the Figure 11. Maximum suction response obtained with vari-
porous ceramic initially dried using silica gel instead ous ceramic porous stones (Ridley and Burland 1999).
of oven-drying at 60◦ C.
about −0.1 MPa were also used by Take & Bolton
(2003).
3.1.4 Pre-pressurisation On the other hand, Ridley & Burland (1995)
An issue that has long been debated is the proce- observed that, provided initial saturation was carried
dure to be used to re-saturate the porous ceramic disk. out under vacuum, pre-pressurisation at a constant
Guan and Fredlund (1998) observed that the cavita- pressure of 4 MPa (2.7 times the nominal AEV) for
tion tension was essentially depending on the number a period of 24 h was sufficient to measure water ten-
of pre-pressurisation cycles and to a less extent on sions higher than the ceramic disk nominal AEV. The
the pre-pressurisation pressure and duration. In par- application of a constant pre-pressurisation pressure
ticular, they found that 6 pressures cycles from −0.1 over a period of time was also adopted by Tarantino &
to 12 MPa produced the maximum sustainable ten- Mongiovì (2002), Meilani et al. (2002), Chiu et al.
sion. Cycles including the application of a positive (2005), Lourenço et al. (2006), He et al. (2006) and
pressure followed by a negative gauge pressure of Cui et al. (2008).
42
Table 2. Effect of the pre-pressurisation pressure on the water
maximum sustained tension (in bold sustained tension greater solid
than the ceramic disk nominal AEV).
air
Max Max
Ceramic pressure tension
AEV positive water
Authors (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
43
porous stone rather that in the water reservoir. Exper-
imental evidence supporting this assumption is pro-
vided by Tarantino & Mongiovì (2001) and Tarantino
(2004). Evidence is also given by Guan and Fredlund
(1997) who observed that the inner face of the ceramic
disk became relatively soft after repeated cavitations
and it was possible to peel the surface with a slight fin-
gernail scratch. This degradation is likely to be related
to the occurrence of cavitation localised in this area.
44
optimum and on the wet side of optimum, as compared resulted from the stress release due to sample extrac-
to longer equilibration times on the dry side. This tion (block sampling). In the range where measured
is related to the aggregate microstructure observed pressures remain negative (vertical stress smaller than
on the dry side (Ahmed et al. 1974, Delage et al. 800 kPa), the figure shows that each loading step
1996, Romero et al. 1999), as compared to the matrix results in a peak in the response of the tensiome-
microstructure on the wet side. Obviously, the mea- ter, with apparently positive pressures monitored just
surement of suction is corresponding to a very tiny before going back to a suction state. These peaks,
water movement that is sufficient to extract some water not always equal to the stress increment applied, are
from the porous stone. This transfer rate is dependent interpreted as a local consolidation process of a thin
on the microstructure, with slower rates in the aggre- soil layer in contact with the bottom of the cell where
gate macrostructure, in which inter-aggregates pores the tensiometer was placed. This instantaneous posi-
are known to be dry and in which water is moving tive response is apparently very quickly compensated
through the inter-aggregates contacts and, probably, by suction subsequent homogenisation within the soil
inside the inter-aggregates smaller pores. mass. Note that the transition between negative and
positive pressures is well captured once a load of
800 kPa is reached, with subsequent stabilisation of
3.1.7 Use in geotechnical testing the pressure measurements at zero. During unloading,
Tensiometers have been extensively used in mechani- a suction state seems reached again when the load is
cal testing including null tests (Tarantino et al. 2000), smaller than 400 kPa.
oedometer tests (Dineen & Burlan 1995, Dineen As seen in Figure 15, Tarantino & De Col (2008)
et al., 1999, Tarantino & Mongiovì 2000, Delage et al. could investigate suction changes occurring during
2007, Tarantino & De Col 2008), direct shear tests the compaction process in clay samples at various
(Caruso & Tarantino 2004, Tarantino & Tombolato water contents. The figure clearly shows the simul-
2005), and triaxial tests (Cunningham et al. 2003, taneous decrease in suction and increase in degree
Oliveira & Marinho 2003). of saturation that occurred during compaction. Also
The use of the tensiometer makes it possible to
investigate unsaturated soil behaviour under more 1600
realistic atmospheric conditions. Tests have been (a)
Vertical stress (kPa)
(c )
which is problematic to use at very high degrees of 400
saturation. For example, Tarantino & Mongiovì (2000)
0 0
Suction (kPa)
monitor the changes in suction or water pressure 0 100 200 300 400 500
occurring during a step loading oedometer compres- Time (h)
sion test carried out on a saturated intact Boom clay
sample (a stiff clay from Belgium) using dry porous Figure 14. Monitoring suction changes during oedometer
stones. The initial suction state of the saturated sample step loading compression (After Delage et al. 2007).
45
1
Region I
0.8
Degree of saturation, S r
0.6
w=0.311
0.4 w=0.299
w=0.275
w=0.259
w=0.254 w=0.236
w=0.215
0.2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Matric suction, s : kPa
46
Table 3. Specifications of two high-range psychrometers
(Cardoso et al. 2007).
Chilled-mirror
Equipment SMI Psychrometer dew-point WP4
47
1000 SMI
transistor psychrometer HRb
tensiometer (staticcurve)
tensiometer (dynamiccurve) HR1 HReq SMI
100 HR0=40%
Matric suction (MPa)
HRSOIL HRSOIL
10 HRb> HR0 (fast process) HR1> HRSOIL HR1> HRSeq SMI > HRSOIL
HRSOIL> HR0 HR1> HR0
1 WP4
HR0=40%
HReq WP4
0.1
HRSOIL
100
SMI -Drying
WP4-Drying readings of both psychrometers were observed—sys-
Curve SMI (drying)
Curve WP4 (drying) tematically larger values were detected with WP4
psychrometer—, which increased with total suction
Total suction (MPa)
10
of the soil.
Cardoso et al. (2007) put forward a possible expla-
nation to account for these discrepancies between SMI
1 and WP4 readings. These authors suggested that the
hydraulic paths undergone by the soil during the mea-
surement period inside each equipment chamber were
0
quite different. As observed in Figure 20, the sample
0 5 10 15 20 25 in the SMI chamber experiences some wetting due to
water content (%) the relatively fast evaporation of the drop of the wet
thermometer, which increases the relative humidity
Figure 19. Comparison between SMI and WP4 psychrom- of the chamber to HR1 > HR0 as shown schemat-
eter data. Drying paths on a compacted destructured argillite ically in the figure. The sample at a lower relative
(Cardoso et al. 2007). humidity HRsoil undergoes some wetting before reach-
ing the equalisation state at HReq SMI , which is the state
finally measured by the SMI psychrometer. During
determination was achieved by constant water content
the determination of a main drying curve, SMI read-
measurements. To compare matrix suction results, a
ings will follow a scanning wetting path, which will
constant osmotic suction of 0.3 MPa was subtracted
end below the main drying curve. On the contrary,
from total suctions measured by the psychrometer.
the soil inside the WP4 chamber will undergo some
A relatively good overlapping in the range from 1 MPa
drying before reaching HReq WP4 , and it will follow the
to nearly 3 MPa and between the different techniques
same intended main drying path during the measuring
is observed in the figure.
period. As a consequence, the total suctions measured
Cardoso et al. (2007) studied the performance of
and the final water contents are slightly different.
SMI and WP4 psychrometers by evaluating the dry-
ing branch of the retention curve of a compacted
destructured argillite.
As observed in Figure 19, the retention curves 4 CONCLUSION
display a quite good agreement in the low total suction
range from 1 to 7 MPa. However, in the high- Some recent developments concerning the three tech-
suction range (7 to 70 MPa) differences between the niques used for controlling suction in unsaturated soils
48
(axis-translation, osmotic and vapour control tech- Bernier, F., Volckaert, G., Alonso, E.E. and Villar, M.V.
niques) and concerning two techniques of measuring 1997. Suction-controlled experiments on Boom clay.
suction (high capacity tensiometers and high range Engineering Geology, 47: 325–338.
psychrometers) have been commented and discussed. Berthelot, M. 1860. Sur quelques phénomènes de dilatation
The advantages, drawbacks and complementarities of forcée des liquides. Annales de Chimie et de Physique
(30): 232–239.
these techniques have been discussed and some recom- Bishop, A.W. and Donald, I.B. 1961. The experimental study
mendations aimed at facilitating their use have been of party saturated soil in the triaxial apparatus. Proc. 5th
given, based on the experience gained by the authors, Conf. On Soil Mechanics and Found Eng. 1, 13–21.
their co-workers and data available in the literature. As Blatz, J. and Graham, J. 2000. A system for controlled suction
a general conclusion, it can be stated that the recent in triaxial tests. Géotechnique, 50 (4): 465–469.
significant progresses made in the field of control- Bocking, K.A. and Fredlund, D.G. 1980. Limitations of
ling and measuring suction provided further insight the axis translation technique. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on
into the behaviour of unsaturated soils. The potential- Expansive Soils, Denver, Colorado: 117–135.
ities of these techniques are high and they should keep Boso, M., Romero, E. and Tarantino, A. 2003. The use
of different measurement techniques to determine water
helping the experimental investigations necessary to retention curves. Proc. Int. Conf. Mechanics of Unsat-
better understand the hidden remaining aspects of the urated Soils, Weimar, Germany, Springer Proceedings
hydromechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils. in Physics (Volume 1). T. Schanz (ed.). Springer-Verlag,
Berlin: 169–181.
Boso, M., Tarantino, A. and Mongiovì, L. 2004. Shear
strength behaviour of a reconstituted clayey silt. Advances
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
in testing, modelling and engineering applications,
C. Mancuso and A. Tarantino (eds), Proc. Int. Workshop,
The authors acknowledge the fruitful collaboration Anacapri, 1–14. Rotterdam: Balkema.
and discussions with the many colleagues involved in Brown, R.W. and Johnston, R.S. 1976. Extended field use of
the works conducted: C. Airò Farulla, M. Boso, R. Car- screen-covered thermocouple psychrometers. Agron. J.,
doso, A. Caruso, Y.J. Cui, E. De Col, V. De Gennaro, E. 68: 995–996.
De Laure, A. Di Mariano, A. Dueck, A. Ferrari, Ch. Brown, R.W. and Collins, J.M. 1980. A screen-caged ther-
Hoffmann, M. Howat, T.T. Le, A. Lima, A. Lloret, mocouple psychrometer and calibration chamber for mea-
C. Loiseau, A.T. Mantho, D. Marcial, F. Marinho, L. surements of plant and soil water potential. Agron. J., 72:
851–854.
Mongiovi, L. Oldecop, X. Pintado, G. Priol, G.P.R.
Brye, K.R. 2003. Long-term effects of cultivation on particle
Suraj de Silva, A. Take, A.M. Tang, A. Thielen, S. size and water-retention characteristics determined using
Tombolato, T. Vicol, M. Yahia-Aissa. wetting curves. Soil Sci., 168: 459–468.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the support Campbell, G.S. 1979. Improved thermocouple psychrom-
of the European Commission via the ‘‘Marie Curie’’ eters for measurement of soil water potential in a
Research Training Network contract number MRTN- temperature gradient. J. Phys. E: Sci. Instrum., 12:
CT-2004–506861. 739–743.
Cardoso, R., Romero, E., Lima, A. and Ferrari, A. 2007.
A comparative study of soil suction measurement using
two different high-range psychrometers. Proc. 2nd Int.
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52
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
A. Gens
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
L. do N. Guimarães
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
M. Sánchez
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
D. Sheng
The University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia
ABSTRACT: A number of developments for the description of the generalised behaviour of unsaturated soils
are presented. They can be considered as extensions of the conventional elastoplastic models developed in recent
years to simulate the stress-strain behaviour of this type of soils. The following topics are addressed: the consid-
eration of coupled hydraulic models in a thermodynamical framework, the introduction of structural components
in the modelling of expansive soil behaviour and the incorporation of temperature and chemical effects.
53
formulations) is that they either do not take into a)
account the hydraulic behaviour of unsaturated soils or
they consider it in a manner that is uncoupled from the
mechanical stress-strain law. Thus, in the BBM model
(Alonso et al. 1990), hydraulic behaviour was simply
defined in terms of a state surface. Probably, this issue
of the hydraulic component of the constitutive model
was first properly addressed by Wheeler (1996) and
Dangla et al. (1997) and the first full attempt to cou-
ple hydraulic behaviour with a mechanical model for
unsaturated soil was presented in Vaunat et al. (2000).
In recent years quite a number of constitutive devel- b)
opments have addressed explicitly this question (e.g.
Wheeler et al. 2003, Gallipoli et al. 2003b, Sun et al.
2007).
As strongly suggested by Houlsby’s (1997) work
input equation (neglecting the work dissipated by the
flow of fluids),
Ẇ ≡ ua n(1 − Sr )ρ̇a /ρa − (ua − uw ) n Ṡr Figure 1. a) Hysteretic hydraulic behaviour under con-
stant void ratio. b) SI, SD and LC yield surfaces in
+ σij − (Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij ε̇ij (1) three-dimensional space (Sheng et al., 2004).
where σc is the constitutive (Bishop) stress and the In (5), the third term will appear when either the
superscript p denotes plastic. SI or the SD yield curves are engaged. Since both sI
54
and sD are known function of the plastic increment of 3 INCORPORATION OF STRUCTURAL
p
the degree of saturation and n is independent of dSr , EFFECTS
the last two terms of the equation above are integrable
and give zero when integrated around a closed loop The behaviour of expansive clays has always pre-
p
of Sr . Therefore, these two terms belong to the free sented challenging aspects concerning their constitu-
energy dψ2 . tive modelling. Although expansive clays have always
To find the first two terms in (4), it is assumed been one of the main areas of interest in unsatu-
that plastic volumetric and plastic deviator strains are rated soil mechanics, in recent years this interest
caused only by yielding at the LC yield surface. This has been enhanced because they are widely used
is a strong restriction on the role of the SI and SD as one of the main components of waste-isolation
surfaces. Then: barriers. One of the characteristic features of the
behaviour of expansive clays is the irreversible and
1 stress path-dependent behaviour exhibited during wet-
dW p = pc dεvp + (nsI dSrp or nsD dSrp ) ting. An example is offered in Figure 2 where it
2
⎛ ⎞ can be seen that the volume change of an expan-
(dε
p 2
) + M2
(dε
p 2
) sive clay varies strongly depending on the stress
⎜ 1 v ζ γ ⎟ path followed. Irreversibility and strain accumula-
+ ⎝ pc
⎠ (6)
2 p 2 M2
(dεv ) + ζ (dεγ )
p 2 tion is also a feature of expansive clay behaviour
when drying/wetting cycles are applied (Figure 3).
This type of behaviour is difficult to model with
where M and ζ are model parameters. The terms of conventional elastoplastic models where predicted
the first brackets are all integrable and give zero in a behaviour inside the yield locus is elastic and, there-
closed loop. Therefore they are the contribution of the fore, computed strains will be small and, often, largely
plastic strain work from the free energy and hence cor- reversible.
respond to dψ2 . The term in the second set of brackets Because the source of expansive clay behaviour lies
is not integrable because it involves the plastic shear in the physicochemical phenomena occurring in the
strain. This term thus corresponds to the dissipation vicinity of the clay particle, there is some merit in try-
function dφ. ing to incorporate explicitly this microstructural level
in the model (Gens & Alonso, 1992). The formu-
1 lation developed contains now two structural levels:
dψ2 = pc dεvp + (nsI dSrp or nsD dSrp ) (7) a microstructure where the interactions at particle
2
level occur and a macrostructure that accounts for the
p 2 p overall fabric arrangement of the material comprising
1 (dεv )2 + Mζ (dεγ )2 aggregates and the larger pores.
dφ = pc
≥0 (8)
2 p 2 p In some cases, for instance in compacted swelling
(dε )2 + M (dε )2
v ζ γ
clays, the two structural levels are readily distin-
guished. See for example Figure 4 where the pore
The dissipation function (8) is obviously strictly volume distributions for a compacted bentonite at two
positive whenever the plastic strains are non zero, as
required. It can also be shown that the dissipation func-
tion above is a homogeneous function of degree 1 in the
plastic strain increments. Equations (7) and (8) indi-
cate that the plastic yielding at the suction-increase and
suction-decrease yield surfaces does not contribute to
the plastic dissipation, but only to the plastic work.
This means that all plastic work associated with a plas-
tic increment of degree of saturation is stored and can
be recovered during a reversed plastic increment of
saturation. This plastic work is very much the same as
the ‘locked-in elastic energy’ due to the shift or back
stress (Collins & Hilder, 2002).
Ideally, analogous analyses should be attempted
concerning other constitutive models. Tellingly,
Tamagnini & Pastor (2005) and Santagiuliana &
Schrefler (2006) have also examined their partic- Figure 2. Volume increase of an expansive clay under differ-
ular models in terms of a similar thermodynamic ent generalised stress paths (Brackley, 1975). NMC denotes
framework. Natural Moisture Content.
55
8 to define carefully the type of suction to be used.
Dry Density:1.65 Mg/m 3 Whereas in the macrostructure the matric suction (s)
Vertical Stress: 0.0007 MPa is the relevant one, total suction (i.e. matric plus
Swelling (%)
g(−30◦ )
(9)
-2
where M is the slope of the critical state, po is the
apparent unsaturated isotropic pre-consolidation pres-
-4 sure, g(θ) is a function of Lode’s angle and ps considers
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 the dependence of shear strength on suction. The trace
Time (days) of the yield function on the isotropic p-s plane is
called LC (Loading-Collapse) yield curve, because
Figure 3. Evolution of shrinkage and swelling in a cyclic it represents the locus of activation of irreversible
suction test (Day, 1994). deformations due to loading increments or collapse.
0.2
Dry density
Incremental Pore Volume (ml/g)
Intra-aggregate Inter-aggregate
0.12
0.08
0.04
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
56
The position of the LC curve is given by the pre- has a number of advantages (Gens et al., 2006) both
consolidation yield stress of the saturated state, p∗o for the formulation of the model and for its implemen-
(hardening variable), according to: tation in numerical codes (Sanchez et al., 2008).
An additional advantage of keeping track of two
(1 + e) p structural levels and, hence, two pore structures, is
ṗ∗0 = p∗0 ε̇ (10)
(λ(0) − κ) v that important parameters such as permeability can be
related to the macrostructural pore sizes since the con-
p
where e is the void index, ε̇v is the volumetric plastic tribution of the microstructural pores to overall water
strain, κ is the elastic compression index for changes flow is negligible. This possibility has proved very
in p and λ(0) is the stiffness parameter for changes in valuable in the analysis of hydration of engineered bar-
p for virgin states of the soil in saturated conditions. riers for radioactive waste disposal (Sanchez & Gens,
For the microstructural level, it is assumed that the 2005). Also, time dependent behaviour arises in a natu-
strains arising from basic physicochemical phenom- ral way if transient hydraulic non-equilibrium between
ena may be considered elastic and volumetric (Gens & macrostructure and microstructure is considered, a
Alonso, 1992). The increment of microstructural very plausible scenario. Finally, the incorporation of
strains is then expressed as: a microstructural level provides a suitable platform to
introduce the effects of new variables as described in
the following section.
p̂˙ ṗ ṡ
ε̇v1 = = +χ (11)
K1 K1 K1
4 TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL EFFECTS
where p̂(= p + χ s) is the microstructural effective
stress, the subscript 1 refers to the microstructural
4.1 Temperature effects
level, the subscript v refers to the volumetric compo-
nent of the strains and K1 is the microstructural bulk One of the potentially important roles of compacted
modulus. swelling clays lies in providing the basic material for
The Neutral Line (NL) (Figure 5b) corresponds to engineered barriers in high level radioactive waste
a constant p̂ locus and no microstructural deformation storage schemes. High level radioactive waste is
occurs when the stress path moves on the NL. The NL strongly heat emitting. In this context, thermal effects
divides the p-s plane into two parts, defining two main on behaviour and, more specifically, the variation
generalized stress paths, which are identified as: MC of swelling capacity with temperature is a signifi-
(microstructural contraction) and MS (microstructural cant issue. Figure 6 shows the observed variation of
swelling). swelling pressure with temperature for a bentonite
In spite that reversible behaviour is assumed compacted at dry densities of 1.6 and 1.5 Mg/m3
for microstructural strains, irreversible behaviour (Sánchez et al., 2007). It can be noted that swelling
may arise form the effects of those strains on the pressure decreases with temperature although, even at
macrostructure (Gens & Alonso 1992). An assumption temperatures as high as 80◦ C, the pressure values are
of model is that the irreversible deformations of the still large.
macrostructure are proportional to the microstructural In the model outlined in the previous section,
strains according to interaction functions f . The plastic the expansion of the microstructure depends on the
macrostructural strains are evaluated by the following microstructural effective stress through a microstruc-
expression: tural bulk modulus, K1 (eq. 11). A straightforward
extension to the model is to include a depen-
p p
ε̇v2 = ε̇vLC + f ε̇v1 (12) dence of K1 on temperature. The expression used is
follows:
p
where εvLC is the plastic strains induced by the yielding
of the macrostructure (BBM ). e−αm p̂
A first mathematical expression of this concep- K1 = (13)
βm
tual model was presented in Alonso et al. (1999)
but, recently, a more convenient formulation based
where αm and βm are model parameters. The exten-
on generalised plasticity concepts has been developed
sion suggested here is to include a dependence of
(Sanchez et al., 2005) while keeping the same basic
the parameter βm on temperature. The following
features and assumptions. The generalised stress-
expression is proposed:
strain relationships are derived within a framework of
multi-dissipative materials that provides a consistent
βm
and formal approach when several sources of energy βm = (14)
dissipation exist. The generalised plasticity framework eτ T /Tref
57
where T is the temperature difference, that is the 4.2 Chemical effects
actual temperature minus Tref , a reference tempera-
Expansive clays contain significant amounts of active
ture, and τ is a new parameter that may be obtained
minerals. Therefore, their behaviour is generally sus-
from experiments.
ceptible to variations in the chemical environment.
It should be noted that, in this version of the
Two major effects can be identified: changes in
model, only the microstructural level is affected by
osmotic suction and the effects of cation exchange.
temperature. This is acceptable because the fabric
Both must be considered in a proper chemomechani-
of the compacted bentonite is quite dense and no
cal constitutive model. Again, the effects of chemical
irreversible strains in the macrostructure due to tem-
variables are taken into account through an adequate
perature changes are expected. If the fabric was more
modification of the microstructural model.
open, independent plastic temperature effects must be
As before, an exponential law is adopted to define
introduced in the description of the macrostructural
the elastic volumetric microstructural strain as a func-
behaviour.
tion of microstructural effective stresses:
Figure 7 shows how the change of temperature
affects the microstructural bulk modulus according to
dεme = βm e−αm p̂ d p̂ (15)
the suggested law. An increase in the microstructural
stiffness with temperature is predicted. This means
lower expansions when tests are conducted at higher where αm and βm are material parameters.
temperature. As Figure 6 shows, the adopted expres- To incorporate the influence of geochemical vari-
sion (14) yields a satisfactory variation of swelling ables on the behaviour of the microstructure, it is
pressure with temperature. postulated that the material parameter αm is con-
stant and that βm depends on the exchangeable cation
concentrations as:
βm = βmi xi (16)
i
Error bars obtained from values of Dry density (Mg/m3)
Swelling pressure (MPa)
1 −αm p̂
dεme = dem = βm e−αm p̂ d p̂ − e dβm (19)
αm
58
(15). In this case, the influence of exchangeable A numerical simulation has been performed in
cations disappears and the only geochemical variable which the soil was subjected to the same sequence
that affects microstructural behaviour is the osmotic of mechanical and chemical actions. A 1-D mesh
suction (so ). composed of 100 elements was used for the analysis
It is convenient to define a new variable: performed with the computer code CODE_BRIGHT
enhanced with a chemical module. The following
1 1 parameters were used: intrinsic permeability, taken as
ψ = p̂ − ln βm = p + χ sm − ln βm (20)
αm αm constant and equal to 5 × 10−19 m2 , the coefficient of
molecular diffusion is 7.6 × 10−10 m2 /s, and the CEC
that will be called the ‘‘chemically modified effec- is 80 meq/100 g of solid. No mechanical dispersion is
tive stress’’ for the microstructure, reflecting the fact considered.
that the microstructural volumetric strain depends on Arguably, the most interesting result of the exper-
changes of ψ only: iment is the observation of positive pore pressures
measured at the bottom of the sample (Figure 9). It
dεme = dem = e−αm ψ d. (21) can be noted that the same response is obtained in the
computations (Figure 10). The pore pressure genera-
Therefore, a cation exchange process that causes an tion corresponds to the undrained response of the soil
increase in βm (for instance the replacement of Ca2+ due to the tendency towards compression induced by
by Na+ in the exchange sites of the clay) will result in a the saline solution. It can be stated that pore pressures
reduction of ψc and an expansion of the double layer. In are generated because the diffusion of salts inside the
fact, any reduction of p, sm or ψc will cause a double sample is faster than the ability of the pore pressures to
layer expansion. Therefore a reduction of ψ will be dissipate. Naturally this phenomenon depends on the
associated with microstructural wetting. Conversely, relative values of intrinsic permeability and the coef-
when the net effect of changes in microstructural vari- ficient of molecular diffusion. This a clear example
ables p, sm , and ψc is an increase of ψ, there will be of interaction between geochemical parameters and
shrinkage of the double layer and it will be associated hydromechanical behaviour, successfully reproduced
with microstructural drying. by the model.
An example of application demonstrating the inter-
action between cation exchange and hydromechanical
effects is now presented. It concerns a laboratory test
carried out in the oedometer cell depicted in Figure 8
(Santamarina & Fam, 1995). In the test, the sample can
only drain from the top whereas pore pressure is mea-
sured at the bottom. First the sample is subjected to a
load of 100 kPa. Once consolidation is finished, the
specimen is placed in contact with a KCl saline solu-
tion of 4.0 M concentration through the upper surface
of the sample. The material tested is a sodium ben-
tonite with a cation exchange capacity (CEC) between Figure 9. Observed variation of the pore pressure at the
80 and 85 meq/100 g of solid. The samples were bottom of a bentonite oedometer sample exposed to a 4.0 M
prepared from slurry with an initial void ratio of 4.6. solution of KCl. (Santamarina & Fam, 1995).
0.05
0.04
pore pressure (MPa)
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
time (min)
59
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS Day, R.W. 1994. Swell-shrink behaviour of compacted clay.
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE; 120(3):
The paper has presented a number of developments 618–623.
related to the constitutive modelling of unsaturated Gallipoli, D., Gens, A., Sharma, R. & Vaunat, J. 2003a. An
soils under increasingly generalised conditions. In elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the
effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical
the first part, coupled hydromechanical models have behaviour. Géotechnique 53: 123–135.
been examined. By making suitable choices in the Gallipoli, D., Wheeler, S.J. & Karstunnen, M. 2003b. Mod-
formulation of the constitutive model, it has been elling the variation of degree of saturation in a deformable
possible to prove its consistency with respect to a unsaturated soil. Géotechnique 53: 105–112.
thermodynamical framework. Gens, A. 1995. Constitutive modelling: Application to com-
Subsequently, the behaviour of expansive clays has pacted soil. Unsaturated Soils. Balkema, Rotterdam. 3:
been described using a double structure approach that 1179–1200.
takes explicitly into account the microstructure of the Gens, A. & Alonso, E.E. 1992. A framework for the
material and the interaction between the two struc- behaviour of unsaturated expansive clays. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 29: 1013–1032.
tural levels, albeit in an approximate form. It has been Gens, A., Sanchez, M. & Sheng, D. 2006, On constitutive
shown that such an approach provides a very con- modelling of unsaturated soils. Acta Geotechnica 1(3):
venient platform to extend the constitutive mode to 137–147.
account for more general soil behaviour that includes Houlsby, G.T. 1997. The work input to an unsaturated
both temperature and chemical effects. granular material. Géotechnique 47: 193–196.
Jardine, R.J., Gens, A., Hight, D.W. & Coop, M.R. 2004.
Developments in understanding soil behaviour. Advances
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS on Geotechnical Engineering. The Skempton Conference
Thomas Telford: London, 103–206.
The contribution of the Spanish Ministry of Education Josa, A., Balmaceda, A., Gens, A. & Alonso, E.E. 1992. An
elasto-plastic model for partially saturated soil exhibiting
and Science through research grant BIA2005-05801 is
a maximum of collapse. 3rd. Int. Conf. Computational
gratefully acknowledged. Plasticity, Barcelona 1: 815–826.
Khalili, N. & Loret, B. 2001. An elasto-plastic model for
non-isothermal analysis of flow and deformation in unsat-
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61
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Assessing the performance of deep geological repositories for heat-generating radioactive waste
requires reliable predictions of the Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical (THM) behaviour of the clay barriers (the buffer
material as well as the host rock/clay). This represents an important element of the waste isolation system. In
order to provide reasonable assurance that clay barriers will ensure nuclear waste isolation, it is essential to
understand their behaviour under a variety of environmental conditions. The phenomena involved are complex,
and adequately understanding the constitutive behaviour of clays and modelling their evolution is challenging.
The stress-strain material behaviours that need to be understood and modelled include drying and wetting in non-
isothermal conditions and heating-cooling in non-saturated conditions. Other aspects should be considered, such
as drying induced cracks and the role of the material structure and its multi-porosity. The difficulty of some of
these tasks is increased by the fact that some effects are coupled. The fundamental behaviours of clayey materials
under the considered THM conditions are first identified and highlighted for deep repository experiments. We
then propose a mechanical stress-strain constitutive framework to model the behaviour of clay barriers. This
includes aspects such as the thermo-plastic behaviour of saturated and unsaturated materials. In the third part,
we show that the proposed framework allows us to experimentally explain observed behaviours and to predict
the THM behaviour of clay barriers.
63
capacity. Several experimental results on the THM
behaviour of bentonite materials that could be used in
radioactive waste storage sites have been reported in
the literature in the last decade. Four well-known and
widely-studied bentonites are briefly presented below.
The Febex bentonite extracted from the Cortijo de
Archidona deposit (Almeria, Spain) is a material that
has been selected in the ENRESA R& D plans as the
most suitable material for backfilling and sealing the
HLW repository and was tested over the last 10 years
within the framework of the Febex project (ENRESA,
2000; Lloret et al., 2004; Villar, 2002, Villar et al.,
2006). This clay is made of approximately 90% mont-
morillonite, giving it high swelling capacities upon
Figure 1. The engineered barrier system: (1) steel canisters; wetting. Its liquid and plastic limits are 100% and 50%,
(2) nuclear waste; (3) host material; (4) buffer material (from respectively.
www.grimsel.com/febex/febex_intro_1.htm). The FoCa Clay is a sedimentary clay from the Paris
Basin. This clay is supplied by the SFBD French Com-
pany. Manufacturing consists of disaggregation and
Clay barriers provide waste isolation mainly by gentle grinding, drying at about 60◦ C and sieving.
restricting the contact between the groundwater and The maximum grain size is 4 mm. The clay is largely
waste containers and by limiting the migration of made of an interstratified clay (50% calcium beidel-
most radionuclides released from the waste (after- lite and 50% kaolinite) (Imbert et al., 2005; Olchitzky,
container failure). These two functions result from 2002).
the low permeability and high retention capability of Bentonite Kunigel V1 is a domestic bentonite pro-
clays. Therefore, the buffer material must have several duced in Japan by Kunimine Industries. More than
specific properties in order to ensure efficient con- 90% of its grains are smaller than 74 μm. The prop-
tainment with high safety for the long term. These erties and behavioural features of this bentonite have
characteristics are related to sufficient mechanical already largely been investigated under the supervi-
properties under isothermal, non-isothermal, satu- sion of the Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute
rated, and unsaturated conditions, to liquid, air and (JNC, 1999; Komine and Ogata, 1994). The two main
thermal conductivities, to the nuclide filtration abil- constituents are montmorillonite (48%) and quartz
ities and to manufacturability of the buffer material. (34%). Its liquid and plastic limits are 416 and 21%,
Such required properties are summarized in Table 1. respectively.
The use of bentonite as a buffer material is the most MX-80, considered by many as the reference buffer
usual solution in several national concepts. Bentonite material, is produced in the United States by the
is a clay mainly composed of smectite, which gives ‘‘American Colloid’’ society. The grain sizes are dis-
swelling properties due to its high water absorption tributed between 10 μm and 1 mm (Tang, 2005). It is
Table 1. The function of the buffer material in parallel with its required properties (JNC, 1999).
64
made of 75% montmorillonite and 15% quartz. Its liq- near-field, which can be defined as the zone altered
uid limit is approximately 450% while its plastic limit by the presence of the radioactive waste (including
is around 50%. the buffer materials and a portion of the host mate-
After manufacturing of the bentonite powder, all of rial adjacent to the waste location), is subjected to
these materials are partially wetted to reach the desired complex mechanical, hydric, and thermal solicitations
water content, and eventually mixed with additive soil with a great inter-dependence (THM couplings). In
(sand or graphite) in different proportions to adjust the this paper, we limit our analysis to processes where
desired properties. They are subsequently compacted THM coupling is predominant.
with a well-defined energy. This compaction induces With the ‘‘intact state’’ of the host massif as the
particular properties in the bentonite (e.g., a double initial state with a generally anisotropic stress state,
structure, expansive tendency under wetting). the first step is excavation. This process induces a
The purposes of this keynote paper are to identify stress redistribution due to opening, causing tension,
the fundamental mechanical behaviours of argilla- compression and shear and leading to an Excavation
ceous materials in the context of deep repository Disturbed Zone (EDZ) in the host material around the
experiments and to analyse them in a comprehen- excavation (Davies and Bernier, 2003). This stage is
sive THM stress-strain constitutive framework, named not considered in this paper.
ACMEG (Advanced Constitutive Modelling for Envi- After excavation and before HLW emplacement, the
ronmental Geomechanics). Among possible failure galleries are ventilated. During this stage, the exca-
scenarios, observed drying cracks in the material will vated area plays a drainage role and a consolidation
be discussed in this framework. process occurs in the surrounding host material. In
addition, a negative pore water pressure (suction) is
acting on the field material; a strong suction gradi-
2 THERMO-HYDRO-MECHANICAL ent can develop between the gallery surface and the
PROCESSES surrounding host material. In this situation, drainage
and drying in the vicinity of the ventilated excavation
Figure 2 illustrates a possible layout of a deep are likely to be associated with radial cracking in the
geological repository. In the first year following galleries.
the construction of the underground disposal, the After placing the canister and filling the gap
between it and the host material with buffer material
(i.e. blocks of compacted clay, initially unsaturated),
the main action that affects the EBS is heating from the
canister (Figure 3) and hydration from the surround-
ing host material. This stage can be subdivided into
several expected phases:
– In the very early closure stage, the thermal flux from
the vitrified waste into the buffer material occurs in
unsaturated conditions at a constant water content
65
(i.e. constant suction). The impact of the thermal subjected to wetting (suction decrease) and thermal
load generated by the waste is particularly important swelling (and/or eventual collapse);
as it will significantly affect the temperature and the – The THM processes progress and the buffer material
stress far (more than 50 m) from the repository in reaches a saturated state while the temperature is
the host material (Timodaz, 2007); still increasing (Figure 3);
– During early closure, the resaturation process – In a later closure stage, the high temperature
induced by the water flux from the surrounding induces a desaturation process of the buffer mate-
rock/clay mass occurs in a media in which tempera- rial, which tends to shrink with a risk of desic-
ture progressively increases. The buffer material is cation crack occurrence. This phase is generally
seen as the most critical stage for the integrity of
the engineered barrier. In Figure 4 we show an
example of cracks in the inner wall of the ben-
tonite buffer annulus in which the heat-generating
waste is enveloped (Graham et al., 1997). Those
cracks were identified after decommissioning a
large-scale test of EBS performance conducted over
2.5 years;
– Finally, in the very late closure stage, when the
maximum of thermal power has been emitted by
the vitrified waste, temperature around the repos-
itory is slowly falling and the buffer material is
re-saturated (wetting process). The thermal and
hydraulic gradients are largely lower than previously
and progressively vanish. When the temperature
has totally decreased, irreversible thermal strains
predominate.
In terms of theoretical and constitutive studies of
the processes encountered, the succession of differ-
ent phases above clearly shows the necessity of using
high-performance modelling tools to best approach the
complex phenomena and interactions. Table 2 summa-
Figure 4. Image of cracks of inside wall of buffer annulus rizes the THM processes and the modelling aspects
after removal of heater (Graham et al., 1997). required to treat the problems.
Table 2. THM processes occurring in the life of underground nuclear waste disposal.
Excavation Stress redistribution EDZ formation Elasto-plastic (EP) model for saturated and
isothermal conditions—(EDZ aspect not
considered here)
Ventilation of the Consolidation process in the host material; Hydro-mechanical coupling in unsaturated
excavation Swelling and eventual desaturation of the host conditions considering desiccation crack
material occurrence
Very early closure Thermal diffusion in an unsaturated medium; Thermo-hydraulic (TH) diffusive law coupled
stage Hydraulic diffusion in an isothermal medium with an isothermal and a non-isothermal (T)
Thermal and hydraulic swelling and/or collapse EP mechanical model for unsaturated
of the buffer material conditions
Early closure stage Coupled thermal and hydraulic diffusion in a TH diffusive law coupled with a THM-EP
deformable media; Thermal and hydraulic mechanical model for unsaturated
swelling and/or collapse of the buffer material conditions
Late closure stage Desaturation of the buffer material due to thermal TH diffusive law coupled with a THM-EP
effects Shrinkage and risk of desiccation cracks mechanical model for unsaturated soil
in the buffer material considering desiccation crack occurrence
Very late closure Temperature decrease and wetting of the buffer TH diffusive law coupled with a THM-EP
stage material; Lower thermal and hydraulic gradient; mechanical model for unsaturated
Irreversible thermal strains conditions considering wetting paths
66
3 THM STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOURS confining stresses (similar to paths followed in under-
OF ARGILLACEOUS MATERIALS UNDER ground nuclear storage) induces mainly irreversible
ENVIRONMENTAL LOADINGS compression strains for low over-consolidation states
and reversible dilatation strains for highly over-
Natural host materials are different in terms of min- consolidated states. For instance, Figure 5 shows
eralogical compositions and consolidation histories of the evolution of the apparent preconsolidation pres-
buffer materials. However, natural clays exhibit THM sure with temperature for Boom clay (the material
behaviours similar to those of buffer materials. Both involved in the multi-barrier concept in the Belgian
of these could be modelled in the following theoretical underground laboratory of nuclear waste disposal),
framework. while Figure 6 shows its mechanical response under
All constitutive processes considered are rate inde- a heating-cooling cycle at different over-consolidated
pendent. Very few results are available in the literature states.
on the role of the skeleton intrinsic viscosity in THM
environmental loading conditions. However, readers
interested in thermo-viscoplasticity modelling of clays 3.2 Hydromechanical unsaturated isothermal
may refer to the paper by Modaressi and Laloui (1997). behaviour of clayey materials
The common features of the behaviour of argilla- Partial saturation is also observed to significantly
ceous materials under environmental loadings such as affect the stress-strain response of bentonite and host
suction or temperature variations are their high strain materials. Like most fine-grained soils, such materials
irreversibility (plasticity) and the important effects
of pore fluids on mechanical behaviour. The pre-
dominant THM stress-strain behaviour can be mainly
characterised by the following four processes:
– Non-linearity and irreversibility of the strains.
– Modification of the internal state through isotropic
hardening.
– The interaction between pore fluids and the solid
skeleton through ‘‘generalized’’ effective stress.
– Modification of the elastic yield limit under envi-
ronmental loadings: it shrinks with increasing tem-
perature in saturated conditions and dilates with
increasing suction at ambient temperature. Such
processes are expressed by a dependence of the
apparent preconsolidation stress.
In its geological meaning, the preconsolidation
pressure is unique and constant. However, the stress
yield limit that separates ‘‘elastic’’ pre-yield from
‘‘plastic’’ post-yield behaviour in isotropic or oedo-
metric conditions varies with environmental loads
(suction/temperature) and is to be considered a rhe-
ological parameter. It is evaluated as the stress value
at the intersection of two linear parts of the compres-
sion curves (mean/vertical effective stress versus void
ratio). It should have a specific appellation; the term
apparent preconsolidation pressure, pc , is used in this
paper.
In this section, we present general trends of the
stress-strain behaviour of clayey materials.
67
case where the mechanical external or total stress is
fixed, suction changes cause straining of the material.
Figure 8a shows that the complete drying-wetting
cycle of fine-grained materials is not a reversible pro-
cess from the viewpoint of deformation. In parallel,
Figure 8b draws the soil water retention curve corre-
sponding to such a suction cycle, highlighting a clear
capillary hysteresis in the degree of saturation ver-
sus suction relationship. Focussing in particular on
the wetting process, that is decreasing suction under
a given stress state, it is understood from Figure 9
that the lower the applied stress, the higher the wet-
ting induced swelling. Indeed, the volumetric response
can be interpreted as a fully reversible heave under
a low applied stress (e.g., 100 kPa), whereas plastic
0.1
(a)
0
Figure 6. Heating-cooling cycle under constant effective Volumetric strain v
confining stresses at different overconsolidation ratios, Boom
clay (experimental results: Baldi et al., 1991). -0.1
-0.2 Drying
100
-0.3
80 Wetting
-0.4
Matric suction s (MPa)
60 -0.5
100 104 106 108
Matric suction s (Pa)
40
1
(b)
20
0.8
drying
Degree of saturation S (-)
r
0.4
Figure 7. Evolution of the apparent preconsolidation pres-
sure with suction for FEBEX Bentonite (after Lloret et al.,
2004).
0.2
68
0.32 σ = 14000 kPa
v
σ = 5100 kPa
Volumetric strain ε (-)
v
σ = 100 kPa
v
0.24 v
0.16
0.08 Initial
point
0 Wetting
5 7 9
10 10 10
Matric suction s (Pa)
69
3.4 Double structure effect
One of the key issues that should be precisely under-
stood for such THM phenomena is soil structure
effects. The term soil structure in general corresponds
to the combination of soil fabric, namely arrange-
ment of particles, and interparticle bonding (Mitchell,
1993). These two components of soil structure charac-
terize the compacted materials that are used as buffer
materials. Meanwhile, changes in soil structure can
influence, through a coupled process, the host material
behaviour in the phenomenon under study. In general,
materials involved in such problems have complex
structures. Unlike homogenous soils, these materi- Figure 13. Modification of soil fabric due to suction
als exhibit a wide and often bi- or multi-modal pore increase (after Cuisinier and Laloui, 2004).
size distribution. There are two extremes in concep-
tualizing the structure of these materials: aggregation
and macro void formation. The first explains structure
Moreover, pore size distribution of the material
changes in clay during compaction stages. For com-
might be strongly influenced by environmental load-
pacted materials, the pores can be divided into two
ing. Figure 13 shows the MIP results of a natural
main groups of macro and micro pores; therefore, they
aggregated soil at different suction levels (Cuisinier
can be addressed by the concept of double porosity.
and Laloui, 2004). These results represent the strong
However, this requires a rigorous consideration of soil
evolution of macro and micro porosity due to suction
structure and double porosity effects in a strain-stress
variations.
constitutive approach.
We can therefore conclude that in such materials,
Soil structure may influence many soil charac-
so-called double structure soils, deformation is a com-
teristics, including compressibility (Lambe, 1958),
bined phenomenon at both the macro and micro scales.
hydraulic conductivity (Tamari, 1984) and the soil-
A direct consequence of such a structure is collapse
water retention curves (Brustaert, 1968) of both
upon wetting that can be ascribed to the collapse and
compacted and natural soils.
disintegration of aggregates due to wetting (Gens and
Based on experimental results, mainly from mer-
Alonso, 1992; Lloret et al., 2003). Moreover, the
cury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), it has been shown
strength of structural units has an important influence
that compacted bentonite has an aggregated structure.
on the compressibility and mechanical behaviour of
Figure 12 presents the pore size distribution of the
the material. In other words, the yield limit depends
FEBEX bentonite obtained by MIP tests (Lloret et al.,
not only on the stress state and stress history, but also
2003). As can be seen in the figure, these materials
strongly on the soil structure. Common experimen-
have a bi-modal pore size distribution correspond-
tal evidence for the latter point is the extension of
ing to two dominant classes of inter-aggregate and
preconsolidation pressure in natural structured soils
intra-aggregate pores.
compared to reconstituted soil of the same mineralogy
(Callisto and Rampello, 2004; Liu and Carter, 1999).
It is noteworthy that in these materials, hardening (or
softening) of material depends also on the degrada-
tion of structures that might happen due to different
environmental loadings.
70
be converted into a mechanically equivalent, single- This section presents the main layout of the model
phase, single-stress state continuum. Consequently, with its temperature and suction extension. A more
the constitutive equations for mechanical behaviour complete description can be found in François and
directly link the change in strain to a variation in a Laloui (2008a).
single stress averaged over a volume comprehending In an elasto-plastic framework, the total strain dε
several constituents, each of which is likely to react is generated by non-linear thermo-elasticity, inducing
internally to a global external load. Under full satura- reversible strain dε e , coupled with a multi-dissipative
tion in water, the intergranular stress in bentonite is a thermo-plasticity, producing irrecoverable strain dεp .
combination of total stress and pore water pressure, the Due to the strain history dependence, the formulation
formulation being likely to include physico-chemical is given in terms of infinitesimal increments. Refer-
interactions whenever justified (Verwey and Over- ence is made here to strains and stresses in the small
beek, 1948; Hueckel and Pellegrini, 1992). A possible deformation domain.
generalisation to partial saturation in water is the The elastic part of the deformation is expressed as:
generalised effective stress inherited from Bishop’s
proposal (1959): 1
−1
dεije = Eijkl dσkl − βs dT δij (3)
σij = (σij − pa δij ) + Sr (pa − pw )δij (1) 3
where σij is the exterior stress, δij the Kronecker delta, where compression is taken as positive. Eijkl is the
pa the pore air pressure, pw the pore water pressure, mechanical elastic tensor and βs the volumetric ther-
and Sr (= volume of water / volume of voids) the degree mal expansion coefficient of the solid skeleton. Elastic
of saturation. The direct dependence of the mechan- strain may be induced by total stress, suction, satura-
ical stress variable (1) on suction (s = pa − pw ) and tion degree variation (first term of Equation 3), or by
degree of saturation is noteworthy. The main implica- temperature change (second term of Equation 3). Eijkl
tions of the use of advanced stress variables have been is composed of the non-linear hypo-elastic modulus.
investigated by Nuth and Laloui (2007). Using the concept of multi-mechanism plasticity
While the stress variable (1) is the unique stress (Mandel, 1965), the total irreversible strain increment
p
entering the mechanical stress-strain relationships, dεij is induced by two coupled dissipative processes:
later expressed by equations (4) and (5), thermody- an isotropic and a deviatoric plastic mechanism. These
p,iso p,dev
namic (Hutter et al., 1999) and energetic (Houlsby, produce plastic strain increments dεij and dεij ,
1997) considerations call for a supplementary set of respectively.
variables to describe the retention behaviour in par- The yield limits of each mechanism, restricting the
allel. The complete stress and work conjugate strain elastic domain in the generalised effective stress space,
framework is then formulated as: take the following expressions (Figure 14):
σij εij
and (2) fiso = p − pc riso = 0 (4)
s Sr
dp
where εij is the mechanical strain variable. The sets fdev = q − Mp 1 − bLog rdev = 0 (5)
pc
of variables (σij , εij ) and (s, Sr ) enter the mechan-
ical model and the retention model, respectively,
developed hereafter. Coping with the particular where q is the deviatoric stress and p the mean gen-
behavioural features of unsaturated fine-grained mate- eralized effective stress. b is a material parameter and
rials reviewed in Section 3.2 raises the need for d the distance (in the logarithmic plane) between the
constant interaction between the two models.
71
apparent preconsolidation pressure, pc , and the criti-
cal pressure, pcr . M is the slope of the critical state
line in the (q − p ) plane and may depend on temper-
ature. riso and rdev are the degrees of plastification of
the isotropic and deviatoric mechanisms, respectively.
According to bounding surface theory (Dafalias &
Herrmann, 1980), this enables progressive evolution
of the isotropic and deviatoric yield limits (Hujeux,
1979).
The apparent preconsolidation pressure pc is shared
by both yield limits, coupling the two mechanisms.
Moreover, this parameter is the main hardening vari-
p
able and depends on volumetric plastic strain εv (in
the sense of the Cam-Clay model family according
to Roscoe & Burland (1968)), on temperature and on
suction (Figure 14):
⎧ p
Figure 15. The retention model in the ACMEG framework.
⎨pc0 exp{βεv }{1 − γT log[T /T0 ]}
⎪ if s ≤ se
pc = pc0 exp{βεvp }{1 − γT log[T /T0 ]}
⎪
⎩ hydraulic limits, fdry and fwet , on drying and wetting
{1 + γs log[s/se ]} if s ≥ se
paths, respectively:
(6)
72
(François and Laloui, 2008b). Within this framework, origins): (i) intrinsic strain hardening, which describes
the current degree of saturation is given by: the evolution of the preconsolidation pressure of sat-
urated reconstituted soil, p∗ c0 , according to a plastic
Sr = Sr0 + Srdry + Srwet (13) strain hardening rule similar to the Cam-clay model,
(ii) primary suction effects as in reconstituted soils,
dry (iii) pure soil structure effects and (vi) secondary
where Sr0 is the initial degree of saturation. Sr and
suction effects in aggregated soils.
Srwet are the variations of saturation degree induced
The primary effects of suction on the increase of
by the drying and wetting mechanisms, respectively.
effective preconsolidation pressure are of the same
For very high suctions, the hydraulic conditions
nature in reconstituted and aggregated soils and are
reach a residual state defined by the residual degree
taken into account by ψ s . These effects are linked
of saturation Sr,res . In this state, no more variation of
to capillary effects and depend on the geometry of
the degree of saturation is possible, even if the suction
the pores and the air entry value of the pore system.
increases (Figure 15).
Similar to reconstituted soils, a reversible function is
proposed to quantify the evolution of apparent precon-
Soil structure considerations solidation pressure due to primary suction effects:
In the ACMEG constitutive framework, the influence
of soil structure on the stress-strain behaviour is taken ⎧
into account by making the apparent preconsolidation ⎨1; 1 if 0 < s < s1e
s
ψ = 1 + γs log(sse ); if s1e ≤ s < sref (16)
pressure depend not only on stress state and stress his- ⎩
tory, but also on the soil structure and suction. For 1 + γs log(s se ) ; if s ≥ sref
this purpose, as a first requirement, a state param-
eter named degree of soil structure R is introduced in which s1e and se are the air entry suction values of
to describe and quantify soil structure effects. This micropores and reconstituted soil, respectively, and γs
parameter is defined here as the ratio of current macro and γs are two dependent material parameters.
void to its initial value in the intact state. The degree The soil structure effects and secondary suction
of soil structure is a scaling parameter that represents effects on soil structure are taken into account by
the openness of the structure. Obviously, any degra- ψ st , a function of degree of soil structure, which
dation of structure due to hydro-mechanical loadings controls the extension of yield limits with respect to
changes this parameter. the reconstituted reference state. At constant suction,
Onthebasisofpore-scaleexperimentalobservations, the following evolution rule has been derived for this
the evolution of the degree of soil structure has been variable (Koliji et al., 2008):
found to be reasonably reproduced by a decreasing
exponentialfunctionofplasticstrain(Kolijietal., 2008): ψ st = exp[R ln ψist ] (17)
73
Griffith’s theory (Griffith, 1924) assumes that defects
are present in the material that induce large stress
concentrations and lower the overall strength of the
material with respect to its theoretical value. Crite-
ria based on this theory actually reflect the failure
behaviour of unsaturated (or cemented) soils when the
minor net stress is tensile (Bishop and Garga, 1969;
Bagge, 1985; Baker, 1981).
Based on available uniaxial traction test data on
clayey soils performed at various known suctions and
degrees of saturation (Farrell et al., 1969; Rodriguez
et al., 2007; Peron, 2008), one can establish a depen-
dence of tensile strength on suction. An exponential
law of the following form is chosen (Peron, 2008):
k1 s
Figure 16. Combined effects of suction and soil structure σt = σtsat + k2 1 − exp − (20)
on the apparent isotropic preconsolidation pressure. k2
74
initial state, simplifying their comparison. In addition,
the whole history of equalization to a given level of
suction and subsequent oedometric compression at a
constant level of suction is retraced (Figure 19a). Sim-
ulation of wetting or drying processes from an initial
suction of 138 MPa predicts a satisfactory volumet-
ric response (Figure 19b). The magnitude of strain is
observed to vary depending on the net stress applied
during equalization, as shown by the comparison of
wetting tests 5 and 1, under a vertical net stress of
0.1 and 5.1 MPa, respectively. Even though the global
swelling trend is observed upon wetting for all tests,
a punctual decrease in εv is attributed to (i) mechan-
ical compression prior to or during equalization and
(ii) seamless plastic episodes due to the initiation of
minor wetting collapse. Subsequent oedometric com-
pression tests (Figure 19c) at constant suctions from 0
(test 5) to 500 MPa (test 1) are also remarkably well
predicted with the proposed framework, as a conse-
quence of the reliability of the isotropic yield limit
Figure 18. Interception of stress path with tensile failure formulation (Equation 6).
criterion during constrained shrinkage in the radial direction. Underground confinement brings particular bound-
ary conditions for the bentonite layers, so that their
constrained desiccation phase, prescribed strains make overall volume is often totally constrained. Under the
the stress path deviate from the isotropic path nor- effect of moisturisation, the constraint leads to inner
mally followed during unconstrained desiccation. The stresses, the latter quantified by the means of swelling
stress path then tends to come closer to the tensile pressure tests. On the basis of advances brought by
failure criterion. In turn, the tensile failure criterion using the generalised effective stress, ACMEG makes
tends to move towards higher minor effective stresses, it straightforward to simulate the constrained condi-
due to its dependence on suction (this could be seen tions and predict the generated stresses. The superpo-
as an expression of brittleness affecting the soil as sition of innovative numerical simulations (predictions
suction increases). for tests SP1 and SP4) with experimental points in
This behaviour can be illustrated using the param- Figure 20 shows a satisfying qualification of the stress
eter X r , defined as ‘‘degree of shrinkage restraint,’’ increase trends. A close estimate of the maximum
and equal to the ratio of hindered strains to shrink- swelling pressure is then available from numerical
age strains resulting from unconstrained shrinkage. results, even though the quantification could still be
Figure 18 shows different evolutions of the minor refined (Nuth and Laloui, 2007). The simulated results
stress during drying depending on the value of X r are also strongly dependent on the soil water retention
(from 0, unconstrained shrinkage, no crack is possible, curve shape (Equations 9 to 13).
to 1, all strains are hindered in two of the three princi-
pal directions). The trace of a possible tensile failure
5.2 Modelling the effect of temperature on the
criterion in the s − σ3 plane, given by Equation 19, is
hydro-mechanical response of host materials
also sketched.
In confining barriers, saturation and desaturation pro-
cesses often occur in a medium affected by nuclear
waste heat emission. Under such non-isothermal
5 MODELLING PERFORMANCES
conditions, several couplings between capillary and
OF THE ACMEG FRAMEWORK
temperature effects must be considered in order to
understand and to predict the THM response of clay
5.1 Modelling the unsaturated behaviour
simultaneously submitted to stress, moisture and tem-
of host materials
perature changes. Figure 21 presents the retention
The applicability of the ACMEG framework to waste behaviour of compacted Boom clay at two tempera-
confining material is illustrated with the modelling tures as predicted by ACMEG and as compared with
of the complex experimental stress-strain response in experimental observations (Romero et al., 2003). This
unsaturated FEBEX bentonite (Lloret et al., 2004). example shows the temperature effect on the retention
These experimental data were preferred because most curve. In particular, the air-entry suction is reduced
published stress paths actually start from the same with increasing temperature. Moreover, during these
75
109 1000
SP1 EXP
Test 1 (a) (b)
SP2 EXP
SP3 EXP
Initial Test 2 SP4 EXP
Wetting
106
1
Final
point Test 5
105
104 106 108 0.1
Vertical stress -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
v (Pa) Vertical net stress (MPa)
v
0.32 (b)
Figure 20. Comparison of experimental swelling pressure
Exp. test 1 tests on Febex bentonite and their numerical simulation using
Volumetric strain v (-)
Exp. 3
Mod. 3
0.2 Exp. 4 0.5
Mod. 4
Exp. 5
Mod. 5 0.4
0.1 0.01 0.1 1
Suction [MPa]
76
Experiment Numerical simulation Experiment Numerical simulation
v,net
= 0.085MPa v,net
= 0.085MPa T= 22˚C T= 22˚C
v,net
= 0.3MPa v,net
= 0.3MPa T= 80˚C T= 80˚C
= 1.2MPa = 1.2MPa 0
v,net v,net
0.05
s= 0.06 MPa
-0.02
0
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
-0.1
-0.08
-0.15
T=22˚C -0.1
-0.2 0.1 1
0.01 0.1 1
(a) Suction [MPa]
Vertical net stress [MPa]
Experiment Numerical simulation
Figure 23. Comparison between experimental oedometric
= 0.085MPa = 0.085MPa compression tests on compacted Boom Clay at a suction of
v,net v,net
60 kPa and two different temperatures (22 and 80◦ C) and
= 0.3MPa = 0.3MPa
v,net v,net their numerical simulation using ACMEG model.
= 1.2MPa = 1.2MPa
v,net v,net
0.05
0
Volumetric strain [-]
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
Figure 24. Simulation of ACMEG for oedometric compres-
sion of unsaturated aggregated silty clay at a constant suction
-0.2 of 500 kPa.
T=80˚C
-0.25 the interconnection between temperature, suction, and
0.01 0.1 1 stress states. Only a unified approach can consider in
(b) Suction [MPa] a relevant manner the THM response of this kind of
material.
Figure 22. Volumetric strain observed for drying-wetting
cycles of compacted Boom Clay under oedometric condi-
tions. Comparison between experimental results and numer- 5.3 Modelling the behaviour of unsaturated
ical simulations using ACMEG. a) 22◦ C and b) 80◦ C. structured material
Figure 24 shows results of the model simulation
is well reproduced by the ACMEG model. In addi- for a sample of unsaturated aggregated silt during
tion, a temperature increase modifies the yield point oedometric compression at a constant suction of 500
along compression paths, resulting in a translation kPa. The model was found to reasonably reproduce
of the normally consolidated line towards lower gen- the experimental results. Thanks to a modified equa-
eralized effective stress (Figure 23). All of these tion for water properties, the model can also address
examples clearly indicate the necessity to consider increasing saturation, even at a constant suction.
77
Figure 25. Crack pattern obtained after drying under atmo- Figure 26. Experimental values of uniaxial tensile strength
sphere with controlled relative humidity, after Rodriguez from Rodriguez et al. (2007) and evolution law of tensile
et al. (2007). strength with ACMEG.
78
accordance with the authors’ claim based on boundary Corte, A. & Higashi, A. 1960. Experimental Research on
value problem calculations. Furthermore, strains were Desiccation Cracks in Soil. Research report 66, U.S. Army
assumed totally constrained in the radial (horizontal) Snow and Ice and Permafrost Research Establishment.
direction. Such a condition should prevail at the slab Dafalias, Y. & Herrmann, L. 1980. A bounding sur-
base (and was adopted by the authors themselves). face soil plasticity model. International Symposium on
soils under Cyclic and Transient Loading, Swansea,
Results of the simulation are presented in Figure 27. 335–345.
The predicted suction at cracking was 19 kPa (degree Davies, C. & Bernier, F. 2003. Impact of the Excavation
of saturation 0.98), very close to the experimental Disturbed or Damaged Zone (EDZ) on the Performance of
results. In this sense, the model can predict desiccation Radioactive Waste Geological Repositories. Proceedings
crack occurrence. of a European Commission CLUSTER—Conference and
Workshop, Luxembourg.
ENRESA. 2000. Febex Project: Full-scale engineered bar-
riers experiment for a deep geological repository for
6 CONCLUSIONS high level radioactive waste in crystalline host rock.
Publicación técnica 1/2000.
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modelling the performance of clay barriers in of water content on axial strain in a loam soil under ten-
deep geological repositories for radioactive waste. sion and compression. Soil Science Society of America
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assessment of deep geological repositories for Fleureau, J.M., Kheirbeksaoud, S., Soemitro, R. & Taibi, S.
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The ACMEG framework considers the main mech- François, B. & Laloui, L. 2008b. ACMEG-TS: A constitutive
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ponts et chaussées, Paris. ing an electric double layer, Elsevier Publishing Company,
Peron, H. 2008. Desiccation Cracking of Soils. PhD Thesis, Inc.
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland. Villar, M. 2002. Thermo-hydro-mechanical characterisation
Prager, W. 1958. Non-isothermal plastic deformation. of a bentonite from Cabo de Gata: A study applied to the
Koninkklijk-Nederland Akademie Van Wetenschappen use of bentonite as sealing material in high level radioac-
Te Amsterdam—Proc. of the section of sciences-B, 61, tive waste repositories. publicación técnica 04/2002,
176–182. ENRESA.
Rizzi, E., Maier, G. & Willam, K. 1996. On failure indica- Villar, M. & Lloret, A. 2004. Influence of temperature on the
tors in multi-dissipative materials. International Journal hydro-mechanical behaviour of a compacted bentonite.
of Solids and Structures, 33 (20–22), 3187–3214. Applied Clay Science, 26, 337–350.
Rodriguez, R., Sanchez, M., Ledesma, A. & Lloret, A. Villar, M.V., Perez del Villar, L., Martin, P., Pelayo, M.,
2007. Experimental and numerical analysis of desicca- Fernandez, A., Garralon, A., Cuevas, J., Leguey, S.,
tion of a mining waste. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Caballero, E., Huertas, F., Jimenez de Cisneros, C.,
44, 644–658. Linares, J., Reyes, E., Delgado, A., Fernandez-Soler, J. &
Romero, E., Gens, A. & Lloret, A. 2001. Temperature Astudillo, J. 2006. The study of spanish clays for their use
effects on the hydraulic behaviour of an unsaturated clay. as sealing materials in nuclear waste repositories: 20 years
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 19, 311–332. of progress. Journal of Iberian Geology 32 (1), 15–36.
80
Advances in testing techniques
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper describes a novel servo-controlled true triaxial testing apparatus that has been devel-
oped to test 7.5-cm (3-in) side, cubical specimens of unsaturated soil under controlled-suction states for a wide
range of stress paths that are not achievable in a conventional cylindrical apparatus. The equipment is a mixed-
boundary type of device, with the specimen seated on top of a high-air-entry disk and between five flexible
(latex) membranes on the remaining sides of the cube. The new cell is an upgraded, more elaborate version of
the one previously reported by Hoyos (1998), featuring two independent pore-air and pore-water pressure con-
trol systems via a PCP-5000-UNSAT pressure panel. Matric suction states in the specimens are induced during
testing via the axis-translation technique. The technique is implemented by utilizing the s = ua testing concept
(uw = 0). The paper outlines the full development of the new cell, including details of its main components and
the step-by-step assembling process. Results from a short series of constant-suction Triaxial Compression (TC)
and Triaxial Extension (TE) tests are presented. The operational true triaxial apparatus will play a fundamental
role in the complete characterization of unsaturated soil behavior under multiaxial stress paths that are likely to
be experienced in the field.
83
under controlled-suction states for a wide range of considerably enhanced performance, which includes:
stress paths that are not achievable in a conventional (1) More testing accuracy and reliability, (2) More
cylindrical apparatus. The equipment can be defined flexibility of operation and breadth of application,
as a mixed-boundary type of device, with the spec- (3) More refined data acquisition and process con-
imen seating on top of a high-air-entry (HAE) disk trol systems, and (4) Increased amount and qual-
and between five flexible (latex) membranes on the ity of testing variables monitored during a typical
remaining sides of the cube. The new cubical cell suction-controlled testing.
is an upgraded, more elaborate version of the one In general, true triaxial devices can be classified
implemented by Hoyos (1998), featuring two indepen- into three major categories: rigid-boundary, flexible-
dent pore-air pressure (ua ) and pore-water pressure boundary and mixed-boundary cells (Sture, 1979;
(uw ) control systems by using a PCP-5000-UNSAT Arthur, 1988). The apparatus presented in this paper
pressure control panel. Suction states in the cubi- is a mixed-boundary type of cell, with the specimen
cal specimens during suction-controlled testing are seating on top of a HAE ceramic disk and between five
induced via axis-translation technique. flexible membranes on the remaining sides of the cube.
The following sections describe details of the The cell consists mainly of a stainless steel frame
design, main components, and assembling process featuring six pressure cavities to accommodate one
of the developed apparatus. Preliminary results from top and four lateral flexible latex membranes, and a
a short series of suction-controlled triaxial compres- cubical base aluminum piece at the bottom to house
sion (TC) and triaxial extension (TE) tests are also a 5-bar ceramic disk and four symmetrically spaced
presented. coarse porous stones, as shown in Figures 2–5.
2 PREVIOUS WORK
84
Figure 6. Photograph of entire cubical test layout, including
external pressure application/control system (left) and PCP-
5000-UNSAT pressure control panel (right).
Figure 4. Close view of cubical base aluminum piece fitted
onto bottom assembly.
(a)
Figure 5. Plan view of cubical base aluminum piece fitted
onto bottom assembly.
85
underneath the 5-bar disk. In this work, however, the lateral wall assemblies are then set into place. A typical
axis-translation technique is implemented by utilizing 7.5-cm (3-in) side, cubical specimen is then pre-
the s = ua testing concept (uw = 0). pared in-place using a combined pluviation-tamping
The panel also features a flushing mechanism at the compaction process, as shown in Figure 10.
bottom assembly, as shown in Figure 7. All suction- The specimen is prepared in approximately eight
controlled tests are entirely computer-driven via a data pluviated layers, with each layer compacted at a tar-
acquisition/process control system (DA/PCS). get moisture content 4% greater than standard Proctor
The core of the cubical cell (Fig. 6) was man-
ufactured and check-out tested at the University of
Colorado, Boulder. The PCP-5000-UNSAT pressure
control panel from Geotechnical Consulting and Test-
ing Systems (GCTS), Tempe, Arizona, was then
adapted to the cubical cell at the geotechnical research
laboratories of the University of Texas at Arlington to
control pore-air (ua ) and pore-water (uw ) pressures.
The panel has been successfully utilized in cylindrical
cells, featuring both pressure/volume control cell pres-
sure, pore/back pressure, pore-air pressure with 2 MPa
(300 psi) pressure range, and 300 cc (18 in3 ) volume
capacity. It also includes a full set of hydraulic servo
valves, an electro-hydraulic pump, pressure transduc-
ers with 0.1 kPa (0.02 psi) resolution, and specific
water volume (vw = 1 + eSr ) change transducer with
0.01 cc resolution. Figure 8. Bottom plate of custom-made chamber housing
three 5-bar disks prior to saturation.
86
optimum. Tamping corresponds to a compactive effort Figures 12 and 13 present the deviator stress versus
considerably less than that of standard Proctor com- principal strain response of silty sand from suction-
paction. The intention is to reproduce specimens with controlled TC tests. In these figures, suction is shown
low preconsolidation stress values, so that, subse- to exert an important influence on the shear resistance
quently, it is relatively feasible to reconsolidate the soil of silty sand, with a considerable increase for s =
to a virgin state. A custom-made, 0.25 mm (0.01-in) 200 kPa. During TC testing, the major principal
thick, stainless steel shaft introduced into the cubical stress σ1 is increased while the intermediate σ2 and
cavity of the frame facilitates the pluviation-tamping minor σ3 principal stresses reduce, such that the net
compaction process for each layer (Fig. 10).
Upon completion of the soil compaction process,
(σ1 – ua)
the shaft is gently removed and the top assembly of the
cell, as well as the remaining components and connec- σ2 – σ3
tions for external stress and suction state applications, TC (b = 0, θ = 0o) b=
SS (b = 0.5, θ = 30o) σ1 – σ3
are set into place (Fig. 6).
TE (b = 1, θ = 60o)
θ
σoct = 50, 100, or 200 kPa
4 SUCTION-CONTROLLED TESTING
A s = 50, 100, or 200 kPa
silty sand (SM soil: 80% sand and 20% silt) were sub-
0
ject to a multi-stage testing scheme in which suction
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
was kept constant at 50 or 200 kPa. A soil speci- Principal strain (%)
men was first brought under isotropic stress state and
subsequently imposed a constant-suction, monotonic Figure 12. Silty sand response from TC tests at σoct =
triaxial compression (TC) or triaxial extension (TE) 100 kPa.
shearing until it was apparent that the deviator stress
had reached a peak value. 60
At this point, the specimen was brought back to s = 200 kPa
the initial hydrostatic condition and a new octahedral 50
stress applied via ramped consolidation. The same TC
Deviator stress, q (psi)
s = 50 kPa
40
or TE stress path was then carried out. The suction-
controlled test scheme is depicted schematically on a
30
deviatoric plane in Figure 11.
In this work, the net octahedral stress σoct and devi- 20
ator stress q are both defined in terms of total principal
stresses σ1 , σ2 , and σ3 as follows: 10
σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 0
σoct = − ua (1) -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
3 Principal strain (%)
1
q = √ (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ1 − σ3 )2 (2) Figure 13. Silty sand response from TC tests at σoct =
2 200 kPa.
87
60 oped apparatus is suitable for testing soils under
suction-controlled conditions using the axis-translation
50 technique. On-going testing involves a wide range of
Deviator stress, q (psi)
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Principal strain (%)
50 REFERENCES
s = 200 kPa
Deviator stress, q (psi)
88
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a simple shear apparatus developed to investigate shear strength of unsatu-
rated soils. The apparatus is designed to impose a simple shear-constant volume-constant degree of saturation
mode of deformation. Total vertical and shear forces are simultaneously measured by 5 pairs of biaxial load cells
at the bottom surface of the sample whereas negative pore-water pressure can be measured at the top surface of
the sample by 5 pairs of tensiometers. A series of tests was performed on rubber and kaolin specimens to set up
the apparatus and to adjust the experimental procedure in order to achieve a uniform distribution of vertical and
shear forces along the sample. Preliminary results on both saturated and unsaturated compacted kaolin samples
are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
89
3.1 Vertical force distribution during compression
Vertical forces measured by the biaxial load cells
during compression should be ideally uniform. Dif-
ferences may arise from non-uniform soil density, and
hence non-uniform soil stiffness, non-uniform stiff-
ness of the biaxial load cells, and improper coupling
between the soil specimen and the confinement sys-
tem. In turn, this is associated with the unevenness of
the specimen surface and the non-coplanarity of the
biaxial load cells. All these effects were separately
investigated through specific tests.
After installation, the 10 biaxial load cells were not
perfectly coplanar and the bottom surface was shown
to have a step-like profile. Due to these steps not all
biaxial load cells came into contact with the speci-
Figure 2. Schematic layout of the simple shear apparatus. men at the same average vertical force and this clearly
caused a non-uniform distribution of vertical stresses.
the ends of the specimen. To perform tests at con- To eliminate steps between the biaxial load cells, these
stant water content, a system to prevent soil-water were mounted on the sliding base using a dynamomet-
evaporation was designed. ric key to control the torque and the surface formed by
the biaxial load cell was ground.
2.2 Simple shear apparatus Although the biaxial load cells and relative bolt
junctions are virtually equal, stiffness is not uniform
The simple shear apparatus is shown schematically in due to bending of the sliding base. Initially, two pairs
Figure 2. Its main components are: of sliders were positioned at the ends of the sliding base
– a horizontal support carrying a linear motion sys- causing the sliding base to have greater deflections at
tem; its centre. As a result, the central cells (3a and 3b)
– a sliding base incorporating load cells sliding hori- were less stiff than the lateral cells (2a, 2b, 4a and 4b)
zontally over the horizontal support; which were in turn less stiff than the cells at the edge
– 10 biaxial load cells 60 mm long and 30 mm wide (1a, 1b, 5a and 5b) as shown in Figure 3a where the
arranged in a matrix 5 × 2 used to simultaneously forces recorded by the biaxial load cells are plotted
measure the shear and normal forces at the base of against the average vertical force in a test carried out
the specimen; on a rubber specimen. In order to reduce bending of the
– stacked steel plates to prevent horizontal deforma- sliding base, 3 pairs of sliders were added in between
tion during both compression and shearing; the 2 external pairs of sliders for a total of 10 slid-
– a loading cap constrained to move vertically by two ers. With such a configuration, the biaxial load cells
vertical sliders; exhibited a more uniform stiffness.
– a piston moved by a pneumatic-cylinder to apply the The beneficial effect of grinding and of the addi-
vertical load during the compression stage; tional sliders is shown in Figure 3b, where the vertical
– two lock nuts to lock the loading cap in order to force measured by the biaxial load cells is again plotted
prevent vertical deformation during shearing; against the average vertical force. The figure shows a
– a frame to carry the piston and the lock nuts; relatively simultaneous loading of the biaxial load cells
– two lateral supports mounting the two vertical slider and changes in local vertical force with respect to the
guideways and blocking the horizontal movement of applied vertical force appear to be more uniform.
the cap during shearing; Similar compression tests were performed on soil
– a stepper motor to horizontally move the sliding specimens, previously compacted outside the simple
base. shear apparatus. A test performed when the biaxial
load cells had not yet been ground and with only 2
pairs of sliders supporting the sliding base is shown
3 PRELIMINARY TESTS in Figure 4a. It can be observed that the local vertical
force may vary up 50% with respect to the average
A series of preliminary tests on rubber and soil value. Figure 4b shows the vertical force distribu-
specimens were performed to investigate the force tion after grinding the base and adding 3 pairs of
distribution at the base of the specimen both during sliders for a total of 10 sliders. It can be observed
compression and shearing stages and to improve the that a more uniform stress distribution was achieved
uniformity of shear and normal force distribution. and that unloading of central biaxial load cells is less
90
2 2
5b
5a
1b
1.6
1.5
local vertical force (kN)
4a P = 795 kPa
1a
1.2
1 2b
2a P = 493 kPa
0.8
3b
0.5
3a
0.4
P = 287 kPa
0 no contact
2 2
0
P = 800 kPa
5a 1.6
1.5
local vertical force (kN)
0
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 10 20 30
average vertical force applied (kN) lenght of the sample x (cm)
Figure 3. Test on a rubber specimen. (a) with non-coplanar Figure 4. Test on soil specimen compacted outside the SSA.
biaxial load cells and 4 sliders (b) with coplanar biaxial load (a) with non-coplanar biaxial load cells and 4 sliders (b) with
cells and 10 sliders. coplanar biaxial load cells and 10 sliders.
91
4 VALIDATION OF THE APPARATUS 0.5
92
1.6
0.8 0
0.4
0 200 400 600 800 1000
'yy, 'xx
shear force (kN)
0.3
Figure 8. Hypothetical circles corresponding to failure on
sub-horizontal planes.
0.2
xy = 0.21
2 · tan ϕ + = (1)
0.2 xy = 0.32 tan ϕ tan φ ∗
93
0.387 for kaolin (Borin, 1973). The horizontal stress degree of saturation of the macropores instead of the
can then be expressed as a function of the vertical stress overall degree of saturation. SrM can be expressed as
and R as follows: follows:
R2 − k 2 e − ewm
σxx = 1+ · σyy (4) SrM = (7)
k ew − ewm
If the Mohr circles at shear stress peak is drawn where e is the void ratio, ew is the water ratio, and ewm
according to this criterion for the two tests, we is the ‘microstructural’ water ratio, which separates
obtain Figure 8. The two circles thus obtained can be the region of inter-aggregate porosity from the region
enveloped by a straight line passing through the origin of intra-aggregate porosity.
having a slope of 22.3◦ which is a reasonable angle of Tarantino (2007) showed that ultimate shear
shearing resistance for kaolin also according to triaxial strength of compacted unsaturated soils can be
data by Dalbosco (2005) (φ = 22◦ ) and simple shear described by an equation similar to that of saturated
data from Airey and Wood (1987) (φ = 22◦ ). Fail- soils with the effective stress replaced by the modified
ure planes form at an angle of 12◦ with the horizontal average skeleton stress σ and with ewm determined as
in both circles. The same orientation of rupture bands best-fit parameter:
was detected by a polarizing microscope on longitudi-
nal sections of soil specimens removed from the cell τ = σ tan φ (8)
at peak and impregnated with resin.
The Mohr circles drawn in Figure 8 are charac-
terized by σx ∼ = σy . If it is tentatively assumed that For the compacted kaolin, a value ewm = 0.40 was
σx ∼= σy at the critical state, then ψ = 45◦ at the crit- estimated from data presented by Wheeler & Sivaku-
ical state according to Equations (3) and (4). In other mar (1995), a value confirmed by triaxial tests carried
words, the principal axes of stress and strain increment out at the University of Trento (Dalbosco 2005). The
would be coincident at the critical state. Accordingly, stress path interpreted in terms of σ and the associated
the horizontal plane would be the plane of maximum Mohr’s circle at peak traced assuming that σx = σy
shear stress and the angle of friction mobilized would are shown in Figure 9 together with the stress paths
be given by: recorded in the saturated tests. The Mohr circle at peak
for the unsaturated specimen appears to be tangent to
τxy the saturated envelope suggesting that shear strength
R=
= sin φ (5) recorded for the unsaturated specimen is consistent
σyy
with Eq. 8.
94
6 CONCLUSIONS Airey, D.W. & Wood, D.M. 1987. An evaluation of direct
simple shear tests on clay, Géotecnique 37 (1): 25–35.
The paper has presented an apparatus to test unsatu- Borin, D. 1973. The behaviour of saturated kaolin in the sim-
rated soils in simple shear mode of deformation. The ple shear apparatus. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.
apparatus and the experimental procedure were set up Dal bosco, A. 2005. Studio sperimentale del comportamento
meccanico di un’argilla costipata non satura e generaliz-
to obtain uniform stress distribution within the spec- zazione della teoria di stato critico ai terreni non saturi.
imen. Experimental data from the tests on saturated Graduate Thesis, University of Trento.
specimens are in good agreement with data available Oda, M. 1975. On the relation τ/σn = k · tan ψ in the simple
in the literature. It has been shown that failure planes shear test. Soils and Foundations, 15 (4): 34–41.
are neither horizontal nor vertical and it would appear Tarantino, A. & Mongiovì, L. 2002. Design and construction
that principal axes of stress and strain increment are of a tensiometer for direct measurement of matric suction.
coincident at the critical state. For a correct interpre- In Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Unsatu-
tation of simple shear tests, it is necessary to detect rated Soils (eds J.F.T. Jucá, T.M.P. de Campos and F.A.M.
rupture bands and their orientation. Marinho), Recife 1, pp. 319–324.
Tarantino, A. 2007. A possible critical state framework
for unsaturated compacted soils. Géotechnique, 57 (4):
385–389.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Tarantino, A. & Tombolato, S. 2005. Coupling of hydraulic
and mechanical behaviour in unsaturated compacted clay.
The authors are grateful to Marco Bragagna for his Géotechnique, 55 (4): 307–317.
support in designing and setting up the apparatus. They Tombolato, S. 2007. A simple shear apparatus for testing
also wish to express their gratitude to Dr. Giacomo unsaturated soils from medium to large shear strains, PhD
Mele from CNR—ISAFOM (Naples, Italy) for car- thesis, University of Trento.
rying out the photos of thin polarized sections of the Wheeler, S.J. & Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic crit-
ical state framework for unsaturated soil. Géotechnique,
resin-impregnated samples. 45 (1): 35–53.
Wood D.M., Drescher A. & Budhu M. 1979. On deter-
mination of stress state in the simple shear apparatus.
REFERENCES Geotechnical Testing Journal, 2 (4): 211–221.
95
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
C. Wei
Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
ABSTRACT: Accurately predicting and modeling flow through unsaturated soils is difficult due to the
complexities that stem from the heterogeneities inherent in soil deposits. In simulating subsurface non-
equilibrium flow, it is possible to take into account the heterogeneous nature of the material by using a rate
dependent, dynamic capillary pressure saturation relationship (water retention relationship). A theoretical kinetic
constitutive model which describes the dynamic capillary pressure saturation relationship has been developed.
This model depends on variables which can all be measured in the laboratory. All of these variables have been
previously measured, except for the capillary relaxation time. The capillary relaxation time can be determined
using the velocity and attenuation of low frequency acoustic waves. A device has been developed which will
allow for simultaneous measurement of the acoustic velocity and attenuation as well as the hydraulic properties,
including the static capillary pressure saturation relationship and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function.
This paper describes the details of this device and some preliminary measurements.
97
by the details of local heterogeneities, the obtained explain the development and operation of this device,
characteristic times can in turn be used to infer the developed at the University of Vermont.
information on local heterogeneities, and their effects
on macroscopic fluid flow through the dynamic capil-
lary pressure saturation relationship (or water retention 2 THE EXPERIMENTAL DEVICE
relationship) which is described in the next section.
The laboratory device is capable of housing a cylindri-
1.2 Dynamic capillary pressure saturation cal soil sample 100 mm in diameter and up to 125 mm
relationship in height. This large sample size is necessary to allow
the low frequency acoustic wave to travel through the
Generally, unsaturated soil properties e.g. the capillary media for a distance larger than its wavelength. The
pressure saturation relationship and the unsaturated sample is confined by cell pressure in a semi-flexible
hydraulic conductivity function, are measured at static Viton® rubber jacket equipped with an acoustic trans-
or steady state conditions. The capillary pressure satu- mitter and receiver (see Figures 1 and 2). The rubber
ration relationship describes the relationship between jacket was made flexible enough to conform to the
the capillary pressure and the level of saturation in sample under confinement, but also rigid enough to
an unsaturated porous media, it is also known as the house the transducers. The transducers were placed
water retention curve, soil water characteristic curve, on the side of the sample so they would not interfere
or the pressure saturation relationship. These static with the end caps or come in contact with the pore
properties are then used to analyze both steady-state fluid. The device is also capable of utilizing a rigid
and transient flow. An early study by Topp et al. walled sample when the acoustic measurements are
(1967) showed that these properties are rate depen- not needed.
dent, and the assumption that static properties can be The acoustic equipment developed by New Eng-
used in a transient analysis may be incorrect. Recently, land Research, Inc. (NER) of White River Junction,
experimental studies have shown that pressure satura- Vermont, includes flat piezo-ceramic transducers, a
tion relationships obtained through inverse modeling waveform function generator, an oscilloscope and the
of one-step and multi-step outflow experiments were data acquisition system, as seen in Figure 3. The peizo-
influenced by the flow rate (Schultze et al. 1997; ceramic crystals are mounted on titanium heads that
Wildenchild et al. 2001). Other models have been are shaped to the radius of the sample. Canada Bal-
developed to explain this dynamic relationship, i.e. sam, a non-soluble acoustic couplant, is used between
(Hassanizadeh & Gray 1993); this model includes a the titanium head and the soil sample. An absorptive
material coefficient thought to depend on both sat- backing is mounted on the outside of the transducers
uration and the rate of saturation change, but the to reduce reflection of the received waves within the
coefficient is impossible to measure experimentally. transducer.
The coefficient has been found to vary between 104 The flat piezoceramic transducers were cho-
and 107 Pa.s (Hassanizadeh et al. 2002) by analyzing sen because they can produce both shear and
experimental data reported in the literature, but this
formulation has yet to be verified.
A new dynamic capillary pressure saturation rela-
tionship has been developed (Wei & Dewoolkar 2006)
which includes the rate dependence, describes the
hereditary effect of capillarity, and is based on the char-
acterization of local flow caused by heterogeneities.
The dynamic capillary pressure saturation relationship
which has been developed is formulated with com-
monly known and relatively commonly measured soil
properties, (e.g. the static capillary pressure saturation
relationship and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
function, the porosity, density, and shear modulus),
along with one additional parameter, the capillary
relaxation time, which can be determined using acous-
tic techniques (Wei & Muraleetharan 2007).
In order to collect all the parameters needed to
determine the dynamic capillary pressure saturation
relationship, a device capable of simultaneously mea-
suring the hydraulic and acoustic properties of the
porous media is needed. The following sections Figure 1. Schematic of the device.
98
that the deformation of the solid is small (strains less
than 10−7 ). The response of the partially saturated
media is thought to be frequency dependent; there-
fore the acoustic waves are collected over a range of
frequencies. The frequency of interest is in the vicinity
to 10 kHz.
The confining cell is filled with mineral oil in order
to protect the electronic components within the cell.
Conically shaped water reservoirs are located on either
end of the sample, separated from the sample by the
high air entry disc on the bottom and a coarse porous
stone on the top. The water reservoirs are conically
shaped to aid in removal of diffused air bubbles which
may pass through the high air entry disc and are mod-
eled after the work of Lu et al. (2006). The device is
capable of utilizing ceramic, metal or nylon porous
discs. High air entry discs maintain the sample at a
specific saturation by prohibiting air to escape from
the sample.
The experiments presented in this paper used high
entry porous membranes (GE Cellulous Acetate Mem-
branes), with an air entry pressure of 200 kPa and a
pore size of 0.45 μm. The membrane is attached to a
bronze porous plate, 3 mm in thickness to reinforce the
flexible membrane (shown as the HAE disk in Fig. 1).
Figure 2. Photograph of the confining cell and soil sample. Air pressure is supplied to the sample through the top
of the sample. The air can be maintained at atmo-
spheric pressure or can be elevated when using the axis
translation technique. A differential pressure trans-
ducer is connected between the water reservoir and
the air pressure supply tube, to measure the capillary
pressure as described in the next section.
3 PROCEDURES
99
possible with the axis translation technique. Other have to be high enough to impose a gradient across
methods may also be employed using this apparatus, the sample. Assuming Darcian flow, the hydraulic
such as suction controlled methods. conductivity could be calculated from the flow rate
The pore air pressure is maintained at a specific and the imposed gradient. The second approach would
pressure determined by the anticipated capillary pres- require modification of the apparatus including a sec-
sures of the media being tested. The quantity of water ond high air entry disk on the top of the sample. With
in the sample (i.e., the saturation) is controlled by a this modification, the methods described by Olsen,
flow pump connected to a reservoir on the bottom of et al (1994) and Lu & Likos (2006) could be utilized.
the sample. When a volume of water is removed from Here the same amount of water would be injected and
the sample, the pump is shut off and the capillary pres- withdrawn from the top and bottom of the sample.
sures are monitored with the differential transducer. Simultaneously one flow pump withdraws while the
When the pressures stabilize it is assumed that equi- other injects the same volume of water at the same
librium has been achieved and a point on the static rate. The pressure head difference that this flow causes
capillary pressure saturation relationship is obtained. across the sample would be measured by a differential
The saturation is determined by calculating the volume pressure transducer connected to both water reservoirs,
of water in the sample, and the capillary pressure is and the head loss across the porous membranes is con-
measured by the differential pressure transducers con- sidered negligible. The flow rate and pressure head
nected between the pore air and the lower pore water loss could be used to calculate the hydraulic conduc-
reservoir. tivity for each saturation level. Both approaches will
The sample size in this apparatus is much larger than be tested and evaluated.
those traditionally used for measurement of the char-
acteristic curve and a few challenges arise when using 3.3 Measurement of the acoustic properties
a large sample. Samples used in Tempe cells are typi-
The acoustic properties are measured at the same
cally approximately 50 mm in diameter and 4–5 mm in
time as the capillary pressure saturation relationship
height. Generally it is assumed that the saturation dis-
and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function.
tribution along the height of the sample is negligible
Compressional and shear waveforms for a range of
and the saturation of the entire sample can be taken as
frequencies are taken at each saturation. The com-
an average calculated using the amount of water with-
pressional and shear waves are produced with the
drawn. Since this sample is approximately 100 mm in
transducers, which are excited by a waveform function
height there could be a considerable variation in sat-
generator. The received wave is displayed on an oscil-
uration over the height of the sample depending on
loscope and the data acquisition system collects the
the pore size distribution of the sample and the capil-
raw data. The compressional wave velocity and attenu-
lary pressure at the bottom of the sample. Several soil
ation is determined from the compressional waveform
types are being considered in this research to mini-
and is used to determine the capillary relaxation time.
mize this variation so that the acoustic measurements
The shear wave velocity can be determined from the
are more representative of one level of saturation. The
shear waveform and be used to determine the shear
level of saturation at mid height of the sample will be
modulus of the soil sample, if desired.
calculated considering the variation in saturation and
pressure that occurs over the sample, using a method
similar to Liu & Dane (1995). 4 PRELIMINARY RESULTS
100
Once both the velocity and attenuation have been
determined the capillary relaxation time can be calcu-
lated, and used to predict the dynamic capillary pres-
sure function using the procedure outlined by Wei &
Muraleethanan (2007). The hydraulic properties of the
sample must also be measured using the procedures
outlined earlier.
5 CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
101
Lu, N., Wayllance, A., Carrera, J. and Likos, W.J. 2006. Wei, C. and Dewoolkar, M. 2006. A Continuum Theory of
Constant Flow Method for Concurrently Measuring Soil- Nonequilibrium Two-Phase Flow through Porous Media
Water Characteristic Curve and Hydraulic Conductivity with Capillary Relaxation, Advances in Unsaturated Soil,
Function. Geotechnical Testing Journal 29(3): 256–266. Seepage, and Environmental Geotechnics, Proceedings
Olsen, H.W., Willden, A.T., Kiusalaas, N.J., Nelson, K.R. of Sessions of GeoShanghai, Shanghai, 6–8 June 2006,
and Poeter, E.P. 1994. Volume-Controlled Hydrologic Shanghai: ASCE.
Property Measurements in Triaxial Systems. Hydraulic Wei, C. and Muraleethanan, K.K. 2006. Acoustic char-
Conductivity and Waste Contaminant Transport in acterization of fluid-saturated porous media with local
Soil, ASTM STP 1142, D.E. Daniel and S.J. Trautwein, heterogeneities: Theory and application. International
eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Journal of Solids and Structures 43: 982–1008.
Philadelphia, 482–504. Wei, C. and Muraleetharan, K.K. 2002. A continuum the-
Pride, S.R., Harris, J.M. and Johnson, D.L. 2003. Permeabil- ory of porous media saturated by multiple immiscible
ity dependence of seismic amplitudes. The Leading Edge fluids: II. Lagrangian description and variation struc-
22: 518–525. ture. International Journal of Engineering Science 40:
Schultze, B., Ippisch, O., Huwe, B. and Durner, W. 1835–1854.
1997. Dynamic Nonequilibrium During Unsaturated Wei, C. and Muraleetharan, K.K. 2007. Linear viscoelas-
Water Flow, Characterization and Measurement of the tic behavior of porous media with non-uniform satura-
Hydraulic Properties of Unsaturated Porous Media; Proc. tion. International Journal of Engineering Science 45:
Intern. Workshop., Riverside, CA, 22–24 October, 1997, 698–715.
Riverside, CA: University of California. White, J.E. 1975. Computed seismic speeds and attenua-
Smith, M.L. 1993. Ultrasonic Waveform Matching, NER tion in rocks with partial gas saturation. Geophysics 40:
Application Note AN93-1, AutoLab Users Manual: New 224–232.
England Research, Inc. Wildenchild, D., Hopmans, J.W. and Simunek, J. 2001. Flow
Topp, G.C., Klute, A. and Peters, D.B. 1967. Comparison rate dependence of Soil Hydraulic Characteristics. Soil
of Water Content-Pressure Head Data Obtained by Equi- Science of America Journal 65: 35–48.
librium, Steady-State, and Unsteady-State Methods. Soil
Science Society of America Journal 31: 312–314.
102
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Two triaxial apparatuses capable of testing unsaturated samples under suction-controlled con-
ditions (USPv2) have been developed at the University of Napoli Federico II with the objective of testing time
reduction. Triaxial tests have been performed on reconstituted samples of a pyroclastic silty sand typical of flow
slides in Campania region, Italy. Tests are addressed to evaluate the USPv2 apparatuses and to investigate the
rate of loading influence on the mechanical behaviour of the material. The tests performed with two USPv2
apparatuses, modified in order to control matric suction at both the ends of the soil specimens by the axis trans-
lation technique, presents shorter equalization times with respect to the previous version of the device (USP).
Isotropic compression tests have been performed under a constant suction value of 300 kPa applying different
rates of loading (2, 8 and 32 kPa/h). The experimental procedures adopted and the first results obtained are
presented and discussed in the paper.
103
Figure 1. Scheme of USPv2 triaxial apparatus for unsaturated soils.
hydraulic triaxial apparatus for controlled stress path inside the inner cell. The differential pressure trans-
testing, with a moving pedestal (Y in Figure 1) that ducer (H) registers the pressure difference between the
pushes the soil sample against a stationary internal water level in the water bath surrounding the soil sam-
load cell. The suction is controlled by means of the ple and the water level of an external reference double
axis translation technique (Hilf 1956). The apparatus walled burette (I). To minimize water evaporation, a
is designed to test unsaturated samples of 38 mm in thin layer of silicone oil above the water surfaces of
diameter and 76 mm in height in both axial compres- the inner cell and the reference burette is applied.
sion and axial extension under either controlled rate of The axial sample deformations are measured by
loading or controlled rate of strain. means of a displacement transducer LVDT (J). The
The stress state on the tested samples is obtained LVDT is fixed to the top of the external cell and mon-
by regulating the air pressure supplied by an air com- itors the position L moves relative to the external cell,
pressor (at a constant value of 1100 kPa) through allowing the calculation of the axial sample defor-
four electro-pneumatic pressure converters (A, B, C, mation. The electro-pneumatic converter (A) controls
D in Figure 1), and controlled in feedback through the axial stress: the air pressure passes through the
the pressure transducers W and R for the pore-air and air-water interface K and is converted to hydraulic
pore-water pressures, respectively, and by the pres- pressure controlling the moving pedestal L and pushes
sure transducer G and the load cell M, for the cell the soil sample against a stationary load cell M. The
(σc ) and deviatoric (q) stresses, respectively. The out- submersible electric load cell (M) is placed inside the
put range of pressure converters is 14 kPa to 800 kPa. cell and used to measure the deviator load on the soil
The double cell technique is used to monitor the sam- specimen. The valve N allows switching from stress
ple volume changes. An open-top inner cell (E), made to strain control thanks to a dual axial control. A step-
of stainless steel to avoid water absorption from the ping motor (O) driven screw pump is used for the axial
measuring device itself, is used inside a conventional strain control.
perspex cell (F). Pressurized air is used to provide the The main changes introduced in the USPv2 with
confining pressure above the inner cell E filled with respect to the existing USP (Rampino et al. 1999) is
water. The electro-pneumatic converter C controls the the inclusion of a double drainage system to shorten
cell pressure and the pressure transducer G measures testing time. The bottom pedestal (Q) and the top-
the cell pressure. The volume change of the specimen cap (P) in Figure 1 incorporate a combination of two
is monitored by the change in the volume of water different porous disks (Figure 2).
104
Figure 2. Base platen details.
105
3.2 Preparation procedure appeared the most appropriate due to the high content
of fines (i.e. 40 %).
Reconstituted samples have been selected for two rea-
In the Campania region (Italy), pyroclastic soils are
sons: (a) to minimize the samples heterogeneity and
characterized by high void ratios, ranging from 0.7
potentially obtain a more consistent set of data and (b)
to 2.3 (Pellegrino 1967). According to this, two void
to allow comparison with the laboratory data for the
ratios have been selected in this study: e = 1.30, to
analysis of the tests performed on a large scale pro-
validate the improved triaxial apparatuses; and e =
totype of slope recently developed by Pagano et al.
1.66 for soil characterization.
(2008) where the same material is used.
For samples of 1.30 void ratio, consolidated drained
The choice to use reconstituted specimens intro-
triaxial tests were carried out in order to verify
duces the problem of selecting an appropriate prepa-
the repeatability of tests, comparing data obtained
ration method, since the behaviour of granular soils is
with two USPv2 available at the Department of
strongly affected by the procedure selected, especially
Geotechnical Engineering of the University of Napoli
in the case of sands containing fines. Air pluviation
Federico II or by a single apparatus when similar
(AP), water pluviation (WP) and moist tamping (MT)
samples under analogous testing conditions are used.
are the methods found in the literature and consid-
Isotropic compression tests applying different con-
ered here. According to Kuerbis & Vaid (1998) WP
stant rates of loading were performed on samples of
and AP techniques result in segregation when used
1.66 void ratio. Test details are presented in Table 1.
with silty sands as revealed by the presence of thin
The letter L (left) and R (right) identify the two USPv2
lenses of fine particles. In contrast to Vaid et al. (1999)
apparatuses available in the laboratory.
some research indicates that specimens reconstituted
by the MT method tend to be non-uniform compared
to the WP and AP methods (Frost & Park 2003) in
the case of the soil under study here the MT method 4 EVALUATION TESTS
In the first stage of all the tests the desired suction value
is imposed by means of the air and water pressure con-
trol systems while the specimen is subjected to a low
isotropic pressure (p − ua ) = 20 kPa. During equal-
ization the variation of the water volume of the sample
is measured through the twin burettes connected to
the base and top of the sample. The suction equaliza-
tion between the soil sample and the values imposed
through the drainage lines is observed. Figure 4 shows
the two curves corresponding to tests performed on
samples having similar initial conditions and using
the first version of the device and the USPv2 triax-
ial cell. The test performed with the ‘‘old’’ version of
the device (Rampino et al. 1999) having the capacity
to drain water only from the bottom pedestal indicates
Figure 4. Grain-size distribution of Cava dei Terreni soil. that for a suction increasing of 100 kPa equalization
106
what has been achieved is 11/2.5 = 4.4 which is very
satisfactory.
Figure 6 illustrates the results obtained during some
deviatoric tests performed with the L and R devices
USPv2. These deviatoric stages follow appropriate
equalization and isotropic compression stages under
constant suction carried out increasing the net mean
stress (p − ua ) at a constant rate (2 kPa/h). The
shearing stage was performed at a constant suction,
constant radial stress and strain controlled conditions
(0.15 mm/h), slow enough to obtain drained condition.
These preliminary tests performed on unsaturated
pyroclastic soil shows the capacity of the systems to
Figure 5. Comparison of suction equalization stage when reproduce the experimental results since a similar
similar samples are used (suction variation = 100 kPa). sample under similar conditions shows similar results
independently of the apparatus used.
107
significantly shorten the equalization stage, introduc-
ing an important improvement of the cell when testing
low permeability unsaturated soils. During isotropic
compression stage, the tested pyroclastic soil showed
rate of loading dependent behaviour. The excess pore-
water pressure generated during the loading process,
that may reduce the suction value, is less signifi-
cant than the creep phenomena for the pyroclastic soil
studied.
Further studies, including isotropic compression
tests at lower suction values, are necessary to general-
ize the observed behaviour produced by the presented
testing program.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
108
Huat, B.B.K., Ali, F.H.J. & Choong, F.H. 2006. Effect of load- Rampino, C., Mancuso, C. & Vinale, F. 1999. Laboratory
ing rate on the volume change behaviour of unsaturated testing on an unsaturated soil: equipment, procedures, and
residual soil. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering first experimental results. Can. Geotech. J. 36: 1–12.
24: 1527–1544. Romero, E. 1999. Characterisation and thermo-hydro-
Kuerbis, R. & Vaid, Y.P. 1998. Sand sample preparation—the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated Boom clay: an
slurry deposition method. Soils and Foundations, 28(4): experimental study. Ph.D. thesis. Universitat Politecnica
107–118. de Catalunya, Spain.
Macari, E.J. & Hoyos, L.R. Jr. 2001. Mechanical behaviour Sharma, R.S. 1998. Mechanical behaviour of unsaturated
of an unsaturated soil under multi-axial stress states. highly expansive clays. Ph.D. thesis, University of Oxford,
Geotechnical Testing Journal 24(1): 14–22. UK.
Pagano, L., Zingariello, M.C. & Vinale, F. 2008. A large Schanz, T. & Alabdullah, J. 2007. Testing unsaturated soil
physical model to simulate flow-slides in pyroclastic soils. for plane strain conditions: A new double wall biaxial
First European Conference on Unsaturated Soils. Durham, device. In Schanz (ed.) Experimental Unsaturated Soil
UK, 2–4 July 2008. Mechanics. SpringerProceedingsinPhysics112:169–178.
Papa, R., Evangelista A., Nicotera, N.V. & Urcioli G. 2008. Vaid, Y.P., Sivathayalan, S. & Stedman, D. 1999. Influ-
Mechanical properties of unsaturated pyroclastic soils ence of specimen-reconstituting method on the undrained
affected by fast landslide phenomena. First European response of sand. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 22(3):
Conference on Unsaturated Soils. Durham, UK, 2–4 July 187–195.
2008. Vasallo, R., Mancuso, C. & Vinale, F. 2007. Effect of net
Pellegrino, A. 1967. Proprietà fisico-meccaniche dei ter- stress and suction history on the small strain stiffness
reni vulcanici del napoletano (in italian). VIII Convegno of a compacted clayey silt. Can. Geotech. Journal 44:
Nazionale di Geotecnica, Cagliari, Italy. 447–462.
109
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper describes a large physical model built at the University of Naples Federico II. The
equipment has been developed to study those factors affecting flowslides in pyroclastic soils. The physical model
is presented along with procedures adopted up to now during the first tests; typical results concerning changes
in weight of the sample, soil suction and volumetric water content are plotted and discussed.
111
Figure 3. Plan view of conveyer belt around the apparatus.
112
Figure 7. A detail of the load cell.
Figure 6. Rain simulation system.
113
occurred on 4th March, 2005 and affected a slope 4 PRELIMINARY RESULTS
inclined of 37◦ close to the Nocera town (Salerno).
In the 10 tests carried out up to now, samples 40 cm During each test the sample hydraulic response has
thick have been reconstituted, with soil porosity rang- been characterized by measuring evolution of the
ing between 60% and 70% (see Tab. 1). The samples sample weight, soil suction (approximately 20 mea-
have been put in place taking the part A horizontally; surement points) and soil volumetric water content
once put in place, the sample has been wetted about (4 measurement points). Typical trends of such quan-
a week, to decrease suction until to reach the suction tities are plotted in Figures 11, 12, 13.
level wished at the beginning of the test. The sam-
ple has been inclined only before the start of the test.
Inclinations ranging between 32◦ and 40◦ have been 0.9
adopted for the samples (part A). Part B has instead
been slightly inclined (10◦ ), in order to make more 0.7
25.0 Ten_14
Ten_15
4.00
15.0
6.00 Slide
10.0
Test ◦ % % %
s a mple s urfa ce
0.60 35 .0
TDR 1
30 .0
Volumetri c water content
0.50
Rain inte ns ity (mm/h)
114
Increments in weight of the sample during the test On the other hand, the flowslide trigger is anticipa-
(Fig. 11) indicate that the sample stores water. It ted by soil suction and water content changes. Suction
is important to note that the small drops in weight at the bottom of the sample goes down to zero before
correspond to lost in run off water from the sample the triggering time (see tensiometer N. 13 in Fig. 12).
surface and empting of tubes when the rain has been In this kind of test, where the sample inclination is
stopped in order to make possible working with the slightly less than the soil friction angle, triggering is
laser scanner. caused by positive pore pressures developing at the
Storing water capability under constant rain inten- bottom of the sample.
sity however reduces with time, as indicated by the
decreasing of the derivative of the curve. This effect is
manly due to the progressive reduction of soil suction 5 CONCLUSION
within the sample (Fig. 12). This reduction lowers the
hydraulic gradients (driving the water drops within the In this work a physical model to simulate rain induced
sample) acting at the sample top surface between the flowslides has been presented, explaining how such
exterior and the interior of the sample. In the initial device allows one in taking into account the main
stages, an additional contribution to the same effect factors affecting such phenomena. In the paper the
is provided by the time needed for the seeping water experimental procedures adopted up to now have been
to reach downstream the draining boundary. As well illustrated. The apparatus may be used also differently
known, soil permeability increases during the wetting to study the influence of factors such as static and
process. In the initial stages, while the water does not hydraulic boundary conditions differing from those
yet drain through the permeable boundary, soil perme- adopted, samples thicker, presence of vegetation.
ability increments should enhance water adsorption. First results have evidenced the effectiveness of
However Figure 11 indicates that permeability effects load cells in indicating, through changes in the sam-
are not so relevant as that produced by the gradient ple weight, the history of test in terms of water
reductions. mass adsorbed and losses by the sample. Tensiome-
Consistently to what expressed by Figure 11, ini- ters and TDR measures may be used to characterize
tially the rain appears to the naked eye fully adsorbed the hydraulic behavior and to estimate the time after
by the sample surface and, then increasingly rejected which the landslide may trigger.
by it, with enhancing run off.
The tensiometers (Fig. 12) (installed at the three
different depths of 10, 25, 40 cm from the sample sur-
face) along with TDR probes (installed at a depth of REFERENCES
25 cm), indicate the arrive of the saturation front (i.e.
suction goes to zero as show in Fig. 12 and volumetric Olivares L. & Damiano E. 2007. Postfailure Mechanics
of Landslides: Laboratory Investigation of Flowslides
water content goes to zero in Fig. 13). Since the rain in Pyroclastic Soils. J. Geotech. and Geoenvir. Engrg.,
intensity adopted is significant the wetting front cor- 133(1): 51–62.
respond to a saturation front that lowers soil suction to Olivares L. & Picarelli L. 2003. Shallow flowslides trig-
the null value. gered by intense rainfalls on natural slopes covered by
The flowslide trigger is clearly indicated by the load loose unsaturated pyroclastic soils. Géotechnique, 53(2):
cells with an abrupt decrease in the sample weight 283–288.
(Fig. 11). The size of the weight drop is related to the
quantity of soil lost in the landslide.
115
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The behaviour of geotechnical structures located close to the surface of the ground, e.g. shallow
foundations, retaining walls, embankments, slopes and pavements is highly affected by water content and pore
pressure of the soil located near the surface where it is in contact with the atmosphere. The objective of this paper
is to describe the design, construction and instrumentation of a climatic chamber used to simulate the tropical
atmospheric variables for small scale models in centrifuge.
117
‘‘El Dorado’’ Airport and the IDEAM (Institute of container moves towards the chamber driven by three
hydrology, meteorology and environmental studies axial discharge fans. Later the air passes through a
from Colombia). dehumidifier prism, based on the psychrometric pro-
Each variable is modelled by independent pieces cess of latent heat elimination by condensation. The
of equipment which were integrated to perform the dehumidifier prism was constructed using the Peltier
complete simulation. The following sections present a effect (Tellurex, 2003), which reduces the temper-
description of the testing equipment used to reproduce ature in the plate receiving condensation (a lower
each climatic parameter. temperature than the dew point). The condensed water
generated by the loss of latent heat is canalized by grav-
ity to a closed deposit, and monitored by an ultrasonic
2.1 Wind, air temperature and humidity level sensor.
Temperature and humidity are the fundamental vari- The air is then canalized to the heating prism that
ables used to determine the weather state of a site increases its temperature using again the Peltier effect.
(Wang, 1999). The existing relation between temper- The use of thermoelectric devices (Peltier plates)
ature, humidity and atmospheric pressure, is complex facilitates the design of the power unit and the con-
and is known as psychrometry (Wang, 1999). trol system. An additional advantage of the use of
A Climatic Simulation Chamber (CSC) located on the Peltier boards in two prisms (dehumidifier and
the upper part of the soil container is designed to heater) is the possibility of inverting its functions:
control these weather parameters. The principle of allowing two heaters or two dehumidifiers working
operation is based on heat transfer for convection, an simultaneously to enhance the power of the chamber.
effective method for heat transfer (Lienhard, 2004). Once the humidity and temperature of the air are
The relative humidity is controlled by means of the adjusted, the air is driven by means of three fans
extraction of moisture by condensation (dew point) towards the container inside. The Peltier plates are
and humidification by dispersion. attached to a heat dissipater and exposed to the out-
Figure 1 shows the internal structure of the Climatic side to allow a more efficient heat transfer (Tellurex,
Simulation Chamber (CSC). The air that is inside the 2003). The fans installed are capable of generating a
wind speed the order of 7.2 m/s (Approx. 26 km/h).
The system at full load is able to make the complete
Table 1. Climatic variables for Bogotá: IDEAM. air interchange on the model every 2 sec.
The calculation of the power needed by the CSC
Variable Max. Min. Average is based on the day-night cycles typical of Bogotá.
Cycles from 0 to 20◦ C and HR (Humidity Relative) of
Insolation (MJ/m2 day) 16.75 14.65 15.7 79% represents an energy change of 145 kJ for the air
Air temperature (◦ C) 20 0 12 inside the chamber (approx. 10 Kg of air). The CSC
Atmospheric pressure (Bar) 0.75 has 10 Peltier plates of 80 W each one. The entire
Wind speed (m/s) 2.2
Rain intensity (mm/year) 1250
time needed for heat addition is 182 sec. One day at
Relative humidity (%) 70 prototype using 20 g corresponds to 216 sec according
to scaling law in the centrifuge.
Figure 1. Internal structure and operational functions of the Climatic Simulation Chamber (CSC).
118
2.50
LEDs app roach radiation (without the typical indirect effect of warm-
2.00
Solar Irradiance
(sea level)
ing). Taking into account the power needed to simulate
sun radiation respecting scaling laws in the centrifuge
Irradiance [W/m²μm]
2.3 Rain
Figure 2. Solar radiation at the sea level and modeling
approach. Rainfall is one of the mechanisms by which soil is
humidified the soil and is a very important factor in
the determination of water tables, saturation of soils
The atmospheric pressure was not taken into and erosive processes (Craig et al., 1991). The typical
account for the modelling due to technical difficulties size of a water drop is 4 mm. According to the laws
in making changes on the pressure inside the container. of scaling the approximate diameter of a drop must be
The development of systems to control the pressure of 20 μm at 20 g. Systems of nebulization for green-
in centrifuges can help to increase the mechanical houses were used in this work to simulate the size of
and electrical efficiency of the machine as well as to the drops which have on average a diameter less than
improve modelling (Craig et al., 1991). 50 μm depending on the pressure.
The control system is based on a pressurized line
of water with 12 sprinklers, controlled by an electro
valve. The rain is generated by opening of the electro
2.2 Solar radiation
valve and controlling the rainfall over specific times.
The sun is the fundamental source of energy for the
climate. The transference of energy from the sun to
2.4 Other variables
the ground occurs by radiation (Holton, 1992). Solar
radiation is produced by electromagnetic waves having During testing heat transference appears between the
different wavelengths (visible, infrared and ultraviolet container and the atmosphere. This loss of heat can be
light). Figure 2 shows the solar spectrum for sea level significant (Lienhard, 2004). Good performance of the
(dark line). CSC in controlling the climatic variables during testing
Modelling of solar radiation can be performed by depends on the limitation of this additional load.
means of light sources. Each source of light has its own With this energetic condition, the design of a
characteristic spectrum: the illumination lamps are new container that allows a minimum loss of heat
optimized for the visible light; the greenhouse lamps was carried out (adiabatic container). Metals have
have a spectrum with a high level of infrared and some high coefficients of thermal conductivity, thus a new
parts of the visible spectrum but without ultraviolet material is needed to replace the steel casing.
light (spectrum with high efficiency in plant photo- Materials based on fibre-glass present good fea-
synthesis); ultraviolet lamps are used in disinfection tures in terms of strength, stiffness and low thermal
and finally infrared lamps are used in medicine. conduction but their high hardness made them inap-
To obtain the best approximation to the solar light propriate for this application (Lienhard, 2004). The
it is necessary to create a lamp composed of several selected material is a phenolic resin with cotton fibre,
types of light. A new method of lighting is based on used commercially as a dielectric but also has a high
high power Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). Every LED mechanical resistance, a good workability and low
has a determined wavelength (i.e. colour) and power. absorption. This material combined with a metallic
By means of optimization software and by changing external structure is retained for the container design.
the number of LEDs, it is possible to achieve a com- The container is designed to support pressures up
bination shown in Figure 2 (gray line). The obtained to 0.5 MPa without any significant deflection in order
approach is near 75% of the real spectrum of the sun. to respect adequate conditions for plane strain mod-
The mean total radiation at Bogotá is els. Figure 3 shows the results of the finite element
15.7 MJ/m2 day (approximately 182 W/m2 for one simulation (FEM) of the final design. The accumu-
day of 12 hours of light). According to the laws of lated maximum deflection obtained is 0.5 mm at 1 MPa
scaling in centrifuge it would be necessary to gener- internal pressure. The basket has a total mass of 65 kg
ate a power in the model of 1.3 kW. This value of and a total capacity of 0.09 m3 . The maximum heat
radiation is huge considering that it must be effective flux is 0.02 W/cm2 .
119
Step motor
X axis
Step motor
Y axis
3 INSTRUMENTATION CSC
120
The centrifuge accelerates processes like wetting Doebelin Ernest. 1993. Diseño y aplicaciones de sistemas de
and drying therefore important future effort in the medición. DIANA (ed.).
development of control systems is needed to reproduce Holton, J.R. 1992. An introduction to dynamic meteorology.
cyclic behaviour. The simulation of sunlight radiation Academic Press (ed.).
needs light concentration in order to respect the scaling Jones, D. & Holtz, W. 1973. Expansive soils-the hidden
disaster. Civil Engineering, pp. 49–51.
laws in centrifuge. Lienhard, J. 2004. A Heat Transfer TextBook. PHLogiston
Press (ed.). pp. 141–171.
Ogata, K. 2004. Ingeniería de Control Moderna. Prentice
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Tellurex Corporation, 2003. A guide to temperature Control
Bolton, M. 2002. An atmospheric chamber for the investi- of thermoelectric systems. Tellurex.
gation of the effect of seasonal moisture changes on clay Vargas, J. 2003. Modelación Física en Centrífuga, de un
slopes. Physical modeling in Geotechnics: ICPMG’02, Muro Pantalla Apuntalado en Suelos Blandos de Bogotá,
Tokyo 765–770. Universidad de los Andes.
Craig, W., Bujang, B. & Merrifield, C. 1991, Simula- Wang, S.K. & Lavan, Z. 1999. Air-Conditioning and Refrig-
tion of Climatic Conditions in Centrifuge Model Tests. eration. Mechanical Engineering Handbook. Frank Kreith
Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 14, No. 4, (ed.). pp. 11–13.
406–412. White, Frank. 2001. Fluid Mechanics. McGrawHill.
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Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Experimental data of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity were determined in aeolian silt taken
from Jossigny, east Paris. This test was performed by means of the instantaneous profile method (Daniel 1982).
An infiltration column of 50 mm in diameter and 200 mm height was used. The soil was statically compacted
by means of the double piston method. The suction profiles were measured with four home-made high capacity
tensiometers located at different heights. The tangent of the suction isochrones permits the determination at each
point of the hydraulic gradient i = ∂ψ/∂z, with ψ being the water potential or suction head. Consequently, the
variation of hydraulic conductivity as a function of suction has been determined. A reduction of two orders of
magnitude of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity was determined.
123
Table 1. Geotechnical properties of Jossigny silt (after
Cui & Delage 1996).
wL wP IP % % γs
37 19 18 34 4 27.2
1000
100
Suction [kPa]
10
1
Experimental data
Van Genuchten
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Degree of Saturation
1 −λ
s 1−λ
Sl = Srl + (Sls − Srl ) 1 + (1)
P
Figure 2. Suction measurements with four tensiometers
installed in the infiltration column.
where Sls = 1.0 is the maximum saturation, Srl =
0.0 is residual saturation, s is the suction [kPa], P =
8.67 kPa and λ = 0.217 are the soil parameters.
The soil was oven-dried at 40◦ C. Afterwards, soil Suction is measured by means of a saturated high air
aggregates were mechanically broken up to pass an entry value ceramic porous stone (capillary pressure
800 μm sieve. The dry soil powder was wetted to a threshold equal to 1500 kPa). The tensiometers were
water content of 12.5%, equivalent to an initial suc- saturated in a saturation cell filled with de-mineralized
tion of 400 kPa. Subsequently, the wetted soil was and de-aired water. A positive pressure of 2000 kPa
stored in an airtight container for 24 hours in order to was applied by means of a pressure-volume control
homogenize the soil moisture. The soil was then stat- system (GDS) during 24 hours. The calibration curve
ically compacted in an infiltration column of 50 mm of the tensiometers was determined by means of the
in diameter and 200 mm height at a dry unit weight applied positive pressure and the electrical signals of
of γd = 14.5 kN /m3 . The double piston technique the strain gauge.
was used in the compaction process (Cui & Delage, The water content profiles of each suction
1996). isochrone were determined by means of the water
retention curve (equation 1). For a given time t, the
determination of tangents of one suction isochrone
gives at every point the hydraulic gradient (2).
3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
124
the difference between the water content isochrones 0
corresponding to both instants, that is: -50
125
200 200
160 160
120 120
Tensiometer (t = 0.46 hours)
t = 0.46 hours
Tensiometer (t = 0.94 hours)
80 80 t = 0.94 hours
Tensiometer (t = 1.83 hours)
t = 1.83 hours
40 40 Tensiometer (t = 3.08 hours)
t = 3.08 hours
Tensiometer (t = 7.0 hours)
t = 7.0 hours
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
Suction [kPa] Water content
a) b)
Figure 5. Water infiltration test: (a) isochrones of suction and (b) isochrones of water content.
1E-006 1
Saturated hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity [m/s]
1E-007 0.1
1E-008
0.01
Y = 8.5187E-08*X-0.591
R2 = 0.992
1E-009
1000 100 10 1 0 0.001
Suction [kPa] 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Degree of saturation
Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
Saturated hydraulic conductivity Hydraulic conductivity
Figure 6. Hydraulic conductivity as a function of suction. Fit
126
soils. Note that these results suggest a reduced effect effects of the hydraulic gradient and the applicabil-
of the hydraulic gradient and the general reliability ity of Darcy’s law. This might not be the case when
of Darcy’s law when coupled with the instantaneous higher suction levels are considered, as possible influ-
profile method. ence of microstructural changes could be involved in
This is not necessarily the general trend observed the assessment of the hydraulic properties.
when important microstructural changes are associ-
ated with suction changes, as in the case of high
swelling soils (e.g. Cui et al. 2001). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Finally, Figure 7 shows the variation of the relative
permeability computed as a function of degree of sat- The financial support of EU RTN ‘‘MUSE’’—
uration. Data on relative permeability were fitted by Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils for Engineering,
equation (7). RTN—Marie Curie Actions) is kindly acknowledged.
Authors wish to thank Prof. Y.J. Cui for providing the
β n
Kr = Sl 1 − 1 − Slλ (7) suction probes used during this study.
127
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
N. Ebrahimi-Birang
Department of Civil and Geological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
D.G. Fredlund
Golder Associates Ltd., Saskatoon, SK, Canada
L. Samarasekera
Department of Civil and Geological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
ABSTRACT: A series of evaporation tests were conducted in an environmentally controlled room in order
to determine the unsaturated coefficient of permeability function for Beaver Creek sand in the residual state
zone. Two boundary conditions were applied at the top of the evaporation column; namely, i) ‘‘radiation and
wind’’ treatment, and ii) ‘‘wind’’ treatment. The results of the tests indicated that the ‘‘wind’’ treatment was more
suitable method for the determination of the unsaturated coefficient of permeability function in the residual state
zone. Further tests also revealed that the steady state conditions that appeared to be reached in a fairly short
period of time (i.e. 3 to 4 days) might be an ‘‘apparent steady state’’ condition.
129
rate (i.e. potential evaporation) when the soil col- technique (WP4-T apparatus) were used to measure
umn is saturated and will reduce with time and stay the soil-water characteristic curve of the sand for entire
constant as the rate of the evaporation reaches the con- range of suction from zero to 1,000,000 kPa. The
stant inflow rate which is applied from the bottom of equation proposed by Fredlund & Xing (1994) was
the column. The inflow rate is always less than the used to fit the experimental data. Figure 1 shows the
potential evaporation rate. The test must be run in an experimental data and fitting SWCC for the sand. The
environmentally-controlled room. In other words, the air entry value for the sand was 1.7 kPa and residual
potential evaporation must be constant throughout the suction state was reached at about 5 kPa.
test. Equation 1 is used to calculate the coefficient of
permeability. It must be noted that the soil-water char-
acteristic curve must be measured separately. Research 3.3 Evaporation test
results have shown that steady state conditions appear The soil column design, preparation of soil specimens
to be reached within 2 to 3 days for a sandy soil. and the evaporation test procedure are presented in the
following sections.
aτ Dva ρv∗
q− ρw Rv T exp Rψv T ∂ψ
∂z
k(ψ) = ∂ψ
(1) 3.3.1 Soil column
∂z −1
Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the soil column
used in this study. The column is made of a Plexi-
where q = ql + qv , ql and qv = the liquid-water and
glass tube with an inside diameter of 70 mm and a
water-vapour fluxes respectively, cm/s; z = depth,
length of approximately 160 mm. Several holes were
cm; a = the air-filled porosity, cm3 /cm3 ; τ = the tor-
drilled along the column for the installation of the ther-
tuosity factor; Dva = the diffusion coefficient of water
mocouples. Eight thermocouples could be installed
vapour in free air, g/(cm2 · s); ρv∗ = saturated water
horizontally at different depths. These depths were:
vapour density; ρw = the density of water, g/cm3 ;
4.5, 14.5, 24.5, 34.5, 49.5, 72, 112.5, and 147 mm.
Rv = gas constant for water vapour, 4697 cm/K;
Some ports were also drilled around the perimeter of
T = temperature, K; and ψ = soil suction.
the tube to retrieve water content and electrical conduc-
tivity samples. The sampling ports in the top 40 mm
of the column were smaller (5 mm in diameter) allow-
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM ing sampling in closer proximity. There were three
sampling ports for each depth in the top section of the
The soil-water characteristic curve for Beaver Creek column. The ports in the lower part of the column had a
Sand and details of the evaporation tests procedure are diameter of 10 mm. Soil samples could be taken from
presented in the following sections. 16 different depths (i.e. 5.5, 10.3, 15.4, 20.5, 25.6,
30.7, 35.8, 40.9, 50.5, 60.4, 70.3, 80.5, 90.5, 100.5,
3.1 Soil used 110.5, 120.5, 130.5, and 140.5 mm). The sampling
ports were plugged using rubber stoppers during the
The Beaver Creek sand was used in this research study. test. A heat insulation jacket was used to prevent hor-
The sand was air dried, passed through the sieve #10 izontal heat transfer in the upper part of the column.
(2 mm) and washed thoroughly in order to minimize A porous plate with low air entry value was placed on
the amount of salt. Then the properties of the soil were a grooved pedestal. The column was attached to the
measured. Table 1 summarizes some of the properties pedestal using five bolts and nuts.
of the Beaver Creek Sand. The soil will be referred to
as ‘‘Sand’’ throughout the paper.
3.3.2 Preparation of the soil sample
The air-dried sand was mixed with a given amount of
3.2 SWCC water to produce a gravimetric water content of 17%.
Hanging column method, Pressure plate (Tempe Cell The soil was left in a plastic container with a tight
and Fredlund Cell) and Chilled Mirror Dewpoint lid for a day. A Plexiglass tube with a diameter equal
to that of the soil column was taped to the column
to increase its height. The soil was placed into the
Table 1. Properties of Beaver Creek sand. column. In order to create a uniform soil, a vertical
force was applied on top of the soil through a load
Soil properties Beaver Creek sand cap. Extra soil was trimmed from top of the column.
The column was slowly placed on the pedestal and
Sand 99.5 %
Silt and Clay 0.5 %
fastened using the bolt and nuts. It should be noted
Specific gravity 2.65 that samples for the SWCC tests (section 3.2) were
prepared using a similar procedure. However, the soil
130
Hanging column
30
25
Gravimetric water content
15
Fredlund and Xing equation
10
Experimental data
5
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Soil suction (kPa)
70 mm Relay
Bulb
Heat insulation jacket
Electric Fan
Rubber stoppers
70 mm
Sampling Thermocouples
Rubber stoppers
Thermocouples
150 mm
O-rings
ports
GDS
Data Logger
Porous plate
Grooved pedestal
Electronic Balance
O-rings
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the evaporation tests.
131
to apply a specified amount of distilled water into the 2560
column (0.36 cm3 /hr). The bottom porous plate had 2540
an air entry value of 1.8 kPa. The evaporation test was
60 T = 25.4°C
t = 100 min
80
t = 2830 min
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 100
120
4.1 Weight of the column 140
160
Figure 4 shows the change in the weight of the col- t = 2830 min t = 100 min
umn during the evaporation test for the ‘‘wind and 5a. “Radiation and wind” treatment
radiation’’ treatment. Steady-state conditions appear
to have been reached after 3 to 4 days. A similar result Temperature, °C
was obtained for the case of the ‘‘wind’’ treatment. Fur-
17 19 21 23 25
ther investigations have shown that this condition may 0
not be a ‘‘true steady state’’ condition (see section 4.4). 20
Further study is required with regard to ‘‘true steady t = 7000 min
40
Depth (mm)
state’’ conditions. 60
t = 400 min
80
100
4.2 Temperature profiles
120
Figure 5 shows temperature profiles during early 140
stages of the evaporation and after what appears to 160
be ‘‘steady state’’ conditions. Temperature gradients t = 7000 min t = 400 min
are greater for the case of the ‘‘wind treatment’’. 5b. “Wind” treatment
For the case of the ‘‘radiation and wind’’ treatment
the temperature profile did not change substantially Figure 5. Temperature profiles for a) ‘‘radiation and wind’’
after ‘‘apparent steady state’’ conditions were reached. treatment, b) ‘‘wind’’ treatment.
As can be seen in Figure 5a, the attempt to control
temperature seems to be successful. The temperature
gradients appear to be small. Further investigation is treatment it can be inferred that the coefficient of per-
needed to determine the effect of temperature gradient meability cannot be determined for water contents
on the flow through the soil. below 5%. The corresponding suction for a water
content of 5% is about 5 kPa (see Fig. 1). However,
the water content profile for the ‘‘wind’’ treatment
4.3 Water content profiles
shows that it is possible to determine the correspond-
Water content profiles are shown in Figure 6 for ing coefficient of the permeability for water contents
both cases. For the case of the ‘‘radiation and wind’’ below 5%.
132
Gravimetric water content (%) Time (min)
0 5 10 15 20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
0 0
20
40
40
60
80
60 Removing a layer of
100 80 Soil from the surface
120 100
140 120
160 140
160
6a. “Radiation and wind” treatment
Figure 7. Weight of the column versus time for the ‘‘wind’’
Gravimetric water content (%)
treatment.
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
20 EC (ds/m)
40 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Depth (mm)
0
60
20
80
40
Depth (mm)
100
60
120
80
140
100
160
120
140
6b. “ Wind” treatment
160
Figure 6. Water content profiles for a) ‘‘radiation and wind’’ Figure 8. Electrical conductivity profile for the ‘‘radiation
treatment b) ‘‘wind’ treatment. and wind’’ treatment (soil:water = 1:5).
133
Time (min) was promoted with an electric fan above the soil col-
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 umn. While controlling of the temperature seemed to
0
be successful, the water content profiles indicated that
5
the ‘‘radiation and wind’’ treatment might not be a
Decrease in weight (g)
w = 0.0101t + 0.2718
10 suitable method in order to measure the coefficient of
RR22= 0.9999
15 permeability for the range of water content below 5%.
20 On the other hand, the results for the ‘‘wind’’ treatment
25 were encouraging.
30 Continuing the evaporation test for a long time
35 showed that the ‘‘true steady state’’ condition may not
40 have been reached during the short run of the evap-
oration tests. Two hypothesis were examined for the
Figure 9. Decrease in the weight of the column (evapo- reason why the steady state condition may not have
ration) versus time after reducing the inflow rate (inflow been attained; namely, i) accumulation of the salt in
rate = 0).
the surface of the soil and reducing the evaporation
as a result, and ii) break in the hydraulic continuity
Gravimetric water content (%) of the liquid water between the bottom and top of the
0 5 10 15 20 25
soil. Further investigation showed that the latter rea-
0 son may provide the best explanation. Further tests
20 Porous plate (AEV = 1.8 kPa) are currently being conducting where the water table
Inflow rate = 0.36 cm3/hr
40 will be held constant within the soil column at a shal-
Depth (mm)
60 Porous Plate (AEV =100 kPa) low depth. Hopefully, ‘‘hydraulic continuity’’ will be
80 Inflow rate = 0.9 cm3/hr
maintained between the top and bottom of the column.
100
120
140
160 REFERENCES
Figure 10. Water content profiles for two different condi- Arya, L.M. 2002. Wind and hot air methods. In J.H. Dane &
tions at the bottom of the column. G.C. Topp (eds), SSSA Book Series: 5, Methods of Soil
Analysis, Part 4—Physical Methods: 916–926. Madison,
Wisconsin: Soil Science Society of America Inc.
the fact that there was no hydraulic continuity of liquid Ebrahimi-Birang, N., Gitirana, Jr. G.F.N., Fredlund, D.G.,
water between the top and bottom of the soil column. Fredlund, M.D. & Samarasekera, L. 2004. A lower limit
Plotting the water content profiles for the two dif- for the water permeability coefficient. Proceedings of the
57th Canadian Geotechnical Conference: 12–19, 24–27
ferent cases provides further evidence that it is possible October 2004. Quebec city, Canada.
that the liquid water was not hydraulically connected Fredlund, D.G. & Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the soil
between the top and bottom parts of the column water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
(Figure 10). The two cases created the same water 31(3): 521–532.
content profile at the top of the soil while the bottom Fujimaki, H. & Inoue, M. 2003. A flux-controlled steady-
parts were different due to the change in inflow rate state evaporation method for determining unsaturated
and the bottom plate. In other words, the top portion hydraulic conductivity at low matric pressure head values.
of the column was solely controlled by the ambient Soil Science 168(6): 385–395.
conditions. Gitirana, Jr., G.F.N. & Fredlund, D.G. 2003. From experimen-
tal evidences towards the assessment of weather-related
railway embankment hazards. Keynote address, Proc. of
the International Conference on ‘‘From Experimental Evi-
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS dences Towards Unsaturated Soil Practice’’, Sept. 18–19
Weimar, Germany.
A series of the evaporation tests were conducted on a Mehta, B.K., Shiozawa, S. & Nakano, M. 1994. Hydraulic
sand column in an environmentally controlled room. properties of a sandy soil at low water contents. Soil
The aim was to reach steady-state conditions during Science 157(4): 208–214.
the evaporation tests and to determine the permeability Wilson, G.W., Fredlund, D.G. & Barbour, S.L. 1994. Coupled
function in the residual state zone. Two boundary con- soil-atmosphere modeling for soil evaporation. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 31(2): 151–161.
dition treatments were tested, i) ‘‘radiation and wind’’ Wind, G.P. 1968. Capillary conductivity data estimated by
treatment, and ii) ‘‘wind’’ treatment. In the case of the a simple method. In P.E. Rijtema & H. Wassink (eds),
‘‘radiation and wind’’ treatment, an attempt was made Proc. Wageningen Symp. on Water in the Unsaturated
to control the temperature of the soil column using a Zone, Paris, June 1966, Vol. 1: 181–191 Int. Assoc. of
relay and lamp system. In both cases the evaporation Scientific Hydrol., Gent/Brugge/UNESCO.
134
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The study of unsaturated soils for laboratory tests or physical modeling requires a well controlled
preparation method. Usually the procedures for unsaturated soil preparation include different compaction meth-
ods controlling water content and voids ratio. However the traditional compaction techniques using blows or
kneading reduces the possibility of controlling the stress path during soil compaction. Although a uniaxial com-
pression process allows soil preparation under controlled vertical stress, the whole stress path remains unknown.
This paper describes a fully instrumented oedometric apparatus that allows the measurement of vertical and
horizontal stress as well as the suction and water content during the oedometric compression test. This new
oedometric apparatus is used to prepare unsaturated soils made of mixtures of sand and kaolin. The sensors
on the oedometric cell allow the measurement of suction and water content during soil preparation. The results
obtained confirm the satisfactory operation of the oedometer and show that this apparatus could be an important
tool to investigate the anisotropic response of the unsatrated compacted soils.
135
are obtained by combining different dry masses of vertical compression. The modifications to perform
silica sand and kaolin with water. Previous standard the path measurements include:
compaction tests were performed in order to measure
– A capacitive cylindrical water content sensor
the optimum water content and the maximum dry den-
installed in the centre of the sample (Figure 2).
sity of the samples. Table 1 shows the sand and clay
– Three psychrometers to independently measure the
proportions of the mixtures and the proctor standard
suctions.
results: water content, dry density and void ratio at the
– A linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) to
optimum water content.
measure the vertical displacement.
– A load cell to measure the vertical load.
2.2 New suction monitored oedometer apparatus – Three miniature load cells to measure the horizontal
Figure 1 shows the oedometric cell used for the stress.
testing. The cell was designed to measure the The psychrometers are monitored using a Campbell
stress-strain and suction-water content paths during Scientific CR7 data acquisition and control system.
The displacement and loads were measured using an
Table 1. Soil properties. Advantech ADAM data acquisition system. The oedo-
metric cell is installed on a Wykeham Farrance press
Sand Kaolin wopt ρd
Sample % % % kN/m3 E
in order to perform oedometric tests with controlled
strain rate.
1 88 12 12 18.5 0.258
2 65 35 13 18.8 0.269
3 0 100 29 14.5 0.482
3 TESTING PROGRAMME
136
800 2500 B
D 2000
600
D
(kpa)
1500
q kpa
400 B 1000
h
C 500 A
200
0
A C
0 -500
0 1000 2000 3000 0 400 800 1200 1600
v (kpa) p (kpa)
137
A
2.8
2.6
Loading
V
2.4 Wetting
Initial state
Unloading
reloading
2.2 B, D
C
2
1 10 100 1000 10000
p (kpa)
Figure 6. Relationship between specific volume and Figure 9. p − q − s path during oedometric compression.
isotropic stress.
250
8000 A
200 D B2
(kpa)
6000 150 B1
Suction kpa
C
100
h
4000
50
2000
A
D 0
0 0 400 800 1200
24 28 32 36 v (kpa)
w
Figure 10. Vertical and horizontal stress for low compaction
Figure 7. Relationship between suction and volumetric stress material.
water content.
C
intermediate strains (0.01 < ε1 < 0.1). This initial
4000 compression shows the highest evolution in suction
value. During unloading (B-C), the stress path shows
2000 a reversible behaviour with minor change in suction
D value. Finally during wetting a major decrease in suc-
0 tion is evident, as well as an increase of the isotropic
0 400 800 1200 1600
stress and a reduction of the deviatoric stress.
p (kpa)
Figure 8. Relationship between suction and isotropic stress. 4.2 Results for kaolin with low compaction stress
Figures 10 to 12 show the results of the sample com-
prising 100% kaolin and compacted up to 0.9 MPa. In
Finally it is possible to draw the oedometric com- this tests the reloading phase progresses up to point
pression test on a p−q−s plot (Figure 9). On this curve B2 . This test shows differences to the test carried out
it is possible to observe all the features described using with a high compaction stress, mainly in the wetting
Figures 3 to 8. The initial state (point A) is character- stage. In fact, on wetting the vertical stress reduces
ized by a high suction value and zero p − q stress. although the horizontal stress remains almost constant
The high suction value creates an overconsolidated (Figure 10). As a consequence for this low compaction
soil. The loading stage (A-B) is characterized by two stress the collapse behaviour is noticeable on the p-q
138
1000 The results obtained indicate the apparatus to be
B2
800 B1 responding well in the tests and shows that this kind of
apparatus may be an important tool to investigate the
600 anisotropic response of unsaturated compacted soils.
q kpa
Figure 11. p-q path for low compaction stress material. REFERENCES
2.4 Boussaid K., Thorel L., Garnier J., Ferber V., David J.P. 2005.
Comportement mécanique de sols intermediaries recon-
B1
2.2 stitutes: Influence de la teneur en eau et du percentage
C B2 d’argile. Congrès fancais de mécanique, Troyes, France.
D Brandon T.L., Clough G.W., Rahardjo P.P. 1991. Fabrication
2
of silty sand specimens for large and small scale tests.
1 10 100 1000 Geotechnical testing Journal, Vol. 14 No 1.
p (kpa) Dupas J.M., Pecker A. 1979. Static and dynamic proper-
ties of sand—cement. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering Vol. 105, GT3.
Figure 12. Relationship between specific volume and Ismail M.A., Joer H.A., Randolph M.F. 2000. Sample prepa-
isotropic stress, low compaction stress. ration technique for artificially cemented soils. ASTM
Geotech. Testing J., 23(2), 171–177.
path (Figure 11), and on the curve relating the specific Jotisankasa A., Ridley A., Coop M. 2007. Collapse behavior
of compacted silty clay in suction—monitored oedometer
volume and the isotropic stress (Figure 12). apparatus. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering. ASCE, 133(7), 867–877.
5 CONCLUSIONS Kimura T., Takemura J., Hiro–Oka A., Okamura M. 1994.
Mechanical behaviour of intermediate soils. Centrifuge
94. Singapore, Leung et al. (Ed), Balkema.
This paper presents some details of a suction moni- Murillo C. 2006. Caraterización Geotécnica en Centrífuga
tored oedometer to investigate the stress—strain and de Macizos Multicapa de Suelo Parcialmente Saturado
suction—water content paths during vertical com- usando Ondas de Superficie. PhD. Thesis Universidad de
paction. los Andes, Bogotá Colombia.
139
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The Soil Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC), one of the fundamental relations to describe
unsaturated soil, has been studied extensively; however, not much emphasis has been placed on the effect of
sample geometry on the SWCC. The study described in this paper was originated to evaluate the effect of
sample height on the SWCC for various soils with the intent of optimizing testing efficiency. A custom made
device was built to obtain the SWCC (wetting/drying paths) using automated pore-water pressure and pore-air
pressure controllers. Specimens with two heights, 25 mm and 6.35 mm and having a diameter of 63.5 mm, were
compacted with similar initial dry density and moisture content. Samples were saturated and then subjected
to drainage approaching residual saturation followed by wetting back to a zero suction state. Experimental
results thus far demonstrate that the SWCC primary drainage and wetting curves compare favorably for different
sample heights. However, an essential distinction in equilibrium time was observed. As expected, tests with
smaller sample heights reached equilibrium much faster than larger sample heights. Preliminary results indicate
that a 75% reduction of sample height reduced equilibrium time by about 50%. Implications of reducing the
sample height are discussed and some general improvements in SWCC testing with the custom made device are
presented.
1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND data; thus, reducing testing time will encourage more
extensive testing to fully define hysteretic behavior of
The Soil Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC) the SWCC. This was precisely the motivation for the
expresses the relationship between water content and current authors to pursue this study.
suction in a soil. It is an important relationship in unsat- This paper presents results of a study to investigate
urated soil, and thus obtaining SWCCs experimentally the effect of sample height on the SWCC for a silty
is a crucial yet time consuming endeavor. Extensive soil. The goal was to optimize the testing geometry
research on the SWCC and its importance to unsat- while shortening the equilibrium time. A preliminary
urated soil behavior is reported in the literature (e.g. set of experimental results are presented for sample
Barbour 1998, Fredlund & Rahardjo 1993, Fredlund heights of 25.4 mm and 6.35 mm; resulting SWCCs
et al. 1996). Various test procedures and equipment include primary drying and wetting curves. Results
have been developed to investigate the SWCC (e.g. clearly demonstrate the time advantage to be gained
Olson & Langfelder 1965, Fredlund & Xing 1994, by reducing sample height.
Kawai et al. 2000) such as the filter paper method,
pressure plate, Tempe Cell, and many others. However,
it seems little research has been conducted to study the 2 TEST PROCEDURE
effect of sample geometry on the SWCC. Since labora-
tory testing generally requires significant time to gen- The Soil Water Characteristic Curves were experimen-
erate a SWCC, there are major advantages to reducing tally obtained using a custom made test cell built at
the sample dimensions, particularly the sample height. the University of Oklahoma. Schematic and photo-
For example, very little experimental data are avail- graphic views of the test cell are shown in Figure 1.
able in the literature showing hysteretic behavior of the The pore-water pressure was digitally controlled using
SWCC; most reported data represent a single branch a commercially available high precision motorized pis-
of the SWCC, typically the primary drainage curve. ton pump and transmitted to the soil via a high air
Probably, time required for completing the SWCC test entry porous disc (HAEPD). A similar pump having
is the main reason for the lack of reported hysteretic a larger piston volume was used to control the air
141
Test Cell GDS Digital Air size distribution similar to that of fine silt with sand
Pressure Controller having about 30% fine sand (0.075–0.25 mm), 62%
silt (0.002–0.075 mm), and 8% clay size material
Porous stainless steel (≤0.002). A series of tests was conducted to deter-
top platen mine the effect of soil sample height on the SWCC.
The sample heights tested in this study were 25.4 mm
Soil sample
High air entry porous
and 6.35 mm with a diameter of 63.5 mm.
disc (HAEPD) Each sample was prepared in an identical manner
to achieve nominally the same initial void ratio (0.60)
GDS Digital Water and gravimetric moisture content (17.2%) in the test
Pressure Controller specimens. Samples were compacted into the test cell
on top of the pre-conditioned high air entry porous
stone using volume-based moist tamping. The test cell
was then flooded with water and water was pushed
under low pressure through the sample by increas-
ing the air pressure (ua ) above the water in the cell.
This process continued until a minimum of three pore
volumes of water had flowed through the sample to
remove entrapped air. Following saturation, the dry-
ing (drainage) and wetting cycles were initiated. The
Figure 1. Schematic and photographical view of test cell. drying curve is obtained by applying ua in increments
to obtain different values of matric suction; the amount
of pore water volume expelled out of the soil sample
is automatically recorded in the system to estimate
120 the gravimetric water content corresponding to each
increment of suction. Equilibrium was assumed to
100 occur when negligible water volume (i.e. less than
Sil-Co-Sil (SCS) 250 1% change over a period of 4 hours) occurred for
80 each suction increment. For each height, samples were
% Passing
20
3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
0
1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Plots of the Soil Water Characteristic Curves (SWCC)
Particle Diameter (mm) in terms of matric suction (ua − uw ) versus gravimet-
ric water content for tests having heights of 25.4 mm
Figure 2. Grain size distribution for tested soils. and 6.35 mm are presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4,
respectively. Each data point in these figures rep-
resents an increment of suction and corresponding
pressure in the cell. These pumps can accurately con- measurement of water volume change at equilibrium.
trol pressure and volume changes to a resolution on Equilibrium was assumed to occur when negligi-
the order of 1 kPa and 1 mm3 , respectively. The exper- ble water volume change occurred for each suction
imental apparatus allowed for continuous control and increment. In Figure 5 an example of water vol-
measurement of the pore-air pressure and pore-water ume change versus time for primary drainage of
pressure throughout testing. the 25.4 mm sample height is shown; water vol-
A porous stone with a relatively low air entry value ume changed fairly rapidly following application of
was used (i.e. 3 bar) to gain maximum efficiency with an increment of suction followed by a more gradual
respect to water transmission into and out of the soil. change until equilibrium was observed.
A commercially available ground silica, Sil-Co-Sil In Figure 6, a comparison of the primary drainage
250 (SCS-250) manufactured by U.S. Silica Company and primary wetting curves for each (25.4 mm and
was used as the test soil. 6.35 sample height) test is shown. In examining
The grain size distribution of the SCS-250 is given Figure 6 it is apparent that the SWCCs for both sample
in Figure 2. As shown, the test soils have a grain heights were practically the same.
142
120 0 -4
80 -7
ua-uw (kPa)
-10 -8
13000 14000 15000 16000
60
40 -15
20
-20
0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0 10000 20000 30000
Gravimetric Water Content Time (min)
Figure 3. SWCC for the sample of 25.4 mm height. Figure 5. Water volume change versus time for primary
drainage during testing for 25.4 mm height.
100
120
60 80
ua-uw (kPa)
60
40
40
20
20
0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Gravimetric Water Content
Gravimetric Water Content
143
120 produced for two different sample heights. By reduc-
ing the sample height by 75%, the time required to
100 complete a SWCC was reduced by about 50%. Fur-
thermore, there was virtually no difference in the
80 SWCCs produced using different samples heights.
ua-uw (kPa)
60
REFERENCES
40
Barbour, S.L. 1998. Nineteenth Canadian Geotechnical Col-
20 loquium: The soil-water characteristic curve: a historical
perspective, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 35,
0 pp. 873–894.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil mechanics for
Unsaturated soils. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Gravimetric Water Content
Fredlund, D.G. and Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the
soil-water characteristic curves, Canadian Geotechnical
Figure 8. SWCC showing hysteresis for normal stress of Journal, Vol. 31, pp. 521–523.
200 kPa. Fredlund, D.G., Xing, A., Fredlund, M.D. and Barbour, S.L.
1996. The Relationship of the Unsaturated Soil Shear
Strength Functions to the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve,
4 CONCLUSIONS Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 33, pp. 440–448.
Kawai, K., Karube, D. and Kato, S. 2000. The Model of Water
Retention Curve Considering Effects of Void Ratio, In:
Experiments were conducted in a specially fabri-
Rahardjo, H., Toll, D.G., Leong, E.C. (Eds.), Unsaturated
cated testing cell and used to examine the effect of Soils for Asia, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 329–334.
sample height on the SWCC relationship in an unsat- Olson, R.E. and Langfelder, L.J. 1965. Pore-Water Pres-
urated silty soil. The soil water characteristic curves, sures in Unsaturated Soils, Journal of Soil Mechanics and
including primary drainage and wetting curves were Foundation Div., Proc. ASCE, Vol. 91, SM4, pp. 127–160.
144
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D. Gallipoli
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
F.D. Evans
Controls Testing Equipment Ltd, Wykeham Farrance Division, Tring, Hertfordshire, UK
ABSTRACT: The Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) allows observation of hydrated
samples in their original state. Imaging can be done at a constant vapour pressure and temperature or in
dynamic conditions to observe a sample response to changes of water vapour pressure and/or temperature.
This paper focuses on the use of the dynamic ‘mode’ for unsaturated soils studies. Examples are presented on
the hydraulic and structural response of kaolin and silica microspheres to cycles of relative humidity at con-
stant temperature. Qualitative observations were made throughout the cycles and focused on the particle level
phenomena (e.g., meniscus shape) and mesoscale phenomena (e.g., particle re-arrangements and emptying and
filling of pores). Some quantification was also possible: the contact angle between the air-water and water-solid
interfaces was measured. Other applications of the ESEM technique to unsaturated soils and limitations are
discussed.
145
6 μm diameter) and the limitations of the technique et al. (1995) and Agus and Schanz (2005). Montes-H.
are also discussed. (2004) and Montes-H. et al. (2005) seem to have
been the first to use the ESEM for dynamic stud-
ies in unsaturated soils. They imposed wetting-drying
2 PREVIOUS WORK cycles on bentonite MX80 aggregates while monitor-
ing the structural changes and volume variations. The
A range of visualisation techniques have been used swelling-shrinkage was measured by a coupled digital
to study the fabric of unsaturated soils. These include image analysis program. Due to the aggregated nature
optical microscopy and video methods, X-ray com- of the material the scale of observation was relatively
puted tomography (CT), scanning electron microscopy large (20 μm) and the study was conducted more at a
and more recently environmental scanning electron mesoscale rather than at a microscale. Regarding the
microscopy. fabric changes, it was possible to observe cracking and
Cho and Santamarina (2001) studied samples made swelling of the aggregates and to quantify the swelling-
of 1.6 mm glass beads and observed the meniscus shrinking potential by measuring volume changes.
strain at failure for different rupture modes (shear, The authors, however, do not report any details about
extension and rotation). Tests were conducted at the the water menisci, which are present at the interparticle
particle-to-particle level by using optical microscopy. contacts.
Strain was measured directly from the images while
water content was estimated for cubic packing.
Reinson et al. (2005) observed the drying process 3 ESEM WORKING PRINCIPLE
of 12 mm glass beads to determine the unsaturated
hydraulic conductivity and the soil water retention The conventional SEM works by emitting an electron
curve. Observations were made by digital videogra- beam towards a conductive sample in high vacuum
phy in grouped glass beads to capture the meniscus conditions. Secondary electrons are released from the
formation and to track the movement of a dye tracer. sample, collected by a detector and amplified to pro-
Suction was estimated by using the Laplace equation duce an image. The conductive coating of the sample
based on the observations for a cubic packing arrange- (usually made of gold) improves the image quality
ment. Computed tomography was used by Wong and and the vacuum ensures the effective operation of the
Wibowo (2000) to estimate the 3D spatial distribution electron gun.
of porosity, air and water saturation during water flow In the presence of water vapour inside the micro-
in a silty sand soil column. Wildenschild et al. (2002) scope chamber, the emitted secondary electrons col-
showed that the air-water interfaces in sands could be lide with the water molecules generating positive ions
observed by CT while Cnudde et al. (2006) reviewed that are directed towards the sample. This causes over-
the potential to use CT in geo-disciplines. charging of the sample surface and the consequent loss
The conventional SEM uses high vacuum to obtain of image quality. In the ESEM a high vacuum con-
good resolution images. As a result, imaging of wet dition is ensured only in a limited zone surrounding
samples is not possible and special sample prepara- the electron gun while the relative humidity around
tion procedures are needed. In unsaturated soils, the the sample stays relatively high. This working mode
SEM has traditionally been used for fabric studies, ensures imaging of hydrated samples in their natural
mostly to observe the orientation and packing of parti- state. Further details about the physical principles gov-
cles (e.g. Delage and Lefebvre, 1984; Gasparre et al., erning the operation of the ESEM can be found in
2007). The conventional SEM was later improved to Donald (2003) and Stokes (2003).
the Environmental SEM, which permits observation of The ESEM is able to induce changes of relative
hydrated samples in their original state (e.g. Donald, humidity, i.e. water condensation in the sample or
2003; Redwood et al., 2005). This increased versatility evaporation from the sample, by controlling the val-
allowed application of the ESEM to various research ues of water vapour pressure and temperature. The
fields including, for example, the study of colloids temperature is controlled by means of a Peltier cool-
(e.g. Donald et al., 2000). In rock and soil mechan- ing stage, which can impose temperatures up to 20◦ C
ics, the studies conducted so far using the ESEM have (however temperatures are usually kept at low values
focused on: wettability of reservoir rocks in petroleum between 2◦ C and 6◦ C during tests) while the value
engineering (e.g. Combes et al., 1998; Buckman et al., of vapour pressures can be increased up to 2.339 kPa.
2000; Skauge et al., 2006); hydraulic behaviour of The control of relative humidity (RH) inside the micro-
mine marls (Sorgi and De Gennaro, 2006; Sorgi and scope chamber is based on the phase diagram of water.
De Gennaro, 2007); hydration of geopolymer con- Fig. 1 shows the boundary of this diagram separating
crete (Zhang et al., 2005). In unsaturated soils, the the region in which vapour pressure at equilibrium is
ESEM was used in the static ‘mode’ to observe the saturated (RH = 100%) from the region where vapour
structure of bentonites by Musso et al. (2003), Baker pressure at equilibrium is not saturated (RH < 100%).
146
2.5
water vapour pressure (kPa)
1.5
liquid
1 condensation vapour
evaporation
0.5
147
Figure 4. ESEM micrographs of silica spheres after a
wetting-drying sequence. Arrows in (b) indicate displace-
ment of the spheres.
148
single layer of spheres as relative humidity increased. most ESEM studies are conducted, water is near its
They were also able to measure indirectly the meniscus highest density. This could influence cavitation or air
force by fixing the spheres to a deformable substrate entry. Some soils are also sensitive to temperature and
and measuring its deflection. testing at low temperatures could therefore change the
Schenk et al. (1998) observed the formation of response of the material.
meniscus water at the contact of a cantilever tip of Another limitation is that the ESEM controls the
an atomic force microscope and a flat substrate. They water vapour pressure in 0.1 torr steps (at least in
were able to validate Kelvin’s law by comparing the the FEI XL-30 models), which for RH > 90% cor-
imposed relative humidity to the meniscus radius. responds about to 1.5% RH changes. These steps
This shows a range of potential applications for the are rather coarse and evaporation or condensation can
ESEM, which could be used to validate theories, e.g. therefore occur too fast leading to a loss of important
the saddle shaped meniscus proposed by Molenkamp information during the wetting/drying process.
and Nazemi (2003). For fabric studies, care must be taken due to differ-
Mechanical testing could be possible for larger ent water vapour pressure and temperature conditions
materials by fitting the Peltier stage into a straining between the ESEM chamber and the room. Errors
stage inside the ESEM’s chamber that can be operated could lead to changes in the fabric as the sample is
either in compression or extension. Stokes and Donald moved into the ESEM chamber.
(2000) obtained stress-strain curves for breadcrumbs
at different relative humidities. Testing was conducted
in unconfined conditions, i.e. with only water vapour 5 CONCLUSIONS
pressure surrounding the sample.
The ESEM technique could also be useful for the This study has demonstrated the potential usefulness
investigation of processes where drying and wetting of the Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope
are due to vapour transfer, including the study of (ESEM) for unsaturated soils. In the examples shown,
hysteresis (by relative humidity cycles) or wettability water menisci are neatly distinguished from the solid
(involving contact angle measurements). surfaces and details such as the meniscus curvature
One of the challenges related to the ESEM is and contact angle are easily traced and quantifiable.
the sample preparation at the microscale. Assem- The ESEM allows observation of the effect of changes
bling micron sized particles individually or even in total suction on the fabric of unsaturated soils.
in a group might require special manipulation The ESEM has the capability of conducting dynamic
techniques. experiments where the total suction imposed to the
sample can be varied by changing the relative humid-
ity and temperature inside the microscope chamber.
4.3 Limitations
The analysis of images from the ESEM allows the
One of the main issues in ESEM imaging is the time direct measurement of contact angle during wetting-
required for thermodynamic equilibrium. The waiting drying cycles. Moreover, published studies have also
time should only depend on the volume of the material shown that stress-strain testing inside the ESEM is
and imposed relative humidity. However, published possible.
results show varied times. For instance, Montes-H. One limitation of ESEM is however the impossibil-
et al. (2005) waited 10 mins for equilibrium conditions ity of obtaining direct measurements of water content
with bentonite aggregates 95 μm large under a relative inside the sample. Despite this, the potential of this
humidity of 95%; Weeks and DeYoreo (2006) waited technique for the study of the engineering behaviour
the same time for water to condense (under RH = 98%) of unsaturated soils is considerable.
at the tip of an atomic force microscope cantilever and
a flat substrate (with the microscope tip width smaller
than 1 μm). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Other factors might also affect the accuracy of
the measurements of water vapour pressure and tem- The authors thank David Beamer (FEI Instru-
perature in the ESEM chamber. Temperature, for ments), Helen Riggs (Durham University) and Dr
instance, is imposed by the Peltier stage, which Jim Buckman (Heriot-Watt University) for help-
means that temperature gradients could develop in ing with the ESEM observations. This research
the material if the sample dimensions are relatively is supported by the Engineering and Physical Sci-
large. ences Research Council (UK) and Wykeham Farrance
The need to test at low temperatures (to obtain a Ltd. The support from the European Commission
higher image definition) might be a disadvantage in via the ‘‘Marie Curie’’ Research Training Network
some situations because water properties change with contract number MRTN-CT-2004–506861 is also
temperature. At 4◦ C, near the temperature at which acknowledged.
149
REFERENCES Musso, G., Morales, E.R., Gens, A., Castellanos, E. (2003).
The role of structure in the chemically induced defor-
Agus, S.S., Schanz, T. (2005). Effect of shrinking and mations of FEBEX bentonite. Applied Clay Sc. 23,
swelling on microstructures and fabric of a compacted 229–237.
bentonitesand mixture. Proc. Int. Conf. on Problematic Redwood, P.S., Lead, J.R., Harrison, R.M., Jones, I.P.,
Soils (2) 543550. Stoll, S. (2005). Characterization of humic substances by
Baker, J.C., Grabowska-Olszewska, B., Uwins, P.J.R. (1995). environmental scanning electron microscopy. Env. Sc. and
ESEM study of osmotic swelling of bentonite from Tech. 39, 7, 1962–1966.
Radzionkow (Poland). Applied Clay Science 9, 465–469. Reinson, J.R., Fredlund, D.G., Wilson, G.W. (2005). Unsat-
Buckman, J.O., Todd, A.C., Hill, P.I. (2000). Observations on urated flow in coarse porous media. Can. Geotech. J. 42,
a reservoir rock wettability using an environmental scan- 252–262.
ning electron microscope. Microscopy and Analysis 14, Schenk, M., Futing, Reichelt, R. (1998). Direct visualization
2, 35–37. of the dynamic behavior of a water meniscus by scanning
Cho, G.C., Santamarina, J.C. (2001), Unsaturated particu- electron microscopy. J. App. Phys. 84, 9, 4880–4884.
late materials— particle level studies. J. Geotech. Geoenv. Skauge, A., Spildo, K., Hoiland, L., Vik, B. (2006). Theo-
Eng. 127, 1, 84–96. retical and experimental evidence of different wettability
Cnudde, V., Masschaele, B., Dierick, M., Vlassenbroeck, J., classes. J. Petroleum Sc. and Eng. (in press).
Van Hoorebeke, L., Jacobs, P. (2006). Recent progress in Sorgi, C., De Gennaro, V. (2006). Observations at the Envi-
X-ray CT as a geosciences tool. Applied Geochemistry ronmental SEM of the water influence in the behaviour of
21, 5: 826–832. marls. Proceedings Journ. Nat. de Geotech. et de Geol. de
Combes, R., Robin, M., Blavier, G., Aidan, M., Degreve, F. l’Ing., Lyon, France, pp. 9 (in French).
(1998). Visualization of imbibition in porous media by Sorgi, C., De Gennaro, V. (2007). ESEM analysis of
environmental scanning electron microscopy: application chalk microstructure submitted to hydromechanical load-
to reservoir rocks. J. Petroleum Sc. and Eng. 20, 133–139. ing. Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences—serie
Donald, A.M., He, C., Royall, C.P., Sferrazza, M., Geoscience (accepted) (in French).
Stelmashenko, N.A., Thiel, B.A. (2000). Applications of Stokes, D.J. (2003). Recent advances in electron imag-
environmental scanning electron microscopy to colloidal ing, image interpretation and applications: environmental
aggregation and film formation. Colloids and Surfaces A: scanning electron microscopy. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
Physicochemical and Eng. Asp. 174, 37–53. A 361, 2771–2787.
Donald, A.M. (2003). The use of environmental scan- Stokes, D.J., Donald, A.M. (2000). In situ mechanical test-
ning electron microscopy for imaging wet and insulating ing of dry and hydrated breadcrumb in the environmental
materials. Nature Materials 2, 511–516. scanning electron microscope (ESEM). J. Mat. Sc. 35,
Gasparre, A., Nishimura, S., Coop, M.R., Jardine, R.J. 599–607.
(2007). The influence of structure on the behaviour of Zhang, Y.S., Sun, W., Li, J.Z. (2005). Hydration process of
London Clay. Geotechnique 57, 1, 19–31. interfacial transition in potassium polysialate (K-PSDS)
Lampenscherf, S., Pompe, W., Wilkinson, D.S. (2000). Stress geopolymer concrete. Mag. Concrete Res. 57, 1, 33–38.
development due to capillary condensation in powder Weeks, B.L., DeYoreo, J.J. (2006). Dynamic meniscus
compacts: a two-dimensional model study. J. Am. Ceram. growth at a scanning probe tip in contact with a gold
Soc., 83 6, 1333–1340. substrate. J. Phys. Chem. B 110, 10231–10233.
Montes-H., G. (2005). Swelling—shrinkage measurements Wildenschild, D., Hopmans, J.W., Vaz, C.M.P., Rivers, M.L.,
of bentonite using coupled environmental scanning elec- Rikard, D. and Christensen, B.S.B. (2002). Using X-ray
tron microscopy and digital image analysis. J. Colloid and computed tomography in hydrology: systems, resolutions
Interface Sc. 284, 271–277. and limitations. J. Hydrology 267, 285–297.
Montes-H., G., Geraud, Y., Duplay, J., Reuschle, T. (2005). Wong, C.K., Wibowo, R. (2000). Tomographic evaluation of
ESEM observations of compacted bentonite submitted to air and water flow patterns in soil column, Geotech. Test.
hydration/dehydration conditions. Colloids and Surfaces J. GTODJ 23, 4, 413–422.
A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 262, 14–22.
Molenkamp, F., Nazemi, A.H. (2003). Interactions between
two rough spheres, water bridge and water vapour.
Geotechnique 53, No. 2, 255–264.
150
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
C. Sorgi
INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France (now RATP, Paris, France)
V. De Gennaro
Ecole des Ponts (Université Paris-Est, Navier Inst. – CERMES), Paris, France
H.D. Nguyen
Ecole des Ponts (Université Paris-Est, Navier Inst. – CERMES), Paris, France
INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
P. Delalain
INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
ABSTRACT: The Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) allows the observation of
microstructural changes of geomaterials in their natural state, under controlled conditions of temperature and
pressure. Unlike the traditional Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), ESEM technology does not require
any preliminary treatment of the observed samples (i.e. previous dehydration and eventually conductive coat-
ing) reducing possible procedure compliances. Although ESEM applications are nowadays recurrent in many
research fields related to materials science, this investigation tool is still seldom used in geomechanics. In this
paper we discuss some aspects associated with this technology when used for partially saturated geomaterials.
Examples of applications on chalks are presented and some perspectives on the development of this instrument
in relation with geomechanical applications are discussed.
151
geomaterials often occur. These evolutions can affect 100
the integrity of the solid skeleton and eventually Hr = 83.5% ( s = 24.9 MPa)
SUCTION, s :MPa
1
tion between the solid skeleton and the fluids which Hr = 99.8% ( s = 1.5 MPa)
saturate partially or completely the porous network.
The intrinsically dynamic nature of these processes 0.1
is at odds with the static character of SEM imaging. It
is thus clear the interest that ESEM can present, allow-
ing observation of samples in their natural state (i.e. 0.01 Dry path
saturated, partially saturated or dry) and under vari- Wetting path
Initial state
able environmental conditions (temperature, pressure,
moisture content), by letting the vapour reside inside 0.001
the observation chamber (Danilatos 1998). Some phe- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
nomena observed during wetting and drying processes DEGREE OF SATURATION, Srw
152
hr = 100%
1400
95 %
1200 LIQUID 85%
PRESSURE (Pa)
1000
60%
800 A≡D
50%
600
B
400
200 C GAS
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
TEMPERATURE (°C)
153
(a) 1st wetting (b) 1st drying
Figure 4. (a) & (b) fracture opening in chalk specimen during drying; (c) & (d) fracture closing following the second
saturation.
pore enlargements are certainly amplified by the spe- of vacuum inside the chamber between 705 Pa and
cific condition reproduced in the ESEM environment, 346 Pa, corresponding to an hr varying between 100%
namely the absence of any external loading and the et 50% (path A-B-C-D Fig. 2). Observations were
observation of the external surface of the sample. It conducted at 1500 magnification starting from the
is expected that the extent of this phenomenon could saturated state (i.e. hr = 100%). During the pressure
reduce for the inner (invisible) pores. changes images were captured every 2 minutes and
later mounted as a video clip. The observed zone was
characterised by the presence of a rigid inclusion (crys-
3.3 Saturation-desaturation cycles with ESEM
tal) embedded in the chalk porous matrix (Fig. 4a).
A series of tests was carried out on samples sub- The analysed cycles included:
mitted to saturation-desaturation cycles following the Phase 1: saturation & stabilization; sample was left
path indicated in Figure 2. During these tests a con- 90 minutes at T = 2◦ C and p = 705 Pa, hence hr =
stant temperature condition was chosen (T = 2◦ C). 100% (Fig. 2). The reference image is captured after
Relative humidity was modified changing the level 90 minutes of elapsed time.
154
Phase 2: desaturation; pressure is decreased instan- 12
taneously down to 599 Pa (hr = 85%, path A-B-C in DRY CHALK
Fig. 2). Sample is left to stabilize during 60 minutes. 10
Phase 3: 2nd saturation; the pressure inside the
chamber is increased up to 705 Pa (Fig. 2, path C-
8
D) and sample is left to stabilize during 60 minutes at
UCS (MPa)
hr = 100%.
During the first phase of saturation (Phase 1) the 6
initial condition corresponding to full water satura- PARTIALLY
4 SATURATED
tion was reproduced inside the samples (Fig. 4a). The
CHALK (s = 4.2 MPa)
successive drying process (Phase 2) induced a frac-
ture opening at the contact between the crystal and the 2
chalk matrix (indicated by an arrow in Fig. 4b). The SATURATED
CHALK
presence of this fracture wasn’t observed at the begin- 0
ning of the test (Fig. 4a). This phenomenon seems to be 0 1 2 3
associated with the changes in suction induced by wet- AXIAL STRAIN (%)
ting and drying cycles, admitting that capillary effects
could be at the origin of this microstructural modifi- Figure 5. ESEM in situ unconfined compression tests on
cation (swelling/shrinkage of the material). In other dry and water saturated chalk.
words, wetting would have brought to fracture closing
whereas drying caused chalk matrix shrinkage around
the crystal inducing fracture opening. Fracture open-
ing could then be the consequence of increasing test results and the laboratory test results performed
capillary bridges (hence air-water interfaces) inside on samples having standard dimensions.
the chalk matrix during drying. In opposition to this Preliminary results of unconfined compression
mechanism, wetting decreased the number of air-water microtests are presented in Figure 5 which indicates
menisci between the chalk matrix and the crystal lead- tests results on dry samples to show good repro-
ing to a progressive fracture seal (Figs. 4c, 4d). If ducibility. The linear slopes of the compression curves
related to material ageing, the evolution of this phe- (eventually after a first tightening phase) allow the
nomenon with time following consecutive wetting and quantification of the Young’s modulus at various states
drying cycles could help in assessing the microstruc- of saturation. It is worth noting that the Young’s mod-
tral feature associated with material degradation. This ulus for dry chalk was Edry = 1.1 GPa, as compared
type of observation could also be assisted by advanced with that of saturated chalk Esat = 0.71 GPa. The
techniques of 2D and 3D image analysis, allowing ratio Edry /Esat = 1.6 is the same obtained from other
for a more quantitative characterisation of the mor- researchers by means of standard laboratory uncon-
phological modifications induced by changes in water fined compression tests (e.g. Raffoux & Ervel 1980).
saturation (e.g. Sorgi & De Gennaro 2007). At a suction level so = 4.2 MPa the value of Young’s
modulus Eo is between Edry and Esat ; a value of
0.78 GPa.
3.4 Micromechanical in situ testing
Concerning material strength, the comparison
The combined use of the ESEM technique and a between the Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS)
micromechanical testing apparatus was investigated values obtained at saturated and dry states gives a
by means of unconfined compression tests. A loading ratio UCSdry /UCSsat ∼ = 2 in agreement with avail-
module Deben MICROTEST® allowed the application able data on North French chalk (e.g. Bonvallet 1979).
of a maximum compression load of 5000 N at a con- Results from the sample tested under constant suction
stant strain rate of 1 × 10−5 s−1 . A specific set up was equal to 4.2 MPa (i.e. Sr ∼ = 97%, Fig. 1) show that
developed to carry out micromechanical tests under higher suction levels strengthen the rock by means
controlled total suction (i.e. controlling the level of of additional bonding due to capillary effects. This
relative humidity during the tests). Cylindrical sam- seems in good agreement with the general pattern
ples approx. 8 mm in diameter and 15 mm in height of behaviour observed for this chalk in oedometric
were used. Samples were obtained by means of high- compression tests under controlled suction conditions
precision coring. Upper and lower base parallelism (Nguyen et al. 2007). Also of note is that Nguyen
was ensured by means of a high-precision slicer hav- et al. (2007) also found a ratio of 2.1 between the
ing the accuracy of the order of 1 μm. A first series of yield stress in dry and saturated conditions, close to
preliminary micromechanical tests was conducted on the ratio UCSdry /UCSsat ∼ = 2 found during ESEM
samples saturated, partially saturated and dry in order micro-testing. Also, the ratios between the yield stress
to verify the agreement between the micromechanical at a suction level of 4.2 MPa and that at saturated
155
3
2.5
2
UCS (MPa)
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
AXIAL STRAIN (%)
Figure 6. Failure pattern during ESEM in situ unconfined compression test on water saturated chalk.
and dry state were 1.5 and 0.7, respectively. Simi- the observation chamber by means of a thermo-electric
lar ratios obtained by micromechanical testing using cooler based on the Peltier’s effect. This allows for an
ESEM were equal to 1.5 and 0.75, showing a notable analysis of the microstructural modifications induced
agreement with the oedometric tests results. by the saturation/desaturation cycles in the absence of
Finally, Figure 6 shows some preliminary results of mechanical loading. Suction controlled in situ tests are
ESEM in situ testing with simultaneous visualisation also possible. The validation of a specific experimental
of the deformation pattern and the failure mode. The technique is in progress.
direction of compression is vertical, as indicated on Further developments are needed to characterize
the ESEM image (A). At peak strength (image B) the quantitatively the effects of the mechanical and
sample surface is still apparently unchanged. At about physico-chemical processes associated with the water-
0.9% axial strain, in the softening regime, a pseudo- rock interaction. In the specific case of the carbonated
vertical fracture is visible (image C) followed by a rocks these developments could improve characteriza-
progressive opening in the post-peak phase (images D tion of some fundamental processes like dissolution,
and E). precipitation, crystallization and solid transport under
The aim of these preliminary tests was to explore the stress, often at the origin of the degradation mecha-
possibility to have a characterisation of the local strain nisms of the rock under the effect of environmental
field during hydro-mechanical loading using ESEM. and mechanical agents.
Some possible developments like Digital Image Cor-
relation (DIC) technique (e.g. Vales et al. 2007) could
be envisaged to aid a quantitative characterisation of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the local deformation at microstructural (few hundreds
μm) and mesostructural (some mm) levels. The results on Estreux chalk have been obtained dur-
ing the French National Project BCRD coordinated
by INERIS. The collaborations of Mr. P. Delalain
(INERIS) and Mr. J.M. Taulemesse (Ecole des Mines
4 CONCLUSIONS
d’Alès) are kindly acknowledged.
In this paper some basic applications of the ESEM
for the microstructural characterisation of partially REFERENCES
saturated geomaterials have been presented.
The ESEM allows the observation of microstruc- Allais L., Bornert M., Bretheau T. & Caldemaison D. 1994.
tural changes of geomaterials in their natural state, Experimental characterization of the local strain field in
under controlled conditions of temperature and pres- a heterogeneous elastoplastic material. Acta Metallurgica
sure. Change in saturation can be easily reproduced in et Materallia, 42 (11): 3865–3880.
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Amouric M. 1990. La transformation gel—smectite— Sorgi C. (2004). Contribution méthodologique et expéri-
glauconite. Matériaux Agileux: Structure, Propriétés et mentale à l’étude de la diminution de la résistance des
Applications—SFMC (A. Decarreau, editor): 451 461 massifs rocheux par veillissement. BCRD Rapport Final
Danilatos G.D. 1998. Foundations of environmental scan- (2001–01111) INERIS-DRS: 132 pp.
ning electron microscopy, Advances in Electronics and Sorgi C. & De Gennaro V. 2007. ESEM analysis of chalk
electron physics, 71: 109–250. microstructure submitted to hydromechanical loading.
De Gennaro V., Sorgi C. & Delage P. 2006. Water reten- C.R. Géosciences 339: 468–481.
tion properties of a mine chalk. Proc. 4th International Stockes D.J. & Donald A.M 2000. In situ mechanical testing
Conference on Unsaturated Soils (UNSAT 2006), Phoenix of dry and hydrated breadcrumb in the environmen-
(USA): 1371–1381. tal scanning electron microscope (ESEM). Journal of
Delage P., Tessier D. & Marcel-Audiguier M. 1982. Use of Materials Science, 35: 599–607.
the Cryoscan apparatus for observation of freeze-fractured Tessier D. & Berrier J. 1978. Observation d’argiles hydratées
planes of a sensitive Quebec clay in scanning electron en microscopie éléctronique à balayage. Importance et
microscopy. Canadian Geotech. J., 19: 111–114. choix de la technique de preparation. Proc. 5th Int.
Masson M. 1973. Pétrophysique de la craie. Bulletin des Work.—Meet. on Soil Micromorphology: 117–135.
Laboratoires des Ponts et Chaussées, Spécial V: 23–48. Tovey D. & Wong K. 1973. The preparation of soils and other
Mitchell J.K. & Soga K. 2005. Fundamentals of Soil Behav- geological materials for the SEM. Proc. Int. Symp. on Soil
ior, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ: 577 pp. Structure: 59–67.
Nguyen H.D., De Gennaro V., Sorgi C. & Delage P. (2007). Valès F., Bornert M., Gharbi H., Nguyen Minh D. &
Retention and compressibility properties of a partially Eytard J.C. 2007. Micromechanical investigations of the
saturated quarry chalk. Proc. 1st European Conf. on hydro-mechanical behaviour of argillite rocks by means
Unsaturated Soils (E-UNSAT), Durham (UK). of optical full field strain measurement and acoustic emis-
Raffoux, J.F. & Ervel, C., 1980. Stabilité générale de la sion techniques. Proc. 11th ISRM Congress, Lisbon, July
carrière souterraine d’Estreux. Rapport CERCHAR, 8 pp. 2007: in press.
157
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
N.I. Thusyanthan
Schofield Centre, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, UK
ABSTRACT: Desiccation cracking can be heavily detrimental on the performance of clay soils in various
engineering applications. Typical engineering applications include compacted clay barriers in waste containment,
dam cores, canal liners and road pavements. The evolution of desiccation cracks has not been clearly understood
and explained. A series of laboratory tests were conducted using Merri-Creek clay. The evolution of cracks was
captured by automated digital photography. It was revealed that under the conditions tested, the cracks occurred
sequentially subdividing the overall surface area into cells. The relationship between desiccation rate, average
cell area, thickness of the specimen and crack initiation are examined and discussed.
159
sealed for moisture leakage. The tray was kept in a
cool, damp place for 48 to 72 hours allowing the clay
paste to gain adequate moisture homogenization.
Circular glass containers of 140 mm diameter were
used to make the specimens. An air vibrator was
used while preparing the specimen in order to remove
entrapped air. Then the glass container was placed on
an electronic balance which was connected to a com-
puter. This system automatically measured and stored
the weight of the specimen every 30 minutes. (a) (b)
Specimens were dried using flood lamps each of
500 watts. Four lamps were placed above, surrounding
the specimen at a distance of 50 cm. A digital
camera, which was operated by a computer, was
positioned directly above the specimen. The camera
was programmed to take photos at 30 second intervals
and the data were automatically saved in the computer.
The tests were conducted at varying lamp distances
(35, 50 & 75 cm) as well as with varying specimen
thicknesses (5, 10 & 20 mm). (c)
Although the tests were not performed in a tem-
Figure 2. Crack pattern for 35, 50 & 75 cm lamp distances
perature or humidity controlled environment, both (a, b & c respectively) for 20 mm thick specimen.
surrounding temperature and relative humidity were
reasonably constant at 50◦ C and 20% respectively
owing to the constant heat emitted by lamps. Table 1. Statistical features of clay specimens.
160
4 DISCUSSION
3 3
7 7
4.1 Desiccation rate 8 8
4 4
10
The average cell area of the final crack pattern was 10
5 5
dependent on the desiccation rate and the thickness
2 2
of the specimen. It can be seen from Table 1, that 6
1 9
6
1 9
the desiccation rate increases when the lamp distance (a) (b)
decreases or the clay thickness decreases. In general,
the higher the desiccation rate, the lower the average
cell area. At higher desiccation rates, more cracks
3 3
are needed to release the rapid increase of stress in 7 7
8 8
the specimen, subsequently reducing the crack spac-
4 4
ing and the size of the cells. With a low desiccation 10 10
rate, the specimen has enough time to release the stress 5 5
increment with a few slowly opening cracks. 2
6 2
6
1 9 1 9
(c)
(d)
4.2 Specimen thickness
The decrease of the average cell area with reduc-
ing specimen thickness has been presented by sev- 3
7
3
7
eral previous researchers (Nahlawi & Kodikara 2006, 8 8
Lakshmikantha et al. 2006). The exceptional 4
10
4
10
behaviour (noted in the previous section) of the 5 mm 5
5
thick specimen at 35 cm lamp distance is being fur- 2
2 6
ther investigated using thinner specimens. Kodikara 6
1 9
1 9
et al. (2007) theorized that the spacing between cracks (f)
(e)
decreases when the specimen thickness decreases up
to a certain critical thickness, below which the spacing
Figure 3. Evolution and propagation of shrinkage cracks in
between cracks becomes larger, increasing the area of 5 mm thick clay specimen at 75 cm lamp distance.
the cells. It may be possible that this behaviour is rele-
vant for interpreting the current experimental results,
or it may be one-off result dependent on the specific that location. Therefore, the initial cracking is gener-
conditions of testing. ally associated with edge cracking, where the material
can be weakly attached to the container. However, it is
possible for several cracks to initiate simultaneously
4.3 Crack evolution
because the stress conditions are relatively uniform
Generally, the evolution and propagation of shrink- at the beginning. Thereafter, cracks can occur some-
age cracks cannot be categorized as purely orthogonal where in the vicinity of the centre of a layer or cracked
or non-orthogonal patterns. The final state of the cell, although theoretically, the tensile stress devel-
crack pattern is generally a mixture of orthogonal, opment would likely to be a maximum at the centre.
non-orthogonal, simultaneous and sequential cracks Numbers 1, 2, & 3 in Figure 3(a) refers to the onset of
(Kodikara et al. 2000). However, crack patterns in all first three cracks respectively. Once a crack is open,
the clay specimens contained almost all orthogonal, it tends to spread in both directions until it intersects
sequential cracks where subdivision was the dominant another crack or the boundary. It is hardly seen that two
feature in propagation. cracks meet at an angle of 120◦ to form one crack, or
Figure 3 highlights some of the main features of an existing crack bifurcates to form a 120◦ nucleation.
cracking process. Onset of cracking is dependent on This can be identified by following the crack no. 1, 2,
tensile stress distribution was well as the flaw distri- 3, 4 & 5 in Figure 3(a) to (f).
bution within the material. As theorized by Kodikara Crack no. 7 & 8 in Figures 3(c) & (d) are examples
and Choi (2006), the maximum stress is likely to occur for subdivision. Instead of subdivision, only rarely
at the middle of a layer or cracked cell, if cracks do cracks appear to bifurcate to form new cracks.
have already formed, otherwise predominantly uni- In Figure 3, crack no. 9 appears to bifurcate into
form stress conditions might prevail, as applicable to two cracks. A certain few cracks appear to start from
initial cracking. However, the exact location of crack one point simultaneously and propagate in three direc-
formation will depend on the existence of a flaw that tions making approximately 120◦ angles among them.
can be propagated with the prevailing stress level at Crack no. 6 in Figures 3(b) to (f) is an example of
161
such a formation. However, closer examination of
162
PIV can produce plots of strain contours which
distinguish the strain localization prior to the crack
initiation. For example, analysis focused on the initia-
tion of a selected single crack in the specimen shown in
Figure 7. Plots generated from a preliminary analysis
are shown in figure 8a–c. Initially, soil was undergoing
Cracks almost uniform strain over the entire region as shown
in Figure 8a. Strain localization close to the top right
and left corners of the region before the crack initiation
can be seen in Figure 8b. The grayscale code on the
right of the each figure refers to the value of strain in
pixels as the images were not calibrated. In Figure 8c,
the crack has already opened increasing the maximum
Figure 7. Cracks analyzed with PIV technique. strain from 1.8 to 18.
5 CONCLUSION
(b) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Cracks
REFERENCES
163
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Negal, S.R. and Witten, T.A. 1997, Capillary flow the Environmental Geotechnics, Thomas Telford, London.
cause of ring stains from dried liquid drops, Nature, 389, Lee, S.L., Lo, K.W. and Lee, F.H. 1982. A Numerical model
827–829. for crack propagation in soils, Proceedings of the Interna-
Chan, D., Kodikara, J.K., Ranjith, P.G. and Choi, X. tional Conference on Finite Element Methods, Shanghai,
2007. Data analysis and laboratory investigation of the China, pp. 412–418.
behaviour of pipes buried in reactive clay, 10th Australia- Morris, P.H., Graham, J. and Williams, D.J. 1992. Crack-
New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, Brisbane, ing in drying soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 29,
Australia. 263–277.
Kodikara, J.K., Barbour, S.L. and Fredlund, D.G., Choi, X. Muller, G. 1998. Experimental simulation of basalt columns,
2007, Theoretical analysis of desiccation cracking of a J. Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 86, 93–96.
long soil layer, under review. Nahlawi, H., and Kodikara, J.K. 2006. Laboratory experi-
Kodikara, J.K. and Choi, X. 2006. A simplified analytical ments on desiccation cracking of thin soil layers, Journal
model for desiccation cracking of clay layers in labo- of Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, GEGE2281,
ratory tests, Proceedings of UNSAT2006 Conference, Springer Netherlands, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 1641–1664.
Edited by G.A. Miller, C.E. Zapata, S.L. Houston and Take, W.A. 2003. The influence of seasonal moisture cycles
D.G. Fredlund, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication, on clay slopes, PhD dissertation, University of Cam-
Unsaturated Soils Vol. 2, pp. 2558–2567. bridge, UK.
Kodikara, J.K., Barbour, S.L. and Fredlund, D.G. 2000. Des- Thusyanthan, N.I., Take, W.A., Madabhushi, S.P.G. and
iccation cracking of soil layers, Proceedings of Asian Con- Bolton, M.D. 2007. Crack initiation in clay observed in
ference on Unsaturated Soils: From Theory to Practice, beam bending, Géotechnique, Vol. 57, No. 7, 581–594.
A. A. Balkema, pp. 693–698. White, D.J. 2002. An investigation into the behaviour of
Konrad, J-M. and Ayad, R. 1997. Desiccation of a sen- pressedin piles. PhD dissertation, University of Cam-
sitive clay: field experimental observations, Canadian bridge, UK.
Geotechnical Journal, 34, 929–942. White, D.J., Take, W.A. & Bolton, M.D. 2003. Soil deforma-
Lakshmikantha, M.R., Prat, P.C. and Ladesma, A. 2006. tion measurement using particle image velocimetry (PIV)
An experimental study of cracking mechanisms in drying and photogrammetry, Géotechnique, 53, No. 7, 619–631.
164
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The TDR method for volumetric water content determination is based on the measurement of
the soil apparent permittivity from travel time analysis of a reflection waveform. This is in turn related to water
content through a calibration curve. Methods for travel time determination and calibration equations have been
developed in the laboratory under conditions that often differ from those in the field, where longer cable are
used and temperature fluctuations are significant. This paper presents a theoretical analysis of the effect of
temperature, cable length, and double-impedance probe head on signal travel time. This is made by solving the
transmission line equations in the frequency domain and by obtaining the time domain waveform by inverse
Fast Fourier Transform. It is shown that multiple reflections associated with double-impedance probes may
significant affect TDR travel time-based water content determination.
165
amount of bound water (soils having low cation be assumed, as a first approximation, to be equal to
exchange capacity). the characteristic impedance in air.
The boundary conditions for the uniform trans-
mission line shown in Figure 1 can be written as
2 SIMULATING TDR WAVEFORMS follows:
2.1 Uniform transmission line V (0) = VS − ZS I (0)
(3)
Let us consider an equivalent circuit for a uniform V (l) = ZL I (l)
transmission line as shown in Figure 1. The line is
terminated with an independent voltage source VS at By combining the second of these boundary condi-
z = 0 and a source impedance ZS and with a load tions with Equation 1, we can obtain the impedance
impedance ZL at z = l (ZL = ∞ for the open-ended that the oscilloscope sees at z = 0 (Kraus &
TDR probe). Fleisch 1999):
Electromagnetic wave propagation inside the uni-
form transmission line is described by the line current V (0) ZL + Z tan h(γ l)
I and the voltage V between the conductors. If V Z(0) = =Z (4)
I (0) Z + ZL tan h(γ l)
and I are time-harmonic cosine functions with angular
frequency ω and the symbolic representation of sinu-
soidal signal is adopted, the following transmission 2.2 TDR multi-section transmission line
line equations can be obtained (Kraus & Fleisch 1999): The equivalent circuit for the TDR system is shown
⎧ + −γ z+jωt
in Figure 2. It includes a multi-section transmission
⎨ V (t, z) = V0 e
⎪ + V0− eγ z+jωt line consisting of a cable, a probe head split in two
(1) sub-sections, head 1 and head 2, and a probe. Each
⎪ V+ V−
⎩ I (t, z) = 0 e−γ z+jωt − 0 eγ z+jωt section of the transmission line is characterised by an
Z Z impedance Z, a propagation constant γ , and a length l.
The solution for the multi-section transmission
where t is the time, z is the position along the line, and
line can be obtained by writing Equation 1 for each
V + and V − are complex constants to be determined
section of the line and by considering the continuity
for given boundary conditions. The two complex terms
constraints at the discontinuities between the termina-
in each equation denotes travelling waves in positive
tions of each section and by imposing the boundary
and negative direction respectively. The propagation
conditions at z = 0 and z = l given by Equation 3.
constant, γ , and the characteristic impedance of the
Rather than simultaneously solving Equation 1 for
line, Z, are the two complex parameters governing
each section of the line, we will use the explicit proce-
the propagation of electromagnetic waves along the
dure suggested by Lin (2003a, 2003b), which involves
transmission line and can be expressed for the case of
determining the input impedance at the end of the line
non-ferromagnetic materials as follows:
and transforming the impedance successively to the
jω ∗ Zp subsequent discontinuity until the source is reached
γ = εr ; Z= √ ∗ (2) at z = 0:
c εr
Z(4) = ZL
where c is the speed of an electromagnetic wave in
free space (c = 3 · 108 m/s), εr∗ is the equivalent Z(4) + Zprobe tan h(γprobe · lprobe )
permittivity of the medium between the inner and Z(3) = Zprobe
Zprobe + Z(4) tan h(γprobe · lprobe )
outer conductor, and Zp the characteristic impedance
in vacuum, which is only a function of the cross- Z(3) + Zhead2 tan h(γhead2 · lhead2 )
sectional geometry of the transmission line and can Z(2) = Zhead2
Zhead2 + Z(3) tan h(γhead2 · lhead2 )
(5)
ZS Z(2) + Zhead1 tan h(γhead1 · lhead1 )
Z(1) = Zhead1
+ Zhead1 + Z(2) tan h(γhead1 · lhead1 )
+
Vs V(0) Characteristic impedance, Z ZL Z(1) + Zcable tan h(γcable · lcable )
Z(0) = Zcable
Zcable + Z(1) tan h(γcable · lcable )
166
Cable Head 1 Head 2 Probe suggested by Heimovaara (1994) and Jones & Or
ZS Z(0) Z(1) Z(2) Z(3) Z(4) (2001), provided the input function was zero padded
+ Zcable Zhead1 Zhead2 Zprobe with the addition of a number of zero samples equal
+ to 4 N/8 N.
Vs V(0) γcable γhead1 γhead2 γprobe ZL
lcable lhead1 lhead2 lprobe To verify that the FFT of the sampled input func-
l1 l2 l3 l4 tion after zero-padding was not affected by noise,
we compared the discrete Fourier transform with the
z=0 z=z1 z=z2 z=z3 z=l continuous Fourier transform of the input function
obtained from the Fourier integral (Brigham 1974).
Figure 2. Multisection transmission line. The following expression for the input function in the
frequency domain was derived:
V
e−j2π f t1 − e−j2π f t0 j −j2π f T
H( f ) = V0 + e (7)
(t1 − t0 )(2πf ) 2 2πf
V0
where f is the frequency and V0 the voltage amplitude.
t0 t1 T t
Δt
ΔT 3 TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
Figure 3. Ideal input step function. The propagation constant, γ , and the characteris-
tic impedance, Z, are the parameters governing the
domain sampled by the oscilloscope at z = 0 (Lin signal propagation through each section of the line.
2003a, 2003b): According to Equation 2, these parameters depend on
the dielectric permittivities of the media filling the
Z(0) − ZS sections of the transmission line. These permittivities
V(0) = Vin + · Vin (6) are discussed in the following sections.
Z(0) + ZS
where Vin is the incident waveform in the frequency 3.1 Soil permittivity
domain (Vin = Vs /2). The permittivity of the soil εm∗ was described by
the four-component complex dielectric mixing model
2.3 Numerical modelling of TDR reflection presented by Heimovaara et al. (1994):
waveform
ρd √ ∗
According to Lin (2003a, 2003b), the TDR wave- εm∗ = εs + (θ − δρd As ) εfw
ρs
form can be obtained by standard spectra analysis that
involves (i) transforming the incident step input in ∗ ρd √
+ δρd As εbw + 1− −θ εa (8)
the frequency domain to determine Vin ; (ii) determin- ρs
ing the frequency response of the output V (0) using
Equations 5 and 6 and (iii) transforming the frequency where εs and εa are the permittivities of soil solids
∗ ∗
response back into the time domain. and air respectively, εfw and εbw are the equivalent
The Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms were permittivities of free and bound water respectively, ρd
performed using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is the bulk dry density of the soil, ρs is the average
and inverse FFT (IFFT) algorithm. Appropriate zero density of the solid phase, the product δρd As represents
padding and suitable window size were selected. the volumetric bound water content, with As and δ
being the specific surface of the soil and thickness of
2.4 Input function the bound water layer respectively.
∗
The equivalent permittivity of free water εfw was
We considered the ideal input step function shown in
assumed to be described by a Debye-type equation
Figure 3, where T = T − t0 is the pulse length and
(Hasted 1973):
t = t1 − t0 is the pulse rise time (t = 200 ps). We
assumed that the pulse length T is finite, with T εfw,s (N , T ) − εfw,∞
∗
greater than the time required for complete reflections εfw = εfw,∞ +
of waves traveling forth and back the TDR probe. 1 + j ffw,relf(N ,T )
When transforming the sampled input function into
σfw,dc (N , T )
the frequency domain by FFT, we found that it was −j (9)
not necessary to introduce any algorithm as earlier 2πf ε0
167
Table 1. Debye parameters for free water at N = 0.05 representing the combined effect of geometric factors
(moderately saline water). and surface resistivity.
We determined the parameters εcable , αR ,
T σfw,dc εfw,s ffw,rel εfw,∞ and Zp,cable with reference to the cable RG58A/U
(◦ C) (S/m) – (GHz) –
connected to the TDR probes manufactured by Camp-
0 0.28 86.8 9.0 4.2 bell Scientific. These parameters were determined by
20 0.47 79.2 17.1 4.2 fitting the frequency-dependent nominal attenuation
40 0.69 72.3 27.5 4.2 (dB/m), the nominal velocity of propagation, and the
nominal impedance reported in the cable datasheet.
We obtained αR = 130 sec−0.5 , εcable = 1.62, and
Zp,cable = 63.6.
where f is the frequency, ffw,rel is the relaxation
3.3 Head permittivity
frequency, εfw,s the static permittivity, εfw,∞ the per-
mittivity at infinite frequency (refractive index), ε0 is We assumed that the head permittivity was real and
the permittivity in free space, σfw,dc the direct current frequency-independent. For sake of simplicity, we
electric conductivity. The parameters εfw,s , ffw,rel , and assumed that the head permittivity was equal to the
σfw,dc depend on temperature T and normality N of the cable permittivity (εhead = 1.62).
aqueous solution according to the relationships given
by Stogryn (1971). Table 1 show the values of the free
water dielectric parameters for three different temper- 4 EFFECT OF DOUBLE-IMPEDANCE
atures T for the case of an aqueous solutions having PROBE HEAD
N = 0.05 (moderately saline water).
A similar Debye relationship was used to represent To investigate the effect of the double-impedance
the equivalent permittivity of bound water. Since the probe head, we considered different combinations of
relaxation frequency of bound water is well below the Zhead1 and Zhead2 (Table 2). For each impedance com-
TDR bandwidth (Tarantino et al. 2008), the Debye bination, we simulated the waveform in water, air,
permittivity of bound water εbw∗
was simplified to: and soil at different volumetric water contents. The
waveform in air and water was used to calibrate the
probe according to Heimovaara (1993). The water con-
∗ σbw,dc
εbw = εbw,∞ − j (10) tent was then derived from travel time analysis using
2π f ε0 Ledieu’s calibration and compared with the theoreti-
cal value used to generate the waveform. To isolate
where εbw,∞ and σbw,dc were assumed to be the effect of multiple reflections occurring at the
temperature-independent. We assumed εbw,∞ = 5 double-impedance head, we assumed that both cable
and σbw,dc = 15 S/m according to Heimovaara and soils were non-dissipative (αR = 0, As = 0,
et al. (1994). The permittivities of soil solids and air σfw,dc = 0). The waveforms obtained by consider-
were assumed to be real and frequency independent ing a single impedance probe head are reported in
(εs = 5, εa = 1). Figure 4(a) (combinations No. 1 and 2 in Table 2)
whereas the waveforms obtained by considering a
double-impedance probe head with different values of
3.2 Cable permittivity Zhead1 and Zhead2 are reported in Figure 4(b) (com-
The permittivity of the cable was modelled according binations No. 3 to 5 in Table 2). It can be observed
to Lin & Tang (2007), who presented the following that the waveform can change significantly if there
expressions for the propagation constant, γ , and the is a high impedance mismatch between the two head
characteristic impedance, Z: sub-sections.
j2π f √ αR Table 2. Combinations of impedances of probe head
γcable = εcable 1 + (1 − j) (11) sub-sections.
c f
Cable Head1 Head2
Zp,cable αR No. L(m) L(m) Zp() L(m) Zp()
Zcable = √ 1 + (1 − j) (12)
εcable f 1 0.08 – – 0.02 57
2 0.08 – – 0.02 285
where εcable is the dielectric permittivity of the medium 3 0.07 0.01 28 0.02 57
4 0.07 0.01 6 0.02 171
filling the cable assumed to be real and frequency- 5 0.07 0.01 6 0.02 57
independent, and the αR is the resistance loss factor
168
0.7 0.5
0.6 No.1
0.5 No.2
0.4 0.4
reflection coefficient, ρ
0.3
'MEASURED'
0.2
0.3
0.1 (a)
0
0.1 0.2 combination
0.2 No.1
0.3 No.2
0.4 0.1 No.3
0.5 No.4
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 No.5
t [ns] 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.5
0.4 No.3 IMPOSED
0.3 No.4
0.2
No.5 Figure 5. Comparison between ‘measured’ water content
and water content used to generate the waveform for different
0.1
reflection coefficient, ρ
169
Since the cables acts as a low-pass filter, the case calibration and compared with the theoretical value
of dissipative soil was considered. In particular, we used to generate the waveform.
assumed As = 66.7 m2 /g, ρd = 1.66 g/cm3 , ρs = Again, it can be observed (Fig. 7) that for a soil
2.71 g/cm3 and the free water parameters correspond- moderately dispersive (σfw,dc ∼0.5 S/m), the effect of
ing to N = 0.05 and T = 20◦ C (Table 1). These values temperature is not significant.
of As , ρd , ρs are those used to simulate the waveforms
measured in the clayey silt reported by Pozzato et al.
(Ibid.). 7 CONCLUSIONS
For each cable length, the waveform in air and
water was used to calibrate the probe according to The paper has presented a theoretical analysis to inves-
Heimovaara (1993). The water content derived from tigate sources of error in TDR water content measure-
travel time analysis using Ledieu’s calibration was then ment. It has been shown that double impedance probes
compared with the theoretical value used to generate may considerably affect the measurement for the case
the waveform. Results from this analysis are shown where sub-section head impedances are significantly
in Figure 6. It can be observed that for a soil moder- different.
ately dispersive (σfw,dc ∼0.5 S/m), the effect of cable For non-dispersive soils characterised by pore-
length is not significant. This may not be the case water with low electrical conductivity and negligible
for pore-water with high electrical conductivity and amount of bound water (low cation exchange capac-
significant amount of bound water (soils having high ity), temperature and cable length do not appear to
cation exchange capacity). have significant effect.
REFERENCES
6 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Brigham, E.O. 1974. The fast Fourier transform. Prentice-
The effect of temperature was investigated by con- Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
sidering a non-dissipative cable, a zero-length probe Dane, J.H. & Topp, G.C., eds. 2002. Methods of soil analy-
head, and As = 0. In this way, the signal losses are only sis. Part 4-Physical Methods. SSSA Books Ser. 5. SSSA
associated with electrical conductivity of free water. Madison, WI, USA.
We considered three different temperatures (T = 0, Gardner, C.M.K., Robinson, D.A., Blyth, K. & Cooper, J.D.
20, and 40◦ C) and a moderately saline pore-water 2001. Soil water content measurement. In K. Smith &
(Table 1). The waveform in air and water at T = C. Mullins (eds), Soil and Environmental Analysis: Phys-
20◦ C was used to calibrate the probe according to ical Methods (Second Edition): 1–64. Marcell Dekker,
Inc., 270 Madison Ave, New York.
Heimovaara (1993). The water content was then Jones, S.B., Wraith, J.M. & Or, D. 2002. Time domain reflec-
derived from travel time analysis using Ledieu’s tometry measurement principles and applications. Hydrol.
Process. 16: 141–153.
0.4 Hasted, J.B. 1973. Aqueous dielectrics. London: Chapman
and Hall.
Heimovaara, T.J. 1993. Design of triple-wire time domain
reflectometry probes in practice and theory. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 57: 1410–1417.
0.3 Heimovaara, T.J. 1994. Frequency domain analysis of TDR
'MEASURED'
170
Lin, C.P. 2003a. Analysis of nonuniform and dispersive time Pozzato, A., Tarantino, A., McCartney, J. & Zornberg, J.
domain reflectometry measurement systems with applica- (Ibid). Effect of dry density on the relationship between
tion to the dielectric spectroscopy of soils. Water Resour. water content and TDR-measured apparent dielectric
Res. 39 DOI:10.1029/2002 WR001418. permittivity in compacted clay. This conference.
Lin, C.P. 2003b. Frequency domain versus travel time anal- Robinson, D.A., Jones, S.B., Wraith, J.M., Or, D. &
yses of TDR waveforms for soil moisture measurement. Friedman, S.P. 2003. A review of advances in dielectric
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 67: 720–729. and electrical conductivity measurement in soils using
Lin, C.-P. & Tang, S.H. 2007. Comprehensive wave propaga- TDR. Vadose Zone Journal 2: 444–475.
tion model to improve TDR interpretation for geotechnical Stogryn, A. 1971. Equations for calculating the dielectric
applications. Geotech. Testing J. 30(2): 90–97. constant of saline water. IEEE Trans Microwave Theory
Ledieu, J., De Ridder, P., De Clerck, P. & Tech 19: 733–736.
Dautrebande, S. 1986. A method of measuring soil mois- Tarantino, A., Ridley, A.M. & Toll, D.G. 2008. Field mea-
ture by time domain reflectometry. Journal of Hydrology. surement of suction, water content, and water permeabil-
88: 319–328. ity. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering. In press.
Noborio, K. 2001. Measurement of soil water content and Topp, G.C., Davis, J.L. & Annan, A.P. 1980. Electromag-
electrical conductivity by TDR: a review. Computers and netic determination of soil water content: Measurements
Electronics in Agriculture. 31: 213–237. in coaxial transmission lines. Water Resour. Res. 16:
O’ Connor, K.M. & Dowding, C.H. 1999. Geomeasurements 574–582.
by pulsing TDR cables and probes. CRC Press.
171
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The paper presents an experimental investigation of the effect of dry density on dielectric apparent
permittivity. It was observed that the effect was not significant, but not negligible for sensitive applications. It is
shown that the effect of dry density can be successfully modeled using a three-phase ‘refractive index’ model.
It is also shown that Topp’s equation can accurately predict water content provided bulk electrical conductivity
is accounted for.
1.8
2 MATERIAL AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION S=
50%
1.7
d
173
specimen 116.4 mm high. Each layer was compacted 3200
reflections in cable tester
which a same target dry density. 2800
Three series of samples were prepared, each with a
2400 cable
different dry density. The dry densities and the gravi-
metric water content of the samples used in the TDR 2000 start of end of
Voltage, mV
waveguide waveguide
measurements are shown in Figure 1.
1600
TRANSIT
1200 TIME
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
800
174
4000
3600 air 0.8
air
3200 0.6 Dt AIR
reflection coefficient,
2800 soil 0.4 water
Voltage, V
Figure 4. Waveforms in air, water, and soil. Figure 6. The Heimovaara interpretation of a TDR wave-
form.
0.2
moving apex
reflection coefficient
175
be equal to the physical length (0.08 m). In this case, The two methods are essentially equivalent. It may be
the time t ∗ was set to zero and tIN is taken at the first concluded that, for this TDR system, the time associ-
waveform valley. ated with the first waveform valley can be successfully
used to identify the beginning of the rods, for cases
when TDR measurements in water and air are not
5 RESULTS available.
The relationship between the apparent permittivity
A comparison between the two procedures used and the volumetric water content for the three series
to determine Ka value is shown in the Figure 7. of samples, which are characterized by nominal dry
densities of 1.4, 1.5, and 1.7 g/cm3 respectively, is
shown in Figure 8. Topp’s equation (Topp et al. 1980)
14 is also plotted as a reference (dotted line).
It can be observed that the higher the dry density
13 ρ d , the higher the apparent permittivity Ka at a given
θV . This is expected because when ρ is increased, the
air (Ka = 1) is replaced by solids having higher dielec-
12
tric permittivity (Ka ∼ 5). Overall, all data are located
Ka (method 1)
10 6 DISCUSSION
7
√ ρREFd + ρd
K − 1= Ks − 1 + ϑ Kw − 1
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ρs
Ka (method 2) (2)
Figure 7. Comparison of the two procedures used to where K denotes the real part of the apparent per-
obtain Ka. mittivity, Ks and Kw are the permittivity of solids and
water, respectively, ρs is the density of solids, ρREFd is
14 a reference bulk dry density and ρd is the variation
of dry density with respect to ρREFd .
as re 1980)
ce
feren
13
ation
176
3.8 a period of time of only 24 ns, which is not enough to
measure the reflection coefficient at t ∼ ∞.
3.6
To extrapolate the recorded waveform to higher
3.4 times, we simulated the waveform according to the
approach presented by Lin (2003) for multi-section
3.2
(Ka') ^ 0.5
a) 0.4
data have significant lower dispersion suggesting that 0.3
90% of risetime
the ‘refractive index’ model adequately captures the reflection coefficient, 0.2
ascending limb
effect of dry density. 0.1
Nonetheless, data are located above Topp‘s equa- 0
tion. We checked whether bulk electrical conductivity –0.1
could explain this discrepancy. In fact, a relative –0.2
10% of risetime
high electrical conductivity tends to increase dielec- –0.3
tric permittivity as shown by the equation of apparent –0.4
tR~0.4ns
permittivity for a sinusoidal plane wave (Von Hippel, b)
1954): 0.1
reflection coefficient,
0 90% of risetime
ε –0.1
εa = (1 + 1 + ((εRELAX + σ/2πfEFF ε0 )/ε )2 ) –0.2 10% of risetime
2
–0.3
(4) –0.4
tR~0.6ns
–0.5
where εa is the measured apparent permittivity, ε and 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
ε are the real and imaginary part of the soil dielectric t [ns]
permittivity, respectively, εo the dielectric permittivity
in the vacuum, σ is the bulk electrical conductivity and Figure 10. Determination of risetime, tR , from the TDR
fEFF is the effective frequency in Hz. waveform using the 10%–90% values in water (a) and soil (b).
The effective frequency fEFF of the signal propa-
gating in water and soil was calculated according to
Strickland (1970) as follows: measured waveform (r D = 1.67gr/cm3, w= 11.94%, qV = 19.9%)
simulated waveform
ln(0.9/0.1) 0.2
fEFF = (5)
2π · tR
reflection coefficient,
0.1
0
where tR can be obtained according to the construction
–0.1
shown in
It was observed that the effective frequency –0.2
decreases from about 800 MHz to 550 MHz from –0.3
water to soil respectively. This signal dispersion is due –0.4
to a non-negligible electrical conductivity. Lower fre- 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11
quency waves are slowed down (see Equation 4, pro- t [ns]
ducing less steep second ascending limb. According
to Topp et al. (1988), the bulk electrical conductivity, Figure 11. Measured (ρs = 2.71 g/cm3 , ρD = 1.67 g/cm3 ,
σa , can be calculated from reflection at t ∼ ∞. Unfor- θV = 0.2) and predicted waveform for soil (As = 66.7,
tunately, waveforms were recorded by the Trase over εfw = 80.2, εs = 5, σbw = 15 S/m, σfw = 1.1 S/m).
177
0.3 3.8
t
0.2 3.6
reflection coefficient
3.4
0.1
3.2
0
(Ka') ^ 0.5
3
0.1
2.8
0.2 Topp's equation
2.6
K'a
0.3 2.4
20 30 40 50 60 t [ns] K'a, corrected
2.2
Figure 12. Simulated reflection coefficient from the plotted 2
reflection at t ∼ infinite. 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
qV measured
solids, εfw = 80.2, εfw = 5, and εs = 5, respectively,
and σfw = 1.1 S/m and σbw = 15 S/m for the electric Figure 13. Apparent permittivity Ka as result of the correc-
conductivity of free water and bound water, respec- tion in term of dry density and bulk electrical conductivity.
tively. The entire simulated waveform was plotted and
the value of the reflection coefficient was determined
as equal to ∼0.2 (Figure 12). ρd and σ (KTOPP in Equation 8) are plotted against
The bulk conductivity, σa , was calculated according volumetric water content θV . It can be observed
to Topp et al. (1988): that the corrected data collapse on Topp’s calibra-
tion curve. This demonstrates again that deviations
1 ε0 cZ0 1 − ρ∞ 1 ε0 cZ0 2V0
σ = ≡ −1 from Topp’s equation occur for dry densities and
Zc L 1 + ρ∞ Zc L VF bulk electrical conductivities outside the range inves-
(6) tigated by Topp et al. (1980). Nonetheless, simple
corrections could be introduced to account for these
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space deviations.
(8.854 · 10−12 F m−1 ), c is the speed of light in a vac-
uum (3 · 108 m s−1 ), L is the probe length (0.08 m),
ρ∞ the reflection coefficient at infinite time (∼0.2), 7 CONCLUSIONS
V0 is the voltage entering the head of the probe, VF
the final voltage recorded by the oscilloscope after all An experimental investigation of the effect of dry
multiple reflections had taken place, Zc is the char- density on dielectric apparent permittivity was carry
acteristic impedance of the cable tester (50 W), and out in this study. It was observed that the effect
Z0 is characteristic impedance of the probe (220 W). was not significant, but not negligible for sensitive
A value of 1dS/m was obtained. applications. The effect of dry density was success-
To account for the effect of electrical conductiv- fully modeled using a three-phase ‘refractive index’
ity on apparent permittivity, the empirical approach model. Nonetheless, the measured permittivity cor-
proposed by Wyseure et al. (1997) was considered: rected for dry density was still underestimated by
Topp’s equation.
Ka = K + 1.432σ (7) We observed a decrease in effective frequency
when measuring the waveform in the soil and we
where σ is the electrical conductivity in dS/m.
inferred the soil had non-negligible electrical con-
If Equation 7 is substituted in Equation 3, the
ductivity. Since the waveform was recorded over a
following equation is obtained:
short period of time that was insufficient to reach
√ 2 steady-state conditions, the waveform was simulated
Ks − 1 to capture the reflection coefficient that would have
KTOPP = Ka − ρd − 1.432 · σ
ρs been recorded at infinite time. This made it possi-
(8) ble to estimate the bulk electrical conductivity and
to further correct the measured Ka using an empiri-
The values of Ka measured using TDR and the cal equation. Topp’s equation was shown to match the
values corrected to account for the combined effect of corrected data.
178
REFERENCES the Accuracy of Permittivity Measurement using Time
Domain reflectometry: Air-water calibration, effects of
Dirksen, C. and Dasberg, S. (1993). Improved calibra- cable length. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 67: 62–70.
tion of time domain reflectometry soil water content Roth, K., Schulin, R., Flühler, H. and Attinger, W. (1990).
measurements. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 57: 660–667. Calibration of TDR for water content measurement
Heimovaara, T.J. 1993. Design of triple-wire time domain using a composite dielectric approach . Water Resources
reflectometry probes in practice and theory. Soil Sci. Soc. Research, 26 (10): 2267–2273.
Am. J., 57: 1410–1417. Strickland, J.A. (1970). Time-domain reflectometry mea-
Lin, C.P. (2003a). Analysis of nonuniform and dispersive surements. Tektronix Inc., Beaverton, Oregon: 11–13.
time domain reflectometry measurement systems with Tarantino, A., Ridley, A.M. and Toll, D. (2008). Field mea-
application to the dielectric spectroscopy of soils. Water surement of suction, water content and water permeability.
Resour. Res. 39. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, in press.
McCartney, J.S. (2007). Determination of the Hydraulic Tarantino, A. and Pozzato, A. (Ibid). Limitations of travel
Characteristics of Unsaturated Soils using a Centrifuge time interpretation of reflection waveform in TDR water
Permeameter. Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas content measurement.
at Austin. Topp, G.C., Yanuka, M., Zebchuk, W.D. and Zegelin, S.
Or, D., VanShaar, T., Fisher, J.R., Hubscher, R.A. and (1988). Determination of Electrical conductivity using
Wraith, J.M. 2002. WinTDR99—Users guide. Utah State TDR: soil and water esperiments in coaxial lines.. Water
University – Plants, Soils & Metereology, Logan, UT. Resources Research, 24(7): 945–952.
Robinson, D.A., Gardner, C.M.K. and Cooper, J.D. (1999). Topp, G.C., Davis, J.L. and Annan, A.P. (1980). Electro-
Measurement of relative permittivity in sandy soils using magnetic determination of soil water content: Measure-
TDR, capacitance and theta probes: comparison, includ- ments in coaxial transmission lines. Water Resour. Res.,
ing the effects of bulk soil electrical conductivity. Journal 16:574–582.
of Hydrology, 223: 198–211. Wyseure, G.C.L., Mojid, M.A. and Malik. (1997). Measure-
Robinson, D.A., Schaap, M., Jones, S.B., Friedman, S.P. and ment of volumetric water content by TDR in saline soils.
Gardner, C.M.K. (2003b). Considerations for Improving European. Journal of Soil Science, 48: 347–354.
179
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
R. Becker
IMKO Micromodultechnik GmbH, Ettlingen, Germany
A. Scheuermann
Institute for Soil Mechanics and Rock Mechanics, University of Karlsruhe (TH), Germany
S. Schlaeger
Schlaeger Mathematical Solutions & Engineering, Horn, Bad Meinberg, Germany
C. Huebner
University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
N. Wagner
Institute of Material Research and Testing (MFPA) at the Bauhaus University Weimar, Germany
ABSTRACT: Monitoring of transient soil moisture profiles yields valuable insight into soil hydraulic pro-
cesses. A recently developed reconstruction algorithm allows deriving water content profiles along extended
moisture probes from Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) signals. Based on inverse modelling of the wave
propagation along a transmission-line the algorithm calculates electrical parameter distributions. The method
named Spatial TDR will be explained and the accuracy as well as the spatial and temporal resolution defining
the possibilities and limitations of the procedure will be presented on practical examples.
181
oscilloscope pulse generator
incident
signal
voltage
reflected
coaxial cable signal
182
Figure 5. The simplified moisture probe model consist-
ing of bulk electronic parts. Above: coated 3-rod-probe
as an example for a moisture probe (TDR waveguide);
Figure 4. TDR-signals measured at a flat band cable, half below: infinitesimal section of an equivalent circuit of the
of the cable is located in saturated soil. transmission line.
183
3.2 Empirical relationship between capacitance as a probe specific calibration which can be eas-
and effective conductance ily solved for ε with the constant capacitances C1
and C2 :
The wave equation (1) needs two parameter distribu-
tions C (x) and G (x). These parameter distributions
could be found simultaneously by inverse modeling, 1/C (ε) = 1/(ε · C1 ) + 1/C2 (3)
if two independent TDR measurements were available
for the same moisture probe, which is best possible The rods of the 3-rod-probe presented here consist of
with probes connected from both sides (double sided). stainless steel cores of 6 mm diameter with a 1 mm
Those kinds of probes can be constructed using flat thick PVC coating. The rods are 30 mm apart. They
band cables, which are frequently in use for monitor- are screwed into the probe head which connects them
ing purposes with elongated probes in earth structures to a 50 Ohms coaxial cable.
like dikes (cf. Scheuermann et al. 2008, Huebner et al. According to the equations (1) and (3) it is neces-
2005). sary to get the three parameters C1 , C2 and L for the
In case of single sided probes it is reasonable to rod probe. This can be done empirically by TDR pulse
assume a relationship between C (x) and G (x), since propagation velocities vi = v (εi ) measured for two dif-
both parameters are linked by soil moisture: higher ferent media with well known dielectric permittivities
water content leads to higher dielectric permittivity ε 1 and ε 2 , respectively. The pulse propagation velocity
and higher conductivity. The following relationship is along the coated probe rods is:
proposed:
G (C ) v(ε) = 1/ L · C (ε) (4)
G∞ · (1−exp(−(C −C0 )/Cd ), if C ≥ C0 ,
= The pulse velocity is determined empirically by
0, if 0 ≤ C ≤ C0 .
measuring the time between the two main reflections
(2) in the TDR reflectogram. Combining equation (4)
with (3) for the two materials one yields:
The parameters G∞
, C0 and Cd can be determined
by soil and probe dependent calibrations. C1 = (ε2 − ε1 )/(ε2 ε1 (v12 − v22 ) · L ) and
C2 = (ε2 − ε1 )/((ε2 v22 − ε1 v12 )
·L) (5)
3.3 From capacitance to dielectric permittivity
To derive the volumetric water content profile θ (x) the The rod impedance Z can be used to get L :
dielectric permittivity profile ε(x) of the soil/water/air
mixture has to be extracted from the capacitance
profile C (x) first. For the design of a simple mois- Z(ε) = L /C (ε) (6)
ture probe (cf. Figure 6) it is possible to find
analytically a convenient parametric form for C (ε) The impedance mismatch between coaxial cable
and probe rods leads to a partial reflection of the inci-
dent excitation pulse. The amplitude of incident and
reflected signal are denoted by AI and AR , respectively.
Then the reflection coefficient yields:
184
3.4 From dielectric permittivity to water content Figure 7 displays the TDR reflectograms simulated
with MWS and reconstructed by the Spatial TDR algo-
The second step performs the transition from dielec-
rithm. The predefined and reconstructed soil moisture
tric permittivity to water content based on the phase
profile for the sequence wet/moist/dry is shown in
fractions of the soil solid particles, water and air. An
Figure 8. Two cases were realized: one with and
empirical relationship between ε and θ often used in
the other without consideration of ionic conductivity
TDR applications was found by Topp (1980). For the
σ (lossy and lossless case). Although the difference
presented example a more simple but also less general
between simulated and measured TDR reflectogram
empirical formula was found derived from laboratory
is very small, the deviation in the moisture profile can
experiments with a loamy sand:
be quite large.
Moisture state
185
transient soil moisture profiles under irrigation with
high spatial and temporal resolution (Becker 2004,
Scheuermann et al. 2008).
186
correct installation of probes in soils plays a decisive
role for the accuracy of the measurement results. The
examples show clearly the functional capability of
Spatial TDR for the measurement of water content
distributions.
REFERENCES
187
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
C. Huebner
University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
R. Becker
IMKO Micromodultechnik GmbH, Ettlingen, Germany
S. Schlaeger
Schlaeger Mathematical Solutions & Engineering, Horn, Bad Meinberg, Germany
N. Wagner
Institute of Material Research and Testing (MFPA) at the Bauhaus University Weimar, Germany
ABSTRACT: Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is a widely-used tool for the point-wise determination of
water contents in soils, especially in hydrology and soil-physics. Another well-known field of application of
TDR is the observation of deformation processes in soils or rocks. The development of Spatial TDR offers new
fruitful possibilities in geohydraulics and geotechnics. With Spatial TDR it is possible to determine physical
properties of the soil along elongated transmission lines. The paper presents completed and ongoing research
projects in which the determination of the spatial and temporal evolution of state variables like water content
and pressure play an important role.
1 INTRODUCTION (e.g. Long et al. 2002) and also for the determination
of soil hydraulic properties (e.g. Heathman & McAfee
The hydraulic and the mechanical behavior of unsatu- 2006). TDR is also well-known in geotechnical mon-
rated soils depend on several state variables. Firstly itoring for the shear zone localization, e.g. in rock
water content and suction should be named, which masses (Dowding et al. 1989) as well as in landslides
are both connected to each other via the soil water (Kane et al. 2001). In this regard the accuracy of the
retention curve. Others are the soil density and the so-called TDR extensometers is better than ±0.5 mm.
stresses involving deformations preferentially along With the development of Spatial TDR, for the first
shear zones. For the safety assessment of earth struc- time it is possible to determine the spatial distribu-
tures the experienced geotechnical engineer has to rely tion e.g. of water contents for practical purposes along
on quantitative information on the spatial as well as elongated transmission lines. An introduction to the
temporal evolution of these state variables. Spatial TDR procedure is given in Schlaeger (2005)
The electromagnetic measurement method Time and Becker et al. (2008).
Domain Reflectometry (TDR) offers different helpful In this paper the use of Spatial TDR as a moni-
solutions for the observation of these state variables. toring system for dams and dykes is presented first.
The most well known application of TDR is the mea- Another major application is the measurement of
surement of water content at a single point, for example moisture in small catchment areas in order to improve
for the monitoring of landfill covers (e.g. Schofield flood forecasting. Finally, a novel application of TDR
2001). Furthermore, water content measurements with is presented to determine the spatial distribution of
TDR on a field scale are used for intensive sampling mechanical pressure along transmission lines.
189
2 MONITORING OF DAMS AND DYKES
190
Figure 6. Plan of the measurement site at the river Unstrut
in Thuringia, Germany.
Figure 4. Moisture distribution inside the dyke on the 31st distribution inside the dyke, which is characteristic
May 2002 with precursory meteorology over 16 days. for the previous hydrologic events. Furthermore, the
investigations on the dyke model have shown that the
transient seepage is influenced considerably by the ini-
tial moisture content inside the dyke. Due to these
findings, it confirms that Spatial TDR can be used to
develop a monitoring system for river dykes, which
can also be adapted to other embankments or earth
structures like slopes.
In cooperation with the Institute of Material
Research and Testing (MFPA) at the Bauhaus Univer-
sity in Weimar, two measurement systems have been
installed in real dykes along the river Unstrut and the
river Elbe. Along the river Elbe one dyke section is
monitored on 6 cross-sections over a distance of 250 m.
The smaller measuring location on the Unstrut (cf.
Fig. 6) can be used as a reference object, since flood
events can be artificially initiated using a water retain-
ing structure. This project is being carried out within
the national research program ‘‘Risk management of
Figure 5. Moisture situation inside the dyke on the 26th
March 2001 with precursory meteorology over 16 days. extreme flood events—RIMAX’’.
content primarily increased within a certain depth from 3 MOISTURE SENSING IN HYDROLOGY
the dyke surface, forming an area in the middle of the
dyke cross-section, which is almost unchanged with 3.1 Lysimeter investigations
respect to the water content compared to the rather Especially in small catchments, the development of
dry situation shown in Figure 4. One explanation for flooding depends on the initial moisture situation
this observation is the lateral movement of water in the within the catchment area due to a reduced storage
wet zone, which occurs frequently in combination with capacity of the soil. The moisture distribution in the
fingering effects. During a precipitation experiment, top few decimeters is decisive for surface runoff gener-
observations were made indicating such phenomena ation. To investigate the development of water content
(Scheuermann & Bieberstein 2007). distribution near the top surface 3-rod-probes were
developed and tested using Spatial TDR (Becker 2004,
Becker et al. 2008).
2.3 Monitoring system for real dykes
In order to test the suitability of Spatial TDR for
The long-term measurements on the full-scale dyke the observation of the small-scale variability of water
model have proven that the preliminary hydrologi- content distributions, infiltration experiments were
cal and meteorological events lead to a water content conducted in a lysimeter (Fig. 7).
191
The soil used for the experiments was a silty on the right in Figure 8 shows a more or less continu-
sand with a saturated hydraulic conductivity of kf ≈ ous infiltration of water into the sample. The moisture
10−5 m/s. The artificial precipitation was achieved front passed the end of the probe after 180 min.
using a spray nozzle bar. For comparative purposes In contrast, the temporal evolution of the moisture
additional moisture measuring devices were included profile on the left of Figure 8 shows completely dif-
in the lysimeter. ferent temporal behavior. After 60 min. the infiltration
Figure 8 shows the results of water content pro- seemed to stop at a depth of about 10 to 12 cm. After
file measurements at two different 3-rod-probes during 180 min. the profile evolution indicated horizontal
an infiltration experiment. Since deliberate inhomo- water movement. Only the combination of measure-
geneities were included in the sample in the lysimeter ment results from several probes provides a good basis
the moisture profiles show different temporal evo- for the assessment of water movements.
lutions. At time step 0 both moisture profiles show
disturbances, most probably due to differences in the
3.2 In situ application
density within the soil sample. These disturbances
were persistent over the whole experiment. The graph A first in situ application of the system was carried out
at the Goldersbach catchment near Tübingen (Figs. 9
and 10). In this case 46 2-rod-probes were installed.
The aim of this application was to measure the exten-
sion of a saturation zone both horizontally as well
as vertically. An ephemeral creek divides the mea-
surement site, which is dominated by podzolic soils.
Figure 7. Lysimeter holding 1 m3 of soil. 1: tubular steel Figure 9. Interpolated soil moisture distribution on two dif-
frame, 2: soil; 3: probe connecting coaxial cables; 4: probe ferent measurement dates registered at 46 2-rod-probes. Dark
multiplexer; 5: spray nozzle bar; 6 and 7: additional small- grey: wet, light grey: dry condition. A cross-section along the
scale moisture measuring devices. black line is given in Figure 10.
Figure 8. Water content profiles measured at two 3-rod- Figure 10. Water content distribution in the cross-section
probes during an. infiltration experiment lasting 360 min. along the black line shown in Figure 9.
192
The TDR measurements were reconstructed yielding
water content profiles along the 60 cm long 2-rod-
probes. For a quasi three-dimensional soil moisture
distribution, the results were interpolated between the
probes.
Figure 9 shows a two-dimensional map of the aver-
age moisture for a dry (A) and wet (B) condition. The
growth of the zone of high average water content is evi-
dent. An example of a vertical cross-section through
the soil is given in Figure 10. A wet zone in the deeper
soil regions can be clearly seen.
4 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE PROFILES Figure 12. Measured and reconstructed TDR reflections for
profile measurements of buckled steel strips.
4.1 Laboratory experiments
Many applications in geotechnical engineering require
the knowledge of total pressure distributions. A novel
sensor makes it possible to determine pressure pro-
files from Spatial TDR data. The design of the sensor
is based on a rubber-insulated transmission line. Due
to mechanical forces, the distance between the conduc-
tors of the transmission line is changed, which leads
to a spatial distribution of the capacitance and induc-
tance of the sensor properties. The resulting partial
reflections of an incident step pulse are used to recon-
struct the physical parameter distributions. Detailed
information on the reconstruction algorithm are given
in Scheuermann & Hübner (2008).
The reconstruction procedure was validated in
a simplified laboratory experiment. Steel strips Figure 13. Measured and reconstructed distances between
(20.5 mm in width and 1.1 mm thick) were used as the conductors for the profile measurement.
conductors for a 102 cm long transmission line (see
Figure 11). The TDR signal was launched at a distance
of 1 cm from the end of the strips into the transmission The validation of the reconstruction algorithm
line. In this way, the actual length available during a is conducted with TDR-measurements, which are
TDR-measurement was reduced to 101 cm. The steel recorded for different profiles of the steel strip dis-
strips were bent at regular intervals of 25 cm. Thus four tances. Figure 12 shows an example of a measured
areas were adjusted at a more or less constant distance. reflected signal (solid line) of a profile and its
The transmission line was calibrated by means of reconstruction (dashed line). The calibration function
TDR measurements with even steel strips, in order to mentioned is used to determine the distance between
obtain a calibration function between conductor dis- the conductors from the inversely adjusted capacitance
tance and capacitance. The results of the test were profile (cf. Fig. 13).
verified by numerical calculations (Scheuermann & When compared, the reconstructed and measured
Hübner 2008). distance profiles agree satisfactorily. The overshoot
at steep edges and other deviations can be attributed
to the spatial resolution of 2.5 cm of the algorithm,
timing/amplitude errors in the TDR instrument, end
capacitance effects and other non-ideal properties of
the transmission line.
193
to minimize outer influences on the electromagnetic
field (cf. Fig. 14). The aim of the investigations with
the prototype design is to demonstrate the general use
of this measurement technique under real conditions.
In order to prove the spatial sensitivity for the
localisation of pressure changes, simple experiments
were conducted with a sensor of the prototype design
113 cm in length. For this purpose, the sensor was
placed in a loading frame. The sensor was loaded at
Figure 14. Diagram of the prototype sensor. four different positions using flat weights and rigid
polystyrene blocks to distribute the load over a specific
section (20 cm). The step-wise load at the different
positions was achieved with weights of 10 kg each.
After each load step TDR measurements were con-
ducted from both sides of the sensor, which increases
the information content of a measurement for each
load condition. Figure 15 shows the evolution of the
TDR traces for every load condition of the loading
phase. The initial condition without load (0 0 0 0)
forms the upper border of the graph. With every load
step the TDR trace changes due to the changing capaci-
tance respectively due to the changing impedance. The
resulting difference forms an area which is highlighted
in a grey colour (cf. legend top right).
The photo shows the load conditions 10 30 20 10.
The top graph shows the TDR measurements from
position 1 and the graph in the middle the measure-
ments from position 4. The bottom graph shows the
differences of the superposed TDR traces compared
to the initial condition.
The evolution of the TDR traces shows clearly the
changes of the conductor distance due to the mechan-
ical load. In contrast to the distinct changes in the
distances on the profiled transmission line presented
above, the changes in the distance are smoother, which
can be also seen in the evolution of the TDR traces. In
particular, the presentation of the differences implies
a parabola like distribution of the distances below the
polystyrene blocks at each load position.
5 CONCLUSIONS
194
corresponding controlling software (cf. Becker 2004, Reflectometry for soil moisture determination. In Klaus
Hübner et al. 2005). Kupfer (ed.), Electromagnetic Aquametry: 317–347.
Although the observation of the unsaturated water Springer.
movement is still the major field of application, other Kane, W.F., Beck, T.J. & Hughes, J.J. 2001. Applications of
applications—especially in geotechnics—are under Time Domain Reflectometry to landslide and slope moni-
toring. TDR 2001, Proc. http://www.iti.northwestern.edu/
development, such as the measurement of pressure tdr2001/proceedings.
distribution. Long, D.S., Wraith, J.M. & Kegel, G. 2002. A heavy-
duty Time Domain Reflectometry soil moisture probe for
use in intensive field sampling. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.
REFERENCES 66:396–401.
Scheuermann, A. & Bieberstein, A. 2006. Monitoring of dams
Becker, R. 2004. Spatial Time Domain Reflectometry for anddikes—watercontentdeterminationusingTimeDomain
Monitoring Transient Moisture Profiles. Ph. D. thesis, Reflectometry (TDR). 13. Danube European Conference
Inst. for Water and River Basin Management, Univ. of on Geotechnical Engineering: Ljubljana, Slovenia, Mai
Karlsruhe. 29–31, 2006, ISBN 961-90043-8-8, 2: 493–498.
Becker, R., Scheuermann, A., Schlaeger, S., Hübner, C. & Scheuermann, A. & Bieberstein, A. 2007. Preferential water
Wagner, N. 2008. Spatial Time Domain Reflectometry movement in homogeneous soils. Proc. Int. Symposium
(Spatial TDR)—Principles, limitations and accuracy. First on Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils, March 7–9, Weimar,
European Conference on unsaturated soils; Proc. First 461–473.
European Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Durham. Scheuermann, A. & Hübner, C. 2008. On the feasibility of
Dowding, C.H., Su, M.B. & O’Connor, K. 1989. Measure- pressure profile measurements with Time Domain Reflec-
ment of rock mass deformations with grouted coaxial tometry (TDR). IEEE Trans. Instr. Meas. (accepted).
antenna cables. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Schlaeger, S. 2005. A fast TDR-inversion technique for the
22:1–23. reconstruction of spatial soil moisture content. Hydrology
Heathman, G.C. & McAfee, J. 2006. Measuring soil and Earth System Sciences 9: 481–492.
hydraulic properties using dielectric sensors. TDR 2006, Schofield, T.G. 2001. Long-term stability of Time Domain
Purdue University, Proc. https://engineering.purdue.edu/ Reflectometry measurements in a multi-layer field exper-
TDR/Papers. iment. TDR 2001, Proc. http://www.iti.northwestern.edu/
Huebner, C., Schlaeger, S., Becker, R., Scheuermann, tdr2001/proceedings.
A., Brandelik, A., Schaedel, W. & Schuhmann, R.
2005. Advanced measurement methods in Time Domain
195
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
A. Scheuermann
Institute for Soil Mechanics and Rock Mechanics, University of Karlsruhe (TH), Germany
ABSTRACT: The unsteady movement of water frequently involves so-called ‘‘dynamic effects’’. So far, most
investigations regarding these effects have been mainly focused on the drainage processes starting from full
saturation, which represents only one aspect concerning questions on dynamic effects. The contribution presents
measurements obtained during laboratory and in situ experiments revealing new aspects of these effects in
conjunction with infiltration and alternating hydraulic stresses.
Dynamic effects in connection with multi-phase or The soil used in the experiments was a well graded
unsaturated water flow have been observed many times sand with grain sizes between 0.2 and 2 mm. The
in experimental investigations, which generally arise densities of the sand in both experiments were simi-
as temporarily delayed changes in the water content lar corresponding to a density index Dr = (nmax − n)/
(Topp et al. 1967) or in the outflow (Hollenbeck & (nmax −nmin ) ≈ 0.6 with porosity n of the material, the
Jensen 1998). maximum being nmax and the minimum nmin . Based
However, most of the experiments conducted were on this density index, the pore constriction size distri-
not designed especially to investigate these effects. bution of the sand was calculated using a numerical
They were carried out in order to verify Richards’ method (cf. Scheuermann et al. 2008). Both the grain
equation (Biggar & Taylor 1960), to investigate the size and the pore constriction size distributions are
soil properties affecting soil water characteristics shown in Figure 1.
(Elzeftawy & Mansell 1975) or to determine the With regard to the well graded distribution of the
parameters describing the soil water characteristic grain size as well as the distribution of the pore con-
curve (Wildenschild et al. 2001). An overview of striction size, the soil water retention curve of the sand
experiments showing dynamic effects is given by
Hassanizadeh et al. (2002).
These experimental investigations clearly show
that dynamic effects are significant in both granular
and fine-grained soils in drainage and infiltration.
However, in the literature (cf. Wildenschild et al.
2001, Hassanizadeh et al. 2002) the mechanisms
discussed as being the cause of these dynamic
effects are focussed mainly on drainage. The possi-
ble mechanisms for the occurrence of dynamic effects
during infiltration or even for cyclic hydraulic con-
ditions, i.e. the alternate infiltration and drainage
of water, have not been investigated in detail
so far.
In the following, measurement results are presented,
which were observed in the laboratory using column
test apparatus. In situ experiments on a full-scale dyke Figure 1. Grain size and pore constriction size distribution
model are also shown. of the well graded sand used for the experiments.
197
Figure 2. Primary drainage und main wetting curve of the
sand with fitting curves using the model acc. to Mualem
(1976).
Figure 4. Diagram of the column test apparatus with the
measuring devices used.
198
possible, thus describing the transient changes of the Table 1. Mechanic load, deformation and stored water after
hydraulic conditions inside the soil sample. each hydraulic cyle.
199
Figure 6. Time-variation of the mean volumetric water
content along the soil sample measured at different load
stages.
200
The matric potential readings at tensiometer 2 are
presented in the central graph on the left. Here both
negative and positive pore water pressures are included
in the graph. The corresponding water con-tents at this
location are presented in the lower graph on the right.
A mean volumetric water content is calculated from
the Spatial TDR measurements over a range of 2 cm
on the elevation of tensiometer 2.
By combining the matric suction readings and vol-
umetric water contents, the graph in the centre on
the right with the white background can be taken
as a kind of soil water retention curve, whereby ‘a
kind of ’ merely highlights the fact that also positive
matric potential readings are included here. Finally
the graph shows the relationship between pore water Figure 9. Step-wise increase in the water content inside the
pressure and water content as a closed hysteresis soil sample with repeated infiltration of water (measurements
loop. For comparative purposes the quasi-static soil at tensiometer 2).
water retention curve from Figure 2 is included in the
graph.
As can be seen from the graph, neither result not even correspond to a saturation degree of S =
can really be compared with the other. For exam- 25%, and the highest volumetric water content mea-
ple, the primary drainage curve (grey triangles) is sured in this experiment was roughly θ = 18 vol-%
located above the transient drainage curve (black (S = 50%). Although these degrees of saturation
rhombuses). Earlier experimental investigations (cf. are quite small, it is perfectly conceivable that posi-
Hassanizadeh et al. 2002, Mohamed & Sharma 2007) tive matric potentials could occur, since both the air
have shown, that the curve for dynamic conditions and water phases form continuous phases during these
should be located above the quasi-static curve and not degrees of saturation.
conversely. Both values (water content at loss of suction and
The reason for this contradiction lies on the one maximum water content) increased from cycle to cycle
hand in the densities of the samples. The quasi-static with repeated infiltration and drainage of the sam-
water retention curve was measured with a density ple, indicating an accumulation of water. Under the
index Dr ≈ 0.95 under very dense conditions, whereas supposition that the hydraulic boundary conditions
the density index of the sample in the column was remain constant, it can be expected that with addi-
Dr ≈ 0.6. On the other hand, the quasi-static drainage tional hydraulic cycles a limit cycle would be reached,
curve was determined starting at full saturation. The leading to a constant hysteresis loop. This kind of
highest saturation during the transient experiment in pumping effect was also qualitatively ob-served in
the column was circa 80%. column experiments with clayey material (Delov &
Nevertheless, the infiltration curve especially Diankov 1998).
shows distinctive devolution influenced by the tran- One possible explanation for this observation is
ient or dynamic boundary conditions. The loss of based on the sintered porous glass plate at the lower end
negative matric potential happens at a volumetric water of the sample. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of
content of circa θ = 17 vol-%, which corresponds to the glass plate at kf = 2.5 · 10−6 m/s is roughly 100-
a saturation of not even S = 50%. For this reason, the times smaller than the hydraulic conductivity of the
soil water retention curve of the column experiment sand. Nevertheless, in a dry condition the sand strives
is located considerably below the quasi-static curve. to soak up water. If during infiltration a degree of satu-
Another impressive effect caused by dynamic—and in ration is reached, which is high enough to transport the
special cases cyclic—hydraulic boundary conditions water upwards for the existing hydraulic gradients, the
is given in Figure 9. It shows the soil water retention water content should stay constant. It can be expected
curves for all hydraulic cycles conducted with in col- that primarily small pore-channels will be activated in
umn test apparatus. As can be seen from the graph, the such a process.
soil water retention curves reflect the same cumulative The subsequent drainage of the sample leads to an
response as indicated by the stored water volume (cf. incomplete desaturation of the sand and some pores
Table 1) or by the mean volumetric water contents of remain filled with water. During subsequent infiltra-
Figure 6. tion under the existing conditions (hydraulic gradient
The volumetric water content of the 1st hydraulic and initial saturation of the sample) further pore-
cycle is particularly surprising, when the negative channels are activated and more water can flow into
matric potential was lost. At circa θ = 9 vol-% it does the sample.
201
This explanation is just a hypothesis for the observa-
tion presented, which needs to be verified in controlled
experimental investigations. Nevertheless, the obser-
vations in the column experiments demonstrate a new
aspect concerning dynamic effects. Even if the abso-
lute values of the water con-tent measurements may
be inexact, the relative changes are given and they
are significant. Confirmation of these observations is
given in the next section, in which measurements in a
full-scale dyke model are presented.
REFERENCES
202
Biggar, J.W. & Taylor S.A. 1960. Some aspects of the kinetics Mualem, Y. (1976). Hysteretical models for prediction of
of moisture flow into unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media.
Proc. 24: 81–85. Water Resour. Res. 12(6): 1248–1254.
Delov, K. & Diankov, Z. 1998. Einfluss des Lufanteiles Scheuermann, A., Bieberstein, A., Triantafyllidis,Th.,
auf die Hysteresisparameter bei der Bodenbewaesserung. Huebner, C., Becker, R, Schlaeger, S. & Wagner, N. 2008.
Dresdner Wasserbauliche Mitteilungen, Inst. f. Wasserbau Spa-tial Time Domain Reflectometry (Spatial TDR)—On
und Techn. Hydrom., TU Dresden, 13: 391–400. the use in geotechnics and geohydraulics. Proc. First
Elzeftawy, A. & Mansell, R.S. 1975. Hydraulic conductivity European Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Durham.
calculations for unsaturated steady-state and transient- Scheuermann, A., et al. 2003. Column test apparatus for
state flow in sand. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 39: 599–603. the inverse estimation of soil hydraulic parameters under
Hassanizadeh, S.M., Celia, M.A. & Dahle, H.K. 2002. de-fined stress condition. ISBN 3-540-21121-7, Springer,
Dynamic effect in the capillary pressure-saturation Ber-lin, 33–44.
relation-ship and its impacts on unsaturated flow. Vadose Topp, G.C, Klute, A. & Peters, D.B. 1967. Comparison of
Zone J. 1: 38–57. water content-pressure head data obtained by equilibrium,
Hollenbeck, K.J. & Jensen, K.H. 1998. Experimental evi- steady-state, and unsteady-state methods. Soil Sci. Soc.
dence of randomness and nonuniqueness in unsaturated Am. Proc. 31: 312–314.
outflow experiments designed for hydraulic parameter Wildenschild, D., Hopmans, J.W. & Šimů,nek. 2001. Flow
estimation. Water Resour. Res. 34: 595–602. rate dependence of soil hydraulic characteristics. Soil Sci.
Mohammed, M.H.A. & Sharma, R.S. 2007. Role of Soc. Am. J. 65: 35–48.
dynamic flow in relationships between suction head and
degree of saturation. J. of Geot. and Geoenviron. Engin.
133: 286–294.
203
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: A high capacity tensiometer has been developed at the University of Napoli Federico II that
allows substitution of the High Air Entry Value (HAEV) filter and, hence, the variation of the probe measurement
range and response time. The device has been also designed to allow initial saturation without removal from
the high vacuum temperature-controlled pre-conditioning chamber. Regardless of the HAEV filter (5 bar and
15 bar), the probe has been saturated under a saturation pressure of 800 kPa and then calibrated applying positive
pressure values. To evaluate the performance of the tensiometer free evaporation tests, prolonged high suction
measurements and pressure reversal tests were carried out. The tensiometer layout, the pre-conditioning setup
and the saturation process are described in the paper. The results obtained during some preliminary tests are also
presented and discussed.
205
cavitation nucleus, that brings an unstable system to a cycles of cavitation and pressurization increases until
new equilibrium condition through a process of phase it levels-off at an upper limit.
transition by heterogeneous density fluctuations. Cav-
itation may be triggered at the site of microscopic
1.2 Direct suction measurement: previous studies
heterogeneities in the liquid, such as suspended dirt
particles, gas micro-bubbles, etc. (i.e. heterogeneous As mentioned, many studies considering direct suc-
nucleation), or it may arise randomly in the liquid itself tion measurements with high capacity tensiometers
(i.e. homogeneous nucleation) if the required condi- have been published. Table 1 summarizes some basic
tions of pressure and temperature exists. In nature information on the type of HAEV filter, assembly
and in technical applications heterogeneous nucleation method, etc. used by various Authors. All these stud-
is the most common trigger of cavitation. If suffi- ies seem to indicate that the design of a tensiometer
cient numbers of ‘‘nucleation sites’’ of sufficient size is crucially important as it influences its robustness,
are present, when a liquid is subjected to a pressure sensitivity, ease of saturation, speed of response, and
reduction the liquid will become vapor and cavitation cavitation resistance (Take & Bolton 2003). Equally
rapidly occurs. On the contrary, if no nucleation site is clear is that the design of appropriate saturation setups
present, the depressurization of the liquid may lead to and procedures is also critical.
a metastable state down the theoretical isotherm, since With reference to the probe design, previous
imperfections may cause instability and transition to experience recognizes the important role of the water
the vapor phase. reservoir volume, as this is in direct contact with
In the particular case of high capacity tensiometers, the internal area of the diaphragm. In particular it
even if pure water is used, a weakness will still exist in is generally recognized that the use of water reser-
the microscopic bubbles of gas present in crevices at voirs as small as possible will reduce the probability
the water-solid contact (Brennen 1995) (i.e. at the con- of cavitation (Ridley & Burland 1993; Marinho &
tact between the water and the reservoir), and inside the Pinto 1997). In particular, Guan & Fredlund (1999)
water filling the pores of the HAEV filter. To under- suggested that there is a cavitation tension for a par-
stand how this weakness may be reduced, the crevice ticular pre-pressurization procedure and a particular
model proposed by Harvey et al. (1944) may be help- suction probe. Ridley & Burland (1999) found, on
ful. As a matter of fact, this model establishes that if the contrary, that for a thoroughly saturated suction
a small volume of gas is trapped in minute crevices at probe the stress required to cause a tension breakdown
the contact between the water and a solid, the appli- in the reservoir water is uniquely related to the AEV
cation of an appropriate water tension may cause the of the filter.
expansion of the gas until the bubble stability is lost Most of these probes can stand very high values
and uncontrollable expansion occurs. In this situa- of suction but, as Take & Bolton (2003) mentioned,
tion it is likely that the bubble will move from the there are many applications where small suction values
solid-liquid surface into the liquid and will dissolve (i.e. 300 kPa) are of interest. This implies the require-
if a new pressurization stage is applied (Atchley & ment for sensitive lower-pressure-range devices that
Prosperetti 1989). A higher water tension is now nec- are likely to be damaged when a high pressure is
essary to cause the expansion of the micro-bubble that applied.
remains within crevice (Harvey et al. 1944), though, According to the previously described crevice
in water, microbubbles of air seem to persist almost model, Tarantino & Mongiovì (2001) observed that
indefinitely and are almost impossible to remove com- saturation of the ceramic filter is achieved mainly
pletely (Brennen 1995). All the above suggests that through cycles of cavitation and subsequent pressuri-
subjecting a high capacity tensiometer to cycles of high zation, and that an inadequate initial saturation simply
depressurization and high pressurization may improve increases the number of cycles required to obtain
its saturation, reducing the size of heterogeneous cav- a satisfactory performance of the probe. Contrarily,
itation nuclei by extracting ‘‘air fractions’’ from the Guan & Fredlund (1999) indicated that repeated cavi-
cavities and dissolving them in the water. tation of the sensor appeared to reduce the maximum
Trevena (1982) summaries the experimental results sustainable tension. Finally, Chiu et al. (2005) and
reported in the literature regarding the effects of time Lourenço et al. (2006) show unclear evidence to sup-
in cavitation. Their conclusions can be outlined as: port the hypothesis of an increase of cavitation suction
a) if the nucleation site is the solid surface, the break- with cycles of cavitation and pressurization. In sum-
ing tension decreases as the pressure rate increases mary, after Marinho & Chandler (1994), the main
with time; b) when the cavitation starts in the liquid requirements to avoid cavitation in the measurement
itself, the breaking tension increases as the stressing system and improve the ability to measure negative
rate increases; c) the longer the time of pressurization water pressure seems to be: a) water and all surfaces
the greater is the tension needed for cavitation; d) the within the measurement system must be pure and clean
breaking tension increases steadily as the number of (Henderson & Speedy 1980), b) the surfaces in contact
206
Table 1. Saturation process data used in previous studies.
Ridley & Burland (1999) 15 dry yes (60 min) 4000 (24 h) no
Guan & Fredlund (1997) 15 under water no 12000 (1 h) yes (6 cycles)
Tarantino & Mongiovì (2002) 15 dry yes 4000 (24 h) no
Meilani et al. (2002) 5 dry no 800 (4 days) no
Take & Bolton (2003) 3 oven dried yes (20 min) 1000 (1 h) yes
Chiu et al. (2005) 5 dry yes (60 min) 700 (24 h) no
He et al. (2006) 5 dry or saturated no 2000 (1 month) no
Lourenço et al. (2006) 15 dry yes 800 (72 h) no
Mahler & Diene (2007) 5, 15 dry yes (15 h) higher than filter AEV yes
207
Table 2. Characteristics corresponding to a maximum
applied pressure of 2000 kPa.
3 SATURATION SYSTEM
208
4.2 Evaporation tests
Evaporation tests were performed to determine the
maximum measurable suction. The maximum suction
values registered are 450 kPa (Fig. 6a) and 720 kPa
(Fig. 6b) when 5 bar and 15 bar filters were used
respectively. For the 5 bar filter the maximum value
registered was approximately the expected one (i.e.
≈500 kPa). This implies that the saturation process
for this AEV seems to have worked properly. However,
the maximum suction obtained for the 15 bar filter was
almost one half of the expected value, but very near
to the pre-pressurization pressure applied during the
Figure 5. Long time suction measurements on soil samples. saturation process (i.e. 800 kPa). It is worth noting
that Figure 6 indicates that, on cavitation, the pressure
increases to −100 kPa, indicating good accuracy of
time response, its ability to stand high suctions for a
the probe’s calibration.
long time and to roughly verify the calibration data.
Table 3 presents the values of suction measured at
The data presented in Figure 5 were obtained using a
cavitation when the 15 bar filter is used. According
15 bar filter. Similar results were obtained when a 5 bar
to Tarantino & Mongiovì (2001), the data in Table 3
filter was used. The equilibration time of the tensiome-
seem to indicate that an enhanced saturation of the
ter was examined using silty-sand. Matric suctions of
ceramic filter is achieved through cycles of cavitation
200, 250 and 350 kPa were generated in different sam-
and subsequent pressurization. Moreover, according
ples of this material using a modified Wisa oedometer
to Trevena (1982) the upper limit of the tensiometer
working under the axis translation technique. Matric
is of about 645 kPa. Obviously, if a probe is satu-
suction of the sample was then measured dismounting
rated at its upper limit the cycles of cavitation will
the oedometer, putting the sample to the atmospheric
not improve the probe’s performance. However higher
pressure and using the UNINA probe. A thin layer of
pre-pressurization pressures may improve its response.
the soil paste was used to improve contact between
Then, analogous to observations by Atchley &
the soil sample and the miniature tensiometer. Dur-
Prosperetti (1989) in their crevice model of bubble
ing the tests the samples remained isolated to avoid
large suction changes associated with environmental
conditions.
The observed trend of matric suction with time may
be subdivided into three parts and explained following
Guan & Fredlund (1999). In Part I, a sudden increase
of readings is observed to reach suction values slightly
less than those expected on the basis of the suction
applied by the axis translation technique. Afterward,
in Part II of the tests, a slow process of suction equal-
ization is observed. In Part III, following a period in
which the suctions are almost constant at the expected
values, slow increases in the tensions are observed.
These are mainly attributed to moisture losses due
to evaporation from both the samples and the suction
probes during the measurements. The measurements
performed on the sample preconditioned to a suction
of 350 kPa present some cyclic variations. It is worth
noting that large variations are observed during days
I, II, V and VI, while no variations were registered in
days III and IV corresponding to Saturday and Sunday,
respectively. This seems to suggest that the observed
variations are related to small temperature changes in
the controlled temperature room during working days.
The tests were stopped when the probe measured
constant suction for a time long enough to validate the
capacity of the probe to withstand high suction for a
long time. Figure 6. Cavitation tests: maximum measurable suction.
209
Table 3. Tension breakdown values using 15 bar filter. (Fig. 7a). However, if the probe had not been prop-
erly saturated, the offset decreased after every reversal
Test Tension breakdown (kPa) (Fig. 7b).
1st 330
2nd 481
3rd 566 5 CONCLUSIONS
4th 647
5th 646 A new high capacity tensiometer has been developed
6th 720
7th 635
at University of Naples Federico II. The novel design
of the probe allows the substitution of the HAEV fil-
ter without changing the whole probe. The objective
was to study the behaviour of the UNINA probes when
they had been saturated under a reduced pressure (i.e.
800 kPa), well below the maximum allowable pre-
pressurization pressure (i.e. 2000 kPa). The response
of the new high capacity tensiometer when a 5 bar
filter was used was found to be excellent during free
evaporation tests, cyclic evaporation tests and equi-
libration time tests. On the other hand, the 800 kPa
pressure applied during the saturation stage was not
enough to properly saturate the 15 bar filter. The max-
imum suction registered seems to be approximately
equal to the minimum of either the pre-pressurization
pressure used or the AEV of the filter.
REFERENCES
210
ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No. 147(2): suction: Discussion. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 36:
1875–1886. 178–180.
Mahler, C.F. & Diene, A.A. 2007. Tensiometer develop- Tabor, D. 1979. Gases, liquids and solids. Cambridge
ment for high suction analysis in laboratory lysimeters. In University press.
Schanz (ed.), Experimental unsaturated soil mechanics; Take, W.A. & Bolton, M.D. 2003. Tensiometer saturation
Springer proceedings in physics No. 112: 103–115. and the reliable measurement of soil moisture suction.
Marinho, F.A.M. & Chandler, R.J. 1994. A new instrument Geotechnique 53(2): 159–172.
for the measurement of soil moisture suction: Discussion. Tarantino, A. & Mongiovì, L. 2001. Experimental procedures
Geotechnique 44(3): 551–556. and cavitation mechanisms in tensiometer measurements.
Marinho, F.A.M. & Pinto, C.d.S. 1997. Soil suction measure- Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 19: 189–210.
ment using a tensiometer. In Almeida (ed.), Recent devel- Tarantino, A. & Mongiovì, L. 2002. Design and construction
opments in Soil and Pavement Mechanics 1: 249–254. of a tensiometer for direct measurement of matric suc-
Rotterdam: Balkema. tion. In Jucá, de Campos & Marinho (eds.) Unsaturated
Meilani, I., Rahardjo, H., Leong, E. & Fredlund, D.G. 2002. Soils; Proc. 3rd inter. conf., Recife, 10–13 March 2002:
Mini suction probe for matric suction measurements. 319–324. Lisse: Balkema.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 39: 1427–1432. Tarantino, A. 2004. Direct measurement of soil water ten-
Ridley, A.M. & Burland, J.B. 1993. A new instrument for the sion. In Jucá, de Campos & Marinho (eds.) Unsaturated
measurement of soil moisture suction. Géotechnique 43: Soils; Proc. 3rd inter. conf., Recife, 10–13 March 2002,
321–324. 3: 1005–1017. Lisse: Balkema.
Ridley, A.M. & Burland, J.B. 1995. Measurement of suc- Trevena, D.H. 1982. Time effects in cavitation experiments.
tion in materials which swell. Applied mechanics reviews J. Phys. D: Applied Physics 15: L111–L114.
48(10): 727–732.
Ridley, A.M. & Burland, J.B. 1999. Use of the tensile
strength of water for the direct measurement of high soil
211
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D. Gallipoli
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
F.D. Evans
Controls Testing Equipment Ltd, Wykeham Farrance Division, Tring, Hertfordshire, UK
G.M. Medero
Department of Civil Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
ABSTRACT: The axis translation technique is a well-established method for imposing values of suction in
unsaturated soil samples. High-suction tensiometers are more recently developed devices used for measuring
pore water pressures in soils, including negative pore water pressures (i.e. suctions) below absolute zero. Both
these techniques are comparable in terms of the suction range in which they operate. In this work a tensiometer
has been used to measure suction values imposed by the axis translation technique in kaolin samples inside a
pressure plate and a triaxial cell. The tensiometer has been kept in contact with the soil sample to track pore
water pressure variations throughout the duration of the tests. The suctions measured by the tensiometer have
been compared to those imposed by the axis translation technique and it was found that the suction measured
by the tensiometer was always smaller than that imposed. Two scenarios are proposed to explain this. The first
scenario considers the presence of water inside and below the high air entry value ceramic plate whereas the
second one hypothesises the lack of equilibrium in terms of soil water content when suction is measured. The
latter scenario seems to be supported by the evidence in the literature of equilibration times for pressure plate
tests that are significantly longer than those reported for the present testing programme. Implications of both
scenarios for laboratory testing are discussed.
213
reservoir transducer
porous stone
214
in contact with the sample to track pore water changes
throughout the test.
A kaolin slurry was prepared at a water content of
200% and was deposited directly on the previously
saturated ceramic plates inside the triaxial cell and the
pressure plate. In order to avoid spreading, the slurry
was placed in a cylindrical mould (diameter 38 mm)
with open top and bottom ends. The tensiometer was
then set directly on the top surface of the kaolin slurry
and a plastic mesh was also used to keep the ten-
siometer in the right position during the test, i.e. to
avoid it falling or tilting. The tensiometer used in this
work has a nominal measuring capacity of 1000 kPa in
both the positive and negative ranges. The tensiometer
was previously saturated and calibrated according to
procedures described in Lourenço et al. (2006).
Suction was imposed in the sample inside the pres-
sure plate by quickly raising the air pressure to the
required value while pore water pressure was main-
tained at the atmospheric value. As soon as the air
pressure was raised, the tensiometer (placed on the
top of the sample) recorded a positive excess pore
water pressure, which subsequently started to dis-
sipate. Once the pore water pressure read by the
tensiometer dropped back to zero, it was assumed that
equilibrium was achieved throughout the sample. The
Figure 3. Working principle for the tensiometer (above) and air pressure was then reduced to the atmospheric value
pressure plate (below). and the corresponding negative pore water pressure
generated inside the sample was measured by the ten-
siometer. Increasing values of suction were applied
One of the main limitations of the pressure plate and measured on the sample in a sequence up to a
device is related to the presence of air diffusion through maximum value of 500 kPa corresponding to the air
the ceramic plate (e.g. Padilla et al., 2006), which entry value of the ceramic plates in both the triaxial
needs to be accounted for when the change in water cell and the pressure plate.
content of the sample is measured by means of volume The tests performed in the pressure plate and in the
gauges connected to the water compartment below triaxial cell differed in one respect. In the triaxial cell,
the ceramic plate. For the tensiometer, the range of after pore water pressure equalized at 0 kPa and before
measurable suctions is primarily limited by the occur- releasing the air pressure to zero, water was flushed
rence of cavitation inside the probe, which is in turn out below the ceramic plate by air circulation. Once
governed by the degree of saturation of the porous the air pressure was dropped and the reading from the
stone and reservoir (e.g. Guan and Fredlund, 1997; tensiometer was taken, water was restored below the
Lourenco et al., 2006). Suction measurements by the ceramic for the application of the next suction stage.
tensiometer also appear to be sensitive to temperature In the pressure plate, water at atmospheric pressure
as shown by Toker et al. (2004). was present in the compartment below the ceramic
plate throughout the entire test.
If a given suction is imposed in a soil sample by using Figure 4a shows the results for the test performed in
the axis translation technique, one would expect that the pressure plate. Inspection of Figure 4a indicates
an equal value of suction would be read by a tensiome- that, after the air pressure was increased to 187.6 kPa,
ter when placed in contact with the same sample. In the pore water pressure measured by the tensiome-
order to verify this, tests were conducted by imposing ter instantaneously increased by 170 kPa and then
given values of suction on Speswhite kaolin samples progressively dissipated back to zero. After equilib-
in the pressure plate while a tensiometer was placed rium was achieved, air pressure was reduced to zero
215
a) 400 Table 1. Difference between the imposed and measured
ua =396.5 kPa
suctions for each test.
ua =187.6 kPa
200
Test nr Device Difference (%)
pressure (kPa)
b) 600
400
pressure (kPa)
ua 400
200 expected
-200 uw
200
-400
-600 100
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
time (min) 0
0 100 200 300 400
Figure 4. Axis translation tests with uw measured with the imposed suction (kPa)
tensiometer. (a) Test T14 conducted in the pressure plate and,
test T40 conducted in the triaxial cell.
Figure 5. Imposed versus measured suctions for all tests.
216
a) 400 possible that water content is still reducing inside the
ua = 396.5 kPa
sample due to a slow rearrangement of water menisci
200
at the interface between gas and liquid phases inside
the pores. Such a hypothesis seems to be supported
pressure (kPa)
217
equilibrium. Should this hypothesis hold, then it would Lourenço, S., Gallipoli, D., Toll, D.G., Evans, F. 2006.
not be correct to assume achievement of equilibrium Development of a commercial tensiometer for triaxial test-
based on the pore water pressure read by the tensio- ing of unsaturated soils, Geotechnical Special Publication
meter but equilibrium should be assessed on the basis (ASCE) No. 147, Vol. 2, 1875–1886.
of subsequent sample mass measurements during the Lourenço, S.D.N., Gallipoli, D., Toll, D.G., Evans, F.,
Medero, G. 2007. Determination of the Soil Water
equalisation phase. Further testing is currently being Retention Curve with tensiometers, Weimar, Germany,
undertaken to confirm or refute such a hypothesis. Experimental unsaturated soil mechanics, T. Schanz (Ed.),
Springer, 95–102.
Oliveira, O.M., Marinho, F.A.M. 2006. Study of the equili-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS bration time in the pressure plate, Geotechnical Special
Publication (ASCE) No. 147, Vol. 2, 1865–1874.
This research was funded by the Engineering and Phys- Padilla, J.M., Perera, Y.Y., Houston, W.N., Perez, N.,
ical Sciences Research Council of the United King- Fredlund, D.G. 2006. Quantification of air diffusion
dom through a CASE research grant, with additional through high air-entry ceramic disks, Geotechnical Spe-
cial Publication (ASCE) No. 147, Vol. 2, 1852–1863.
financial support from Controls Testing Equipment Ridley, A.M., Burland, J.B. 1993. A new instrument for the
Ltd. Support from the European Commission via the measurement of soil moisture suction, Geotechnique 43,
‘‘Marie Curie’’ Research Training Network contract No. 2, 321–324.
number MRTN-CT-2004-506861 is acknowledged. Tinjun, J.M., Benson, C.H., Blotz, L.R. 1997. Soil-
Technical support was given by Mr. C. McEleavy and water characteristic curves for compacted clays, ASCE
Mr. S. Richardson. J. Geotech. Geoenv. Eng. 123, 11, 1060–1069.
Toker, N., Germaine, J., Sjoblom, K., Culligan, P. 2004.
A new technique for rapid measurement of continuous
REFERENCES soil moisture characteristic curves, Géotechnique 54,
3:179–186.
Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E. 1999. The influ-
Guan, Y. 1996. The measurement of soil suction, PhD Thesis,
ence of soil structure and stress history on the soil-water
University of Saskatchewan, pp. 331.
characteristics of a compacted till, Geotechnique 49, 2,
Guan, Y., Fredlund, D.G. 1997. Use of the tensile strength
143–159.
of water for the direct measurement of high soil suction,
Can. Geotech. J. 34: 604–614.
Hilf, J.W. 1956. An investigation of pore water pressure in
compacted cohesive soils, US Bureau of Reclamation,
Tech. Mem. 654, Denver: US Bureau of Reclamation.
218
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D. Gallipoli
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a new system to measure suction in the field using high capacity tensiometers
recently developed through collaboration between Durham University and Wykeham Farrance Limited. The
system comprises a borehole probe locator where five tensiometers can be inserted allowing the measurement
of suction at different depths. Since the tensiometers are left in place, rather than being used for a single ‘‘spot’’
measurement, suctions can be observed continuously with the aid of a logger and a computer. This enables the
measurement of variations of suction due to seasonal changes and the observation of the immediate response to a
rainfall event. Two borehole probe locators have been installed at different points in an embankment to measure
suction in the fill material. The instrumented embankment was built for research purposes at Nafferton farm,
near Newcastle, UK, as part of a cooperative project (BIONICS) investigating the biological and engineering
impacts of climate change on slopes. The paper describes the installation and some preliminary observations
obtained using the system.
219
Previous field observations using high capacity
tensiometers (Ridley et al., 2003) have used ‘‘spot’’
measurements where the tensiometer has been placed
in contact with the soil to take a suction reading at
a particular time, i.e. the tensiometer was not left in
place to take continuous readings with time. Cui et al.
(2008) have used high capacity tensiometers for the
continuous measurement of suction but their system
does not allow installation of multiple tensiometers
at different depths at the same location. The system
reported in this paper provides multiple tensiome-
ters at different depths as well as the possibility of
taking continuous readings with time from each ten-
siometer. In the proposed system, the tensiometers can
also be easily removed if required for re-saturation or
replacement. Figure 2. Saturation vessel with a set of 5 Wykeham
A total of ten high capacity tensiometers have been Farrance—Durham University field tensiometers.
installed to observe the variation of soil suction with
depth at two different locations in an experimental
embankment. The embankment is located at Nafferton et al. (2007) for the Wykeham Farrance—Durham
farm, near Newcastle, UK and has been built as part of University tensiometer and confirms the observations
a cooperative project (BIONICS) aimed at investigat- by Tarantino & Mongiovi (2003) for another type of
ing the biological and engineering impacts of climate high capacity tensiometer.
change on slopes. High capacity tensiometers are limited by cavitation
The paper describes the installation of the tensiome- and air entry. Although tensiometers can sustain high
ters in the BIONICS embankment and reports on some suctions for short periods, they may not be able to sus-
preliminary observations of suction using the system. tain these suction values when installed in the ground
for a long periods (usually, after two to three weeks
the tensiometer cavitates, if a value much greater than
2 THE EQUIPMENT −100 kPa is continuously read as observed from other
laboratory tests). Therefore, any reliable system for the
2.1 Design of the high capacity tensiometer field measurement of suction has to account for the
possibility of cavitation occurring in the tensiome-
The operation of the Wykeham Farrance—Durham ters and it must allow removal of the probes so
University tensiometer is based on the same general they can be re-saturated and re-installed whenever
principles as other versions of high capacity tensiome- necessary.
ter proposed in the literature. The device measures soil Some minor modifications were made to the origi-
suction through a high air entry value filter connected nal version of the Wykeham Farrance—Durham Uni-
to a small water reservoir, which is in contact with a versity tensiometer to adapt it to field conditions. The
pressure transducer. electrical cable that connects the tensiometer to the
The tensiometers used in this work were satu- logger was covered with nylon tubing (10 m long by
rated prior to calibration inside a high pressure vessel 8 mm diameter) to provide a stronger, stiffer connec-
(Figure 2). The tensiometers were fixed inside the ves- tion that would allow the tensiometer to be pushed in
sel, which was then filled with de-aired water and (without buckling) during installation and pulled out
pressurized to about 1000 kPa. The tensiometers were during removal. The nylon tubing had the dual pur-
left exposed to this pressure for a period of two weeks pose of protecting the electrical cable from damage.
which is assumed to be enough for the first saturation The edges of the tensiometers were also smoothed for
while for subsequent re-saturations 24 hours should easy removal and installation.
be enough (depending how dry the tensiometer is). In
this work, however, the tensiometers were re-saturated
for a longer period of two weeks given that site vis-
2.2 Borehole probe locator
its took place fortnightly. Calibration was performed
by submerging the tensiometers inside a triaxial cell The borehole probe locator included five suction
and reading the voltage from the tensiometers at dif- stations at depths of 0.5 m, 1 m, 1.5 m, 2 m
ferent values of (positive) cell pressure. The ability and 3 m, with each suction station fitted with a
to calibrate in the positive range and extrapolate to high capacity tensiometer. The borehole probe loca-
the negative range has been verified by Lourenço tor consisted of a PVC pipe 3 m long with an
220
outer diameter of 90 mm and an inner diameter 3 INSTALLATION AND USAGE
of 70 mm. Five guide tubes were inserted inside
the borehole probe locator to individually connect 3.1 The BIONICS embankment
each suction station to the surface. These guide
The objective of the BIONICS project is to investi-
tubes were made from flexible hose with an inner
gate what could happen to infrastructure embankments
diameter of 19 mm. A small tapered aluminium
in the UK when subjected to climate change. As
cylinder was fitted at the end of each hose reduc-
part of the project, an experimental embankment
ing the inner diameter from 19 mm down to 14 mm
has been built in four panels (Figure 4) separated
(this is about the same as the external diameter of the
by vertical impermeable membranes and constructed
tensiometer). The aluminium fitting helped to hold the
by using different compaction efforts. Panels A and D
tensiometer in place and prevented movement of soil
are poorly compacted (intended to represent old rail
into the hose. Such a design enabled the tensiome-
embankments constructed in Victorian times) while
ters to be removed and inserted individually whenever
panels B and C are well compacted (representing
necessary (see Figure 3).
modern embankments).
Due to the small inner diameter (70 mm) of the
The compactive effort has two roles in the suction
borehole probe locator the exit angle of the suction
measurement: (i) changes in void ratio can affect the
stations had to be 45◦ with the exception of the suction
station located at the bottom which was vertical (see
Figure 3).
The top of the borehole probe locator was
sealed with foam and silicone to avoid any infil-
tration of water or other kind of material from the
surface.
Figure 3. Borehole probe locator (a) with enlarged views Figure 4. Plan view of BIONICS embankment and
of the suction stations on the side (b) and bottom (c). borehole probe locators (after Glendinning et al., 2006).
221
3.3 Maintenance of tensiometers
As discussed previously, cavitation is a possible prob-
lem for tensiometers operating over long periods
of time. Regular fortnightly visits were therefore made
to the site in order to verify the correct functioning of
the equipment.
If a tensiometer cavitates, it can be removed from
the suction station and replaced by a plug. The ten-
siometers should not be allowed to dry so the saturation
vessel is taken to the field (filled with de-aired water)
to transport back the cavitated tensiometer (s); in this
way a long re-saturation is avoided and after two weeks
Figure 5. Cross section of the BIONICS embankment and it is possible to re-install the tensiometer back in its
borehole probe locator showing suction station depths. position.
water retention properties of the soil, and (ii) the per- 4 IN-SITU OBSERVATIONS
meability will also be affected (which will influence
infiltration, evaporation and internal flow throughout Preliminary suction measurements in the embankment
the fill material). are available from May to July 2007. Figures 6 and 8
Current measurements of suction have been show measurements for the well compacted panel and
obtained during natural rainfall conditions. In the near the poorly compacted panel respectively. Values of
future, a climate control system will be used to impose daily rainfall are also shown as spikes in Figures 6
expected future climate patterns on the embankment. and 8 for the period May to June 2007 (the record of
daily rainfall for the month of July 2007 was not yet
available at the time of submission of the manuscript).
3.2 Equipment at the embankment Note that the tensiometer for the 3 metre deep suc-
One borehole probe locator was installed in the poorly tion station in the poorly compacted panel has yet to
compacted panel A while the second was installed in be installed; therefore, there are only four recorded
the well compacted panel B (see Figure 4). Both were values down to 2 metres depth.
located close to the south facing slope of the embank- It can be observed from the two figures that during
ment at about 1 m from the edge of the crest (see the initial drier period (May) both panels had values of
Figure 5). suction that increased with depth. However, that trend
Boreholes were drilled in the embankment to a has changed for the poorly compacted panel during the
depth of 3 m with a diameter of 110 mm, which is wetter period (June-July).
slightly larger than the outer diameter of the borehole The well compacted panel shows greater suctions
probe locators of 90 mm. The borehole probe locators (20–40 kPa at 3 m) whereas in the poorly compacted
were subsequently lowered into the embankment while panel suctions are less than 5 kPa and generally pore
the suction stations were sealed using plugs with a water pressures are positive (in the wetter period since
similar shape and dimension as the tensiometers to June).
avoid soil particles from the fill material entering the
guide tubes. A period of two weeks was allowed to
elapse to promote the natural closure of the borehole
walls around the probe locator. During this time the
plugs were kept in place to avoid entry of fill material
inside the guide tubes. Subsequently the plugs were
replaced with the tensiometers, which were firmly
pushed into place (using the stiff nylon tube around
the electrical cable) to ensure good contact between
the tensiometer and the soil.
Each tensiometer was fitted with an 11 m long elec-
trical cable connected to a data logger inside a water-
proof steel box placed on the top of the embankment
between the two borehole probe locators. The data log- Figure 6. Pore water pressure records for the well com-
ger was connected to a computer in a field hut near the pacted panel suction (SS indicates suction station at different
embankment for direct real-time downloading of data. depths). Vertical spikes show daily rainfall.
222
Pore water pressure (kPa) pressures approaching zero within the top 1 m (and
–35 –30 –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15 becoming positive at 1 m).
0
13/06/2007 In the well compacted material the tensiometers do
after heavy rainfall
0.5 not show rapid responses to rainfall events, although
24/05/2007
1
there is a general increase in pore water pressure
Depth (m)
223
be seen that the tensiometers in the switched positions
gave consistent (if not identical) readings. After this
test, from 26 July, both tensiometers were returned
to their initial position recording similar values with
those recorded previous to the shift in the position. The
lack of identical readings could suggest some shift in
zero values for the tensiometers. This is now being
investigated by regularly removing the tensiometers
(every two weeks) and immersing them in a container
of water to check the zero values.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 10. Scattering caused by poor saturation of ten-
siometers. The paper presents a system to measure suction in
the field using Wykeham Farrance—Durham Univer-
sity tensiometers. The wide measuring range of the
tensiometers (up to −1.2 MPa) allows usage of the
proposed system in most natural and manmade earth
structures.
A borehole probe locator has been designed and
installed. This allows the user to easily remove ten-
siometers for their re-saturation whenever necessary,
overcoming one of the major limitations associated
with the use of high capacity tensiometers in the field.
The proposed borehole probe locator also allows read-
ings at different levels in a single borehole, permitting
Figure 11. Shift in position of tensiometers at 0.5 m and observations of the variation of suction with depth.
3 m in the well compacted panel. Two borehole probe locators have been installed in
the BIONICS embankment with the intention of mea-
suring suction in two different areas constructed by
using different compactive efforts. This has allowed
profiles in Figure 9. It is expected that further mea-
the observation of the variation of suction with depth
surements will help to provide explanations for this
in both areas and the suction changes to rainfall events.
seemingly anomalous behaviour.
Preliminary results (from three months of monitor-
ing) show that there are different patterns of suction
measurements from the tensiometers installed in the
4.3 Tensiometer issues
well compacted part of the embankment compared to
Figure 10 shows an enlarged view of the readings those installed in the poorly compacted part. It has
plotted in Figure 6. A high degree of scattering is been observed that tensiometers installed in the poorly
observed in the values measured by the tensiometer compacted part of the embankment react rapidly to
at 2 m depth, much worse than the scatter seen from rainfall. The well compacted panel instead shows a
other tensiometers (this scattered data was removed slower change of suction and does not respond rapidly
from Figure 6). This large fluctuation was overcome to rainfall.
by re-saturating the tensiometer, suggesting that the To check the validity of measurements, two ten-
tensiometer was initially not well saturated. This siometers were swapped in position. The values mea-
confirms the importance of tensiometer saturation in sured by the two tensiometers at the same depth were
ensuring good quality readings. It can be observed consistent but not identical. This suggests there may
from Figure 6 that after the re-saturation this same have been some shift in the calibration zero, which is
tensiometer showed less scatter and behaved similarly now being investigated.
to other tensiometers.
In order to check the reliability of the equipment,
two tensiometers in the well compacted panel were ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
changed in position for a period of 2 weeks (the ten-
siometer that was initially in the suction station at The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
0.5 m was swapped with tensiometer that was initially port from Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
in the suction station at 3 m). From Figure 11 it can Council (EPSRC) for the BIONICS project (Grant
224
GR/S87430/01). The support from the European Lourenço, S.D.N., Gallipoli, D., Toll, D.G., Augarde, C.E.,
Commission via the ‘‘Marie Curie’’ Research Training Evans, F.D. & Medero, G.M., 2007. Calibration of high
Network contract number MRTN-CT-2004–506861 is suction tensiometers, submitted to Géotechnique August
2007.
also acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Dr. Paul Lourenço, S.D.N., Gallipoli, D., Toll, D.G. & Evans, F.D., 2006.
Hughes from Newcastle University and the labora- Development of a commercial tensiometer for triaxial testing
tory technicians at Durham University: Mr. McE- of unsaturated soils. In Proc. 4th International Conference
leavey and Mr. Richardson for assistance with the on Unsaturated Soils, Carefree, USA, Geotechnical Special
experimental work. Publication No. 147, ASCE, Reston. Vol. 2, 1875–1886.
Ridley, A.M. & Burland, J.B. 1993. A new instrument for the
measurement of soil moisture suction, Géotechnique 43 (2),
321–324.
REFERENCES Ridley, A.M., Dineen, K., Burland, J.B. & Vaughan, P.R., 2003.
Soil matrix suction: some examples of its measurement and
Cui, Y.J., Tang, A., Mantho, A.T. & De Laure, E., 2008. Mon- application in geotechnical engineering, Géotechnique 53 (2),
itoring Field Soil Suction Using a Miniature Tensiometer, 241–253.
Geotechnical Testing Journal 31 (1), (available online). Tarantino, A. & Mongiovi, L., 2003. Calibration of tensiome-
Glendinning, S., Rouainia, M., Hughes, P. & Davies, O., ter for direct measurement of matric suction, Géotechnique
2006. Biological and engineering impacts of climate on 53 (1), 137–141.
slopes (BIONICS): The first 18 months, In Proc. 10th IAEG
Congress, Nottingham, Paper 348 (on CD).
225
Engineering behaviour
Water retention behaviour and hydraulic properties
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
X.L. Li
EURIDICE, c/o SCK-CEN, Mol, Belgium
ABSTRACT: The water retention properties of Boom clay samples extracted at a depth of 223 m have been
determined in ENPC Paris and UPC Barcelona using different experimental techniques. Boom clay is a stiff
clay in which an underground laboratory devoted to carry out research in radioactive waste disposal has been
excavated near the city of Mol (Belgium). The retention properties of Boom clay have been investigated for
two reasons: i) in good quality samples, a high suction develops in the saturated sample during extraction
and its value is correlated with the sampling depth; ii) possible desaturation due to gallery venting during the
operational phase may occur in the clay. Various suction control and measurement techniques have been used:
osmotic, vapour equilibrium, filter paper, high-range tensiometer and chilled-mirror dew-point psychrometer
readings. Some volume changes have also been measured along the equalisation or measuring stages. The values
obtained are discussed according to the techniques used. They are compared with previous data on compacted
Boom clay samples. The air entry value is estimated close to 4–5 MPa and the shrinkage-swelling properties are
also examined. The sample suction at saturation is compared to the in-situ stress state.
229
kaolinite, 20%–30% illite and 10%–20% smectite. Excavated blocks (2002) were immediately vacuum
The geotechnical properties of Boom clay are pre- packaged in reinforced aluminium foil and thermo-
sented in Table 1. welded. They were stored in Mol in a room with
In-situ water content measurements were made on temperature ranging between 15 and 20◦ C under an
excavated blocks during the excavation in the URL average relative humidity of 45% before being sent
(Connecting Gallery, excavated between 23 January (2005) to the two laboratories.
and 23 April 2002). Figure 1 presents the water con-
tent of soil samples excavated at different distances
from the wall of the gallery, measured just when the 2.2 Suction control and measurement techniques
excavation was made. It is observed that at distances The experimental study carried out at ENPC-
smaller than 1 metre from the wall, the water content CERMES was based on the use of the vapour equilib-
values vary between 24.3% and 25.9%. The value sta- rium method, the filter paper method and high range
bilises around 24.8% at a distance larger than of 1.5 m tensiometers. The initial water contents of the sample
from the wall, showing a possible perturbation of the used at CERMES are described in Table 2.
water content due to gallery excavation. Samples were trimmed from block 3 and 4 with
respective water contents equal to 23 and 23.4 respec-
tively. When considering i) the in-situ water content
and ii) the age of the samples (excavated in 2002), the
Table 1. Geotechnical properties of Boom clay.
light decrease in water content from the average values
Belanteur Dehandschutter given in Table 2 shows a reasonably good conservation
et al. et al. of the sample with around 1 point of decrease in water
(1997) (2005) UPC content during 3 years. Note however that some drying
occurred in the laboratory during sample preparation
Unit mass of and trimming, resulting in water contents finally equal
solid (Mg/m3 ) 2.67 2.67 to 21.6% and 21.8% for blocks 3 and 4 respectively.
Unit mass The initial suction of the sample was measured by
(Mg/m3 ) 1.9 1.99 to 2.05 using the filter paper method and a value of 2 MPa
Liquid limit wL 59–76 70 56 using
was obtained.
SBCW (∗ )
Plastic limit wP 22–26 25 Along the drying path, starting from initial water
Plastic index IP 37–50 45 contents close to 21%, rectangular clay samples
Water content were manually trimmed (30 × 30 × 10 mm approxi-
(%) 25–30 23–25 mately) and submitted to different values of suction by
Natural porosity using the vapour equilibrium method (see for instance
(%) 35 38–39 Delage et al., 1998). 5 saturated saline solutions were
Poisson’s ratio 0.4 used, as shown in Table 3.
Internal friction Triplicate specimens were used at each suction
angle (◦ ) 18
level to determine the water content at equilibrium.
Permeability
(m/s) 10−12 3 × 10−12
Table 2. Initial water contents. Changes in water content
(∗ ) SBCW: synthetic Boom clay water. during the soil sample preparation.
CERMES UPC
26.0
w (%) w (%) w (%)
25.6 Block 3 Block 4 Block 2
230
The volume changes of the rectangular specimens drying were taken with the psychrometer up to a max-
were determined by hydrostatic weighing after having imum total suction of 330 MPa. Afterwards, the dried
immersed the samples in a non aromatic hydrocarbon sample was progressively wetted by keeping it for one
liquid called Kerdane. hour in each step under a controlled relative humidity
Along the wetting path, the three oedometer of around 40%. Again, progressive readings on wet-
specimens (cylindrical oedometer samples: d = ting were taken with the psychrometer (Pineda et al.
70 mm, h = 20 mm) were smoothly wetted (from ini- 2008).
tial water content of 21%) by putting them in contact The vapour equilibrium technique was also used to
with humid filter papers and the resulting suction was complement the information of the wetting and drying
afterwards measured by using a high range tensiome- branches of natural and compacted samples. Par-
ter. This tensiometer is based on the principle proposed tially saturated aqueous solutions of NaCl were used
by Ridley and Burland (1993) with some special adap- to apply different relative humidity values (Romero
tations carried out at CERMES (Mantho 2005). The 1999) below a total suction of 38 MPa. In the
volume changes of these samples were determined upper total suction range, a saturated solution of
with a precision calliper. NaBr.2H2 O was also used to apply a total suction of
At UPC, laboratory tests were carried out on nat- 75 MPa (Delage et al. 1998, Romero 2001). Multi-
ural and compacted samples. The natural sample was stage drying and subsequent wetting paths at the
trimmed from block 2 (Table 2) with dimensions of following steps 5, 10, 20, 38 and 75 MPa were carried
15 mm in diameter and 12 mm high. Water retention out on the natural sample placed in a hermetic jar. At
properties of the natural sample under unstressed con- specific intervals of the equalisation process the mass
ditions were determined using a chilled-mirror dew- of the sample was registered. An equivalent procedure
point psychrometer (WP4 dewpointmeter, Decagon was followed on a compacted sample. In this case,
Devices, Inc, USA) and the vapour equilibrium tech- a multi-stage wetting path followed by a drying path
nique. The volume changes were not registered. On was performed. Samples were allowed to equilibrate
the other hand, when preparing the compacted sam- for a constant period of two weeks at different relative
ple, Boom clay powder was left in equilibrium at a humidity values, corresponding to the following total
relative humidity of 40% to achieve a water content of suctions: 32, 10, 8, 6 and 3 MPa.
around 2.5%. A soil sample (15 mm in diameter and
12 mm high) was one-dimensionally compacted at this
water content to a dry density of 1.7 Mg/m3 (similar 3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
to the natural dry density).
Details on the working principle of the dew-point With regard to the CERMES results, Figure 2 presents
psychrometer, as well as the different calibrations car- the changes in water content observed under the var-
ried out, have been extensively described in Cardoso ious suctions values imposed by using the vapour
et al. (2007). A multi-stage drying path was first per- equilibrium technique. As commented before and as
formed by allowing the natural sample to progressively seen in the Figure, three samples were used at each suc-
dry for one hour in each step under controlled rel- tion value. Stabilisation is observed after around two
ative humidity (around 40%). After this period, the weeks with good repeatability at the two high values
dried sample was equilibrated for one day under her- (37.8 and 152.8 MPa). Some fluctuations are observed
metic conditions before taking the reading with the at 8.5 MPa whereas the curves at 4.2 and 2.8 MPa
psychrometer. The total suction measuring time was are superimposed with a tendency of increasing water
around 5 minutes. During this period some small content along a wetting path.
drying occurred inside the measuring chamber, as After drying in the oven (suction s estimated to
shown in Cardoso et al. (2007). Water contents were 1 GPa), the dried samples (w = 0) were used to deter-
determined using the initial and final weights (aver- mine a wetting branch from the dry state by using the
age values). After reaching a maximum total suction vapour equilibrium method.
of around 130 MPa, a multi-stage wetting path was Figure 3 presents the water retention properties of
carried out. The path was performed by wetting the Boom clay in terms of both water content (w) and
sample with small drops of distilled water. An equali- degree of saturation (Sr ) as a function of the logarithm
sation period of one day under hermetic conditions was of suction (log s). Starting from initial water contents
afterwards performed, before the determination of the of 20.2–21.6%, three points were obtained along a
total suction. The sample was trimmed from block 2, wetting path (with measured suctions by tensiome-
starting from an initial water content of 21.8%. An ter equal to 180, 280 and 600 kPa respectively). The
equivalent multi-stage drying path was carried out by data obtained along the drying path show a good com-
letting the natural material to further dry for one hour patibility between the various points obtained under
in each step under a low relative humidity using LiCl. the same suction, both in terms of water content
H2 O powder (around 11%). Progressive readings on and degree of saturation. Some hysteresis is observed
231
K2SO4 (4.2 MPa) suction values of 2.8 and 4.2 MPa), precision calliper
20 measurements are thought to be less precise, leading
to under-estimated values of the degree of saturation.
CuSO4 (2.8 MPa)
Under the hypothesis of saturated state, the increase
16 in water content obtained along the wetting path cor-
responds to some swelling. Conversely, up to the air
KNO3 (8.5 MPa) entry value pressure (5 MPa) drying occurs with some
w (%)
Degree of saturation 80
20 (average slope e/ log s = −0.5) is larger than the
15
Initial water content
w i = 20.2 - 21.6%
60 shrinkage slope (average slope e/ log s = −0.1).
40
Bernier et al. (1997) found a similar trend on com-
10
pacted Boom clay specimens subjected to change in
5
Wetting Drying
20
suction under a small vertical load in the oedometer.
0 0 Regarding UPC data, Figure 5 presents the time
0,1 1 10 100 1000 evolution of the changes in soil mass (natural Boom
Suction (MPa)
clay) along the different wetting steps using vapour
transfer with pure diffusion. The different wetting
Figure 3. Water retention properties of intact Boom clay.
steps were 75 MPa to 38 MPa (corresponding to a
relative humidity change from 58% to 76%), 38 MPa
to 20 MPa (76% to 86%), 20 MPa to 10 MPa (86% to
between the two branches of the water content versus 93%) and 10 MPa to 5 MPa (93% to 96%). Vapour
suction (w − s) curve, one wetting from dry state, the mass transfer rate for a given temperature, vapour
other drying form initial state.
The Sr -log s plot shows that the two points obtained
along the drying path at suctions equal to 2.8 and 0.90 -20
4.2 MPa indicate that the samples remained saturated. 0.80 Wetting: -15
Desaturation starts above 4.2 MPa and the degree of
Volumetric deformation (%)
de /dlogs = - 0.5
-10
saturation at a suction of 8.5 MPa is 90%. As shown in 0.70
Void ratio
-5
the figure, the air entry value of Boom clay can be esti- 0.60 0
mated at approximately 5 MPa. At the highest suction
5
(152.8 MPa), the degree of saturation is equal to 31%. 0.50
Drying:
Along the wetting path, the curve shows that, curi- 0.40 de /dlogs = -0.10
10
232
1000 WP4 dewpointmeter
Wetting steps: Low-suction range
drying wetting
ψ = 10 MPa to 5 MPa
High-suction range
ψ = 20 MPa to 10 MPa (Pineda et al. 2008)
0.30
10
Soil mass change (g)
0.20 1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Water content, w (%)
233
1000 REFERENCES
Drying paths
WP4 psychrometer UPC Belanteur, N., Tacherifet, S. and Pakzad., M. (1997). Étude
Vapour equilibrium UPC des comportements mécanique, thermo-mécanique et
Total suction (MPa)
234
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Filter paper method is used to measure total suction of compacted clay and clay-sand mixture.
The samples are prepared by static compaction to the desired initial void ratio and degree of saturation to
investigate effects of initial compaction on the drying soil water characteristic curves. Additionally, volume
change of samples was measured during the drying process and its effect was considered in obtaining SWCC.
The suction measurements were plotted in e-Sr space and equal suction lines obtained. These lines represent a
surface in a 3D plot.
2Ts
ua − uw = (1)
Rs
235
water through fluid flow (contact method), then only plasticity index is 18 percent, the specific gravity of
matric suction is measured. Meanwhile, the provision particles is 2.69 and from hydrometer analysis the clay
of contact between filter paper and the pore fluid is size fraction (finer than 2 μm) is about 60 percent and
difficult in low water content samples, the contact fil- the remaining 40 percent is smaller than 75 μm (sieve
ter paper method may measure either the total or the No. 200).
matric suction, depending on the degree of contact The sand is classified as medium to fine uniformly
between the soil and the filter paper. graded sand (SP in USCS) and its fine content is about
The most commonly used filter papers for suction 1 percent. The specific gravity of the material is 2.69.
measurement are Whatman No. 42 and Schleicher & Figure 2 represents particle size distribution of sand.
Schuell (S&S) No. 589-WH. The calibration curve Different samples were prepared from pure clay
for these two filter papers is given in ASTM D (C100) and the composite material (C60). The soils
5298-94 and is used in the measurements of the present were compacted statically to a disc shaped samples
investigation.
The variation of matric suction in an identical soil
specimen during drying and wetting versus soil speci- 100
Pham 2006).
Conventionally, the SWCC is determined at zero Figure 2. Particle size distribution of pure sand.
net normal stress and the volume changes of soil spec-
imen during the determination of SWCC are ignored. Table 1. Initial void ratio and degree of saturation for
Ho et al. (2006), in a recent experimental stud- samples.
ies, have used a volumetric pressure plate extractor
and provided state dependent soil water characteristic Sample Sr 0 Sample Sr 0
curves (SDSWCC) where the degree of saturation is no. e0 (%) no. e0 (%)
expressed by two stress state variables. C100-1 0.684 33.0 C60-1 0.677 30.6
In the present study, the total suction of pure and C100-2 0.672 47.0 C60-2 0.705 36.4
composite clay-sand mixture is measured by the fil- C100-3 0.688 58.5 C60-3 0.762 44.1
ter paper method and the effects of initial degree of C100-4 0.666 76.9 C60-4 0.835 49.4
saturation and void ratio on the total suction are inves- C100-5 0.723 85.9 C60-5 0.767 65.3
tigated. Furthermore, the soil samples were allowed C100-6 0.667 37.9 C60-6 0.673 29.9
to dry gradually and the variation of total suction is C100-7 0.774 45.8 C60-7 0.660 40.2
measured while considering volume changes of the C100-8 0.640 64.4 C60-8 0.724 42.7
specimen. The total suction measurements are pre- C100-9 0.630 82.4 C60-9 0.772 50.2
C100-10 0.698 94.6 C60-10 0.729 61.2
sented by contour lines in e-Sr space for both materials C100-11 0.733 38.2 C60-11 0.624 35.1
and the possible state surfaces are shown in 3D plot. C100-12 0.663 56.6 C60-12 0.688 40.7
C100-13 0.691 63.0 C60-13 0.648 49.2
C100-14 0.661 75.6 C60-14 0.643 54.4
2 MATERIALS AND TESTING PROGRAM C100-15 0.637 88.8 C60-15 0.659 63.4
C100-16 0.655 44.9 C60-16 0.534 38.8
Two basic materials are used in this study; clay and C100-17 0.572 62.4 C60-17 0.557 44.7
sand. The suction measurements were performed on C100-18 0.584 70.6 C60-18 0.572 47.4
the samples of pure clay and artificial materials com- C100-19 0.575 81.9 C60-19 0.589 54.6
C100-20 0.600 87.5 C60-20 0.603 59.6
posed of 60 percent clay and 40 percent sand by weight. Max 0.774 94.6 Max 0.835 65.3
The pure clay is classified as medium plastic Kaolinite Min 0.572 33.0 Min 0.534 29.9
clay. The liquid limit of the clay soil is 42 percent, the
236
with approximate diameter of 50 mm and height of Accordingly, the soil samples were placed into a
20 mm. In order to investigate effects of initial void desiccator for 3 days to reduce water content. In order
ratio and degree of saturation on the suction, the sam- to facilitate desiccation silica gel was used. After three
ples were compacted to different e and Sr. Twenty days the soil samples weighted with the digital balance
samples were prepared for each soil group. Table 1 and their volume was measured. Afterward, they were
presents the initial conditions of the samples. placed into jars with new filter papers again. The pro-
The samples were weighted by a digital balance cedure explained above was repeated four times for
with 0.0001 gr accuracy and the average diameter and C100 samples and three times for C60 samples.
height of the sample for volume measurements were
measured with 0.05 mm accuracy.
Filter paper tests were performed according to 3 DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS
ASTM D 5298-94 and total suction was measured in
the samples. Whatman No. 42 filter paper was used for Figure 3 presents the drying SWCCs for both soils. It
suction measurements and the corresponding standard is clearly shown that the samples of the same material
calibration curve was applied. For the vapor equaliza- follow different drying curves according to their differ-
tion time the samples and two filter papers were placed ent initial conditions. The comparison between SWCC
into sealed jars and the jars were kept in an isolated of C100 and C60 reveals that the SWCCs of C100 are
container for 10 days. According to Marinho (1994) 7 more deviated than C60s’, although the deviation in e0
to 15 days is suitable equalization time for total suction of C60s is more than C100s (Table 1). Furthermore,
measurement in the range of 250 to 30000 kPa. The the average SWCC of C60 has smaller suction than the
filter papers were placed above a piece of PVC pipe average C100 one.
with height of 20 mm, itself placed above the soil sam- Figures 4 & 5 plot the variation of void ratio versus
ple in the jar. After 10 days the weight of filter papers total suction along the drying path for C100 and C60
was measured with the digital balance and then the respectively. It is observed that again initial void ratio
filter papers were placed into oven with 110 ± 5◦ C for affects significantly the suction of the sample when
10 hours. After 10 hours the dry weight of filter paper the sample’s suction is less than a specific value. This
was measured. Detail of the procedure is presented by specific value corresponds to the sample’s shrinkage
Bulut et al (2001). limit. For instance, samples of C100 with suction more
C100-3 C100-4
90 C100-5 C100-6
C100-7 C100-8
80 C100-9 C100-10
C100-11 C100-12
70 C100-13 C100-14
Degree of saturation
C100-15 C100-16
60 C100-17 C100-18
C100-19 C100-20
50
C60-1 C60-2
C60-3 C60-4
40
C60-5 C60-6
C60-7 C60-8
30
C60-9 C60-10
C60-11 C60-12
20
C60-13 C60-14
10 C60-15 C60-16
C60-17 C60-18
0 C60-19 C60-20
100 1000 10000 100000
Total Suction (kPa)
237
0.8 C100-1
C100-2
0.75 C100-3
C100-4
C100-5
0.7
C100-6
C100-7
0.65 C100-8
Void Ratio (e)
C100-9
C100-
0.6 10
C100-
11
C100-
12
0.55 C100-
13
C100-
14
C100-
0.5
15
C100-
16
C100-
0.45 17
C100-
18
C100-
19
0.4 C100-
20
100 1000 10000 100000
Total Suction (kPa)
50 C100-1 C100-2
C100-3 C100-4
45 C100-5 C100-6
C100-7 C100-8
40 C100-9 C100-10
C100-11 C100-12
35 C100-13 C100-14
Volumetric water content
C100-15 C100-16
30 C100-17 C100-18
C100-19 C100-20
25 C60-1 C60-2
C60-3 C60-4
20 C60-5 C60-6
C60-7 C60-8
15
C60-9 C60-10
C60-11 C60-12
10
C60-13 C60-14
C60-15 C60-16
5
C60-17 C60-18
C60-19 C60-20
0
100 1000 10000 100000
Total Suction (kPa)
238
0.9
C60-1
C60-2
0.85 C60-3
C60-4
C60-5
0.8
C60-6
C60-7
0.75 C60-8
Void Ratio (e)
C60-9
C60-10
0.7
C60-11
C60-12
0.65 C60-13
C60-14
C60-15
0.6
C60-16
C60-17
0.55 C60-18
C60-19
C60-20
0.5
100 1000 10000 100000
Total Suction (kPa)
Figure 6. Volumetric water content versus suction for C100 and C60.
0.9 C100-1
C100-2
0.85 C100-3
C100-4
0.8 C100-5
C100-6
0.75 C100-7
C100-8
0.7
Void Ratio (e)
C100-9
C100-10
0.65
C100-11
1MPa
C100-12
0.6
C100-13
2MPa C100-14
0.55
C100-15
0.5 C100-16
C100-17
5MPa
0.45 C100-18
20MPa 15MPa 10MPa C100-19
0.4 C100-20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Degree of Saturation
239
0.9
C60-1
C60-2
0.85 C60-3
C60-4
C60-5
0.8
C60-6
C60-7
0.75 C60-8
Void Ratio (e)
C60-9
C60-10
0.7
C60-11
1MPa C60-12
0.65 C60-13
C60-14
C60-15
0.6
C60-16
3MPa C60-17
0.55 C60-18
C60-19
15MPa 10MPa 7MPa 5MPa C60-20
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Degree of saturation
240
100
90
Lower void ratio
80
70
Degree of Saturation
60
50
Higher void ratio
40
30
20
10
0
100 1000 10000 100000
Total Suction (kPa)
Ave(e)=0.463, Stdev(e)=0.001 Ave(e)=0.499, Stdev(e)=0.005 Ave(e)=0.561, Stdev(e)=0.007
Ave(e)=0.635, Stdev(e)=0.006 Ave(e)=0.666, Stdev(e)=0.003 Ave(e)=0.682, Stdev(e)=0.005
100
90
80
70
Degree of Saturation
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 1000 10000 100000
Total Suction (kPa)
Ave(e)=0.685, Stdev(e)=0.005 Ave(e)=0.658, Stdev(e)=0.003
Ave(e)=0.627, Stdev(e)=0.005 Ave(e)=0.574, Stdev(e)=0.007
241
mixture. The tests results revealed that the initial con- Fredlund, D.G. & Pham, H.Q. 2006. A Volume-mass
dition of the samples significantly affects SWCCs Constitutive model for Unsaturated Soils in Terms of
but increasing sand content has reduced the extent of Two Independent Stress State Variables, Unsaturated
effects. Additionally, presenting SWCC by volumetric Soils, ASCE, Geotechnical special publication No. 147.
water content, instead of degree of saturation, results pp. 105–134.
Gardner, R. 1937. A Method of Measuring the Capillary Ten-
into less deviated SWCCs. sion of Soil Moisture over a Wide Moisture Range, J. Soil
Meanwhile, considering volume change of sample Science. Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 277–283.
during measurement of total suction is found to be Ho, K.M.Y., Ng, C.W.W., Ho, K.K.S. & Tang, W.H.
more important for an intermediate range of degree of 2006. State-dependent Soil-water Characteristic Curve
saturation of samples and this range shrinks by increas- (SDSWCCs) of Weathered Soils, Unsaturated Soils,
ing sand content. More accurate numerical modeling ASCE, Geotechnical special publication No. 147,
can be achieved by using 3D constitutive surfaces or pp. 1302–1313.
constant void ratio SWCCs instead of single SWCC. Krahn, J. & Fredlund, D.G. 1972. On Total Matric and
Osmotic Suction, J. Soil Science. Vol. 114, No. 5,
pp. 339–348.
Marinho, F.A.M. 1994. Medicao de succao com o metodo do
REFERENCES papel fitro, In Proc. X Congresso Brasileiro de Mecanica
do Solos e Engenharia de Fundacoes. Vol. 2, pp. 516–522.
Bulut, R., Lytton, R.L. & Wary, W.K. 2001. Suction Measure- Rahardjo, H. & Leong, E.C. 2006. Suction Measurements,
ments by Filter Paper, Expansive Clay Soils and Vegetative Unsaturated Soils, ASCE, Geotechnical special publica-
Influence on Shallow Foundations, ASCE Geotechni- tion No. 147, pp. 81–104.
cal Special Publication No. 115 (eds. C. Vipulanandan,
M.B. Addision, and M. Hasen), ASCE, Reston, Virginia,
pp. 243–261.
242
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Volume change in expansive soils occurs due to changes in the soil water system that change
the stress equilibrium of the soil. Consequently, when determining the Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
of an expansive soil, it is important to consider the volume change that occurs as the suction, and hence water
content, changes during the test. Experiments using the Fredlund SWCC device and the filter paper method
were conducted to take into account the effect of the volume changes on the soil water retention relationship of
expansive soils. Claystone samples of the Denver and Pierre Shale Formations obtained near Denver, Colorado,
USA were used in the study. A moist tamping system was used to obtain ‘‘identical’’ soil specimens. The
observed experimental data were used to evaluate the previously published mathematical equations of SWRC.
It is shown that the Fredlund and Xing equation is in the best agreement with the experimental data among the
equations. In addition, a bilinear form was used to express the SWRC for the expansive soils. It is concluded
that the bilinear form of the SWRC gives the best fit to the measured experimental data.
243
Table 1. Summary of geotechnical properties of Denver and Pierre Shale formations.
Consolidation-Swell Test(2)
Formation of Natural water Natural dry LL/PL(1) Percent swell Swell pressure
claystone bedrock content (%) density (Mg/m3 ) (%) (%) (kPa)
244
measured. Calipers were used to measure the height content, and then air-dried until a minimum water
and diameter of the sample in order to determine the content was reached in the laboratory. The weight and
volume. A filter paper test was performed on the air- volume of the air-dried sample were measured.
dried sample to obtain a soil suction corresponding to The air-dried soil specimen was transferred to a
the lowest water content of the sample. At the comple- ceramic stone placed in the pressure cell of the Fred-
tion of the first filter paper test, water was sprayed onto lund SWCC device. The water below the ceramic
the soil specimen to obtain a desired water content of stone was maintained at atmospheric pressure. A spec-
the sample for the next filter paper test. The values of ified air pressure was applied into the pressure cell. In
water content of the sample were increased at intervals response to the applied suction, the water was drawn
of approximately 5%. The wetting curve test continued into the soil specimen through volume indicator tubes
until the last desired value of water content of the soil and through the ceramic stone until equilibrium was
specimen was reached. Measurements of the weight established.
and volume of the sample at equilibrium were taken It was possible for air to diffuse through the ceramic
throughout the experiment. In addition, five remolded stone and collect on the bottom of the cell. Therefore,
samples of the Pierre Shale claystone were oven-dried the diffused air was flushed out before reading the lev-
to obtain the soil suction of the claystone at oven-dry els in the volume indicator tubes. The water content
water content conditions using the filter paper method. of the specimen was calculated using the volume indi-
The sample was cut in two pieces and filter papers were cator tube readings. The change in height of the soil
placed between the pieces. A rubber band was placed specimen was measured from an attached dial gauge.
around the sample to ensure contact between the filter This procedure was repeated for successive pressure
papers and the soil. decrements to obtain a series of data points on the wet-
ting curve. The pressure values that were used were
2.3.2 Fredlund SWCC test 900, 400, 100, 10, and 2 kPa. At the end of the wetting
The Fredlund SWCC device was utilized to deter- curve test, the soil specimen was removed from the cell
mine the SWRC over a range of soil suction from 2 and its water content and dry density were determined.
to 900 kPa for the claystone of the Denver formation.
This soil suction range overlapped the range used in the
2.4 Experimental results
filter paper tests to verify the measured laboratory data
from each other. A schematic of the Fredlund SWCC Figures 3 and 4 present the SWRCs in terms of volu-
device used in this study is shown in Figure 2. The metric water content from the average values of the
sample rings used for the test are 6.4 cm in diameter experimental data for the Denver and Pierre Shale
and 2.5 cm in height. The Fredlund SWCC device was Formation samples, respectively. The osmotic suction
calibrated to account for compressibility of the device, curves shown in Figures 3 and 4 were computed by
filter paper, and porous stone (Chao, 2007). Similar to subtracting the matric suction values from the total
the filter paper test, the soil specimen was compacted suction values.
to 100% of the maximum Standard Proctor dry den- None of the SWRCs shown in Figures 3 and 4
sity at a water content 3% less than the optimum water exhibit a distinct point of bifurcation to define the
displacement pressure head. This trend of not having
a distinct displacement pressure head for expansive
soil has also been reported by others (Chao, 1995;
50
45
Volumetric Water Content (%)
Total Suction
40 Matric Suction
35 Osmotic Suction
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Soil Suction (kPa)
245
50 60
Measured Data
45
Figure 4. Wetting SWRC—Total, matric, and osmotic Figure 6. Burdine, Gardner, and Brooks & Corey equations
suctions from Filter Paper test—Remolded claystone of fitted to experimental data—Claystone of Denver formation.
Pierre Shale formation.
60
60 Measured Data
10
10
0
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Soil Suction (kPa)
Soil Suction (kPa)
246
60 60
(%)
Measured Data
Volumetric Water Content (%)
30 30
= -2.3404Ln( ) + 43.396
20 20 r2 = 0.9957
10 10 = -5.3991Ln( ) + 69.37
r2 = 0.9875
0 0 ?
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Soil Suction (kPa) Soil Suction, (kPa)
Figure 8. Burdine, Gardner, and Brooks & Corey equa- Figure 11. Bilinear equation fitted to experimental data—
tions fitted to experimental data—Claystone of Pierre Shale Claystone of Pierre Shale formation.
formation.
50 Measured Data
osmotic suction related to the adsorbed salts dominates
40 the behavior of the soil at a high suction range.
It was shown by van der Raadt, et al. (1987) that
30 filter paper results used both in contact and non-
= -2.5853Ln( ) + 46.686
contact modes were similar for values of suction above
r2 = 0.982
20 1,000 kPa, but were different for values of suction less
than 1,000 kPa. Leong et al. (2002) suggested that
10 = -6.2348Ln( ) + 80.671
r2 = 0.9865
for ‘‘up to 1000 kPa suction, the contact filter paper
0
? method can be used to measure matric suction reliably,
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 while the noncontact method can be used to measure
Soil Suction (kPa) total suction. Beyond 1,000 kPa suction, the filter
paper method measures only total suction, regardless
Figure 10. Bilinear equation fitted to experimental data—
Claystone of Denver formation.
if the contact or the noncontact procedure is used.’’
Figures 3 and 4 indicates that this limit is much higher
(closer to 10,000 kPa).
3.2 Curve fitting with bilinear equation
The soil suction at zero water content is used as a
Chao, et al. (1998) indicated that a bilinear form gives boundary point in heave prediction using the soil suc-
a good agreement to the observed experimental data tion method proposed by McKeen (1992). The soil
for expansive soils. The bilinear relationship of the suction at zero water content was stated by McKeen
SWRC for expansive soils has also been reported by (1992) to be near 174,385 kPa (6.25 pF). Fredlund and
others (McKeen and Neilsen, 1978; Marinho, 1994; Xing (1994) introduced a correction function, C(ψ),
247
in their SWRC fitting equation to force the SWRC Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. (1993). ‘‘Soil Mechanics
to pass through a soil suction of 106 kPa (7.0 pF) at for Unsaturated Soil.’’ John Wiley & Son, Inc., New
zero water content. The measured average total suc- York, NY.
tion of the five oven-dried claystone samples shown Fredlund, D.G. and Xing, A. (1994). ‘‘Equation for the
in Figure 5 is approximately 245,000 kPa (6.40 pF) Soil-Water Characteristic Curve.’’ Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 31(3), 521–532.
at oven-dry water content. This value of measured Gardner, W.R. (1958). ‘‘Some Steady State Solutions of the
soil suction at oven-dry water content is closer to that Unsaturated Moisture Flow Equation with Application of
expressed by McKeen (1992). Evaporation from a Water Table.’’ Soil Science, 85(4),
The bilinear form used in this study is representa- 228–232.
tive of the observed experimental data for expansive Geotechnical Consulting and Testing Systems, Inc. (GCTS).
soils. At stress above 100 MPa, the curve tends to (2004). ‘‘Fredlund SWCC Device Operating Instruc-
increase in slope to a limiting suction value of about tions.’’ Tempe, Arizona.
245,000 kPa (6.40 pF). Cumbers (2007) measured Jefferson County GIS Department. (1997). ‘‘Designated Dip-
points that fell on a straight line between suction val- ping Bedrock Area. 1: 62,500 scale.’’ Jefferson County,
Colorado.
ues of about 100,000 kPa and 245,000 kPa. Thus, Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H. (1997). ‘‘Review of
the curves are in fact tri-linear, but for suction val- Soil-Water Characteristic Curve Equations.’’ Journal
ues below 100,000 kPa they will be referred to as of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
being bi-linear. The change in slope of the SWRC for 123(12), 1106–1117.
expansive soil has been attributed to the transition from Leong, E.C., He, L., and Rahardjo, H. (2002). ‘‘Factors
macropore spaces, where water retention is governed Affecting the Filter Paper Method for Total and Matric
by capillary mechanisms, to micropore spaces, where Suction Measurements.’’ Geotechnical Testing Journal,
water retention is governed by thermodynamic forces 25(3), 322–333.
(Miller, 1996). Marinho, F.A.M. (1994). ‘‘Shrinkage Behavior of Some
Plastic Soils.’’ Ph.D. Dissertation, University of London,
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine.
REFERENCES McKeen, R.G. (1992). ‘‘A Model for Predicting Expan-
sive Soil Behavior.’’ Proceedings of 7th International
Al-Mukhtar, M. (1995). ‘‘Macroscopic Behavior and Conference on Expansive Soils, Dallas, Texas. 1, 1–6.
Microstructural Properties of a Kaolinite Clay Under McKeen, R.G. and Nielson, J.P. (1978). ‘‘Characterization
Controlled Mechanical and Hydraulic State.’’ Proceed- of Expansive Soils for Airport Pavement Design.’’ U.S.
ings, 1st International Conference Unsaturated Soils, Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,
Paris, I, 3–9. Report No. FAA-120-78-59.
Alonso, E.E., Lloret, A., Gens, A., and Yang, D.Q. Miller, D.J. (1996). ‘‘Osmotic Suction as a Valid Stress
(1995). ‘‘Experimental Behavior of Highly Expansive State Variable in Unsaturated Soils.’’ Ph.D. Dissertation,
Double-Structure Clay.’’ Proceedings, 1st International Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Conference Unsaturated Soils, Paris, I, 11–16. Mualem, Y. (1976). ‘‘A New Model for Predicting the
Brooks, R.H., and Corey, A.T. (1964). ‘‘Hydraulic Properties Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Porous Medial.’’
of Porous Media.’’ Hydrology Paper No. 3, Colorado State Water Resources Research, 12, 513–522.
University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Mulilis, J.P., Chan, C.K., and Seed, H.B. (1975). ‘‘The Effects
Burdine, N.T. (1953). ‘‘Relative Permeability Calculations of Method of Sample Preparation on the Cyclic Stress
from Pore Size Distribution Data.’’ Journal of Petroleum Strain Behavior of Sands.’’ EERC Report, 75–78.
Technology, 5, 71–78. Noorany, I. (2005). E-Mail Letter to Kuo-Chieh Chao
Chao, K.C. (1995). ‘‘Hydraulic Properties and Heave Predic- Regarding ‘‘Moist Tamping Equipment.’’ January 10th.
tion for Expansive Soil.’’ Maters Thesis, Colorado State SoilVision Systems Ltd. (2006). ‘‘SoilVision Software,
University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Version 4.0.’’ Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Chao, K.C., Durkee, D.B., Miller, D.J., and Nelson, J.D. Tinjum, J.M., Benson, C.H. and Blotz, L.R. (1997).
(1998). ‘‘Soil Water Characteristic Curve for Expansive Soil-Water Characteristic Curves for Compacted Clays.
Soil.’’ Thirteenth Southeast Asian Geotechnical Confer- Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineer-
ence, Taipei, Taiwan. ing. November. 1060.
Chao, K.C. (2007). ‘‘Design Principles for Foundations van der Raadt, P., Fredlund, D.G., Clifton, A.W., Klassen,
on Expansive Soils.’’ Dissertation submitted in par- M.J., and Jubien (1987). ‘‘Soil Suction Measurement
tial requirement for the Ph.D. Degree, Colorado State at Several Sites in Western Canada.’’ Transportation
University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Res. Rec. 1137, Soil Mechanics Considerations in Arid
Cumbers, J.M. (2007). ‘‘Soil Suction for Clay Soils at and Semi-Arid Areas, Transportation Research Board,
Oven-Dry Water Contents and the End of Swelling Con- Washington, D.C., 24–35.
ditions.’’ Thesis submitted in partial requirement for the van Genuchten, M.T. (1980). ‘‘A Closed-Form Equation
Mater Degree, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, for Prediction the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated
Colorado. Soils.’’ Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44, 892–898.
Fredlund, D.G. (2002). ‘‘Use of Soil-Water Characteris- Wan, A.W.L., Gray, M.N. and Graham, J. (1995). ‘‘On the
tic Curves in the Implementation of Unsaturated Soil Relations of Suction Moisture Content and Soil Structure
Mechanics.’’ Third International Conference on Unsat- in Compacted Clays.’’ Proc. 1st Intern. Conf. Unsaturated
urated Soils. Recife, Brazil. Soils, Paris, I, 215–222.
248
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D. Marcial
Instituto de Materiales y Modelos Estructurales, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
ABSTRACT: In order to characterize the hydromechanical (HM) properties of a MX80 bentonite, used as
an Engineered Barrier (EB) material for nuclear waste disposal facilities, a 7 months infiltration column test
with coupled measurement of swelling pressure and suction was carried out. The hydraulic conductivity was
obtained using the Instantaneous Suction Profile (ISP) method (Daniel 1983) in an initial highly compacted
unsaturated state (γd = 1.7 Mg/m3 ; w = 8.2 %), and the swelling pressure was monitored at different heights
of the column. Also, some mercury intrusion porosimetry measurements were conducted at the end of the test
to better understand the observed coupled behaviour. Important effects of suction gradients were observed;
the transitory hydraulic conductivity values are higher when the bentonite is hydrated from very high suctions
because of gradient effects. Then it drastically reduces as the hydration front advances and the microstructure is
reorganized. Concerning the couplings of suction and swelling pressure, a softening threshold suction value was
systematically observed at a value of 90 MPa. Also, low changes of stresses with suction δσ/δs were observed
for a high range of suction values. These experimental evidences permit to better understand hydromechanical
couplings during hydration of engineered barrier materials in confined conditions.
1 INTRODUCTION
249
test with measurement of swelling pressure and suc-
tion. The experimental set-up correspond to a reduced
model that take into account the HM behaviour of an
EB radial element, perpendicular to the disposal pit
axis (axis symmetrical problem). Figure 1 also shows
a radial EB element where the stress state, defined by
σθ and σr , is dependent of the suction changes within
the EB due to hydration. Since the test was conducted
in isothermal conditions (T = 20◦ C) and temperature
changes are present in a nuclear waste repository, it is
not representative of the initial saturation cycle. How-
ever, the results obtained in this work permit an initial
approach to the understanding of HM couplings in EB
materials.
250
At this point, the infiltration test was ready to run.
The compacted soil was hydrated from the base of
the column with a volume—pressure controller, which
was set at a 10 kPa water pressure. The hydration time
was extended to 208 days.
1000
Suction (MPa)
100
10
0.1
0 10 20 30 40
Water content (%)
Figure 4. View of the experimental set-up. (1) Sealing detail
at the head piston cap (2) sealing details at RH sensor caps Figure 5. Water retention curve obtained at constant volume
(3) final view of the experimental set-up with thermal conditions with a dry density of 1.7 Mg/m3 .
isolation.
251
the arrival of liquid phase water, as the hydration front 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150,
advances with time. Before liquid water arrives, RH 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 and 208) days respectively.
curves stay superimposed because hydration is only For the 0–9.5 cm section, the profiles are presented
done by vapour phase through macroporosity. The only to 120 days because at this time the RH sensor
monotone and regular increase of RH with time shows corresponding to 4.5 cm height was damaged due to
that the system was adequately sealed. an excess of humidity. As shown in Figure 6, at this
The suction profiles are shown in Figure 7; they height the RH sensor reads a value of 97.4% at the
were obtained with the RH—t curves and the WRC. time of 126 days.
To do so, polynomial functions were fitted at different The derivate of fitted polynomial functions of suc-
time periods with the RH—t curves and the condition tion profiles, at each measurement point, and for each
of zero suction at the bottom of the column, corre- time, gives the changes of hydraulic gradient i with
sponding to the infiltration point. In order to get fitting time. Figure 8 shows that i values are very high (about
curves less perturbed by measures taken away from a 116000 in the extreme case), specially when the dis-
particular section of the column, only 3 points were tance to the hydration source is small. It is evident that
considered. Thus, the corresponding profiles are also i values do not correspond to the hydration pressure of
reported in sections, as shown in Figure 7. This aspect 10 kPa. They are due to the strong hydrophilic char-
is very important because is from the slope of the suc- acter of the bentonite brick, initially equilibrated to a
tion profiles that hydraulic gradients are obtained. The very high suction (103 MPa).
profiles shown in Figure 7 correspond, from top to Changes on i values are strongly influenced by the
bottom to t = (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, distance h and suction s. On the one hand, the higher is
h, the lower is i. On the other hand, the increase rate of
i slows down, and is even reversed as suction decrease.
Both effects concern the hydrophilic character of the
bentonite brick. As closer the considered section is
to the hydration point, and higher is the thickness of
non hydrated soil, higher is the hydraulic gradient. In
addition, as suction reduces, the hydrophilic character
of the soil reduces also, slowing down the increase of
the gradient. The combination of both factors gives
rise to the shape of the i − t curves shown in Figure 8.
In the case of h = 4.5 cm, the thickness of the
soil that participate in the adsorption process is impor-
tant and the gradient is high. Otherwise, because the
section is very close to the hydration point, the suction
and the gradient reduce drastically (Figure 7) when
hydration front approaches. These effects being less
important when h is higher the changes observed in
the gradient occur in a more progressive manner.
Figure 7. Suction profiles at different times for the whole Figure 8. Changes of hydraulic gradient with time for
length. hole test.
252
The hydraulic conductivity kw is obtained with the
generalized Darcy’s law:
1 q
kw = − · (1)
A 1/2 · (it + it+dt )
253
Figure 11. Pore size distribution at different sections of the Figure 13. Changes of vertical stress with suction for
column at the end of the test. different sections of the sample.
4 CONCLUSIONS
254
herein give some elements to improve constitutive Marcial et al. (2006). A laboratory study of the self
models that consider these aspects. sealing behaviour of a compacted sand-bentonite mix-
ture. Geomechanics and Geoengineering An International
Journal. 1, 73–85.
REFERENCES Pusch R. (1981). Unsaturated and saturated flow in swelling
clay. 10th IFSMFE, Session 6/14, Stockholm. pp.
369–373.
Daniel. D.E. (1983). Permeability test for unsaturated soil.
Pusch R., (1982). Mineral-water interactions and their influ-
Geotechnical Testing Journal. 2, 81–86.
ence on the physical behavior of highly compacted Na
Delage et al. (1996). Microstructure of compacted silt.
bentonite. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 19, 381–387.
Canadian Geotechnical J. 33, 150–158.
Sauzeat et al. (2000). Caractérisation minéralogique, cristal-
Loiseau C. (2001). Transferts d’eau et couplages HM dans les
lochimique et texturale de l’argile MX-80. LEM-CREGU.
barrières ouvragées. PhD. Thesis, ENPC, Paris, France.
ANDRA Technical Report. France.
Loiseau et al. (2002). The gradient effect on the flux through
Yahia-Aissa, M. (1999). Comportement HM d’une argile
a compacted swelling soil. 3rd Int. Conf. on Unsaturated
gonflante fortement compactée. PhD Thesis, ENPC,
Soils, Brazil. 1, 395–400.
Paris, France.
Marcial et al. (2006). Application of vertical strain control to
measure swelling pressure of clayey soils. 4th Int. Conf.
on Unsaturated Soils. Arizona, EE. UU.
255
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The retention curves of the FEBEX and MX-80 bentonites compacted at dry densities from 1.3
to 1.8 g/cm3 have been determined using methods that allow the volume of the samples to remain constant during
the determination. The methods have been upgraded to use them at high temperatures, and thus the range of
temperatures between 20 and 120◦ C has been explored. For a given density and water content, suction decreases
as temperature increases at a rate that is larger than that predicted on the basis of the water surface tension change
with temperature. Hysteresis on heating/cooling cycles has been observed, especially in the MX-80 bentonite.
For suctions higher than 10 MPa and for a given temperature and water content, the suction measured is slightly
higher for higher dry density of the bentonite. However, for lower suctions this trend clearly inverts. The water
retention capacity is lower for the MX-80 bentonite, although the difference is lessened for low suctions. The
retention capacity of the FEBEX bentonite is more affected by temperature than that of the MX-80.
257
and pyrite. The CEC is 74 meq/100 g, and the The sensor/cell method consists on the compaction
major exchangeable cations are Na (61 meq/100 g), of a bentonite block with the clay previously mixed
Ca (10 meq/100 g) and Mg (3 meq/100 g). The liq- with the desired quantity of deionised water and the
uid limit of the bentonite as determined in CIEMAT measurement of its relative humidity by means of a
laboratories is 526 percent, the plastic limit is capacitive sensor while the bentonite is kept inside
46 percent, the total specific surface area is about a hermetic cell made of stainless steel (Villar et al.,
512 m2 /g and the specific gravity is 2.82. The 2005; 2006). To convert the values of RH to suc-
hygroscopic water content at laboratory conditions is tion values, Kelvin’s law is used. The clay was used
8–11 percent. either with its hygroscopic water content, mixed with
The saturated permeability to deionised water of deionised water, or slightly dried at temperatures
samples of these bentonites compacted at different dry below 50◦ C, so as to obtain water contents between
densities is exponentially related to the dry density. 4 and 22 percent. The block is introduced in the cell,
The values of permeability to deionised water for dry the dimensions of the block being equal to the internal
densities of 1.6 g/cm3 are in the order of 10−14 m/s volume of the cell, 7 cm diameter and 10 cm height.
for the FEBEX bentonite and of 10−13 m/s for the A hole is drilled in the central upper part of the block
MX-80 bentonite. The swelling pressure of bentonite to insert the sensor and the cell is closed. The exter-
samples compacted at their hygroscopic water content nal wall of the cell is covered with a silicone-rubber
and flooded with deionised water up to saturation at laminated heater that fixes the temperature all over
room temperature can be related exponentially to dry the cell. After measuring the suction corresponding
density. For dry density 1.6 g/cm3 the swelling pres- to the laboratory temperature, the temperature of the
sure of the FEBEX bentonite is about 6 MPa and of external heating mat was increased up to 120◦ C in
the MX-80 bentonite is about 8 MPa. intervals of 20◦ C. Each target temperature was kept
for about two days, although the RH equilibrium is
reached very quickly (in a few hours). Afterwards, the
3 METHODS temperature was decreased according to the same pat-
tern. This allows, in a single test, the determination
To determine the water retention curve of the com- of the change of suction with temperature for a given
pacted bentonite at constant volume, two methodolo- density and water content. At the end of the test, the
gies, the theoretical principle of which is different, block is extracted and its water content and dry density
have been followed. are measured.
The cell method is carried out in special cells The drawback of the cell method is the duration
designed to avoid the swelling of the clay in wetting of the tests, because the time to reach equilibrium
paths (Villar, 2002; Villar and Lloret, 2004). The cells for each suction is very long, this is why the sen-
consist of a corrosion-resistant stainless steel cylindri- sor/cell method was fine-tuned. The results obtained
cal body with two perforated covers joined by bolts. with both methods are largely consistent, although the
Granulated clay is compacted directly inside the cell sensor/cell method is unsuitable for the very low and
ring at room temperature using static uniaxial com- very high suctions (Villar & Gómez-Espina, 2007).
paction. The length of the specimen is 1.20 cm and
its cross section, 11.34 cm2 . The cells are placed
in desiccators with a sulphuric acid solution or with
4 RESULTS
a NaCl solution. There are temperature-dependent
experimental relations between the concentration of
4.1 FEBEX bentonite
the solution and its water activity (aw ). The calcu-
lation of suction on the basis of relative humidity The effect of dry density on the water retention capac-
(RH = aw /100) is accomplished through Kelvin’s ity of the FEBEX bentonite has been checked using
equation. In the cell method the suction is, therefore, the cell method. It has been observed that there is a
imposed through the control of relative humidity. The suction threshold value above which, for a given water
perforated covers allow the exchange of water in the content, the suction of the higher density samples is
vapour phase between the clay and the atmosphere of higher, and below which the trend inverts. For 20◦ C
the desiccators. Once the water content of the clay is this threshold value is about 12 MPa (Figure 1).
stable (approximately 2 to 3 months, what is checked Tests with different densities have been also per-
by periodic weighing), the solution in the desiccators formed at different temperatures using both methods.
is changed in order to apply a different suction. To Some of the results obtained are plotted in Figure 2. For
determine the curve at different temperatures, the des- the range of suctions considered, the retention capac-
iccators are placed inside ovens. At the end of the tests ity of the sample of dry density 1.7 g/cm3 is higher
the final water content of the specimens is measured than of 1.5 g/cm3 . Also, the samples tested at 80◦ C
by oven drying. have lower retention capacity than those tested at 20◦ C
258
140 11%
180
120 3 14%
Dry density (g/cm ) 160
16%
1.4 1.6 1.7 140
100 18%
Suction (MPa)
Suction (MPa)
120
19%
80 100
20%
80 21%
60
60
40 40
20
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (˚C)
259
1000 basis of the change of surface tension of water with
1.30 1.37 temperature. For the MX-80 bentonite it has been
checked that the actual suction change measured is
1.60 1.79 higher than the change computed by introducing in
100
the Laplace equation the temperature dependence of
Suction (MPa)
100
the interlayer water transferred to the macropores
will be higher and the degree of saturation of the
sample will increase (provoking a suction decrease)
1.75, 39 when the temperature is increased (Villar & Lloret,
10 2004).
1.75, 99
1.50, 40
1.50, 100
1 180
11% 14%
3 8 13 18 23 160
17% 21%
Water content (%) 140
-0.33
120 -0.26
Figure 5. Retention curves obtained with the sensor/cell -0.53
Suction (MPa)
260
1.2 200
Relative suction change
MX, 26˚C
1.0 1.5 MX, 80˚C
1.6 160
FBX, 27˚C
0.8 1.75
Suction (MPa)
FBX, 81˚C
120
0.6
0.4 80
0.2
40
0.0
3 8 13 18 23 0
Water content (%) 3 8 13 18 23
Figure 7. Relative suction change when temperature Water content (%)
increases from 26 to 100◦ C in the FEBEX (filled symbols)
and MX-80 (open symbols) bentonites compacted to differ- Figure 8. Retention curves obtained with the sensor/cell
ent dry densities (indicated in g/cm3 ) and tested with the method for the FEBEX (FBX) and MX-80 (MX) bentonites
sensor/cell method. compacted at dry density 1.5 g/cm3 .
180
Figure 7 represents the relative change of suction 160 -0.53
experienced by samples of different dry density and FBX, 11%
140
water content tested with the sensor/cell method when FBX, 14%
Suction (MPa)
120
the temperature was increased from 26 to 100◦ C. The -0.32
FBX, 21%
suction decrease with temperature tends to be higher 100 -0.57
MX, 6%
for the higher dry densities, both for the FEBEX and 80
the MX-80 bentonites. It is known that the proportion 60 -0.37 MX, 11%
-0.28
of water in the interlayer of the smectite increases with 40 MX, 15%
the density of the bentonite (Pusch et al. 1990). This 20
-0.27 MX, 21%
would explain the larger effect of temperature on high -0.03
density samples. 0
On the other hand, the retention capacity of the 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
FEBEX bentonite is higher than that of the MX-80, Temperature (˚C)
as it can be observed in Figure 8 for the dry density of
1.5 g/cm3 . Numerous authors have pointed out that the Figure 9. Evolution of suction during heating for FEBEX
retention capacity of predominantly divalent (Ca and (FBX) and MX-80 (MX) bentonites compacted at dry density
Mg) smectites is higher than that of sodic ones, except 1.6 g/cm3 and tested with the sensor/cell method. The slope
of the lines is indicated.
for the lowest suctions (Hall & Astill, 1989; Saiyouri
et al., 2004). This figure also shows how the differ-
ence between the two bentonites attenuates towards
the low suctions, and this has been checked for several 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
temperatures (Villar & Gómez-Espina, 2007; Villar,
2007). The retention curves of two natural compacted ben-
Also, Figure 9 shows that the effect of temperature tonites have been determined trying to reproduce as
on suction is higher for the FEBEX bentonite than for well as possible the conditions of the engineered
the MX-80 (note the higher slope of the lines that relate barrier of a HLW repository, for which reason the
suction with temperature for the FEBEX bentonite). bentonites were used in their natural state (without
This would be a consequence of the predominance of previous drying or grinding), kept at constant vol-
interlaminar porosity (in which high-density water is ume during the determination and submitted to high
placed) in the Ca-Mg bentonite, whereas in the Na ben- temperatures. Results for dry densities from 1.3 to
tonite the porosity among primary particles (in which 1.8 g/cm3 and temperatures from 20 to 120◦ C have
‘‘free’’ water is placed) prevails, since these particles been reported. The suctions involved ranged from 0 to
are formed by fewer laminae (Pusch et al., 1990). 200 MPa.
261
The effect of density on the retention capacity varies Lloret, A. & Villar, M.V. 2007. Advances on the knowledge of
according to the suction range. For suctions below a the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of heavily com-
threshold value (which is about 12–20 MPa) for a given pacted FEBEX bentonite. Physics and Chemistry of the
water content and temperature the suction of the higher Earth, Parts A/B/C 32 (8–14): 701–715.
density samples is lower, and above this suction value Lloret, A., Romero, E. & Villar, M.V. 2004. FEBEX II
Project. Final report on thermo-hydro-mechanical labo-
the trend inverts. Anyway, the effect of dry density on ratory tests. Publicación Técnica ENRESA 10/04. 180
the water retention capacity seems lower than that of pp. Madrid.
temperature. Ma, C. & Hueckel, T. 1992. Stress and pore pressure in sat-
The water retention capacity of the bentonite urated clay subjected to heat from radioactive waste: a
decreases clearly with temperature, especially when numerical simulation. Can. Geotech. J. 29: 1087–1094.
it is above 60◦ C and when the density of the ben- Ma, C. & Hueckel, T. 1993. Thermomechanical effects on
tonite is high. This decrease cannot be explained adsorbed water in clays around a heat source. Int. J. Numer.
on the basis of the changes of water surface ten- Anal. Methods Geomech. 17: 175–196.
sion with temperature. Instead, mechanisms related Marcial, D. 2003. Comportement hydromécanique et
microstructural des matériaux de barrière ouvragée. Ph.
to the physico-chemical interactions that take place D. thesis. École Nationale des Ponts et Chausées, Paris,
at microscopic level (in particular the transfer of 316 pp.
interlayer water to the macropores triggered by temper- Push, R., Karnland, O. & Hökmark, H. 1990. GGM—A
ature) seem to explain qualitatively the experimental general microstructural model for qualitative and quan-
observations. titative studies of smectite clays. SKB Technical Report
There are also differences in the behaviour of the 90-43.
two materials tested. The FEBEX bentonite, which Romero, E., Gens, A. & Lloret, A. 2001. Temperature
has mainly bivalent cations in the exchange complex, effects on the hydraulic behaviour of an unsaturated clay.
has a higher retention capacity than the MX-80 ben- Geotech. Geolog. Eng. 19: 311–332.
Saiyouri, N., Tessier, D. & Hicher, P.Y. 2004. Experimental
tonite, which is predominantly sodic. Also, the effect study of swelling in unsaturated compacted clays. Clay
of temperature on the water retention capacity is more Minerals 39: 469–479.
noticeable for the FEBEX bentonite. Villar, M.V. 2002. Thermo-hydro-mechanical characteri-
sation of a bentonite from Cabo de Gata. A study
applied to the use of bentonite as sealing material in high
level radioactive waste repositories. Publicación Técnica
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ENRESA 01/2002. 258 pp. Madrid.
Villar, M.V. 2005. MX-80 bentonite. Thermo-hydro-
Part of the work on the FEBEX bentonite has been mechanical characterisation performed at CIEMAT in
co-funded by ENRESA (Spanish National Agency for the context of the Prototype Project. Informes Técnicos
Waste Management) and the European Commission CIEMAT 1053. 39 pp. Madrid.
(EC Contracts FI4 W-CT95-006 and FIKW-CT-2000- Villar, M.V. 2007. Water retention of two natural compacted
bentonites. Clays and Clay Minerals 55(3): 311–322.
00016). The research agreements CIEMAT/ENRESA
Villar, M.V. & Lloret, A. 2004. Influence of tempera-
00/271 and CIEMAT/CIMNE 04/113 have financed ture on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of a compacted
the research related to MX-80 bentonite. The labora- bentonite. Applied Clay Science 26: 337–350.
tory work was performed by R. Campos and J. Aroz Villar, M.V. & Gómez-Espina, R. 2007. Retention curves
at CIEMAT (Madrid, Spain). The second author has a of two bentonites at high temperature. In Experimen-
grant of the Spanish Ministry of Education. tal Unsaturated Soil Mechanics. Springer Proceedings in
Physics, vol. 112: 267–274. Berlin: Springer.
Villar, M.V., Martín, P.L. & Lloret, A. 2005. Determina-
tion of water retention curves of two bentonites at high
REFERENCES temperature. In Tarantino, A., Romero, E. & Cui, Y.J.
(eds.), Advanced experimental unsaturated soil mechan-
ENRESA 2006. Full-scale Engineered Barriers Experiment. ics. EXPERUS 2005. pp 77–82. London: A.A. Balkema
Updated Final Report 1994–2004. Publicación Técnica Publishers.
ENRESA 05-0/2006. 590 pp. Madrid. Villar, M.V., Gómez-Espina, R. & Martín, P.L. 2006.
Hall, P.L. & Astill, D.M. 1989. Adsorption of water by Behaviour of MX-80 bentonite at unsaturated conditions
homionic exchange forms of Wyoming montmorillonite and under thermo-hydraulic gradient. Work performed
(SWy-1). Clays and Clay Minerals 37(4): 355–363. by CIEMAT in the context of the TBT project. Informes
Jacinto, A., Villar, M.V., Gómez-Espina, R. & Ledesma, A. Técnicos CIEMAT 1081. 45 pp. Madrid.
in press a. Influence of temperature and density on the Yahia-Aissa, M. 1999. Comportement hydromécanique
retention curve of compacted bentonite: modifications to d’une argile gonflante fortement compactée. Ph.D. the-
the van Genuchten expression. Applied Clay Science. sis, École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, CERMES,
Jacinto, A., Villar, M.V. & Ledesma, A. in press b. Influence Paris.
of water density on the water retention curve of expansive
clays. Géotechnique.
262
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the drying portions of the soil-water characteristic curves of five soils from
Greece, along with the void ratio vs suction curves over the same drying portion, the one-dimensional compres-
sion curves of the same soils and their comparison. The curves were measured using the pressure plate extractor
technique. The soils tested included one silt, two clays and two marls. Soil specimens used for soil-water char-
acteristic curve determination were first reconstituted, reconsolidated under one-dimensional conditions to the
in-situ vertical stress of each soil, and then unloaded. Undisturbed samples were available for one soil as well
and the drying portion of the undisturbed material was measured for this soil too. The soil-water characteristic
curve data presented are the first for soils from Greece and among the few presented for marls.
263
Table 1. Index properties of the soils tested. paraffin wax for total volume measurement. Assuming
that the water content measured on one half is the same
wL Ip Gs Clay Silt Sand throughout the specimen, then the mass of the water
Soil (%) – – (%) (%) (%) in the half used for total volume measurement can
be calculated from the total mass of this half. Once
Ioannina Lake Silt 24 1 2.55 8 27 65
Corinth Marl 34 12 2.67 11 86 3 the mass of the water is known, the mass of the solid
Chania Clay 24 9 2.68 18 50 32 particles is also known, and then their volumes are cal-
Kifissia Clay 41 21 2.67 33 64 3 culated from the known density of water and specific
Kifissia Marl 31 16 2.66 25 68 7 gravity respectively. Having calculated the volumes
of the water phase (Vw ) and the solid phase (Vs ) in
the half of the specimen where total volume has been
measured (Vtot ), the volume of the voids (Vv ) is cal-
Table 2. Basic minerals of the soils tested (measured on culated (Vv = Vtot − Vs ) and the degree of saturation
percentage passing through sieve No. 200). (Sr ) of the sample is calculated by its definition as a
property (Sr = Vw /Vv ). Once the degree of satura-
Kifissia tion has been calculated and the water content w and
Ioannina Chania Corinth
Mineral Lake Silt Clay Marl Clay Marl specific gravity Gs are already known then void ratio
e can be calculated (e = w · Gs /Sr ). These calcula-
Quartz 75 60 16 16 18 tions are based on the reasonable assumptions that the
Albite 5 3 3 – 2 water content measured on one half of the specimen
Calcite 2.5 3 60 37 52 and the degree of saturation calculated for the other
Dolomite – – 2 1 – are the same throughout the specimen. An important
Illite 3 3 7 10 5 detail is that when cutting the specimen, utmost care
Montmorillonite 7 9 7 12 17 must be exhibited that the surface of the section in the
Halloysite – 10 – 8 –
Chlorite 3 3 1.5 4 2
half used for total volume measurement must be as flat
Serpentine 2 – 1.5 4 – as possible without cavities where air may be trapped.
Muscovite – 5 1 7 3 As far as one-dimensional consolidation is con-
cerned, conventional deadweight, front-loading oedo-
meters were used with a 10:1 beam-lever ratio and
fixed-ring cells with lightly lubricated, smooth and
3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD polished inner surface rings, with a 70 mm internal
diameter and 19 mm height.
Soil water characteristic curves were measured using Reconstitution involved breaking of particle aggre-
the axis translation technique by means of a con- gations and thorough mixing with de-aired, de-ionised
ventional Soil-Moisture Inc. pressure extractor with water until a slurry of 1.5wL water content was pre-
15 Bar air-entry pressure ceramic porous stones. Air pared. All slurries were left to hydrate under vacuum
pressure was provided from an air compressor with for sufficient time with occasional measurement of
the necessary filters connected to the air supply their water content and drying or addition of water to
for air dehumidification. Different specimens were ensure homogeneity of the slurries prepared for each
used for each suction value applied in the pressure soil and consistent initial conditions for all reconsti-
extractor, rather than measuring the amount of water tuted soils. As a general rule, a water content of ±10%
being extracted from the same specimen. This was from the target value of initial slurry water content
considered important for the measurement of total was set, which has been found to ensure homogene-
volume changes (which in combination with water ity of later consolidated specimens of reconstituted
content measurement allow the calculation of void soils, provided the maximum vertical stress exceeds
ratio changes with suction), as with the water move- 50–100 kPa (Bardanis, 1999) as was the case for all 5
ment measurements, both system complexities and soils.
assumptions involved may limit accuracy. With dif- All soils were consolidated to a maximum vertical
ferent samples, accuracy is determined only by soil stress corresponding approximately to the depth they
homogeneity for undisturbed samples and careful came from and then unloaded; Ioannina Lake Silt to
preparation of identical reconstituted soil samples. Air 100 kPa, Chania Clay to 200 kPa, and Kifissia Clay
pressure is supplied to the pressure extractor during and Marl to 600 kPa. Corinth Marl specimens were
the time needed for the suction to reach equilibrium in consolidated to 800 kPa and then unloaded, mostly
the specimens. Afterwards the air pressure is removed on the basis that this stress history created the same
and the soil specimens are taken out immediately, cut initial void ratio that was measured on the undisturbed
in half, with one half used for water content mea- specimens removed from the toe of the Corinth Canal
surement and the other half being immersed in melted slopes (approximately 70–75 m high).
264
As far as the samples of the undisturbed Corinth Figure 1(b) is the full saturation line corresponding
Marl are concerned, these were carefully preserved in to the specific gravity, Gs , of the material (e = w · Gs ,
a controlled humidity chamber. Larger blocks were for Sr = 100%). As seen in Figure 1(a), desaturation
taken out of the chamber when specimens had to be occurred between 25 and 30 kPa, while the second
trimmed from them in order to be put in the pressure inflection point occurred between 150 and 200 kPa
extractor. Corinth Marl as a geological formation may corresponding to a degree of saturation between 45%
by no means be considered a homogeneous material; and 50%. This value seems too high to be the resid-
still the largest possible block of visually homoge- ual value of the degree of saturation. Specimens of
neous material was used. Homogeneity within this the soil left to dry completely in the air yielded a
block was later verified by numerous index tests on value of the degree of saturation on average 7%. This
specimens from various positions in the block. The value seems more likely to reflect residual condi-
blocks came from the toe of the canal slope just above tions, whereas the value of 45%–50% observed on the
sea level (ca. 0.50 m) and in-situ suction was mea- SWCC corresponds most probably to the point where
sured with a Quickdraw Tensiometer and found to be water retention characteristics start to be dictated pri-
approximately 10 kPa. marily by the finer fraction of the soil’s grains. The
grain size distribution of this soil (Fig. 2) is gap-graded,
although slightly and only for the small percentage
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION passing through sieve No.200. Still, this type of grain
size distribution would justify a ‘bimodal’ SWCC with
In Figure 1(a) degree of saturation is plotted against one inflection point at Sr 45%–50% and a second one
suction for Ioannina Lake silt, while in Figure 1(b) at approximately 7%, which was not observed how-
void ratio is plotted against the corresponding value ever as the maximum applied suction was 1500 kPa.
of water content during drying. The solid line in Also as seen in Figure 1(b), the scatter of void ratio
100
values is very large, as this is probably the coarsest
material for which immersion in melted paraffin wax
for total volume measurement may be applied.
80 In Figures 3(a) & 3(b) degree of saturation is
plotted against suction and void ratio against the cor-
60 responding water content during drying respectively
Sr (%)
0.80
100
0.70
90
.
0.60 80
70
Percentage passing (%)
0.50
60
0.40
e
50
0.30 40
30
0.20
20
0.10 10
0.00 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000
(b) w (%) Sieve diameter (mm)
Figure 1. (a) Degree of saturation Sr vs suction s, and Figure 2. Grain-size distribution curve of Ioannina
(b) void ratio e vs water content w for Ioannina Lake Silt. Lake Silt.
265
100 100
80 80
60 60
Sr (%)
Sr (%)
40 40
20 20
0 0
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
(a) s (kPa) (a) s (kPa)
0.80 0.80
0.70 0.70
0.60 0.60
0.50 0.50
0.40 0.40
e
0.30 0.30
0.20 Rec/Rec 0.20
0.10 Undisturbed 0.10
0.00 0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
(b) w (%) (b) w (%)
Figure 3. (a) Degree of saturation Sr vs suction s, and Figure 4. (a) Degree of saturation Sr vs suction s, and
(b) void ratio e vs water content w for Corinth Marl. (b) void ratio e vs water content w for Chania Clay.
undisturbed Corinth Marl, almost at the point of ren- In Figures 4(a) & 4(b) degree of saturation is
dering the results meaningless, especially in the e-w plotted against suction and void ratio against water
plot of Figure 3(b). Still it is clear in Figure 3(a) that, content during drying for Chania Clay. As seen in
despite the large scatter, the undisturbed Corinth Marl Figure 4(a), desaturation seems to start occurring at
desaturates at a higher suction than the reconstituted approximately 1000 kPa but this is not supported by a
and reconsolidated one (between 200 and 300 kPa similarly clear departure from the full saturation line in
as opposed to 100 to 200 kPa) and retains a higher Figure 4(b). The observed departure is not considered
degree of saturation for the same suction after desat- clear given the accuracy of measurements. Still the pic-
uration, although both materials have the same void ture is that the air entry pressure of Chania Clay must
ratio at the beginning of drying. Bardanis & Kavvadas be between 1000 and 1500 kPa, although a few mea-
(2004) have elaborated more on this observation and surements at slightly larger values would have ascer-
attributed the observed behaviour to cementation of tained whether desaturation did actually occur or not.
the undisturbed Corinth Marl, which does not exist in In Figures 5(a) & 5(b) degree of saturation is plot-
reconstituted/reconsolidated specimens. This is worth ted against suction and void ratio against water content
further investigation, as experimental results for unsat- during drying for both Kifissia Clay and Marl. Given
urated properties of marls (especially focusing on the the same stress history of both materials, the Clay
effect of their cementation in their drying behaviour) retains a higher void ratio, in agreement with its higher
are scarce, if any, in the literature. More information on liquid limit. Kifissia Clay seems to desaturate close to
the engineering behaviour of Corinth Marl and the role 1000 kPa (Fig. 5(a)), which is supported by signs of
played by its cementation may be found in Kavvadas departure from the full saturation line (Fig. 5(b)). Both
et al. (2003). the departure from line Sr = 100% in Figure 5(a) and
266
100 0.80
0.70
80
0.60
0.50
60
Sr (%)
0.40
e
40 0.30
0.20 SWCC
20
0.10 1D Compression
0 0.00
10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 10000
(a) s (kPa) (a) Suction/Vertical stress (kPa)
0.80 0.80
0.70 0.70
0.60 0.60
0.50 0.50
0.40 0.40
e
e
0.30 0.30
Figure 5. (a) Degree of saturation Sr vs suction s, and Figure 6. Void ratio vs suction during drying and
(b) void ratio e vs water content w for Kifissia Clay and Marl. one-dimensional compression curves for (a) reconstituted
and reconsolidated Corinth Marl, and (b) undisturbed
Corinth Marl.
the full saturation line in Figure 5(b) are rather obscure
relative to the accuracy achieved. As far as Kifissia
Marl is concerned, desaturation has not occurred, as
In Figures 6(a) & 6(b) the void ratio-suction curve
no departure is observed from the line Sr = 100%
and the one-dimensional compression curve for recon-
or the full saturation line. The opposite would have
stituted/reconsolidated specimens and undisturbed
been expected given that the Marl contains slightly
specimens of Corinth Marl are plotted. For Corinth
less clay-size material than the Clay (25% vs 33%),
Marl, sufficient quantities of the material were avail-
slightly more sand (7% vs 3%) and less clayey min-
able for a special test with a loading-unloading loop,
erals in the fraction passing sieve No. 200 (a total of
similar to that applied to reconstituted specimens
27% vs 45%). The observed lack of desaturation up
before drying, to be performed. The compression
to 1500 kPa may therefore be attributed either to the
curve for this test is shown in Figure 6(a). The com-
presence of more montmorillonite (17% vs 12%) or to
pression curve shown in Figure 6(b) is an average
experimental error with the results of Kifissia Clay.
of the one-dimensional compression tests performed
on undisturbed Corinth Marl. The larger scatter of
5 VOID RATIO CHANGES WITH SUCTION void ratio values of undisturbed specimens during
AND VERTICAL STRESS drying relative to that of the values of the reconsti-
tuted/reconsolidated specimens is apparent in these
Given that the one-dimensional curves of most of plots as well. For reconstituted/ reconsolidated speci-
the soils had already been studied, a comparison was mens there seems to be fair agreement up to 100 kPa.
attempted between void ratio changes due to suction After that value of suction/stress, the void ratio during
and due to one-dimensional compression. drying becomes smaller than that for the compression
267
the particular specimen had different properties or
1.20 there has been some experimental error. Therefore
it will not be considered that Kifissia Clay achieved
1.00
desaturation.
Returning to the comparison between void ratio vs
0.80
suction and one-dimensional compression curves for
each of the two materials, two observations can be
e
0.60
made. First, the void ratio vs suction curves are for
0.40 all practical purposes (and at least up to the max-
imum stress applied to specimens used for SWCC
0.20 measurement) parallel to the unloading branches of
the one-dimensional curves. This point seems to sup-
0.00 port that void ratio decrease with increasing suction up
10 100 1000 10000 to the air-entry pressure during drying and increasing
vertical stress during one-dimensional loading may be
Suction/Vertical stress (kPa)
described by the same indices. The second observa-
tion regards the void ratio vs suction curve of Kifissia
Figure 7. Void ratio vs suction during drying and one-
dimensional compression curves for reconstituted and recon-
Clay, which seems to exhibit a change in its slope at
solidated Kifissia Clay. 600 kPa (if the point at 1100 kPa is omitted). Unfortu-
nately this has not been observed on the same curve for
Kifissia Marl. Still it would be logical to expect such
1.00 a change of slope when such conditions occur, i.e. a
maximum preconsolidation pressure smaller than the
0.80 air-entry pressure and a zero total stress suction path
extending to suctions higher than the preconsolida-
tion pressure. These observations need certainly to be
0.60 supported by further experimental research (especially
with tests where high values of suction will be applied
e
268
cementation. Further investigation into the decrease of Bardanis, M.E. 1999. An experimental study of the properties
void ratio with increasing suction for soils with a max- of intrinsic compressibility of one clay and one marl, Proc.
imum preconsolidation pressure smaller and higher 13th Young Geotechnical Engineers Conference, San-
than their air-entry pressure may also help redefine the torini, Greece, 23–25 September 1999, 88–97, Athens:
parameters used in constitutive modelling to describe Minoas.
Bardanis, M.E., Kavvadas, M.J. 2004. Laboratory investiga-
these changes. tion of the virgin drying of the Corinth Marls, in T. Schanz
(ed.), Unsaturated Soils: Experimental Studies, Proc. of
the Int. Conf. ‘‘From Experimental Evidence towards
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Numerical Modelling of Unsaturated Soils’’, Weimar,
17–18 September 2003, 421–432, Berlin: Springer.
Part of the research by M.E. Bardanis has been funded Kavvadas, M.J., Anagnostopoulos, A.G., Georgiannou, V.N.,
by the National Scholarship Foundation (IKY) of Bardanis, M.E. 2003. Characterisation and engineering
Greece. properties of the Corinth Marl, in Tan et al (eds.), Proc. Int.
Workshop ‘Characterisation and Engineering Properties
of Natural Soils’, Singapore, 2002, 2, 1435–1459, Lisse:
Swets & Zeitlinger.
REFERENCES
269
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
M. Cecconi
University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
G. Russo
University of Cassino, Cassino, Italy
ABSTRACT: The applicability of semi-empirical prediction methods of the water retention properties of unsat-
urated soils has been examined in detail. Among these methods, those based on the particle size distribution of
samples seem to be very effective in predicting the soil water retention curve, as well as being very advantageous
for their simplicity. On the other hand, other methods allow predicting indirectly the soil water retention curve
from the mercury intrusion porosimetry technique. In the paper experimental soil water retention curves (swrcs)
of a natural and lime stabilised compacted silt, obtained from pressure plate tests and mercury intrusion porosime-
try tests, are respectively compared with those predicted by pore size distribution model and mercury intrusion
porosimetry models. The comparison allows a critical review of the prediction methods and highlights the con-
sistency of the predicted and the observed water retention properties of both natural and lime stabilised samples.
271
plastic limit, liquid limit) of the natural soil were Table 1. Pressure plate tests (PP) and porosimetry tests
determined and standard Proctor tests were performed. (MIP).
Lime treated samples were prepared by hand mix-
ing the oven dried soil with 3% quicklime powder Test type Test # Sample Curing time
and distilled water, allowing the quicklime to hydrate PP STDN01 nat −
for 24 hours. The selected percent by weight of PP STD02 3% lime variable
quicklime allowed the development of pozzolanic PP L43CCT07(∗) 3% lime 7 days
reactions (Rogers et al., 1997). The samples were PP L43CCT28(∗) 3% lime 28 days
finally compacted at optimum (wopt ) initial water MIP L4NOF01 natural −
content. MIP L4NOF02 natural −
Pressure plate tests were performed on both nat- MIP L4NOF04 natural −
ural and lime stabilised samples. With reference to MIP L43OF00 3% lime 0 days
the standard testing procedure, the duration of the MIP L43OF07 3% lime 7 days
test does not allow the control of the curing time of MIP L43OF14 3% lime 14 days
the stabilised samples. Therefore, a new testing proce- MIP L43OF28 3% lime 28 days
dure was developed in order to obtain constant curing MIP L43OF77 3% lime 77 days
time water retention curves. Details of the procedure
can be found in a companion paper (Tedesco & Russo, (∗ ) CCT: constant curing time.
2008). Two types of water retention curves of the
stabilised samples have been considered, namely the
standard retention curve, characterised by a variable
curing time, and the ‘‘constant curing time’’ curves, Table 2. Physical properties of natural and stabilised
for which the experimental data are determined at the samples.
same curing time (CCT tests). In particular, 7 and γs wL wopt γdmax
28 days curing times were set for stabilised sam- (kN/m3 ) (%) PI (%) (kN/m3 )
ples, traditionally considered in order to evaluate the
effectiveness of lime stabilisation. Natural 26.4 25.0 8 14.5 18.6
In order to perform mercury intrusion porosimetry, 3% Lime 26.1 24.0 – 17.5 17.3
samples were dehydrated by freeze-drying technique
(Delage & Pellerin, 1984), that is rapid freezing in
liquid nitrogen (boiling point −196◦ C) followed by
sublimation in a true vacuum. Freezing was acceler-
ated using small pieces of soil (1–2 mg in weight), as 1.0
stated by Delage & Lefebvre (1984). The dehydrated
lime stabilised samples were then cured for fixed time
intervals under controlled conditions before perform- 0.8
ing MIP tests. The curing intervals of time selected
no rm
were t = 0, 7, 28 days.
S TD02
In Table 1 pressure plate tests (PP) and mercury L43CCT07
0.6
intrusion porosimetry tests (MIP) are summarized. L43CCT28
Table 2 reports the main physical properties of both S TDN01
Va n Ge nuchte n
natural and lime stabilized samples. (1980)
272
0.20 sands yields to a computed parameter α not depending
L4NOF0 1
L4NOF02
on particle size (constant α = 1.38). Later investiga-
0.16 L4NOF04 tions by Arya et al. (1999) were aimed to investigate
cumulative volume (cc/g)
L43OF28 The calculated PSD was then divided into thirty size
L43OF77
0.15 fractions and values of s(θ) were then calculated by
means of the procedure outlined by Arya & Paris
0.10 (1981).
The predicted SWRCs are shown in Figures 5a
0.05 and b) in comparison with those obtained from stan-
dard and constant curing time pressure plate tests and
0.00 fitted through Van Genucthen (1980) equation.
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
diameter ( m) The results are plotted in terms of the ratio =
θ/θ0 , where θ0 represents the initial volumetric water
Figure 3. Results of MIP tests on lime-stabilised samples. content of the sample. For the material in its natural
state (Fig. 5a), it can be noted that the predicted SWRC
(α = 2.5) is twisted and smoothed with respect to
3 PREDICTIONS the measured SWRC and the air entry value is ques-
tionable. The predictions improve for the stabilised
3.1 Particle size distribution method samples. In this case, a larger value of Arya and Paris
parameter α is needed (α = 4). By comparing the dot-
Very briefly, in the model proposed by Arya & Paris ted curves in Figure 5b with the model prediction, it
(1981) it is assumed the solid grains spherical and the is found that the slope of the predicted SWRC is very
pore volume approximated to that of cylindrical cap- similar to that obtained from a standard pressure plate
illary tubes. For each ith particle-size class, the pore test (test STDN02, see Table 1), even if the predicted
radius (ri ) can be related to the mean grain radius (Ri ), curve is shifted downward.
according to:
=5
=3
y, k
y,
Jak
0.4
273
1.0 with Tm the surface tension of mercury (Tm = 480 ×
10−3 N/m at 20◦ C) and δm the contact angle between
nat.
= 2.5 mercury and soil (δm = 139◦ ).
0.8 The soil gravimetric water content that should cor-
respond to each intruded pore radius can be calculated
norm
from Equation 5:
0.6
n − ñ
pressure plate-nat. samples w= (5)
- - - - - - Van Genuchten (1980) (1 − n)Gs
0.4
1 10 10 0 100 0 10000
s (kPa) a) with n the soil porosity and ñ the ratio of the vol-
ume intruded by mercury to pore radii as small as
r to the total volume of the sample. Equation 5 is
1.0
well-founded by assuming implicitly that the pressure
lime s um − ua intruding the air pores (Va ) of a soil sam-
tab.
=4 ple of volume V and porosity n corresponds—through
0.8 Equations 4—to the matric suction s required to desat-
STDN02
norm
STDN01
- - - - - - Van Genuchten (1980)
0.6
from MIP tests
However, for the material at hand, the Arya and L4NOF01
Paris (1981) model predictions are not sufficiently L4NOF02
L4NOF04
accurate. Further investigations are also required to 0.4
explore the nature of parameter α; in fact values of 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
274
predictions estimated for natural and lime stabilised 4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
samples.
From a critical inspection of these figures, the Two different empirical methods available in the lit-
following considerations can be drawn: erature for the prediction of the SWRCS of unsaturated
soils, namely the models proposed by Arya & Paris
– the predicted swrcs for tests L43OF00, L43OF07
(1981) and Prapaharan et al. (1985) have been applied
and L43OF14 are very similar in shape, thus indi-
to the experimental results of pressure plate and mer-
cating that the short term effects induced by lime
cury intrusion porosimeter tests on natural and lime
persist at least for 14 days;
stabilised samples of a compacted sandy silt.
– the subsequent microstructural changes induced by
By following the approach proposed by Prapaharan
lime with increasing the curing time up to 28 and
et al. (1985), based on the similarity between the pore
77 days (tests L43OF28 and L43OF77 modify the
size distribution and the soil water retention proper-
location and the shape of the swrc; due to long term
ties, the agreement between experimental results and
effects (pozzolanic reactions), the increase of the
predictions is very encouraging. The model is capa-
retention properties are probably connected with the
ble to capture the very complex evolution with curing
reduction of interconnected pores between aggre-
time of the microstructure of stabilised samples, due
gates and the increase of occluded intra-aggregate
to the development of cation exchange and pozzolanic
pores.
reactions induced by lime.
– the predicted and experimental soil water reten-
Moreover, the mercury porosimetry technique
tion curves—in Figure 6, the experimental data are
requires much shorter test duration than pressure plate
fitted through the Van Genuchten equation—are
tests and this certainly represents a great advantage.
substantially in good agreement. It is noted that data
from constant curing time tests are very close to
those calculate from MIP tests carried out at low
curing time. Also, data from test stdn02 are def- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
initely comparable with those obtained from MIP
tests on stabilised samples and cured for four and The Authors are very grateful to Prof. Giuseppe Mas-
more weeks. colo for the support during the experimental work.
Finally, when comparing the whole set of predic- Mercury intrusion porosimetry tests were developed
tions obtained from MIP tests discussed above and at the University of Cassino under the careful super-
shown in Figure 7, it is synthetically highlighted vision of Sebastiana Dal Vecchio. With gratitude the
the relevant dependency of water retention properties Authors thank Dante Valerio Tedesco for the helpful
of the stabilised samples on the curing time. There contribution to the laboratory work.
are no sensible differences—in terms of retention
properties—among natural and stabilised samples,
as long as the curing time does not exceed two REFERENCES
weeks. After that, the soil water retention curves
increase significantly as the pozzolanic reactions Arya, L.M., Paris, J.F. 1981. A physicoempirical model to
develop. predict the soil moisture characteristic from particle size.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45: 1023–1030.
Arya, L.M., Feike, J.L., van Genuchten, M.T., Shouse, P.J.
1999. Scaling parameter to predict the soil water charac-
1.0 teristic from particle size distribution data. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 63: 510–519.
Aung, K.K., Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C., Toll, D.G. 2001.
Relationship between porosimetry measurement and soil-
0.8 water characteristic curve for unsaturated residual soil.
norm
275
Fredlund, M.D., Fredlund, D.G., Wilson, G.W. 1997. Pre- Rogers, C.D.F., Glendinning, S., Roff, T.E.J. 1997. Modifi-
diction of the soil water characteristic curve from grain cation of clay soils for construction expediency. Geotech-
size distributions and volume mass properties. Proc. 3rd nical Engineering 125: 1–8.
Brasilian Symp. on Unsat. Soils, Nonsat97, Rio de Russo, G., Dal Vecchio, S., Mascolo, G. 2007. Microstruc-
Janeiro, vol. 1, 13–23. ture of a lime stabilised compacted silt. In Tom Schanz
Hwang, S.I., Lee, K.P., Lee, D.S., Powers, S.E. 2002. Models (ed.), Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics, Proc. of
for estimating soil particle size distributions. Soil Sci. Soc. the 2nd Int. Conf. On the Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils,
Am. J. 66: 1143–1150. USS2007, Weimar (D), 7–9 March 2007. Heidelberg:
Hwang, S.I. and Powers, S.E. 2003. Using soil particle size Springer, 49–56.
distribution models to estimate soil hydraulic properties. Scott Sillers, W., Fredlund, D.G., Zakerzadeh, N. 2001.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 67: 1103–1112. Mathematical attributes of some soil-water characteristic
Jaky, J. 1944. Soil Mechanics. Egyetemi Nyomda, Budapest. curve models. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering
Kong, L.W., Tan, L.R. 2000. A simple method of determin- 19: 243–283.
ing the soil-water characteristic curve indirectly. Proc. of Tedesco, D.V. 2007. Hydro-mechanical behaviour of lime-
the Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Singapore, stabilised soils. PhD Thesis, University of Cassino.
341–345. Cassino, Italy.
Penumadu, D., Dean, J. 1999. Compressibility effect in Tedesco, D.V., Russo, G. 2008. Time dependency of water
evaluating the pore-size distribution of kaolin clay using retention properties of a lime stabilised compacted soil.
mercury intrusion porosimetry. Canadian Geotechnical Submitted for publication to First European Conference
Journal 37: 393–405. on Unsaturated Soils, 2–4-July, Durham.
Prapaharan, S., Altschaeffl, A.G., Dempsey, B.J. 1985. Van Genuchten, M. Th. (1980). A closed-form equation for
Moisture curve of compacted clay: mercury intrusion predicting the hydraulic conductivity off unsaturated soils
method. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Soil Sci. soc. Am. J. 44: 892–898.
111(9): 1139–1143.
Purcell, W.R. 1949. Capillary pressures, their measure-
ment using mercury and the calculation of permeability
therefrom. Petroleum Transactions, IME 186: 39–48.
276
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Lime stabilisation induces the development of chemical reactions which modify the micro-
structure of treated soils. Cation exchange and pozzolanic reactions are the two main phenomena responsible for
those microstructural changes. Among the hydro-mechanical properties of the stabilised soil, the water retention
properties are significantly modified with respect to those of the natural ones and are strongly dependent on
curing time. An experimental investigation was carried out on a natural and lime-stabilised compacted silty soil.
It was found that the water retention capacity increases after the addition of lime independently from the initial
water content. The increase is significantly higher for longer curing times. The results of mercury intrusion
porosimetry tests highlighted the fundamental influence of lime on the modification of inter-aggregate porosity.
277
1996). A fixed amount of quicklime (3.0% by weight) retention capacity detected at the end of the test must
was set in order to allow the complete development be considered as determined at variable curing time.
of both cationic exchange and pozzolanic reactions Generally, at the end of the test the sample was cured
(Rogers & Glendinning, 1996). After the addition for more than 28 days. In order to carry out tests
of quicklime and distilled water, the samples were at constant curing time on stabilised samples, a new
cured for 24 hours in order to allow the hydration of experimental procedure was set up (Tedesco, 2007).
quicklime. Each point of the SWRC, corresponding to a fixed
Grain size distributions, Atterberg limits and spe- value of matric suction, was determined by means
cific weights of both natural and lime stabilised soils of three stabilised samples cured for 7 or 28 days.
were determined. The same tests were repeated for sta- At the end of each step, the average degree of sat-
bilised samples at different curing times, namely 0, 7, uration of the three samples constituted the point of
28, 60 days. the SWRC at constant curing time. The samples were
Both natural and lime stabilised samples were then removed and substituted by new stabilised sam-
compacted following the Standard Proctor procedure ples cured for the same time, in order to perform the
(ASTM D698-91ε1 ) at different initial water content, subsequent step. The final results formed the water
namely dry of optimum, optimum and wet of optimum retention curve of stabilised samples at constant curing
water contents. It has been supposed that the structure time.
of soils compacted at corresponding initial water con- In Table 1 the pressure plate test on both natural and
tents is comparable (Seed & Chan, 1959, Alonso et al., stabilised samples are summarised.
1987).
Natural and lime stabilised samples (20.0 mm in
height and 60.5 mm in diameter) were saturated with
distilled water through the application of a hydraulic 3 RESULTS
head and submitted to desiccation tests using a pres-
sure plate apparatus equipped with a high air entry The main physical properties of natural samples were
value porous stone (1.5 MPa). For each suction initially determined (PI = 9.0%, LL = 23.0%, γs =
step, four days were needed for the specimens in 26.9 kN/m3 ). The same tests were then repeated on
order to reach the equilibrium between the inter- lime stabilised samples, taking into account an even-
nal and the applied air pressure. At the end of the tual time dependency. In Table 2 the Atterberg limits
tests the specimens were oven dried and the soil and the specific weights of the stabilised samples at
water retention curves (SWRCs) determined by back different curing times have been reported. It is note-
calculation. worthy that for every value of curing time the plastic
During the long duration of each test lime treated limit of lime stabilised samples was not determinable.
samples experience continuous changes in microstruc- In Figure 1 the grain size distributions of natural
ture, due to the relevant dependency on curing time and stabilised specimens are reported. The latter were
(Russo et al., 2007). The variations in soil water determined as a function of curing time. Stabilised
samples are characterised by a sensible decrease in fine
grains, which seems to remain constant with curing
time (Tedesco, 2007).
Table 1. Pressure plate tests (PP). In Figure 2 the compaction curve of natural and
Curing time
stabilised (for curing time t = 0) samples are plotted.
Sample Test Water content (days) The addition of lime induces a shifting of the curve,
with an increase in the optimum water content and a
Natural ND Dry – decrease in the maximum dry density.
Natural NO Opt – Figures 3–6 show the results of pressure plate tests
Natural NW Wet – on natural and lime stabilised samples at constant cur-
3% Lime STD Dry Variable ing time and at variable curing time. The SWRCs were
3% Lime STO Opt Variable plotted in terms of ratio between the actual average
3% Lime STW Wet Variable
degree of saturation and the initial average degree of
3% Lime CCTD07(∗) Dry 7
saturation.
3% Lime CCTO07(∗) Opt 7
The experimental points were interpreted by fit-
3% Lime CCTW07(∗) Wet 7
ting the available data with the Van Genuchten (1980)
3% Lime CCTD28(∗) Dry 28
3% Lime CCTO28(∗) Opt 28
equation:
3% Lime CCTW28(∗) Wet 28
1
(∗)For constant curing time (CCT) tests the average values S= (1)
are reported. [1 + (aψ)b ]c
278
Table 2. Atterberg limits and specific weights of the sta- 100
bilised samples. 95
90
Curing time Liquid limit Specific weight
85
(days) (%) (kN/m3 )
80
S/S 0 [%]
ND
0 23 2.66 75
7 25 2.69 70 NO
28 29 2.69 65
NW
60 25 2.67 60
55
50
1 10 100 1000
u a-uw [kPa]
100
Figure 3. SWRCs of natural samples.
90
natural
80
3% lime -t=0 100
70
3% lime -t=7 95
60
P [%]
3% lime -t=28 90
50
3% lime -t=60 85
40
80
S/S 0 [%]
30
CCTD07
20 75
10 70 CCTO07
0 65
CCTW07
0,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10 60
D [mm] 55
50
Figure 1. Grain size distributions of natural and stabilised 1 10 100 1000
samples. ua-uw [kPa]
85
1,70
80
S/S 0 [%]
1,65 CCTD28
75
1,60 70 CCTO28
1,55 65
CCTW28
60
1,50
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 55
w [%] 50
1 10 100 1000
Figure 2. Standard proctor compaction curves of natural ua-uw [kPa]
and stabilised samples.
Figure 5. SWRCs of lime-treated samples at constant
curing time t = 28 days.
where S is the actual degree of saturation, ψ the matric of saturation and the initial degree of saturation S0 of
suction, and a, b and c best-fitting parameters, respec- the samples:
tively linked to the air-entry value, to the slope of the
curve at the inflexion point and to the residual degree of S 1
saturation. This equation was modified in order to plot = √
C (2)
S0 B·C
S0 + (Aψ)B
the results in terms of ratio between the actual degree
279
100 capacity of stabilised samples on the initial water con-
95 tent is relevant for short curing times, while for long
90 curing times this dependency tends to be negligible
85 with respect to the effects of curing time.
80 In order to highlight this point, in Figures 7–9
S/S 0 [%]
STD
75 the water retention curves of stabilised samples are
70 STO compared with the natural ones at fixed initial water
65
STW
content and as a function of curing time. It can be
60 observed that, for each initial water content, in the
55 short term (t = 7 days) a slight decrease of the
50 retention takes place for suction values lower than
1 10 100 1000 100 kPa, with a reduction in the air entry values,
ua-uw [kPa] while no significant changes take place for suctions
higher than 100 kPa. As the curing time increases (t ≥
Figure 6. SWRCs of lime-treated samples at variable curing 28 days), the retention is higher in the upper suc-
time. tion range (100–1000 kPa), as detected for all the
stabilised samples at each initial water content. The
Table 3. Best-fitting parameters of the modified Van highest retention pertains to samples cured for long
Genuchten (1980) equation. time intervals. For those samples, the air entry values
aev
are considerably reduced.
Test A B C (kPa)
280
100 0,025
Nat
90 0,020
3%_7
dV/d(logD) [ml/g]
3%_28
80 0,015
S/S 0 [%]
NW 3%_77
70 CCTW07 0,010
CCTW28
60 STW
0,005
50 0,000
1 10 100 1000 0,01 0,1 1 10
ua-u w [kPa] D [ m]
Figure 9. SWRCs of wet of optimum samples. Figure 10. MIP of optimum samples: incremental distribu-
tion of intruded mercury volume.
4 DISCUSSION
0,25
The observed hydraulic behaviour of stabilised sam- Nat
ples can be explained with reference to the reactions 0,20
3%_7
induced by lime. As observed before, those reactions
3%_28
are strongly dependent on curing time and largely mod- 0,15
V [ml/g]
3%_77
ify the microstructure of the natural soil. Russo et al.
(2007) carried out mercury intrusion porosimetry tests 0,10
on natural and lime stabilised samples of the same soil;
the stabilised samples were cured for increasing time 0,05
intervals.
Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the results of MIP 0,00
tests on optimum water content stabilised samples in 0,01 0,1 1 10
terms of incremental and cumulative volume of mer- D [ m]
cury intruded. Immediately after the addition of lime
(t = 7 days) a relevant modification of porosity for Figure 11. MIP of optimum samples: cumulative distribu-
lime stabilised samples takes place, with the forma- tion of intruded mercury volume.
tion of pore of relatively large diameter (between 4 and
40 microns). A subsequent reduction of this effect
occurs increasing the curing time of the stabilised of ink-bottle pores. In pores of this type, characterised
samples (t = 28 days), probably due to pozzolanic by an entrance radius smaller than the dimension of
reactions which induce the development of bonds the inner part of the pore, intrusion cannot occur until
between the aggregates. A reduction in the frequency sufficient pressure has been attained to force mercury
of pores with diameters between 0.2 μm and 2 μm can into the narrow neck, whereupon the entire pore will
be also detected in the long term. Finally, pores rang- be filled. As ink-bottle pores upon depressurization
ing from 0.01 μm to 0.2 μm systematically increase entrap mercury in the wide inner portion of the pore,
their frequency as the curing time increases. upon drying ink-bottle pores contribute relevantly to
In terms of water retention properties, the increase retain water into the stabilised soil. The smaller the
in frequency of pores of relatively large radius (short narrow openings of the ink bottle pores, the higher the
time effects mainly induced by cation exchange), suction values needed to desaturate the soil.
together with the increase in the presence of sand
sized aggregates in the grain size distribution, reduces
both the air entry value and the retention capacity 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
of the stabilised samples for values of suction lower
than 100 kPa. The reduction persists for long cur- In the paper some results of an experimental study on
ing times. For suction values greater than 100 kPa the the time dependency of lime stabilisation on the soil-
water retention increases as the curing time becomes water retention capacity of a compacted silty soil are
higher. A possible interpretation of this result, con- presented.
sistent with the larger amount of small radii pores The comparison between water retention curves of
observed as curing time increases, is that the cementa- natural and lime stabilised samples points out the gen-
tion bonds between aggregates enhance the frequency eral increase of the water retention capacity of the
281
soil induced by the addition of lime. The role of Croce, P. & Russo, G. 2002. Reimpiego dei terreni di scavo
both initial water content and curing time has been mediante stabilizzazione a calce. In Proc. XXI AGI—
highlighted. From the results it has been found that sta- Convegno Nazionale di Geotecnica: 211–216. L’Aquila:
bilised samples compacted at optimum and wet initial Patron Editore.
water content show higher water retention. Croce, P. & Russo, G. 2003. Soil-water characteristic
curves of lime-stabilised soils. In Pieter A. Vermeer,
The microstructure modifications taking place as Helmut F. Schweiger, Minna Karstunen & Marcin Cudny
a function of curing time, assessed by means of MIP (eds.), Geotechnics of Soft Soils—Theory and Practice:
tests, allow an insight into the reaction mechanisms 575–580; Proc. Int. Workshop, Noordwijkerhout (NL),
induced by lime and an explanation of the observed 17–19 September 2003. Essen: VGE.
increase of water retention. The relevance of the MIP Eades, J.L. & Grim, R. 1960. Reactions of Hydrated Lime
technique in this experimental investigations has been with Pure Clay Minerals in Soil Stabilization. Highway
underlined, both for the short test duration and for Research Board Bulletin 262: 51–63.
the analogy between the results in terms of mercury Glenn, G.R. & Handy, R.L. 1963. Lime-clay mineral reaction
intrusion and water outflow. products. Highway Research Record 29: 70–82.
Hilt, G.H. & Davidson, D.T. 1960. Lime fixation in clayey
Further research is required in order to assess the soils. Highway Research Board Bulletin 262: 20–32.
role of microstructure and its evolution with curing Rogers, C.D.F. & Glendinning, S. 1996. Modification of Clay
time on the retention properties of stabilised samples. Soils using Lime. In Rogers, C.D.F., Glendinning, S. &
Intrusion-extrusion cycles, performed through both Dixon, N. (eds.) Lime Stabilisation: 99–126. London:
volumetric pressure plate extractor and mercury intru- Thomas Telford.
sion porosimeter, could highlight the role and amount Russo, G. 2005. Water retention curves of lime stabilised
of ink bottle pores on the water retention of stabilised soils. In A. Tarantino, E. Romero & Y.J. Cui (eds.),
soils. Advanced Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics:
391–396; Proc. of the Int. Workshop on Advanced
Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics, Experus 2005,
Trento (I), 27–29 June 2005. Rotterdam: Balkema.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Russo, G., Dal Vecchio, S. & Mascolo, G. 2007. Microstruc-
ture of a lime stabilised compacted silt. In Tom Schanz
The Authors are very grateful to Prof. Giuseppe (ed.), Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics: 49–56;
Mascolo for the support during the experimental work. Proc. of the 2nd Int. Conf. On the Mechanics of Unsat-
Mercury intrusion porosimetry tests were developed at urated Soils, USS2007, Weimar (D), 7–9 March 2007.
the University of Cassino under the careful supervision Heidelberg: Springer.
of Sebastiana Dal Vecchio. Seed, H.B. & Chan, C.K. 1959. Structure and strength
characteristics of compacted clays. JSMFD 85 (SM5):
87–128.
Tedesco, D.V. 2007. Hydro-mechanical behaviour of lime-
REFERENCES stabilised soils. PhD Thesis at the University of Cassino.
Cassino, Italy.
ASTM 1991. Standard Test Method for Laboratory Com- Van Genuchten, M. Th. 1980. A closed form equation pre-
paction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort dicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
(12, 400 ft-lbf /ft3 (600 kN-m/m3 )), ASTM D698-91ε1 . Soil Science Society of America Journal 44: 892–898.
In Annual Book of ASTM Standards 04.08: 77–84. West Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G. & Pufhal, D.E. 1999. The
Conshohocken: ASTM International. influence of soil structure and stress history on the soil-
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. & Hight, D.W. 1987. Special prob- water characteristics of a compacted till. Geotechnique
lem soils-General report. In E.T. Hanran, T.L.L. Orr & 49 (2): 143–159.
T.F. Widdis (eds.), Ground effects in geotechnical engi-
neering (3): 1087–1146; Proc. IX ECSMFE, Dublin,
1987. Rotterdam: Balkema.
282
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
H.D. Nguyen
Ecole des Ponts (Université Paris-Est, Navier Inst. – CERMES), Paris, France
INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
C. Sorgi
INERIS, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France (now RATP, Paris, France)
ABSTRACT: In relation with the assessment of the stability of underground chalk mines, a preliminary
investigation of the behaviour of chalk samples retrieved from the pillars of the abandoned Estreux shallow
mine (Northern France) has been conducted. Due to changes in hygrometry and water table (ambient relative
humidity comprised between 80% and 100%), pillars are submitted to cyclic variations in degree of saturation.
The potential impact of the changes in water content on the mechanical behaviour of the chalk has been assessed
based on the methods and concepts of the mechanics of unsaturated soils. Water retention properties and volume
change behaviour of the unsaturated chalk were investigated. Suction hardening was clearly identified, resulting
in increasing yield stresses with suction, in agreement with the Loading Collapse (LC) yield curve of the
Barcelona Basic Model (Alonso et al. 1990). Collapse compression under wetting at constant applied vertical
load was also observed. As already discussed in the case of oil-reservoir chalks (De Gennaro et al. 2004), it is
confirmed that the methods and concepts of the mechanics of unsaturated soils are relevant to better analyse the
water weakening effects in chalks.
283
of Valenciennes in the vicinity of the Valencien- higher suctions (from 2 to 24.9 MPa) (Delage et al.
nes—Bruxelles A14 highway. The Estreux chalk 1998, Marcial 2003) and the filter paper method with
formation belongs to the late Cretaceous geological contact for sample in their initial state (Fawcett &
period, which dated from 89 to 94 M years ago. Collis-George 1967, Chandler & Gutierrez 1986,
A square pillar (1.4 × 1.4 m with a height of 1.8 m) Houston et al. 1994, Bulut et al. 2001).
has been continuously monitored since 2003 in rela- In the osmotic method, the sample is placed in
tion within the research programme conducted by a tube shaped cellulotic semi-permeable membrane
INERIS about ‘‘Ageing phenomena in geomaterials’’ (Spectrapor ® ) and then immersed in an aqueous solu-
(Sorgi 2004), hr measurements showed that the rela- tion of large sized molecules of Poly Ethylene Glycol
tive humidity inside the mine varied between 80 and (PEG 6000 or 20000) (Figure 1). The imposed suction
100% with an almost constant temperature of 11◦ C. was derived from the solution concentration by using
Cubic blocks of chalk (30 cm each side) were the calibration data of Williams & Shaykewich (1969)
manually retrieved at a 20 meters depth. Table 1 and the correction proposed by Dineen and Burland
presents the index properties of Estreux chalk. By (1995). Five suctions level (0 MPa using pure water
using a helium picnometer, a specific gravity Gs of instead of a PEG solution, 0.5, 1, 1.2 and 1.5 MPa)
2.74 was obtained. As compared to the specific grav- were imposed with the osmotic method.
ity of pure calcite (Gs = 2.71), this higher value is The vapour equilibrium method was carried out by
related to the presence of a fraction of glauconite (with using the device presented in Figure 2, in which desic-
Gs = 2.99). Glauconite is often observed in North- cators are placed in a temperature controlled bath. As
ern French chalks (Masson, 1973; Bonvallet, 1979; can be seen in the Figure, a circulation of air with a
Hazebrouck & Duthoit, 1979). The glauconite fraction controlled relative humidity is ensured by circulating
is also linked to the relatively high values of the speci- air in a bottle containing a saturated saline solution.
fic surface (Ss = 13 m2 /g measured using methylene The air is subsequently circulated in the desiccator
blue absorption, as compared to 9 m2 /g for a pure that contains the sample. Experience showed that cir-
chalk like for instance Lixhe chalk, Belgium). The culating air significantly reduced the period of time
average porosity n close to 37% is in good agree- necessarily to reach equilibrium. Two saturated saline
ment with literature values (Masson, 1973; Bonvallet, solutions: (NH4 )2 SO4 (hr = 83.5%, s = 24.9 MPa)
1979). Typical Unconfined Compression Strength and K2 SO4 (hr = 97%, s = 4.2 MPa) were used.
(UCS) values for Estreux chalk are UCSsat ∼ = 5MPa
when saturated and UCSdry ∼ = 11MPa if dried (typi-
cally UCSdry /UCSsat ∼ = 2). The high value of degree
Cellulotic
of saturation measured in extracted specimens (Srw =
semi-
97%) indicates that chalk was probably saturated in permeable Sample
the mine at the time extraction was carried out, with PEG
some possible further loss of water during testing.
The water retention properties of Estreux chalk
were determined by using cylindrical samples of
20 mm in diameter and from 20 mm to 25 mm in
height. In relation with the relative humidity observed
in the mine (hr between 80 to 100%), the suction
values applied were taken between 0 and 24.9 MPa Thermostat Magnetic stirrer
by using 3 methods of controlling suction: the
osmotic method for low suctions (from 0 to 1.5 MPa) Figure 1. Determination of the water retention curve by
(Williams & Shaykewich 1969, Delage et al. 1998, using the osmotic method.
Marcial 2003), the vapour equilibrium method at
Properties
284
Two PEG solutions at controlled concentrations cor- consider a period of sustained loading of 48 hours in
responding to 2.5 MPa (hr = 98.2%) and 2 MPa the pseudo-elastic regime and 7 days in the plastic
(hr = 98.4%) were also used in the same fashion to regime, resulting in total tests durations from 45 to
impose lower suctions. 60 days. Deformation regimes (elastic and plastic)
Two filter papers measurements were carried out were defined based on results from constant rate of
to determine the initial suction of the intact sample. strain oedometer tests (Priol et al. 2007), that allowed
In order to avoid any contact with chalk, both papers to identify the expected yield stress. Isotach behaviour
were placed between two protection papers and then (i.e. only dependent on the strain rate) was adopted to
positioned between two halves of chalk samples. define the compressibility curves obtained by means
The whole system was then isolated from the of oedometer tests. Following this methodology for
ambient relative humidity and stored in a temper- each loading stage the corresponding vertical strain
ature controlled room (20◦ C ± 0.1◦ C) for at least was measured when the axial strain rate was lower
15 days before weighing the filter papers (accuracy than 10−10 sec−1 .
1 × 10−5 g). Based on the experimental results from the determi-
Finally, a high stress double lever arm oedometer nation of the water retention properties, four oedome-
equipped with a suction control system was used (e.g. ter compression tests were carried out as follows: two
Marcial et al. 2002) to investigate the compressibil- tests in dry conditions (T1 & T2), one test at controlled
ity of partially saturated Estreux chalk samples. The suction (T3: s = 4.2 MPa with the vapour equilib-
control of the suction was carried out either by using rium method and K2 SO4 salt) and one test at saturated
the osmotic method (suctions smaller than 1.5 MPa) conditions (T4).
(see Kassiff & Benshalom 1971, Delage et al. 1992,
Dineen and Burland 1995, De Gennaro et al. 2003,
Priol 2005). The same cell was also used at higher 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
suctions with the vapour equilibrium method (Esteban
1990, Oteo-Mazo et al. 1995, Oldecop & Alonso 2001, 3.1 Water retention properties
Marcial 2003) for suctions higher than 4.2 MPa. In
this case, air with controlled hr was circulated in the The water retention curve of Estreux chalk is shown
oedometer cell through the bottom of the sample (see in Figure 4 in terms of changes in degree of saturation
Figure 3). (Srw ) with respect to the logarithm of suction (log s).
Samples of 38 mm in diameter and 19 mm ±2 mm Beside the points obtained at various controlled suc-
in height were reshaped on a lathe. A dry sample tions along the drying and wetting paths, the initial
was obtained after a period of 48 hours in an oven at suction obtained with the filter paper method is also
60◦ C following the recommendations of the Interna- represented. A suction value of 40 kPa with a degree
tional Society of Rock Mechanics. Since the mechan- of saturation of 97% indicated that the sample was
ical response of chalk is strain rate-dependent (e.g. probably saturated when excavated.
De Gennaro et al. 2003, Priol et al. 2007), it was
decided for multiple loading stages oedometer tests to
100
Sample
1
Sieve
SUCTION, s :MPa
0.1
0.001
Figure 3. Scheme of the vapour equilibrium oedometer. Figure 4. Water retention curve of Estreux chalk.
285
The slight differences observed between the dry-
ing and wetting paths denote a moderate hysteresis
effect, also observed in partially air-water saturated Dry, s = 30 MPa
T1
Lixhe chalk by Priol (2005). A possible effect of the
glauconite fraction in reducing the hysteresis effect is
T2
suspected, although a clear explanation of the slight
hysteresis is not straightforward.
SUCTION, s
The drying curve shows that the air entry value
of Estreux chalk can be estimated at approximately
1.5 MPa. Following desaturation, the degree of sat-
uration exhibits a dramatic reduction with a value as T3 s = 4.2 MPa
low as 30% at 2.5 MPa. At the highest suction (s =
24.9 MPa, hr = 83.5%) the degree of saturation is as
low as 2–5%, showing that chalk is nearly completely
desaturated. Based on the water retention curve, the
saturated, s = 0 MPa
suction of a dry sample can be estimated at 30 MPa. T4
The shape of the water retention curve of Estreux
chalk and the sudden decrease in saturation above 100 1000 10000 100000
1.5 MPa shows that the changing values of the ambient VERTICAL STRESS, v : kPa
WATER
INJECTION
3.2 Oedometer tests 0.5
presented in Figure 6.
The testing program comprises three compression Figure 6. Compressibility curves obtained with oedome-
tests carried out as follows: ters.
286
Table 2. Compressibility data taken from oedometer tests.
T1
T2
40
Stiffness
Yield stress LOADING
LC i
State Elastic Plastic (MPa) LC 1
LC 3
SUCTION, s :MPa
Suction Water injection
controlled (T3) 0.0095 0.1137 11.4
Saturated (T4) 0.0039 0.135 7.5 20
Swelling Collapse
10
Interestingly, the position of the collapsed sample
LC 2
is close to the saturated compression sections of LOADING
tests T2 and T4.
0
The corresponding numerical values are given in 0 10 20 30 40
Table 2. These trends illustrate the sensitivity of the VERTICAL STRESS, v: MPa
mechanical response of the Estreux chalk to change
in suction. They are in good agreement with the Figure 7. Loading Collapse yield in the test T1 and T2.
water weakening effects described by Matthews and
Clayton (1993) and with earlier observations on reser-
voir chalks (with water and oil as pore fluids) by the BBM model, the suction release occurring inside
De Gennaro et al. (2004) and Priol (2005). the elastic zone delimited by the LC curve.
Water sensitivity is denoted by the swelling The subsequent compression at zero suction carried
observed in test T1 (soaking under 441 kPa) and out during the T1 test evidenced a yield at 20 MPa
by the collapse observed in T2 when soaking under that is finally moved towards the LC2 position at
29.28 MPa. The increase in compressibility and 39.7 MPa. Further validation of the BBM is provided
decrease in yield stress with increased degree of satu- by the results of test T2 that defines a yield stress
ration (decreased suction) are two other manifestations at dry state (σvo − ua = 13.5 MPa). This slightly
of the water weakening effect. smaller value is related to the higher porosity of the
sample (37.9% instead of 36.5%) as explained by
Matthews & Clayton (1993). At s = 30 MPa, the yield
3.3 BBM modelling
curve is moved during dry compression up to the
The results of Figure 6 are now qualitatively inter- position LC3 (29.3 MPa).
preted in the framework of the Barcelona Basic Model The soaking induces here significant collapse
(Alonso et al., 1990). Figure 7 shows the Loading (decrease in void ratio from 0.500 to 0.389) that further
Collapse (LC) curve that can be derived from the moves the LC curve to the right, with an intersection
experimental data of Figure 6. With suction at dry with the x axis at 29.3 MPa.
state equal to 30 MPa, the LC curves exhibit fairly
regular and satisfactory shapes. A tentative identifica-
tion of the initial LC curve can be obtained assuming
the following constitutive parameters for the BBM: 4 CONCLUSIONS
λ(0) = 0.12, pc = 0.002 MPa, p∗o = 8 MPa. Owing
to the reduced effect of suction on the virgin com- The water retention properties and compression
pressibility of the material, λ(s) values were found behaviour of unsaturated samples of chalk from an
assuming β = 0.5 and r = 0.94. abandoned underground mine were investigated in
The loading path of test T1 crosses the initial dry relation with the long term stability of abandoned
LCi curve at (σvo − ua ) = 16 MPa, displacing the underground quarries.
LC curve up to LC1 at the maximum 39.7 MPa value A slight hysteresis was observed on the water reten-
(hardening process). tion curves, together with a significant desaturation
After unloading down to 0.44 MPa, water soaking that occurred along the drying path just above the air-
was performed under 0.44 MPa resulting in reducing entry value of the chalk (1.5 MPa). This confirmed
suction from 30 MPa down to 0 MPa. The swelling that the desaturation of the pillars had to be consid-
under stress release observed (increase in void ratio ered when assessing the long term stability of the
from 0.466 to 0.476) is also in good agreement with abandoned mine.
287
Four suction controlled oedometer tests showed that Delage, P., Schroeder, C., & Cui, Y.J. 1996. Subsidence and
the volume change behaviour of the unsaturated chalk capillary effects in chalks. EUROCK ’96, Prediction and
was fairly comparable to that of unsaturated soils. performance on rock mechanics and rock engineering 2,
The Barcelona Basic Model could be successfully used 1291–1298, Turin, Italy.
to account to some extent for water weakening effect Delage, P., Howat, M.D. & Cui, Y.J., 1998. The relation-
ship between suction and swelling properties in a heavily
in partially saturated chalk, both in terms of swelling compacted unsaturated clay. Engineering Geology, 50,
when releasing suction at low stress and collapse com- 31–48.
pression during soaking under high stress. It should be Dineen, K. & Burland, J.B., 1995. A new approach to osmot-
mentioned however that the behaviour of Estreux chalk ically controlled oedometer testing. Proc. 1 st Int. Conf.
during oedometric loading doesn’t reflect completely on Unsaturated Soils UNSAT’95, Paris, 459–465.
the in situ conditions. Esteban Moratilla, F., 1990. Caracterizacion experimental
Further knowledge on the effect of changes in de la expensividad de una roca evaporitica. Identifica-
degree of saturation on the collapse behaviour of the cion de los mecanismos de hinchamiento. PhD thesis,
material at low stress levels is needed in order to have Universidad de Cantabria, Santader, 352 p.
Fawcett, R.G. & Collis-George, N., 1967. A filter paper
an insight into the water weakening mechanisms in method of determining the moisture characteristics of soil.
chalk. Austr. J. of Exp. Agr. and Animal Husb. 7, 162–167.
Gutierrez, M., Øino, L.E. & Hoeg, K., 2000. The effect of
fluid content on the mechanical behaviour of the fractures
in chalk. Rock Mechanics and Rocks Engineering, 33 (2),
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
93–117.
Hazebrouck, R. & Duthoit, B., 1979. Particularité du com-
The results on Estreux chalk have been obtained dur- portement mécanique des craies: rôle de l’eau—rupture
ing the French National Project BCRD coordinated sous contrainte hydrostatique. Revue Française de
by INERIS. The collaboration of Dr G. Priol is also Géotechnique, 8, 45–50.
acknowledged. Houston, S.L., Houston, W.N. & Wagner, A.M., 1994. Lab-
oratory filter paper suction measurements. Geotechnical
Testing Journal, 17 (2), 185–194.
Kassiff, G. & Ben Shalom, A., 1971. Experimental relation-
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Bulut, R., Lytton, R.L. & Wray, W.K., 2001. Soil suc- Newman, G.H., 1983. The effect of water chemistry on the
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Collin, F. 2003. Time-dependent behaviour of oil Priol, G., De Gennaro, V., Delage, P. & Cui, Y.J. 2004. On
reservoir chalk: a multiphase approach. Soils and Foun- the suction and the time dependent behaviour of reservoir
dations, 43 (4), 131–148. chalks of North sea oilfields. Proc. 2nd Int. Workshop on
De Gennaro, V., Delage, P., Priol, G., Collin, F. & Cui, Y.J., Unsaturated Soils, Capri (Italy), 43–54.
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Géotechnique, 54 (6), 415–420. bilité d’une craie pétrolifère. PhD Thesis, Ecole Nationale
Delage, P., Suraj De Silva, G.P.R. & Vicol, T. 1992. Suction des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, 217 p.
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289
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The paper presents an experimental investigation on water retention behaviour of well graded
coarse-grained soils. Two ‘reduced’ grain size distributions were tested to investigate how the removal of the
larger grain size fraction needed to reduce field samples to appropriate grain size for laboratory testing affects
water retention behaviour. As expected, the removal of larger particles significantly modified the water retention
characteristics of the soil. An approach to ‘scale’ water retention curves obtained in the laboratory to the soil in
the field is then presented. This approach was successfully tested against the soil investigated in this programme.
291
Tensiometer
CLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL
support 1
Tensiometers d10 (d < 10 mm)
Weight d25 (d < 25 mm)
0.8
Fraction finer
0.6
0.4
Membrane Compacted
75-85 mm
sample
0.2
Ø = 252 mm
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size, d: mm
Figure 2. Schematic layout of the oedometer cell used to Figure 3. ‘Reduced’ grain size distributions investigated in
measure suction of statically compacted specimens. this programme.
3 MATERIAL AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION Figure 4. ‘As-compacted’ states of statically and dynami-
cally compacted samples. Arrows show the path followed by
Two ‘reduced’ grain size distributions having max- the samples wetted after compaction.
imum particle size of 10 and 25 mm respectively
were tested in this experimental programme (Figure 3).
These soils will be referred to as d10 and d25 measurement box for tensiometer measurement (spec-
respectively. imens compacted to 100% and 50% Proctor energy
Air-dried soil was laid in a large plastic basin in Figure 4). A second series of samples were wet-
and sprayed with demineralised water to reach the ted by spraying demineralised water to reach a target
target water content. The moistened powder was hand- water content checked by weighing. The wetting stage
mixed and then wrapped inside two sealed plastic was then followed by a period of 2 days for moisture
bags, placed in a plastic container and stored in a equalisation. The samples were then put into the
high-humidity room for 1 day. suction measurement box for tensiometer measure-
The soil d10 was dynamically compacted into a ment (specimens compacted to 30 % Proctor energy
101.6 mm diameter mould in three layers to 30%, in Figure 4).
50%, or 100% of Proctor energy. The sample was The soil d25 was statically compacted into the
trimmed to 117 mm height, extruded and stored for 252 mm diameter oedometer cell shown in Figure 2.
2 days at least to allow moisture equalisation. A first The moistened powder was placed in the oedome-
series of samples were directly put into the suction ter and compressed by increasing the air pressure in
292
the upper compartment of the cell. A rigid plate (not 1
shown in the figure) was interposed between the flex-
Degree of saturation, Sr
0.8
ible membrane and the top surface of the sample to
ensure uniform vertical deformation. The sample was 0.6
compacted in stages to four different vertical stresses: (a)
100% Proctor
75, 150, 300, and 600 kPa. The as-compacted states 0.4 50% Proctor
of the statically compacted samples are shown in 30% Proctor(wetted)
75 kPa
Figure 4. 0.2 150 kPa
300 kPa
600 kPa 75 and 150 kPa 300 and 600 kPa
0
4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
293
6 MODELLING VOID-RATIO DEPENDENT 1
WATER RETENTION BEHAVIOUR d10(d<10mm)
d25(d<25mm)
e − ewh
Figure 6. Performance of the water retention model for the
where Sre is the effective degree of saturation, e is the grain size distributions d10 and d25.
void ratio, and α, n, and m are soil parameters.
If the van Genuchten’s model is constrained to con-
verge at high suctions to the water ratio curve given 1
by Equation 1, the following model for ‘main wetting’ e=0.28 e=0.38
Degree of saturation, Sr
ew − ewh
Sre = 0.6 (a)
e − ewh
e=0.38
⎡ ⎛ ⎞n ⎤− nb 0.4
1
⎢ ⎜ e − ewh b ⎟ ⎥
= ⎣1 + ⎝ s⎠ ⎦ (3) 0.2
a 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Matric suction, s: kPa
1
Full derivation of Equation 3 and its validation
Degree of saturation, Sr
294
1 (a) 1
Vereecken et al. (1989)
Degree of saturation, Sr
Degree of saturation, Sr
0.8
0.8 d10 Eq. (3)
0.6
0.6
0.4
Arya & Paris (1981)
0.4 0.2
d25 e=0.28
e=0.38
0
0.2 0.1 1 10 100 1000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 Matric suction, s: kPa
Degree of saturation, Sr
0.8
Figure 8. Predicted main wetting retention curves at the Eq. (3) e=0.42
same void ratio (e = 0.4) for the grain size distributions d10 e=0.51
0.6
and d25.
0.4
295
the water retention behaviour experimentally deter- distribution (Figure 10b). The agreement is not excel-
mined in the laboratory on a ‘reduced’ grain size lent but may be considered acceptable in many practi-
distribution to the soil in field. cal applications.
Let us assume that the soil d25 is the original soil
in the field and that the grain size distribution d10
is the ‘reduced’ grain size distribution to be tested in 9 CONCLUSIONS
the laboratory. The water retention curve for d10is
determined experimentally and one has to predict the The paper has presented an experimental investigation
unknown water retention curve for the soil d25. of water retention behaviour of well graded coarse-
The curve from the Arya and Paris (1981) method grained soils. Two ‘reduced’ grain size distributions,
can be first scaled to match the experimental data avail- d10 and d25 respectively, were tested. Each soil was
able for soil d10. We scaled the suction according to compacted to different void ratios.
the following relationship: It has been shown that water retention behaviour is
significantly affected by void ratio and a water reten-
sAP tion equation has been used to model main wetting
ln s∗ = A · ln + ln s0 (4) behaviour in the space suction, void ratio, and degree
s0
of saturation.
Two indirect methods were then investigated to
where s∗ is the scaled suction, sAP is the suction derived
derive water retention curve from grain size distribu-
from the original Arya and Paris (1981) method, s0
tion. The statistical approach provided mean results
and A are two best-fit parameter. Equation 4 indi-
because it was validated against a different class of
cates a rotation of the water retention curve around the
soils. The physical-conceptual model was closer to
point having suction s0 . We selected s0 = 1000 kPa
experimental data and could be used as a basis to
and determined the parameter A by matching the
extrapolate the water retention behaviour experimen-
experimental curve Figure 10a).
tally determined on a ‘reduced’ grain size distribu-
The scaling provided by Equation 4 was then
tion (d10) to a soil including a larger grain size
applied to the Arya & Paris water retention curve
fraction (d25).
estimated for the soil d25 based on grain size
1
Arya & Paris (1981) scaled ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Degree of saturation, Sr
0.8
Eq. (3)
0.6 Arya, L.M. & Paris, J.F. 1981. A physicoempirical model to
(b)
predict the soil moisture characteristic from particle size.
0.4 Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45: 1023–1030.
Arya & Paris (1981) Arya, L.M., Richter, J.C. & Davidson, S.A. 1982.
0.2 A comparison of soil moisture characteristic predicted
e=0.4 by the Arya-Paris model with laboratory-measured data.
0 Agristars Technology Report SM-L1-04247, JSC-17820,
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 NASA-Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas.
Matric suction, s: kPa Brooks, R.H. & Corey, A.T. 1964. Hydraulic properties of
porous media. Hydrology Paper 3. Colorado State Univ.,
Figure 10. A simple approach to derive field water retention Fort Collins, CO.
curve from laboratory ‘reduced’ grain size water retention Cornelis, W.M., Van Meirvenne, M. & Hartmann, R. 2001.
curve. (a) determining the scaling parameter by fitting exper- Evaluation of Pedotransfer Functions for Predicting the
imental data on d10; (b) predicting water retention curve Soil Moisture Retention Curve. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65:
for d25. 638–648.
296
Tarantino, A. 2004. Panel report: Direct measurement of Tarantino, A. & Tombolato, S. 2005. Coupling of hydraulic
soil water tension. In Proceedings 3rd International Con- and mechanical behaviour in unsaturated compacted clay.
ference on Unsaturated Soils (eds J.F.T. Jucá, T.M.P. de Géotechnique 55(4): 307–317.
Campos and F.A.M. Marinho), Recife, 3, pp. 1005–1017. van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A closed form equation for
Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema. predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated
Tarantino, A. 2008. A water retention model for deformable soils. Soil Science Society of American Journal 44,
soils. Submitted for publication. 892–898.
Tarantino, A. & Mongiovì, L. 2002. Design and construction Vereecken, H., Feyen, J., Maes, J. & Darius, P. 1989. Estimat-
of a tensiometer for direct measurement of matric suction. ing the soil moisture retention curve characteristic from
In Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Unsatu- texture, bulk density, and carbon content. Soil Science
rated Soils (eds J.F.T. Jucá, T.M.P. de Campos and F.A.M. 148: 389–403.
Marinho), Recife, 1, pp. 319–324. Vereecken, H., Diels, J., Van Orshoven J., Feyen, J. & Bouma J.
Tarantino, A. & Mongiovì, L. 2003. Calibration of tensiome- 1992. Functional evaluation of pedotransfer function for
ter for direct measurement of matric suction. Géotech- the estimation of soil hydraulic conductivity. Soil Sci. Soc.
nique, 53(1): 137–141. Am. J., 56: 1371–1378.
297
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
K. Rajkai
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Research Institute for Soil Sc. and Agricultural Chem., Budapest, Hungary
A. Scheuermann
Institute for Soil Mechanics and Rock Mechanics, University of Karlsruhe (TH), Germany
ABSTRACT: The water retention curves of three sand fractions and 12 continuous and gap-graded
2-component sand mixtures were measured. Due to the unexpectedly long equalization times, the tests (involv-
ing 11 suction steps) lasted longer than two years. In this paper, two methods for predicting the water retention
properties are considered which use the grain size distribution as primary input. In particular, the data are used
to validate a pedo-transfer model which is based on the pore size distribution of a soil.
The experimental determination of the water retention 2.1 Method 1—grading entropy approach
curve or soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) and
A transfer function generation method for sands,
the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is time consum-
describing the relationship between the grading curve
ing and costly. However, these properties are the pri-
and the soil properties (property functions) was sug-
mary input for the assessment of infiltration processes
gested (Imre et al, 2008). It is based on the grading
in unsaturated soils. Consequently the soil hydraulic
entropy concept of Lőrincz (1986). The grading curve
properties are often estimated rather than measured.
is characterized by two entropy coordinates: base
In this paper, research concerning two methods is con-
entropy So and entropy increment S (in normalised
sidered which use the grain size distribution as primary
form ‘‘A’’ and ‘‘B’’, respectively). This can be related
input.
to the number of particle size fractions, N , identified
Method 1 is the application of a transfer function
within the grading curve. A normalised entropy dia-
generation method based on grading entropy (Imre
gram (Fig. 1) can be used to identify soils that are
et al, 2008). It consists of the following steps. (i) The
stable, or subject to piping or suffusion (particle migra-
soil function is experimentally determined for some
tion). Soils for testing in this research were identified
controlled grading curves (ii) The measured data
to represent different entropy states (Fig. 2).
are mathematically described using the best possible
model (iii) The mathematical description is extended
to all grading curves.
2.2 Method 2—capillary method based on the
In this paper—the 6th in a series (Imre et al, 2003 to
pore constriction size distribution
Imre et al, 2008) —some measured data are presented.
This adds to the data on a duplicate sample set that The pore constriction distribution is calculated approx-
was stopped after 7 suction steps, reported in Imre imately using a method proposed by Schuler (1996).
et al. (2007). This new data is used for the validation Based on the assumption that the soil consists of spher-
of method 2, which is based on the calculation of the ical particles, the grain size distribution (finer by
pore size distribution (Scheuermann & Bieberstein, weight) is recalculated into a distribution of ‘‘finer by
2007). surface’’. The grain size distribution finer by surface
299
entropy maximum for N=2 particles. In this way a pore constriction distribution
is calculated dependent on the soil density.
3 Based on the pore constriction distribution, the
4 water retention curve is calculated using the Young-
1 .2 5
6 Laplace equation. For the presented study the residual
Entropy increment, B[-]
0 .4
minimum
3 MEASUREMENT METHODS
B lin e
N = 3 to 7 For the determination of the transfer function with
0 .0
method 1, some experiments were needed. The testing
0 .6 0 .8 1 .0 conducted previously was carried out on soils com-
Relative base entropy, A[-] posed from the fractions shown in Table 1. Optimal
mixtures (with entropy parameter ‘‘A’’ = 2/3) were
Figure 1. Half of the normalized entropy diagram for var- tested (Table 2).
ious numbers of grading fractions (N ). Legend: Zones: In the first part of the research (Imre et al, 2003)
I: piping. II: stable. III: stable with suffusion. seven fractions were used and the standard method
for suction determination of the Soil Science Insti-
tute was adopted. This method uses sand boxes (for
stage I, II ua − uw ≤ 50 kPa) and a pressure membrane extractor
stage III (1500 kPa > ua − uw > 50 kPa) (Várallyay, 1973;
1.2 Rajkai 1993). In addition, a pressure-plate extractor
Entropy increment, B[-]
was used. Due to the problems with the high air entry
disc, this method was not applied later on.
0.8
Table 1. Fractions in the research.
300
(a)
100
100 A
100C
0
1.00 0.10
d [mm]
(b)
100
100B
301
Table 5. Suction steps in the sand box. 1.0
Suction steps Semi-permeable
(in 0.1 kPa) layer Suction load 0.8
1, 2.5 Sand Gravitational
4, 6* , 7, 8*, 10, 13*, 15, fine sand vacuum 0.6 4/A
w [-]
16*, 20, 20*, 23*, 26*, 2003
1
29*, 31.5, 32*, 35*
2/C 2007
0.4
* Additional suction steps in this research—third part. 5 6 7
3/B
0.2
20% from fraction A and 80% from fraction B in terms
of dry mass).
The intended and the actual grading curves slightly
0.0
1E-1 1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3
differ. The difference can be attributed to suffusion
and segregation (the entropy parameter ‘‘A’’ was vary- ua-uw [kPa]
ing from 0 to 1 exceeding the segregation safe zone,
‘‘A’’ = 0.4–0.7). Suffusion was observed in the first Figure 5. Water retention curves, results from Imre et al
mass measurements. (2003) and Imre et al (2007) (w—gravimetric water content).
The testing was carried out with a single new fine
sand box with varying suction load that required stages
with much longer durations (more than two months According to the results, the water retention data
were needed for larger suction loads instead of 2–3 are situated in the same order as the grading curves in
weeks) than in the case of the boxes with specified Figure 4, however, the ‘‘spacing’’ is not equal.
constant suction load. The various fractions have significantly different
The sand box is shown in Figure 3. The filter mate- slopes in the quasi-linear, steep part, getting steeper
rial was changed in the third part of the research. for the finer fractions.
The asbestos material was replaced with a copy of the Constant-valued (flat) parts (sections where the suc-
original material which is not dangerous. tion changes without a change in the water content)
The suction steps were decided on the basis of the were observed in the curves for fraction B and for
experimental results throughout the previous parts of some mixtures A-B and A-C.
the program (Table 5). Comparing the results of the fraction with the
At least two samples were prepared for each mix- results measured in the first part of the research (Fig. 5)
ture. The sand was poured in the loosest possible dry the following can be observed. The result for fraction C
state in a container then it was saturated. Samples were (same as fraction 2) is identical, for fractions B (i.e. 3)
gained by pushing the samplers with 2.5 cm of height and A (i.e. 4) some difference was found basically
and 3.8 cm of diameter into the saturated layer. due to the additional suction steps. Slightly differ-
The mass of the samples was measured regularly ent sample sizes and suction increments were used.
during each suction step and at the end of the test they The measurements were made in different sand boxes
were oven dried. From these data, the water content since the filter material was changed in the third part
was back-computed for each measured mass value. of the research.
Because of the time consuming nature of the experi- Comparing the results of the double soil samples,
ment, half of the duplicate soil samples were opened the slight difference between the first and second sam-
after load step 7 (at 2.6 kPa) and part of the results ples is acceptable (the first samples were opened after
were presented earlier (Imre et al, 2007). step 7, at 2.6 kPa suction load, see Fig. 6).
302
(a) C-B-A fractions (2nd part)
A-B samples 1&2 (3rd part)
1
0.8
0.6
w [-]
0.4 C B
A
0.2 (a)
0
1E-1 1E+0 1E+1
ua-uw[kPa]
(b) C-B-A fractions (2nd part)
C-B samples (3rd part)
1
0.8 B
0.6
w [-]
0.4 A (b)
C
0.2
0
1E-1 1E+0 1E+1
ua-uw[kPa]
(c) fractions C, B, A, 2nd part of the research
C-A samples 1&2, 3nd part of the research
1
0.8
(c)
0.6
w [-]
0
1E-1 1E+0 1E+1 consideration of the density index which was estimated
ua-uw[kPa] and not measured for the calculation.
303
gap-graded, selected on the basis of grading entropy approximate determination of the pore constriction
theory) with diameter being larger than 0.25 mm. size distribution.
The main conclusion can be summarized as follows: The first results indicate a fairly good agreement
between calculation and measurement reflecting the
i. The water retention curves were measured in a
fact that the samples may have different compact-
sand box with varying suctions applied gravita-
ness ratio, which was not directly determined in the
tionally since the residual suction was less than 10
laboratory tests.
kPa in every case. Some additional suction steps
Further experimental research is suggested, in par-
were adopted with respect to previously reported
ticular on the determination of the minimum and
parts of the research (Table 5). The measured data
maximum dry density of the tested mixtures. Future
indicated that the applied suction increment sys-
investigations are aimed to develop and improve both
tem was acceptable and the ‘‘precise’’ shape of the
the pedo-transfer methods.
retention curves for the tested sands were deter-
mined (except that the intended and the actual
grading curves differed slightly due to segregation
and suffusion). REFERENCES
ii. According to the results, the middle part of the
retention curve of the fractions was extremely Imre, E., Rajkai, K., Genovese, R., Jommi, C., Lőrincz, J.,
Aradi, L., Telekes, G. 2003. Soil water-retention curve
steep. The slope was steeper for finer fractions for fractions and mixtures. Proc. of UNSAT-ASIA, Osaka
than for coarser fractions which conflicts with the 451–456.
previous assumption (i.e. it was assumed that these Imre, E., Havrán, K., Lőrincz, J., Rajkai, K., Firgi, T.,
were equal). Telekes, G. 2005. A model to predict the soil water char-
iii. The water retention curve for fraction B and some acteristics of sand mixtures. Int. Symp. on Advanced
mixtures contained some constant valued (flat) Experimental Unsat. Soil Mech. Trento June 27–29.
parts. The reason was probably partly due to Imre, E., Rajkai, K., Firgi, T., Trang Q.P., Telekes, G.
non-perfect fractions and partly the non-uniform 2006. Closed-Form Functions For The Soil Water-
distribution of the grains or of the pores within Retention Curve of Sand Fractions and Sand Mixtures The
Fourth Int. Conference On Unsaturated Soils, Arizona.
a fraction. Further experimental research is sug- 2408–2419.
gested on the determination of the grain and pore Imre, E., Laufer, I., Trang, Q.P., Lőrincz, J., Rajkai, K.,
size distribution curves, using artificial soils. Firgi, T., Telekes, G. 2007. The soil water characteristics
iv. Very long stage durations (about 3 months) were of 2-component sand mixtures, 2nd International Con-
observed which was attributed to the fact that the ference Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils, 2007 Weimar
suction was varied within the sand box. The widths 2:45–59.
of the sand layer in the sand box is comparable Imre, E., Lőrincz, J., Rózsa, P. 2008. Characterization
with the height of the sample (0.025 m) since the of some sand mixtures. Proc. of the 12th Int. Confer-
width of the fine sand is about 0.01 m and the ence of International Association for Computer Methods
and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG) 1–6 October,
filter material below the sand is also about 0.01 m 2008 Goa, India (submitted).
in thickness. Rajkai, K. 1993. A talajok vízgazdálkodási tulajdonságainak
v. A slight shift was found between the results of vizsgálati módszerei. Búzás I. (ed): Talaj-és agrokémiai
the second and the third stage data measured in vizsg. INDA4321 Kiadó, Bp. 115–160.
different sand boxes. Further research is planned Scheuermann, A., Bieberstein, A. 2007. Determination of
on the slight difference between the old and the the Soils Water Retention Curve and the Unsaturated
new boxes. Hydraulic Conductivity from the Particle Size Distri-
bution. Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mech. Springer.
421–433.
5.2 Method 2 (the ‘‘capillary method’’) Schuler, U. 1996. Scattering of the composition of soils—an
validation aspect for the stability of granular filters. In J. Lafleur &
A.L. Rollin (ed.), Geofilters ’96, Montréal, May 1996.
In this research the measured data were used to Várallyay Gy. 1973. A talajok nedvességpotenciálja és új
test a capillary method for the calculation of the berendezés annak meghatározására az alacsony tenziótar-
water retention curve based on an approach for the tományban. Agrokémia és Talajtan 22. 1–22.
304
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
S.S. Agus
Civil, Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Consultant, Singapore
T. Schanz
Bauhaus-University Weimar, Germany
ABSTRACT: The most important issue pertaining to the performance of sealing and buffer elements in nuclear
waste repository is permeability of the elements. Heavily compacted bentonite-sand mixtures are amongst the
materials suggested to be used as sealing and buffer elements. When these materials are in contact with water at
low stress levels, swelling takes place and void ratio increases. Generally, permeability of a soil increases with
void ratio. However, the compacted bentonite-sand mixtures used for this purpose would most probably undergo
wetting under constant volume conditions or under limited volume change. In this paper, a method to calculate
possible changes in permeability of a heavily compacted bentonite-sand mixture is presented. The method is
based on the micro-macro interaction model for expansive soils.
305
permeability on void ratio soils. The Kozeny-Carman (N ) can be assumed to be constant for a specific soil
model is expressed as follows: permeant system. The clay-permeant dispersion sys-
tem is considered to affect the decrease in both em
ρw g ρw g 1 1 e3 and the magnitude of initial cluster void ratio (emo ).
ks = K = Olsen (1962) assumed relationships between the eT ,
μw μw CK−C So2 (1 + e)
em , and ep in which em begins to reduce upon com-
(1) pression when ep ratio is equal to 0.43. However, when
expansive soil such as bentonite is subject to changes
where ks is the saturated coefficient of permeability, in suction (or wetting-drying processes), the changes
K is the intrinsic permeability, ρw is the density of in em are governed by the changes in micro-structural
water, g is the gravitational acceleration, μw is the effective stress following Barcelona Expansive Model
absolute viscosity of water, CK−C is the Kozeny- or BExM (Alonso et al., 1999):
Carman empirical coefficient (i.e., equal to 5), So is
the specific surface area of soil particles per unit vol- dem d p̂ κm d p̂
e
dενm = = =
ume of the soil, and e is the soil void ratio (or total (1 + em ) Km (1 + em ) p̂
void ratio, eT ).
However, the Kozeny-Carman model is inaccu- = βm exp −αm p̂ d p̂ (3)
rate when used for predicting the permeability of
soils with platy (or clay) particles such as bentonite where εvm e
is the elastic micro-structural volumetric
(Olsen, 1962). Factors that influence the inaccuracy of strain, em is the micro void ratio, Km is the coefficient
the Kozeny-Carman model for clays were described of volume change for the microstructure, κm is the
in Olsen (1962), which included possible errors in compressive index for the microstructure, αm and βm
Darcy’s law used as basis for developing the model, are material parameters, and p̂ is a micro-structural
electro kinetic coupling, and variation of water viscos- effective stress and is defined as p̂ = p + s with p is
ity between clay particles, non-constant tortuosity, and the net mean stress and s is suction.
the existence of clusters in the clayey soils. However, Normally, only the changes in eT are measured
Olsen (1962) found that the main cause of discrepancy when soil undergoes loading-unloading or drying-
between the Kozeny-Carman model prediction and the wetting cycles. The value of ep can be calculated
measured data is the existence of clay clusters in the when em is known or vice versa. Thus by utilizing the
soils. The existence of cluster in clayey soils has been BExM model, the prediction of permeability using the
shown by Environmental Scanning Electron Micro- Olsen model can be done with a better scientific basis
scopic (ESEM) photos in Agus and Schanz (2005) for the relationship between eT , em , and ep . The κm
for a calcium bentonite, Calcigel. Another assump- value in the BExM model can be obtained from cyclic
tion in the Olsen model is that void ratio (or total void drying-wetting tests. After several cycles of drying and
ratio, eT ) of the soil consists of cluster void ratio (em ) wetting, the response of expansive soil to drying and
and inter-clusters void ratio (ep ). The em can also be wetting processes in terms of changes in void ratio is
called the intra-cluster or micro void ratio while ep can generally elastic or reversible. By knowing κm and the
be regarded as macro void ratio. The Olsen model is variation in eT , the intrinsic permeability of expan-
expressed in the following equation. sive soil can be computed for any loading-unloading
or drying-wetting processes.
3 Although the intra-cluster void is always (or is
qmeasured Kmeasured 1 − eemT
= = N 2/3 (2) deemed to be) fully saturated (Alonso et al., 1999),
qK−C KK−C (1 + em )4/3 the inter-cluster void may also be filled with air lead-
ing to unsaturated state of the expansive soil. Hence,
where qmeasured is the measured flow rate of water, the computation of coefficient of permeability of the
qK−C is the predicted flow rate using the Kozeny- expansive soil with respect to each phase (i.e., water
Carman model, kmeasured is the measured intrinsic and air phase) can only be done by incorporating an
permeability, KK−C is the Kozeny-Carman intrinsic unsaturated soil concept for permeability. In this paper,
permeability, N is the average number of clay parti- two models; namely, van Genuchten-Mualem model
cles per cluster, em (or ec in the original model) is the and Fredlund and Xing-Mualem model are discussed.
cluster void ratio (i.e., the intra-cluster or the intra- Many other models are available but not discussed in
aggregate or the micro-pore void ratio), and eT is the this paper. The two models were derived based on the
total void ratio. statistical distribution of pores in the soil. The rela-
To compute the saturated coefficient of permeabil- tionship between suction and degree of saturation or
ity of clay using the above equation, the parameter volumetric water content (i.e., soil-water characteris-
N and the two void ratios (i.e., em and eT ) must tic curve or SWCC) is required for the computation.
be known. The number of clay particles per cluster In the first unsaturated permeability model, the van
306
Genuchten SWCC equation (van Genuchten, 1980) calcium bentonite, Calcigel, and the sand was quartz
is used whereas in the second model, the Fredlund sand with a maximum grain size of 2 mm. The prop-
and Xing SWCC equation (Fredlund and Xing, 1994) erties of the bentonite and sand and the preparation of
is used, both in combination with the Mualem sta- heavily compacted specimens for laboratory tests have
tistical model (Mualem, 1976). The assessment of been described in Agus and Schanz (2005, 2005a).
accuracy of both methods for predicting the unsatu- Saturated compression rebound data were obtained for
rated permeability function can be found in Agus et al. saturated specimens by also accounting for deforma-
(2003). tion of the test system (Schanz et al., 2005) and the
Van Genuchten: results are presented in Fig. 1.
m Wetting curves were obtained for the heavily com-
Sr − Sres 1 pacted material by incorporating both axis-translation
Se = = n
Sr max − Sres 1 + as and vapor equilibrium techniques. Two different test
conditions were considered in the experimental pro-
1 −m
s m−1 gram; namely, testing under constant volume condi-
= 1+ (4) tions and unconfined swelling conditions. Details of
a
where Se is the effective degree of saturation, Sr is 0.70
the degree of saturation, Sres is the residual degree of
0.65
saturation, Sr max is the maximum degree of saturation,
a (kPa), n and m are fitting parameters. Parameter a in 0.60
0.50
Sr max
Sr = C(s) n
m ; 0.45
C (s) = 1 − (5)
ln 1 + 1 000sr 000 0.30 compression
rebound
0.25
where sr represents the suction corresponding to the
0.20
residual volumetric water content (or residual degree 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
of saturation). Net vertical stress, ( v -ua) (kPa)
The unsaturated coefficient of permeability for
water phase based on the van Genuchten-Mualem Figure 1. Results of the compression-rebound test for
model is expressed in the following closed-form saturated specimen.
equation (van Genuchten, 1980).
⎧ ⎫
1 m 2
100
Se ⎨ Se m ⎬
kw (Se ) = ks 1− 1−
95
(6)
100 ⎩ 100 ⎭ 90
Degree of saturation, S r (%)
85
The computation of unsaturated coefficient of perme-
ability using the Fredlund and Xing-Mualem model is 80
50
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
3 LABORATORY TEST DATA Suction, s (kPa)
A heavily compacted bentonite-sand mixture was Figure 2. Degree of saturation versus suction obtained from
investigated in this study. The bentonite used was a the wetting tests.
307
0.34 1E-19
loading
wetting-drying cycles
Intrinsic permeability, K (m )
2
0.32 unloading
1E-20
0.30
1E-21
0.28
1E-23
0.24
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
1000 10000 100000 1000000 Void ratio, e
Total suction, s t (kPa)
loading
drying-wetting cycles 1E-20
0.32 unloading Intrinsic permeability, K (m )
cluster model
2
Kozeny-Carman
Void ratio, e
0.30
1E-21
0.28
0.26
1E-22
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
1E-19 Kozeny-Carman
Figure 3. Results of the cyclic wetting-drying tests under
(a) 200 kPa and (b) 1500 kPa net vertical stress.
1E-20
tively. The suction cycles were imposed using vapor Suction, s (kPa)
equilibrium technique and the results are presented in (b)
Fig. 3.
Figure 5. Intrinsic permeability versus void ratio for: (a) the
constant volume wetting test specimen and (b) the unconfined
4 COMPUTATION OF INTRINSIC wetting test specimen.
PERMEABILITY UNDER DIFFERENT
LOADING CONDITIONS
study, the average value of 0.0102 was used in the
The κm value was derived from the cyclic wetting- computation.
drying test data in the last cycle for each test. The The number of clay particle per cluster (N ) can
value is 0.0087 and 0.0117 for the test at 200 kPa be approximated by the ratio of the total specific
and 1500 kPa net vertical stress, respectively. In this surface area to the external specific surface area.
308
0.35 The Kozeny-Carman computation which is based
on total void ratio (eT ) results in greater value of
0.3
intrinsic permeability than that computed using the
cluster model. The difference is more obvious at
low void ratios since the inter-cluster void ratio (ep )
0.25
Void ratio, e
0.2
is compressed leaving only nominal space for water
channel.
0.15 The evolution of intrinsic permeability during con-
stant volume wetting test shown in Figure 5(a) indi-
0.1 cates that the Kozeny-Carman model almost consis-
total tently predicts intrinsic permeability to be one order
0.05 intra-aggregate of magnitude higher compared with the cluster model.
inter-aggregate
The cluster model computation shows a decrease in
0
10 100 1000 10000 100000
the intrinsic permeability when the heavily compacted
Suction, s (kPa)
specimen was wetted to about 1000 kPa suction which
is captured in the cluster model prediction but not in the
(a)
Kozeny-Carman’s. Further wetting was incorporated
1.2
by a large increase in swelling pressure which resulted
in the larger deformation of the constant volume
1 total
cell used in the test. Thus, the intrinsic permeability
intra-aggregate
inter-aggregate
increased as eT increased.
0.8 Interestingly, both the Kozeny-Carman model and
Void ratio, e
Figure 6. Change in void ratio during wetting under: The computation of unsaturated coefficient of perme-
(a) constant volume conditions and (b) unconfined ability commenced with the curve-fitting of the van
conditions. Genuchten and Frendlund and Xing SWCC equations
to the experimental wetting data. The following van
This approximation is with a basis that the measure- Genuchten SWCC equations were obtained for the
ment of total specific area using for instance Ethylene wetting test data.
Glycol Monoethyl Ether (EGME) method accounts for For the constant volume test:
the surface area of clay particles in the clay clusters
while the Brunette-Emmett-Teller (BET) method for s 1.626 −0.385
the external specific surface area measurement can Se = 100 1 + ;
1201 (8)
only measure the surface area of the clay clusters. Thus
the ratio of the two specific surface areas provides indi- Sr max = 86.1%; Sres = 80%
cation of the number of clay particles per cluster. The
total and external specific surface areas of Calcigel For the unconfined test:
have been reported in Schanz et al. (2005) and the
value is 651 m2 /g and 69 m2 /g, respectively. In this s 1.451 −0.311
case, the N value is taken as 10. Se = 100 1 + ;
272 (9)
The computation of intrinsic permeability using
a cluster model requires the Kozeny-Carman model Sr max = 100%; Sres = 82%
prediction based on Equation (1). The change in intrin-
sic permeability of specimen during the saturated The following Fredlund and Xing SWCC equations
compression-rebound test is shown in Fig. 4. were obtained for the wetting test data.
309
1.E-11 For the constant volume test:
⎧ 0.385 ⎫2
1.E-12
Unsat. coeff. of permeability, kw (m/s)
Se ⎨ ⎬
1.E-13
Se 2.597
1.E-14 kw (Se ) = ks 1− (12)
1.E-15 100 ⎩ 100 ⎭
1.E-16
1.E-17
For the unconfined test:
1.E-18
⎧ 0.311 ⎫2
1.E-19
1.E-20 Se ⎨ Se 3.215 ⎬
kw (Se ) = ks 1− (13)
1.E-21 100 ⎩ 100 ⎭
van Genuchten-Mualem model
1.E-22
Fredlund and Xing-Mualem model
1.E-23
1.E-24
The computation of unsaturated coefficient of per-
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 meability using the Fredlund and Xing-Mualem model
Suction, s (kPa) involves integration procedures and no closed-form
solutions are available to date. Figure 7 shows the
(a)
comparison between the van Genuchten-Mualem pre-
1.E-11
diction and the Fredlund and Xing-Mualem prediction
1.E-12 for the unsaturated coefficient of permeability of the
Unsat. coeff. of permeability, kw (m/s)
310
5. Under constant volume conditions, the intrinsic AkEnd (2002) Site selection procedure for repository
permeability of the compacted bentonite-sand mix- sites. Recommendation of the AkEnd Committee on a
ture may drop during wetting. The drop in the Site Selection Procedure for Repository Sites. Arbeit-
intrinsic permeability may be more obvious for skreis Auswahlverfahren Endlagerstandort. W&S Druck
lower density compacted mixtures due to a greater GmbH, Collogne.
Alonso, E.E., Vaunat, J., and Gens, A. (1999) Modelling
difference in the inter-cluster void ratio of the the mechanical behaviour of expansive clays. Engineering
mixtures at initial and saturated states. Geology, 54: 173–183.
6. The computation of unsaturated coefficient of per- Carman, P.C. (1938) Fundamental principles of indus-
meability can be performed by combining the trial filtration—A critical review of present knowledge.
cluster model prediction for saturated coefficient Transaction of Institution of Chemical Engineering, 16:
of permeability with either the van Genuchten- 168–188.
Mualem model or the Fredlund and Xing-Mualem Enviros (2003) The virtual repository of nuclear infor-
model. Both models give almost similar results. mation. Public Access Area. Enviros Consulting Ltd.
7. The proposed predictive model for saturated and www.enviros.com/repository
Fredlund, D.G. and Xing, A. (1994). Equation for the
unsaturated coefficient of permeability is at the soil-water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical
moment merely at conceptual stage. No verifica- Journal, 31: 521–532.
tion has been made with measured data. There Kozeny, J. (1927) Über kapillare Leitung des Wassers
is room for improvement to this method such as im Boden. Akademie der Wissesschaften. Wien,
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hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media.
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urated Soil Conference, From Experimental Towards bis 31.07.2004), Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, Weimar,
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many, 2003 (Ed. T. Schanz), Lecture Notes in Applied van Genuchten, M.T. (1980). A closed-form equation for
Mechanics, Springer: 241–256. predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
Agus, S.S. and Schanz, T. (2005) Effect of shrinking and Soil Science Society of America Journal, 44: 892–898.
swelling on microstructures and fabric of a compacted Wittke, W., Schmitt, D., Gattermann, J. (1998)
bentonite-sand mixture. In Proceedings of International Verschlieβkonzept für Untertagedeponien—Entwurf und
Conference on Problematic Soils (GEOPROB 2005), geotechnische Nachweis. Geotechnik, 21(3): 212–216.
Eastern Mediterannian University, Northern Cyprus,
2005 (Ed. N. Famagusta), 2: 543–550.
Agus, S.S. and Schanz, T. (2005a) An investigation into
hydro-mechanical behavior of an expansive soil using
axis-translation and vapor equilibrium techniques. In
Proceedings of International Symposium on Advanced
Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics (EXPERUS
2005), Trento, Italy, 2005 (Eds. A. Tarantino, E. Romero,
and Y.J. Cui), Balkema, Rotterdam: 53–60.
311
Volumetric behaviour
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
R. Monroy
Ramboll Whitbybird, London, UK (formerly Imperial College London, London, UK)
L. Zdravkovic
Imperial College London, London, UK
A. Ridley
Geotechnical Observations Ltd, London, UK
ABSTRACT: In this study, the mechanical behaviour of a compacted clay in equilibrium with the atmospheric
pressure was investigated. Samples of London Clay were compacted to the same initial conditions, corresponding
to dry of optimum moisture content on a Proctor plot, and were taken along complex stress paths, involving
wetting under a constant vertical stress, wetting under a condition of zero volumetric strain, and loading and
unloading at a constant value of matric suction. Tests were performed with a combination of standard and
osmotic oedometers—the latter developed specifically at Imperial College London to test unsaturated soils under
atmospheric conditions. Samples taken along different hydration paths displayed similar post-yield behaviour
when loaded at a constant suction, suggesting that common yield surface in the e: s: σv space (where e denotes
void ratio, s is the matric suction, and σv is the vertical stress) controls the plastic volumetric behaviour of
unsaturated London Clay during loading following monotonic hydration.
315
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE IC Tensiometer Top Cap
Upper
Clamping Ring
The soil selected for this study was weathered Lon-
don Clay. The following properties were measured
in the laboratory: specific gravity, 2.70; liquid limit,
83%; plasticity index, 54%; clay content, 58%; fines Strain-gauged
content, 98%. Oedometer Diaphram
Cell
Tests were performed with a combination of stan- Soil Sample Lower
Clamping Ring
dard lever arm oedometers and osmotic oedometers.
The latter were specifically developed at Imperial Semi-permeable Woven Mesh
College London to test unsaturated soils under atmo- membrane
spheric conditions (Dineen & Burland, 1995). The
standard oedometers were slightly modified in order
to be able to test samples of similar size in all cases
(corresponding to a sample height of 30 mm and a Oedometer Base Inlet and Outlet PVC Tubes
diameter of 75 mm). The use of standard equipment (filled with osmotic solution)
316
to the same equilibrium suctions, followed by a single After reaching equilibrium, the soil was loaded to
loading-unloading cycle at constant suction. 700 kPa and unloaded to 50 kPa. This last stage was
performed in steps, rather than continuously as in
the case of Sample o17, by applying increments, and
thereafter decrements, of 100 kPa. Test o9 was the only
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS one performed in the osmotic oedometer in which this
approach was followed (in all other cases the load was
Figure 2 presents results from samples tested in the applied continuously in small increments).
osmotic and conventional oedometers and loaded in Sample c13 was tested in the conventional oedome-
the fully hydrated state, at a measured value of zero ter and was initially hydrated under a vertical stress of
matric suction. A total of three tests are shown in the 7 kPa. In order to replicate conditions in the osmotic
figure: two osmotic (o9 and o17) and a third conven- equipment—where hydration could only take place
tional (c13). This last test is included for comparison from the bottom of the sample—just enough water
purposes. to cover the lower porous stone was placed inside the
Sample o17 was allowed to swell under a nominal oedometer pot. After reaching equilibrium—when no
vertical stress of 7 kPa whilst water was circulated further volumetric strains were recorded—the sample
through the osmotic system. After reaching equilibri- was loaded to 440 kPa and unloaded to 30 kPa in stages
um—when no significant further changes in void ratio, in the standard way.
suction, horizontal stress, or degree of saturation were Figure 2 shows two interesting results. Firstly, the
noticeable—the sample was loaded to 600 kPa vertical osmotic and conventional oedometers yield very sim-
stress, and thereafter unloaded to 70 kPa. This process ilar results. There is a good agreement in the shape
took place slowly and continuously, in order to ensure and location (given due account of experimental vari-
that the suction remained always close to zero. ations) of the loading-unloading curves corresponding
Sample o9, on the other hand, was wetted—using to samples o17 and c13. When first commissioned, the
the above method—whilst ensuring that the volume design of the osmotic oedometer had been criticised
remained constant through the full hydration stage. for the inclusion of a woven mesh at the bottom of
During this process, the vertical stress was observed the sample (which served to improve circulation of the
to reach a maximum of 150 kPa at some intermediate osmotic solution), since it was believed that this would
value of suction, before dropping to the final equi- have a considerable impact on the measured vertical
librium value of 130 kPa. Due to high rate at which strains. It was argued that since the woven mesh could
the sample was hydrated (the full drop in suction from deform, as well as, more importantly, penetrate the
1000 to 0 kPa took place in a single stage), it was sample, vertical deformations would be overestimated
not possible to determine the exact value of suction in the osmotic oedometer. Figure 2 shows that this is
corresponding to this maximum vertical stress. not the case, or at least the effect is minimal, when a
compacted sample is tested in the fully hydrated state.
Secondly, for a fully hydrated sample, the method
c13 (free swell - conventional)
of hydration had no effect on the post yield response
o17 (free swell - osmotic) during loading. The normal compression lines for
o9 (confined wetting - osmotic) all three samples are coincident (allowing again for
1.2 experimental variations).
s = 0 kPa Figure 3 shows the response during a single loading-
unloading cycle for two further samples tested in the
1.1
s = 0 kPa osmotic oedometer (o10 and o11). As before, results
from the conventional oedometer (sample c13) have
1
been included as a reference.
Void ratio
317
c13 (free swell-conventional) c13 (free swell-conventional)
o10 (free swell-osmotic) o14 (free swell-osmotic)
o11 (confined wetting-osmotic) 1.2 o13 (confined wetting-osmotic)
1.2
s = 0 kPa
s = 0 kPa
1.1
1.1
s = 120 kPa
1 s = 430 kPa
Void ratio
1 Starting point
Void ratio
s = 120 kPa
s = 405 kPa
0.9
0.9
Starting point
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
1 10 100 1000
1 10 100 1000
Applied vertical stress (kPa) Applied vertical stress (kPa)
Figure 3. Loading-unloading tests at 120 kPa suction. Figure 4. Loading-unloading tests at 405 kPa and 430 kPa
suction.
traced by both samples o10 and o11, and which are s = 405 430 k Pa
associated with different methods of hydration.
Results from two further samples loaded at higher 0.9 Starting point
values of suction are shown in Figure 4. As in the
two previous cases, one of the samples (o14) was 0.8
allowed to swell under a nominal vertical load of 7 kPa,
whilst the suction was decreased in stages to an equi-
0.7
librium value of 430 kPa. The second sample (o13) 1 10 100 1000
was hydrated under a condition of zero volumetric
Applied vertical stress (kPa)
strain to an equilibrium suction of 405 kPa. After
reaching equilibrium, both samples were loaded and Figure 5. Summary of loading-unloading curves following
unloaded to 600 kPa and 220 kPa respectively (o14), free swelling and confined wetting.
and 630 kPa and 105 kPa (o13) respectively. During
hydration of sample o13, the vertical stress required
to maintain constant volume increased monotonically
to a maximum value of 105 kPa. 430 kPa have been combined into a single line. Figure 6
The results shown in Figure 4 are consistent with shows how an increase in suction translates in steeper
previous observations reported in this paper: the post- loading and flatter swelling lines. The measured values
yield during loading at constant suction is similar, of compression and swelling indices associated with
regardless of hydration path. the different values of suction are given in Table 1.
Figure 5 shows, in a single plot, the load-unload The results shown in Figure 6 are consistent, at least
response of all six samples tested in the osmotic in qualitative terms, with earlier findings using axis
oedometer. translation. Wheeler & Sivakumar (1995) presented
By approximating the compression and swelling data for compacted kaolin loaded isotropically at dif-
lines in Figure 5 by straight lines (an otherwise rea- ferent values of suction using this procedure. They
sonable approximation), it is possible to follow their found the normal compression lines to be straight (in
evolution with suction. This has been done and the the v: ln p plane; where v represents the specific vol-
results are shown in Figure 6. Due to their similarity, ume and p the mean net stress, defined as the mean
the loading curves associated with suctions of 405 and stress minus the pore air pressure), with the value of
318
s = 0 kPa Yield points:
s =120 kPa Free swell
500
s = 405-430 kPa Confined wetting
400
2
1.5
200
1
Cs
100
0.5
1 10 100 1000 0
Applied vertical stress (kPa) 0 100 200 300 400 500
Applied vertical stress (kPa)
Figure 6. Normal compression and swelling lines.
Figure 7. Loci of yield points associated with each method
of hydration.
Table 1. Compression and swelling indexes.
Suction
kPa Cc Cs 1000
900
0 0.349 0.081
120 0.583 0.034 800 Sample
405–430 0.723 0.032
o9
700
o11
Matric suction (kPa)
o13
600
500
λ(s) increasing as the suction was augmented from
0 to 200 kPa. 400
Free swell
The yield stresses associated with each of the 300 yield line
two different methods of hydration investigated in
this study—free swell and confined wetting—are pre- 200
sented in Figure 7 in a plot of matric suction versus Confined wetting
100 yield line
applied vertical stress. In all cases, the yield stress
has been defined, rather arbitrary, as the intersection 0
between the normal compression line and a second line 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
parallel to the swelling curve and having as origin the Applied vertical stress (kPa)
start of the loading path.
Each of the two sets of yield points can be joined Figure 8. Wetting paths at constant volume.
together to form two yield curves, associated with the
onset of plastic deformations during loading (follow-
ing the two different methods of hydration considered).
These two yield lines, however, must not be confused It is interesting to look at the constant volume wet-
with the Load-Collapse (LC) yield line defined by ting paths, now that the position of the LC yield surface
Alonso et al (1990), since the full elastic behaviour of has been established. This is shown in Figure 8. Sam-
the material along a wetting-drying path is not known ple o9 was wetted in a single stage, and therefore
in the present case. Nevertheless, both yield curves in only the final equilibrium position is representative.
Figure 7, as well as the LC yield line, form part of the The paths described by samples o11 and o13—having
same LC yield surface defined in the e: s: σv space, as been hydrated at a much slower rate—can be expected
proposed by Alonso et al (1987). to represent real soil behaviour. The figure shows
319
how, had the suction in sample o11 decreased to zero, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the vertical stress would have had to reduce from the
maximum value of 185 kPa at 120 kPa suction, to the This research project was funded by the Engineering
final equilibrium value of 130 kPa at zero suction. This and Physical Science Research Council (UK).
would be consistent with the proposition that any wet-
ting path crossing the LC yield surface would cause
the sample to yield—hence the necessary reduction in REFERENCES
vertical stress to maintain the volume constant.
Alonso E.E., Gens A. & Hight D.W. 1987. Special problem
soils. General Report. Proceedings of the 9th Euro-
pean Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
4 CONCLUSIONS Engineering, Dublin, Ireland, 3, 1087–1146.
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. & Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
The purpose of this paper was to present strong exper- model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique, 40, 3,
imental evidence which could be used to support 405–430.
the idea that, for a compacted, unsaturated soil, all Baker, R. & Frydman, S. Unpubl. Unsaturated soil mechan-
irreversible volumetric compressive strains due to a ics: Critical review of physical foundations. Submitted to
reduction in suction or an increase in load are asso- the Canadian Geotechnical Journal for publication.
ciated with a unique LC yield surface—as assumed Burland, J.B. & Ridley, A.M. 1996. Keynote address: The
in some of the most popular elasto-plastic models for importance of Suction in Soil Mechanics. Proceedings of
the 12th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Kuala
unsaturated soil behaviour. Tests on samples of com- Lumpur, Malaysia, 2, 27–49.
pacted clay, taken along two different hydration paths Cui, Y.J. & Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic behaviour
prior to loading at constant suction (free swelling under of an unsaturated compacted silt. Géotechnique, 46, 2,
a nominal load and constant volume hydration), have 291–311.
shown that the post-yield response during loading is Dineen, K. & Burland, J.B. 1995. A new approach to osmot-
unaffected by the method of hydration. The similarity ically controlled oedometer testing. Proceedings of the
in position and shape of the normal compression lines 1st International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Paris,
in both cases, for different values of suction, is taken 2, 459–465.
to be indicative of the uniqueness of the LC yield sur- Maatouk, A., Leroueil, S. & La Rochelle, P. 1995. Yielding
and critical state of a collapsible unsaturated silty soil.
face. Additional confirmation of the uniqueness of this Géotechnique, 45, 3, 465–477.
surface was also provided by the shape of the wetting Monroy, R. 2006. The influence of load and suction changes
paths followed during constant volume hydration. As on the volumetric behaviour of compacted London Clay.
the wetting path approached the yield surface defined PhD Thesis, University of London.
during loading, the sample was observed to start yield- Monroy, R., Ridley, A., Dineen, K. & Zdravkovic, L. 2007.
ing, which translated into a reduction in the applied The suitability of the osmotic technique for the long term
stress necessary to keep the volume constant. testing of partly saturated Soils. Geotechnical Testing
The present study has been limited to suctions in the Journal, 30, 3, pp. 220–226.
range of 0 to 430 kPa, and to Ko loading. However, Ridley, A.M. & Burland, J.B. 1995. A pore water pressure
probe for the in situ measurement of a wide range of
the results and conclusions are believed to be repre- soil suctions. Proceedings of the International Conference
sentative of soil behaviour at higher values of suction on Advances in Site Investigation Practice, ICE, London,
and under different loading conditions. Additionally, 510–520.
the tests have been performed under atmospheric pres- Ridley, A.M., Dineen, K., Burland, J.B. & Vaughan, P.R.
sure and, therefore, are believed to closely represent 2003. Soil matrix suction: some examples of its mea-
actual soil behaviour in the field. surement and application in geotechnical engineering.
No consideration has been given to the effect Geotechnique, 53, 2, 241–253.
of wetting-drying cycles on subsequent mechanical Wheeler, S.J. & Karube, D. 1995. State of the art report: Con-
response. The findings and conclusions presented in stitutive modelling. Proceedings of the 1st International
Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Paris, 3, 1323–1356.
this paper are, therefore, necessarily limited to the Wheeler, S.J. & Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic critical
particular case of monotonic hydration from an initial state framework for unsaturated soil. Geotechnique, 45, 1,
compacted state. 33–53.
320
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
C. Airò Farulla
Università degli Studi di Palermo, Italy
ABSTRACT: The results are presented of an experimental programme devoted to investigating the volumetric
strain and water ratio (volume of water to volume of solids) evolution of a compacted scaly clay stressed by
wetting and drying cycles in suction-controlled oedometer tests. The stress paths applied included loading and
unloading cycles at constant matric suction and suction controlled wetting-drying cycles at constant vertical net
stress. The test results show that during wetting and drying cycles the samples experienced irreversible shrinkage
or swelling strains depending on the stress path applied. Irreversible water ratio increases were always observed
in these cycles. However, a quasi-reversible response both in terms of volumetric and hydraulic behaviour was
approached as the number of cycles increased. The main characteristics of material behaviour are delineated and
discussed.
321
Table 1. Initial characteristics of the tested samples.
γd0
Sample w0 [kN/m3 ] e0 S0
10000
1000
(Fig. 2). The applied vertical stress and the first wet-
ting stage (from the initial suction to 10 kPa) ensured
an adequate contact with the oedometer ring, prior
to the first drying stage. Subsequent suction increase
100
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 from 10 to 800 kPa (lower than initial suction) is
w [%] expected to induce shrinkage without lateral contact
being lost. Romero (1999) presented results on a lat-
Figure 1. Initial matric suction (filter paper method) of the eral stress oedometer showing that suction increase
as-compacted material. still maintained lateral contact (even at relatively low
vertical stresses) if a first wetting stage is performed
starting from a high initial suction.
(γd0 = 16.7 − 17.6 kN/m3 ) versus water content The LC8 sample underwent a loading-unloading
(Airò Farulla, 2004). cycle to the maximum value σvmax = 1600 kPa at
The compacted scaly clay displayed a clear double constant suction s0 = 800 kPa and afterwards a
structure pore network as observed from MIP results cyclic suction variation in the interval of 800–10 kPa
reported by Airò Farulla & Jommi (2005). A dominant at constant σv = 200 kPa (Fig. 2). In the case
macro-pore size of 30–40 μm was detected in these of the LC4 sample, the applied stress path included
tests, while the micro-porosity dominant mode was in multiple steps of loading-unloading cycles to the max-
the range of 0.025–0.1 μm. imum value σvmax = 2800 kPa at constant suction
s0 = 400 kPa and two series of wetting-drying cycles
in the suction interval of 400–10 kPa at constant
σv = 200 kPa, referred to as LC4B, and σv = 50 kPa
2.2 Controlled-suction technique referred to as LC4A, respectively (Fig. 2).
and applied stress paths To reduce test duration, suction was changed in a
The experimental programme included loading and single step. The different loading steps, related to both
unloading tests at constant matric suction, s, and wet- vertical net stress or suction changes, were allowed
ting and drying tests at constant net vertical stress, to equalize until the rate of volumetric straining had
σv . Tests were carried out in two controlled-suction reduced to a limit strain rate equal to or lower than
oedometers. Suction was controlled by means of 0.1%/day at a constant temperature of T = (20±1)◦ C.
the axis translation technique according to the air Water content variations were determined by mea-
overpressure technique (Romero, 2001). suring water inflow or outflow by a burette with a
After translation of the reference air pressure, the resolution of 0.02 cm3 .
samples were allowed to equalize at a reference suc-
tion value, s0 , equal to 800 kPa for DMA, DMB
and LC8 samples and 400 kPa for LC4 sample,
respectively. 3 ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The wetting and drying cycles on DMA and DMB
samples started after the application of a vertical net Volumetric strains, εv , and water ratios, ew (volume of
stress, σv, equal to 50 kPa and 200 kPa, respectively, water to volume of solids), measured at the end of each
changing the applied suction between 800–10 kPa wetting and drying step, were collected versus applied
322
matric suction, s, in the diagrams in Fig. 3. Swelling LC4A and LC4B tests results indicate that in the
volumetric strains are considered negative. first cycle the samples showed irreversible swelling
With reference to mechanical behaviour, DMA strain increments that were much higher in the LC4A
and DMB samples accumulated compressive volumet- test owing the greater over-consolidation ratio. How-
ric strains during wetting and drying cycles (more ever, starting from the second cycle, volumetric
evident for DMB), while the LC8 and LC4 sam- behaviour in both tests became fully reversible. A quite
ples, owing to the previous loading and unloading similar behaviour was observed also in terms of water
cycle, developed high irreversible swelling strains ratio increments. The diagrams in Fig. 4 show that
(Fig. 3). Most of the irreversible strains developed elastic volumetric strain and water ratio increments
in the first wetting-drying cycle, while volumetric in the LC4A test were higher than the corresponding
behaviour became reversible more or less quickly as LC4B values. In the elastic range, the ew /e ratios
the cycles accumulated. were 1.4 for LC4B and 1 for LC4A, since the sam-
Water content evolution (Fig. 3) showed the same ple approached or attained saturation during wetting
trend in all the samples tested. An irreversible water and drying cycles. In conclusion, at the lesser vertical
ratio increment was measured for the most part in net stress applied (LC4A test), greater irreversible and
the first cycle, whereas an almost fully reversible reversible volumetric strain and water ratio increments
behaviour occurred in successive cycles. General occurred.
material behaviour appeared to be ruled by hydraulic The influence of stress history on mechanical
hysteresis, while stress state appeared to influence and hydraulic behaviour at the same constant
water content change values. vertical net stress (σv = 200 kPa) and suction change
A deeper evaluation of the evolution of the mechan- (s = 800 kPa) can be elucidated by analysing DMB
ical and hydraulic behaviour of the compacted scaly and LC8 test results. This influence was only signif-
clay can be obtained by analysing volumetric strain icant in the first cycle when samples showed irre-
increments, εv , and water ratio increments, ew , versible volumetric strains of different sign (DMB
measured at the end of each wetting and drying settled whereas LC8 swelled) and different irreversible
step. In the diagrams in Fig. 4, εv values are rep- water ratio increments (higher for DMB). However,
resented as absolute values, while ew values are starting from the second cycle, their behaviours were
represented together with the corresponding void ratio almost identical in terms of both εv and ew inten-
increments e, in order to point out the relationships sities. Irreversible volumetric strain and water content
between water and void ratio variations as suction was variations in the first cycle appears to cancel the effects
cycled. of the previous stress history.
Vertical net stress influence on material behaviour It was possible to detect a proof of the effects of the
was investigated by comparing results of tests DMA- applied suction change s on the volumetric strain
DMB and LC4A-LC4B, respectively. and water content changes through the comparison
Swelling strain and shrinkage strain increments for between LC8 and LC4B samples, which shared a
the DMA sample were quite high and almost equal. nearly similar stress history, bore the same vertical
In contrast, the DMB sample, sharing a nearly simi- net stress (σv = 200 kPa), but were subjected to a
lar stress history, showed a high irreversible shrink- suction increment of 800 kPa and 400 kPa respec-
age strain in the first cycle. Swelling strains then tively. The data collected in the diagrams in Fig. 4
increased, shrinkage strains decreased, and its vol- indicate that in the first wetting the samples showed
umetric behaviour became almost fully reversible. almost equal swelling strain increments, but that in
When reversible behaviour was attained, DMA vol- the first drying LC8 settled much more than the
umetric strain increments were more than double the LC4 sample as well as in the successive cycles when
DMB corresponding values. volumetric strains became reversible. Also with ref-
In terms of water ratio changes the samples erence to the water ratio evolution, the LC8 sample
behaved in a very similar way. They showed an evi- showed greater irreversible and reversible water vol-
dent irreversible water ratio increment in the first ume changes. These data indicate that the volumetric
cycle, and reversible ew changes in the successive strain and water ratio increments depended on the
steps. In both irreversible and reversible conditions, intensity of the applied suction variation. However,
DMA water ratio increments were greater than DMB in the first wetting, the effects of density (determined
water ratio increments. In the reversible condition by the previous loading and unloading cycle) on volu-
a well-defined relationship can be detected between metric swelling prevailed over the suction effects—in
ew and e values (Fig. 4). Both increased as fact, the LC4B void ratio at the beginning of wet-
the applied vertical net stress decreased; also, the ting was ei = 0.40 while the LC8 void ratio was
ew /e ratios were almost constant as the cycles ei = 0.51.
accumulated, equating to about 3 for DMA and 4 A very similar result was obtained by comparing
for DMB. DMA (ei = 0.55) and LC4A (ei = 0.41) tests, which
323
–3 0.6
DMA DMA
–2
0.5
v%
ew
–1
0.4
0 v = 50 kPa
s = 10–800 kPa
1 0.3
0 0.60
DMB DMB
1
0.50
v%
ew
2
0.40
3
v = 200 kPa
s = 10–800 kPa
4 0.30
2 0.6
LC8 LC8
3
0.5
v%
ew
0.4
5 v = 200 kPa
6 0.4
v%
7
ew
8 0.3
v = 50 kPa
9 vmax = 2800 kPa
s = 10–400 kPa
10 0.2
6 0.5
LC4B LC4B
7
0.4
v%
8
ew
0.3
9 v
= 200 kPa
initial point vmax
= 2800 kPa
s = 10–400 kPa
10 0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Figure 3. Volumetric strain (εv ) and water ratio (ew ) evolution versus matric suction (s) in wetting and drying cycles.
are characterized, as noted above, by a very different always showed greater water ratio variations both in
stress history, different s, and equal σv (50 kPa). the first cycle and in the successive reversible cycles.
In the first wetting LC4A swelled much more than The effects of higher density (or higher OCR) appear
DMA, but in the first drying and successive cycles the to overcome those of higher suction change only with
DMA volumetric strain increments were significantly reference to the volumetric swelling strain at the first
higher. In terms of water content variations, DMA wetting.
324
4 0.20
DMA
DMA 0.16
3
0.12
ew , e
v%
0.08
2
0.04
1 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 0.12
DMB DMB
0.10
2 0.08
ew , e
v%
0.06
1 0.04
0.02
0 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 0.12
LC8 LC8
0.10
2 0.08
ew , e
v%
0.06
1 0.04
0.02
0 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
5 0.12
LC4A LC4A
0.10
4
0.08
v%
ew , e
3 0.06
0.04
2
0.02
1
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
3 0.12
LC4B
LC4B 0.10
2 0.08
ew , e
v%
0.06
1 0.04
0.02
0 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
cycles cycles
wetting drying ew e
Figure 4. Increments of volumetric strain (εv ), water ratio (ew ) and void ratio (e) versus cycle number.
325
behaviour becomes reversible. A distinctive feature hysteresis, showed dependence on the stress paths
of the reported test results is the strong dependence applied. In the reversible range both volumetric strain
of mechanical behaviour in the first suction cycle on and water ratio increments shared the same trend: they
the stress history and material density at the begin- depended on the σv and s applied.
ning of wetting. In the reversible range, stress history The complexity of the material volumetric and
effects seem to disappear and elastic volumetric strains hydraulic behaviour requires a conceptual model in
are governed by the vertical net stress and suction which the different characteristic aspects can be ratio-
increment applied. More precisely, volumetric strain nally and consistently related. In this respect, the
changes increase as σv decreases and s increases. interpretation by B.Ex.M. of the volumetric behaviour
The evolution of water ratio with wetting and dry- of compacted scaly clay has been proved to be effec-
ing cycles develops in a quite similar way for all tested tive. A quantitative simulation of volumetric strain
samples, which accumulate irreversible water con- evolution is now in progress.
tent increments in the first cycle and share an almost
fully reversible behaviour in successive cycles. The
REFERENCES
irreversible water ratio variations are an evident con-
sequence of hydraulic hysteresis. However, the stress Airò Farulla, C. 2004. Comportamento idraulico e meccanico
paths applied influence water volume changes which dell’argilla a scaglie compattata del nucleo delle dighe
increase, both in the irreversible and the reversible Scanzano e Rossella. AGI XXII Conv. Naz. di Geotecnica,
range, as σv decreases or s increases. Palermo 22–24 Settembre: 445–452. Bologna: Patron Ed.
These experimental results could easily fit, at least Airò Farulla, C., Ferrari, A. & Romero, E. 2007. Mechan-
qualitatively, in the B.Ex.M. frame (Alonso et al., ical behaviour of compacted scaly clay during cyclic
1999; 2005; Gens & Alonso, 1992). Such an inter- controlled-suction testing. In T. Schanz (ed.), Experi-
pretation has been proved effective with reference to mental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics: 345–354. Berlin:
volumetric behaviour, although with the constraint of Springer.
Airò Farulla, C. & Jommi, C. 2005. Suction controlled
simplified hypotheses (Airò et al., 2007). A quantita- wetting-drying cycles on a compacted scaly clay. Proc. Int.
tive simulation of some of the above data, related to Conf. on Problematic Soils: 229–238. Eastern Mediter-
volumetric strain evolution, is at present in progress. ranean University, Famagusta, N. Cyprus.
However, in order to try to model irreversible and Alonso, E.E. Vaunat, J. & Gens, A. 1999. Modelling the
reversible water content changes in suction wetting mechanical behaviour of expansive clays. Engineering
and drying cycles, the effects of hydraulic hysteresis Geology 54: 173–183.
and void ratio changes are to be considered in a fully Alonso, E.E., Romero, E., Hoffmann, C. & Garcia-
coupled hydromechanical model (Vaunat et al., 2000). Escudero, E. 2005. Expansive bentonite-sand mixtures in
cyclic controlled-suction drying and wetting. Engineering
Geology 81: 213–236.
Buisson, M.S.R. & Wheeler, S.J. 2000. Inclusion of hydraulic
5 CONCLUSIONS hysteresis in a new elasto-plastic framework for unsat-
urated soils. In A. Tarantino & C. Mancuso (eds),
This paper presents detailed information on volumetric Experimental Evidence and Theoretical Approaches in
strain and water ratio evolution of a compacted scaly Unsaturated Soils: 109–119. Rotterdam: Balkema.
clay stressed by wetting and drying cycles at constant Gens, A. & Alonso, E.E. 1992. A framework for the
vertical net stress in suction controlled oedometers. behaviour of unsaturated expansive clays. Can. Geotech-
The analysis of the test results aims to characterize nical J. 29: 1013–1032.
some particular aspects of material mechanical and Romero, E. 1999. Characterisation and thermo-hydro-
mechanical behaviour of unsaturated Boom clay. An
hydraulic behaviour and its dependence on the stress experimental study. Doctoral Thesis, Universidad Politéc-
paths applied. In this connection it is evidenced that the nica de Cataluna, Barcelona.
compacted unsaturated scaly clay, when stressed cycli- Romero, E. 2001. Controlled-suction technique. In W.Y.Y.
cally in wetting and drying, underwent irreversible Gehling & F. Schnaid (eds.), Proc. 4◦ Symp. Brasil. Solos
volumetric swelling or shrinkage strains and irre- Nao Saturados, Porto Alegre, Brasil, 535–542.
versible water ratio (or saturation degree) increases. Sharma, R.S. & Wheeler, S.J. 2000. Behaviour of an unsat-
Irreversible volumetric strain and water ratio changes urated highly expansive clay during cycles of wetting
developed for the most part in the first cycle; starting and drying. In H. Rahardio, D.G. Toll & E.C. Leong
from the second suction cycle the material behaviour (eds), Unsaturated Soils for Asia. 721–726. Rotterdam:
Balkema.
became reversible more or less quickly. In the first wet- Vaunat, J., Romero, E. & Jommi, C. 2000. An elasto-
ting and drying cycle the overall volumetric behaviour plastic hydro-mechanical model for unsaturated soils. In
appeared to be strongly dependent on previous stress A. Tarantino & C. Mancuso (eds), Experimental Evi-
history and the σv and s applied. Water ratio incre- dence and Theoretical Approaches in Unsaturated Soils.
ments, which must have been related to hydraulic 121–138. Rotterdam: Balkema.
326
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Lime addition is a widely used technique to improve the engineering behaviour of soils and is
known to reduce the swelling potential of expansive soils. However, in the long term, the permanence of the
effect is questionable. This question is of interest since lime might be used to prevent swelling of expansive soils
in earthworks. An experimental study was undertaken to assess the effects of successive wetting/drying cycles
on the swelling behaviour of lime-treated expansive soils. This study was conducted both on three-year-old field
samples from an experimental backfill and samples reconstituted in the laboratory. Osmotic suction-controlled
oedometers were used to determine the swelling/shrinkage behaviour when submitted to wetting/drying cycles.
The results obtained for reconstituted samples showed that lime treatment can reduce dramatically the swelling
capacity of an expansive soil. However, the lime-treated samples taken from the experimental backfill exhibited
important swelling and shrinkage deformations when submitted to successive wetting and drying. The results
clearly indicate that treatment efficiency decreases with time. This tendency was confirmed by several cyclic
wetting/drying tests.
327
performed. As a conclusion, these studies tend to In parallel, untreated clayey soil of the A34 was also
indicate that suction cycles can alter the effects of lime sampled in order to conduct laboratory experiments
treatment on swelling potential of clays. However, it on reconstituted lime-treated A34 clay reconstituted
should be considered that, in these studies, the samples in the laboratory.
were submitted to cycles between null suction (samples
exposed to free water) and very low relative humidity 2.2 Untreated A34 clay properties
(i.e. high suctions). These experimental conditions
The identification properties of the A34 soil (before
are rather severe compared to field conditions where
lime addition) are given in Table 1. The compaction
suction variations are less pronounced below a few tens
properties were also determined. The optimum mass
of centimetres from the outer surface of the backfill.
water content was 27.0% that gave a dry density of
In this context, an experimental programme was
1.46 Mg · m−3 . With 3% of lime, on a dry weight
undertaken to evaluate the long term efficiency of
basis, the optimum mass water content of the A34 soil
lime treatment on the swelling/shrinkage properties
was equal to 24.5%, and the dry density was about
of an expansive soil when submitted to suction vari-
1.37 Mg · m−3 . The determination of the methy-
ations in a more realistic range. Osmotic suction-
lene blue value of a soil (VBS) by means of the
controlled oedometers were used to determine the
stain test evaluated the argillaceous fraction activity
swelling/shrinkage behaviour of soils submitted to
and quantity. These characteristics were used for the
wetting/drying cycles in the range of suctions com-
in situ compaction of the backfills. The particle size
prised between 0 and about 8 MPa. This study was
distribution analysis result is given on Figure 1.
conducted on two kinds of samples. Firstly, samples
were taken in July 2006 inside an experimental backfill
constructed in July 2003 with lime-treated expansive 2.3 Field samples characterization
soil. Secondly, additional experiments were carried out
with the same expansive soil, untreated or lime-treated Only the central parts of the cores were used for the
but cured only one month to evaluate the short term experiments presented in this study. Their water con-
efficiency of the lime treatment. tent was between 32 and 36%, the dry density between
1.14 and 1.28 Mg · m−3 and the degree of saturation
between 70 and 80%. These characteristics are very
different to the density and water content of the back-
2 TESTED MATERIALS fill built in 2003. This could be related (i) to field
328
compaction that was less efficient in the field than water, and therefore the suction, is controlled by the
in the laboratory, (ii) to a swelling of the soil after its macromolecule concentration: the higher the concen-
compaction, or (iii) to a swelling related to the effect of tration, the higher the suction. In this method, only
climatic conditions and the increase in water content. the matric suction of the sample is controlled. The
Particle size distribution analysis (PSD) was carried exchange of water is due to the process of osmosis.
out. Figure 1 compares the mean PSD of the untreated The macromolecule commonly used is the polyethy-
A34 clay and of the treated A34 clay coming from the lene glycol (PEG) with a molecular weight of 20
experimental backfill. It can be seen that, after three 000 or 6000 Da (1 Dalton, Da = 1.6605 10−24 g).
years, the lime treatment induced a strong reduction of An extended calibration curve for suctions ranging
the amount of the clay particles (i.e. lower than 2 μm) between 0 up to 8.5 MPa is given by Delage et al.
from 66.1% down to 30%. The VBS value for the lime- (1998) and Cuisinier and Masrouri (2004). To fit these
treated soil after 3 years is comprised between 5.1 and data, the following empirical calibration equation was
7.1 g/100 g of dry soil that is significantly lower than proposed by Delage et al. (1998):
the untreated soil (see Table 1).
These considerations tend to indicate that the lime- s = 11 c2 (1)
treated A34 clay sampled within the backfill is less
active than the untreated soil. where s is the suction and c the concentration of
the PEG solution expressed in g of PEG per g of
2.4 Laboratory-reconstituted samples water. In order to limit this effect, the temperature
(lab-samples) was maintained at 20 ± 1.5◦ C.
The basic principle of the osmotic oedometer used
Some samples were reconstituted in the laboratory and in this study is presented in Figure 2. A peristaltic
several kinds of specimen preparations were consid- pump circulates the macromolecules solution through
ered: (i) untreated A34, (ii) lime-treated A34 with the base of the oedometer cell, which is designed
3% of lime without curing and (iii) treated-A34 with to allow fluid to circulate all around the bottom of
1 month of curing at 40◦ C. This temperature was the sample. Between the sample and the PEG solu-
chosen to speed up the chemical reactions and promote tion, a semi-permeable membrane is introduced to
the secondary formation of hydrated cementitious prevent PEG macromolecules from passing into the
products. sample. The diameter of the sample is 7 cm, and
The preparation of the lime-treated samples fol- its initial height about 1 cm. With that material, 7
lowed French technical recommendations. The lime days were needed for deformation equilibrium to be
and the soil at a water content equal to the opti- reached. Mechanical loading was performed in the
mum water content were thoroughly mixed together.
The mixture was left for one hour in an airtight
container before compaction to allow the develop-
ment of immediate reactions between lime and the
soil particles. Then, the soil was dynamically com-
pacted directly in the desired oedometric cell. The
compaction energy corresponded to the normal Proc-
tor energy. The dynamic compaction procedure was
scaled for the volume of the oedometric cell. A mini-
compaction device similar to the one presented by
Sridharan & Sivapullaiah (2005) was used. When a
curing period was required, the sample was wrapped
with plastic sheets in order to prevent any water loss.
All the reconstituted samples were compacted at their
respective optimum water content and density.
3 OSMOTIC TECHNIQUE
329
same manner as in a typical oedometer test. All the duplicate. Each sample was cut into small pieces of
wetting and drying phase were performed under a ver- approximately 4 to 5 cm3 . Several pieces were used
tical stress of 10 kPa to ensure a good contact between for each imposed suction. The pieces were inserted
the semi-permeable membrane and the lower face of in a semi-permeable membrane and after 7 days in
the sample. the osmotic solution, the water content of each piece
The osmotic technique was also used to determine was determined. The results are given in Figure 3.
the water retention properties of the tested material. The results show a good reproducibility between dupli-
Cubic-shaped samples with a volume of approximately cates. We note that the imposition of suction lower than
1 to 2 cm3 were obtained from compacted samples the initial suction did not induce a significant increase
of the different materials used in this study. They of the water content.
were inserted in the semi-permeable membrane. Then
the membrane was hermetically sealed and further
immersed in the desired PEG solution. Seven days 4.2 Swelling characteristics of field samples
were required to reach moisture equilibrium. Then,
the water content of the samples was determined and Several series of tests were performed to evaluate the
the PEG concentration measured to determine the swelling properties of the field samples. First, the
imposed matric suction. swelling potential was determined. This test was per-
formed in a basic oedometer under the load of the
piston. The swelling potential was found to be lower
than 0.5%. This can be compared to the swelling poten-
4 BEHAVIOUR OF THE SAMPLES
tial of the untreated A34 clay that is equal to 13% for
FROM THE EXPERIMENTAL BACKFILLS
an initial water content of 35% (i.e. close to the in situ
water content).
4.1 Water retention curves
Afterwards, three samples were submitted to suc-
The matric suction of the field samples was determined cessive wet/dry cycles between their initial suction
with the filter paper method. Samples were cut into two (i.e. about 1 MPa) and 0 kPa. Their initial dry den-
parts, three filter papers being inserted between them. sities are comprised between 1.17 and 1.28 Mg · m−3 .
After 10 days in an airtight container in order to reach In order to limit the test duration, no intermediate
equilibrium, the central filter paper was used for the stages of suction were imposed between the initial suc-
suction determination. The mean value of the initial tion and 0 kPa. It can be seen in Figure 4 that the
matric suction was between 800 and 1000 kPa. first hydration induced small height variation between
In a second test, the retention properties of the field +0.02 and −0.02%. The results show that the first
samples were determined between 10 kPa and about wetting/drying cycle resulted in an accumulation of
8 MPa. The retention curve test was performed in shrinkage deformation.
330
from 5.1% to 8.5%, significantly higher than the defor-
mation registered between 0 and 1 MPa with the tests
A, B and C (Figure 4). Secondly, it can be seen that the
wetting that followed the first drying was associated to
a swelling but the samples did not return to their initial
state. The first suction cycle induced an accumulation
of shrinkage deformations. During the additional suc-
tion cycles, it appears that the suction cycles induced
only elastic swelling/shrinkage deformations.
Therefore, the swelling behaviour of the lime-
treated expansive soil is related to the magnitude of the
suction cycle. Lime treatment is still efficient 3 years
after the backfill construction only for the suction
cycles conducted between 0 and 1 MPa.
331
Moreover, the water retention capacity under low
suction of the A34 field-samples is similar to the water
retention of the untreated A34 clay, and significantly
higher than those of the untreated clay. However, the
water retention curve between 50 kPa up to 8 MPa is
still drastically different. The identification properties
also clearly indicate that lime is still having an effect
on the A34 clay 3 years after the construction of the
backfill.
Hence, it can be stated that these results tend to indi-
cate that the effect of lime treatment on the swelling
properties of an expansive soil still have a significant
effect on the behaviour of the A34 clay, 3 years after the
backfill construction. Nevertheless, it appears that the
lime treatment ‘‘efficiency’’ on the swelling/shrinkage
potential of the A34 clay decreases with time. The
results show that the behaviour of the A34 field-
samples depends on the imposed suction range.
7 CONCLUSION
Figure 6. Influence of successive suction cycles between
8000 and 0 kPa on lab-samples. In this study, experimental techniques developed to
study the behaviour of unsaturated soils were used to
are given and are presented for comparison with the evaluate the long term efficiency of lime-treatment
untreated A34-sample. on the swelling/shrinkage behaviour of expansive
First, it can be seen that the untreated A34 clay has a soils. These techniques demonstrate that the effi-
high swelling/shrinkage potential, expected behaviour ciency of lime treatment tends to decrease with
for an expansive soil. One sample of untreated clay time. It is now necessary to determine whether this
was first submitted to wetting down to 0 while another decrease is linked to particular environmental con-
sample was first submitted to a drying up to 8 MPa. In ditions (weather, drainage, etc.) of the experimental
the first case, the successive suction cycles induce the backfill or the lime/soil reactions themselves. Addi-
accumulation of plastic swelling deformation whereas tional investigations on the physico-chemical charac-
in the second case, there is a slight tendency for the teristics of the different tested materials will also be
accumulation of shrinkage deformations. undertaken.
Secondly, the lime-treated samples cured one
month at 40◦ C exhibited a very different behaviour.
It can be seen that the swelling/shrinkage potential is ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
lower than 3% in the studied range of suction. Hence,
it can be stated that, after one month of curing, the lime The authors thank V. Berche from the Laboratoire
treatment is efficient at reducing the swelling poten- Régional de l’Équipement of St Quentin (France) for
tial of the A34 clay. It appears also that the maximum providing both the core samples and data about the
deformation has taken place during the first cycle, backfill construction.
the remaining suction cycles inducing only elastic
deformation.
REFERENCES
332
Delage, P., Howat, M.D. & Cui, Y.J. 1998. The relationship Little, D.N. 1995. Stabilization of pavement subgrades
between suction and the swelling properties in a heavily and base courses with lime. Arlington: National lime
compacted swelling clay. Engineering Geology 50: 31–48. association.
Guney, Y., Sari, D., Cetin, M. & Tuncan, M. 2007. Impact Locat, J., Bérubé, M.A. & Choquette, M. 1990. Laboratory
of cyclic wetting-drying on swelling behaviour of lime- investigations on the lime stabilisation of sensitive clays:
stabilized soil. Building and Environment 42: 681–688. shear strength development. Canadian Geotechnical J. 27:
Gutschick, K.A. 1978. Lime stabilization under hydraulic 294–304.
conditions. 4th lime congress, pp. 1–20. Rao, S.M. & Thyagaraj, T. 2003. Lime slurry stabilisa-
Kelley, C.M. 1988. A long range durability study of lime tion of an expansive soil. Geotechnical Engineering 153:
stabilized bases at military posts in the southwest. Bulletin 139–146.
328, National Lime Association, Arlington, 2nd edition. Sridharan, A. & Sivapullaiah, P.V. 2005. Mini compaction
Khattab, S.A.A., Al-Mukhtar, M. & Fleureau, J.-M. 2007. test apparatus for fine grained soils. Geotechnical Test-
Long-term stability characteristics of a lime-treated plas- ing J. 28: 240–246.
tic soil. J. of Materials in Civil Engineering 19: 358–366.
333
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This article presents the preliminary findings of an experimental study conducted on uniform
sand-bentonite mixtures, focussing on the investigation and prediction of the volume change and hydraulic
properties of artificially prepared mixtures of natural bentonite (Na-smectite) and poorly graded fine sand.
Compacted specimens of sand-bentonite mixtures with additions of 33%, 50% and 75% sand were tested to
demonstrate the change in physical and mechanical properties as compared to the compacted bentonite with
no sand, therefore obtaining the most feasible combination for achieving the required properties. Based on the
experimental findings of swell-shrink behaviour, saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil-water characteristic
behaviour, sand-bentonite mixtures with 75% sand proved to be quite effective in fulfilling the requirements for
barriers in a semi-arid climate.
335
Various investigators have assessed the suitability of 3.1 Atterberg limits
bentonite-based materials to be used as barrier layers
The most important physical properties of the sand-
for repositories. The use of pure bentonite in liners
bentonite samples are the Atterberg limits, which show
for water-retention facilities is very common. Parti-
the reduction in the plastic behaviour with increas-
cle sizes of the clayey soils such as bentonite are so
ing sand content. The tests were performed using
fine, giving them the ability of being impervious and
all fractions of the mixtures, without sieving through
preventing the leaks. In recent years sand-bentonite
0.425 mm. Table 1 depicts the plastic limit, liquid limit
mixtures have been used in construction of landfills
and the plasticity indices of sand-bentonite mixtures
and waste water ponds, which are observed to perform
with increasing percentages of sand. The plasticity
better than clayey mixtures in semi arid climates. The
index values indicate a significant reduction in the
addition of small quantities of bentonite allows the
plastic behaviour of the mixtures with increasing sand
fulfillment of the hydraulic conductivity requirement
content.
without failing in mechanical stability.
Using clayey compound with granular soils to be
applied as hydraulic or evapotranspirative barriers is 3.2 Compaction test
a relatively new solution. Bentonite as a fine parti-
cle size soil with its specific properties seems to be For laboratory investigations on sand-bentonite mix-
an appropriate type of material to be used. The ben- tures, the hydraulic conductivity is significantly influ-
tonite reduces the hydraulic conductivity, while sand enced by the moulding water content. A thorough
reduces problems of bentonite cracking under shrink- mixture of sand-bentonite is essential for reducing the
age (Kaoser et al. 2006). The percentage of bentonite scatter in hydraulic conductivity.
varies depending on the properties of the soil it will In order to achieve a homogenenous distribution of
be mixed with. If pure bentonite is to be mixed with voids within the mixture, the materials must be com-
uniform sand usually 10–15% of bentonite is ade- pacted at water contents either at optimum or just above
quate. In general the amount of bentonite used in the optimum.
landfill industry varies between 3–15% (Kumar and In this study, Standard Proctor tests were performed
Yong 2002). However, as the cost of bentonite is on natural bentonite alone and on mixtures of natu-
high, to determine the minimum percentage of ben- ral bentonite and sand. The results of the compaction
tonite necessary to achieve the required properties tests carried out to assess the optimum water contents
should be the main task. If the bentonite amount is and maximum dry densities are given in Figure 1.
high, the mixture becomes plastic and therefore it will
be difficult to compact (Sallfors and Öberg-Högsta, Table 1. Atterberg limits of sand-bentonite mixtures.
2002).
Sand
336
As can be observed in the figure, increasing sand consolidation curve in saturated soil mechanics, and
content decreases the optimum water content, while controls the behavior of hydraulic conductivity, shear
increasing the maximum dry density. The bentonite, strength and volume change at different suctions dur-
which forms a gel around sand particles, when reduced ing wetting and drying processes. Therefore, SWCC
causes a reduction in the effective size of particles, can be considered as one of the most fundamental
hence decreasing the volume of voids. Therefore the hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated soils.
dry density is reduced. The water content of a soil decreases as suction
increases following a drying path (desorption). On the
other hand, the water content increases when the suc-
3.3 Swell potential tion decreases following a wetting path (adsorption).
To investigate the swelling characteristics of natural For engineering practice, however, a single valued
bentonite and sand bentonite mixtures, one dimen- function, usually the desorption curve, is used in char-
sional swell tests were carried out using oedometers. acterizing the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils.
Consolidation rings of 50 mm inner diameter and The drying curve has a breaking point corresponding
of height 14 mm were pushed into the compacted to the matric suction when the soil starts to desatu-
sand-bentonite prepared at optimum water content, rate, called the air-entry value (AEV), and is identified
and two samples were obtained for swell testing. as the suction at which air enters the largest pores of
Specimens with varying sand-bentonite contents the soil (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993, Rahardjo and
were allowed to swell until the increase in free swell Leong 1997).
with time became marginal. Figure 2 presents the free In order to predict the performance of sand-
swell response with time for different mixtures of sand- bentonite barriers, it is essential to determine the suc-
bentonite. The results depict a significant reduction in tion characteristics. Sand-bentonite mixtures develop
free swell with respect to the increasing sand content. very large suctions which cannot be tested by conven-
tional methods, such as axis translation and osmotic
techniques. In this study a chilled mirror potentiam-
3.4 Soil-water characteristic curve eter device was used to measure total soil suctions.
The compacted sand-bentonite barriers are frequently This equipment was chosen because of its practicality
unsaturated in semi-arid areas. Therefore, suctions in giving quick response, and the repeatability of the
are a key factor in influencing the hydraulic proper- test results with high accuracy. Many other methods
ties, volume change and strength. Hydraulic properties for measuring total suction are available such as filter
consist of soil water characteristic curve (SWCC), and paper and psychrometer methods but assessment made
hydraulic conductivity function. by the Agus & Schantz (2005) showed that the chilled-
SWCC is a measure of water storage capacity of mirror potentiameter gives the most accurate results.
soil for a given soil suction. It describes the rela- A description of the chilled-mirror potentiameter
tionship between the volumetric water content, θ , or used was given by Leong et al. (2003). This device
the gravimetric water content, w, and the matric suc- which also has soil science and agricultural usage
tion, ψm (ua − uw ) or the total suction (that is matric has the ability of measuring the suctions between
plus osmotic suction), ψt . It has a similar role as the the ranges 500–300 000 kPa and higher within 10 min-
utes in fairly high accuracy. The dew point potentiome-
ter (Model WP4 T, Decagon Devices, Inc., Pullman,
25 W A 99163 USA) used in this research, determines
Natural bentonite total suction by measuring the dew point temperature
33% Sand of the head space above sample. It is done by cooling
20 50% Sand a mirror, the reflectance of which is carefully moni-
75% Sand
tored by an optical sensor. As the mirror reaches the
Percent Swell
337
0.7 cracks formed. The bentonite reduces the hydraulic
Natural Bentonite conductivity, while the sand reduces the bentonite
33% Sand cracking under shrinkage.
0.6
50% Sand Samples compacted at optimum water content were
75% sand saturated in one dimensional swell equipment, drained
0.5 and allowed to desiccate at room temperature. Dry-
ing was carried out in a sequential manner. Volume
Water content
0 29.93 326.25
33 27.67 220.35 2.0
50 23.22 213.31 1.8 80% saturation
75 9.17 41.02 1.6
1.4 100% saturation
Void ratio
338
Table 3. Shrinkage parameters.
There is a significant decrease in volume change. No This study presents the initial findings of an on going
cracks are observed in the desiccated specimens of research program to assess the most suitable bar-
sand-bentonite with 75% sand content. rier material for waste containment facilities in North
Cyprus, where semi-arid climatic conditions prevail.
Uniform sand and natural bentonite (Na-smectite)
3.6 Hydraulic conductivity were chosen, which are local materials abundantly
Saturated hydraulic conductivity is usually taken as found.
a measure defining effectiveness of barriers. Barrier The results of the experimental program which con-
layers are expected to block the infiltration. However, sists of determination of swell-shrink characteristics
in semi-arid and arid areas, macro-pores are formed and hydraulic properties, indicate that bentonite with
upon desiccation, providing pathways for the infiltra- 75% sand significantly reduces the volume change
tion of water. Therefore, it is of great importance to upon drying, forming a uniform texture with no
predict the hydraulic conductivity of barriers at initial desiccation cracks.
stages of their design (Öberg-Högsta, 2002). Studying the soil-water characteristic curves, it is
It is universally accepted that the hydraulic conduc- observed that, while the air-entry value decreases
tivity of liners for hazardous waste should not exceed with increasing sand content, the slope also reduces
10−9 m/s. In this study, saturated hydraulic conductiv- indicating a reduction in the unsaturated hydraulic
ity was determined from the consolidation test results conductivity function with respect to suction.
under different effective consolidation pressures. The Based on these preliminary results it is anticipated
estimated values are presented in Table 4. The testing that the naturally recovered bentonite and the uni-
program includes determination of hydraulic conduc- form beach sand can be efficiently utilized as a barrier
tivity values by direct measurements under varying material in a semi-arid climate. However, these initial
confining pressures, which is still under progress. findings will be ascertained upon completion of the
testing program.
3.7 Scanning electron microscopy
The desiccated specimens of natural bentonite and of
mixtures of sand-bentonite were examined by scan- REFERENCES
ning electron microscopy. From the micrographs given
in Figure 5, it can be observed that there are large Agus, S.S. and Schanz, T. 2005. Swelling pressure and total
macropores in the pure bentonite, which reduces in suction of compacted bentonite-sand mixtures. Proceed-
ings of International Conference on Problematic Soils,
size with increasing sand content. In the specimens 25–27 May 2005. Eastern Mediterranean University,
with 75% sand, the bentonite content is just enough Famagusta, N. Cyprus.
to fill the voids of the mixture completely even in the Benson, C. 1999. Final covers for waste containment sys-
desiccated state. Therefore, the texture appears to be tems: A North American Perspective. XVII Conference
more uniform. of Geptechnics of Torino, Nov. 23–25, 1999.
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Benson, C. and Trast, J.M. 1995. Hydraulic conductivity of Rahardjo, H. and Leong, E.C. 1997. Soil-water character-
thirteen compacted clays. Clays and Clay Minerals. 43, istic curves and flux boundary models. Unsaturated Soil
No. 6, 669–681. Engineering practice: Geotechnical Special Publication
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil Mechanics for No. 68, edited by Houston, S.L. and Fredlund, D.G., Geo
Unsaturated Soils. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Institute, ASCE, Utah.
Fredlund, D.G. and Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the soil- Sallfors, G. and Öberg-Högsta, A.L. 2002. Determina-
water characteristic curve. Canadia Geotechnical Journal: tion of hydraulic conductivity of sand-bentonite mixtures
31, 521–532. for engineering purposes. Geotechnical and Geological
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2006. The influence of hydraulic gradient and rate of ero- SoilVision Systems Ltd. 1998. User’s Guide—A Knowledge
sion on hydraulic conductivity of sand-bentonite mixtures. Based System for Soil Properties, Version 2.0, Saskatoon,
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Kumar, S. and Yong, W.L. 2002. Effect of bentonite on Tang, G.X., Graham, J., Blatz, J., Gray, M. and Rajapakse,
compacted clay landfill barriers. Soil and Sediment R.K.N.D. 2002. Suctions, stresses and strengths in unsatu-
Contamination: 11(1): 71–89. rated sand-bentonite. Engineering Geology, 64, 147–156.
Leong, E.C., Tripathy, S. and Rahardjo, H. 2003. Total suc- Weeks, B. and Wilson, W. 2005. Variation in moisture con-
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53(2): 173–182.
340
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The elastoplastic compressibility model developed by Oldecop & Alonso (2001) describes rock-
fill behaviour by means of a few constitutive parameters. Rockfill behaviour depends markedly on particle
breakage. Therefore, grain size distribution is expected to control macroscopic behaviour. The purpose of the
work developed was to relate specific features of the grain size distribution to changes in constitutive parameters.
Experimental work was performed on compacted gravel specimens having different gradings. It was found that
grain size uniformity leads to an increasing compressibility and collapse potential. However, elastic parameters
and the ratio of the creep index, λt to total compressibility (λi + λd0 ) were not affected by changes in grain size
distribution. It was also found that changes in grain size distribution, due to particle breakage, were insufficiently
described by the well known indices of Marsal & Hardin.
341
mechanism (IDM) takes place; under saturated 100
conditions, and beyond a threshold total stress value
that defines the onset of particle breakage, σY , the
time-dependent deformation mechanism (TDM) is 80
342
transmitting the energy to the material through a fixed application of each load increment, followed by a
surface, avoiding a direct impact to the rock particles long-term deformation in time without apparent sta-
and the resulting intense breakage of the layer surface. bilization. This type of behaviour has already been
The total compaction energy applied corresponds to observed by others (Marsal, 1973; Sowers et al., 1965;
the Normal Proctor test (584.3kJ/m3 ).
The pair of oedometer tests performed for each
Vertical stress (MPa)
grading consists of: 1) a loading oedometer test under
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
dry conditions followed by an induced collapse, at a 0
constant stress level, flooding the sample (tests EP1, 2
EP3, EP5 and EP7), and 2) a saturated oedometer test 4 EP1
(%)
(tests EP2, EP4, EP6 and EP8). Stresses were applied 6 EP3
in increments by means of pressurized air against the 8 EP5
top of the upper platen. Each loading increment lasted 10 EP7
24 hours, a long enough time to allow the establish- 12
14
ment of a stable creep trend. The maximum pressure
reached was 1.1 MPa, and it was followed by wetting 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
of the sample (on the dry tests) and a final unloading. 0
2
Figure 3 shows plots of vertical strain against vertical 4
EP2
(%)
stress from two typical dry and saturated tests on the EP4
6
same grading. 8 EP6
10 EP8
Test results 12
Vertical strains were registered with time during each 14
loading increment.
Figure 4 shows the time records of deformation for Figure 5. Oedometer tests. Vertical strain against vertical
test EP3. The collapse deformation due to the flood- stress for (a) the ‘‘dry’’ tests, (b) the saturated tests.
ing of the sample is also included. A rapid increase
of deformation was observed in all the tests after the Vertical stress (MPa)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
0 2.55E-04
2 1.55E-04
4
(%)
6 5.50E-05
8 –4.50E-05
10 Saturated tests Dry tests
12 EP7 Dry test
14 EP8 Saturated test Figure 6. Time-dependent strain rate for oedometer dry
tests (broken lines) and saturated tests (solid lines).
Figure 3. Loading and unloading during dry (EP7) and
saturated (EP8) oedometer tests.
+Patm(Mpa)
0.1 1 10 100 1000
0
1
collapse (%)
2
3 M1
4 M3
M5
5 M7
6
Figure 4. Vertical strains vs. time during consecutive Figure 7. Collapse strain plotted against total suction under
loading increments in the non saturated oedometer test EP3. a vertical stress of 1.1 MPa (tests EP1, EP3, EP5 and EP7).
343
Nobari & Duncan, 1972; Oldecop & Alonso 2001; The time-dependent strain rate, v, was obtained
Montobbio, 2001). at the end of each loading increment; it was derived
Figure 5 shows plots of vertical strain against ver- by means of a linear regression slope adjusted to the
tical stress for the eight oedometer tests carried out. record from 100 minutes to 1440 minutes (with respect
The plotted values correspond to the vertical strain to the instant of load application). Results are shown in
measured 24 hours after the application of the loading Figure 6 for all dry tests (broken lines) and saturated
increment. tests (solid lines). The strain rate increases with the
applied stress.
Figure 7 shows plots of collapse strain against total
Table 3. Initial and final water content of tested samples. suction for the four different gradings. The measured
Final water content at the end of the test water content at the end of the oedometer test is indi-
cated in Table 3. Given these values and the water
Final water Final water retention curve of the rock provided by Oldecop &
Test content (%) Test content (%) Alonso (2001), it was checked that all rock particles
were saturated at the end of the tests.
EP 1 8.04 EP 5 8.13 Particle breakage induced during oedometer load-
EP 2 8.57 EP 6 7.77 ing was also investigated. The grain size distributions
EP 3 6.14 EP 7 7.08 at the end of the tests were obtained as well as the
EP 4 5.86 EP 8 6.12
grain size distribution at the end of the compacting
processes (tests PC1, PC3, PC5 and PC7; see Table 2).
Initial water
content 0.59
Figure 8 shows plots of the original prepared grading
M1, the grading at the end of the compaction process
on M1 (PC1) and the grading at the end of the satu-
rated oedometer test EP2. Results indicate that particle
100 breakage occurs both during the compaction process
Initial EP 2
Post Compacted M1 and during the oedometer test. However, it was diffi-
Final EP2 cult to derive a clear relationship between the evolution
80 of D50 and the applied work.
Percent finer by weight
60
4 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
AND CONSTITUTIVE PARAMETERS
40
Parameters λi , λd0 , κ, χ and λt , were obtained from the
set of oedometer tests described; the main results are
20 summarized in Table 4.
Figure 9 and Figure 10 show, respectively, plots of
λi and λd0 against the ratio of maximum and minimum
0 particle dimensions in the tested grading (Dmax /Dmin
10 1 0.1 0.01 in log scale) for the four non saturated oedometer
D (mm) tests and the four saturated oedometer tests performed.
8 λi and λd0 decreased with the ratio Dmax /Dmin and a
7.5 quasi linear relation fits the data. Both plots provide
7 the sequence from the more compressible grading to
D50 (mm)
344
Table 4. Compressibilty model parameter values of the tests carried out.
λi λi + λdo λdo κ χ
Test (MPa−1 ) (MPa−1 ) (MPa−1 ) (MPa−1 ) (MPa−1 )
0.06 0.008
M3
0.05 0.007
M3
0.006 M1
0.04
i (MPa–1)
M1
(MPa–1)
M7 0.005 M5
0.03 M5 0.004
0.003 M7
0.02
0.002
0.01
0.001
0.00 0
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
Dmax/Dmin
Dmax/Dmin
Figure 9. Compressibility parameter λi from the non satu-
rated oedometer tests. Figure 11. Parameter χ plotted against ratio Dmax /Dmin for
the analysed grain size distributions.
0.04 M1 ing M3 has bigger particles than grading M7, there can
M7 be more defects in their particles that could develop the
0.03
M5 onset of a fracture; this fact, added to the existence of
0.02
a lower fine content in grading M3, may explain why it
0.01 was more compressible than grading M7. Montobbio
0.00 (2001) also reached similar conclusions.
1 10 100 1000 The comparison of the response of gradings M1 and
Dmax/Dmin M7 suggests that the higher fine content and smaller
particles of M7 resulted in a more rigid behaviour. This
Figure 10. Compressibility parameter λd0 from the non result is better appreciated in the saturated tests.
saturated oedometer tests. Figure 11 shows the variation of χ parameter
against the ratio Dmax /Dmin . The collapse deforma-
Grading M1 was, in turn, more compressible than tion induced by sample flooding at some stress level is
grading M5. Grading M5 has a higher fine fraction a result of particle breakage and therefore, it was log-
than M1. It is interpreted that the fine particles of ical to obtain relations between χ and grading similar
grading M5 were filling the interparticle voids, allow- to the changes in compressibility indices with grading
ing a better uniform distribution of the external load (Figure 11).
among particles and hence lower stress levels were The values of parameter κ are shown in Figure 12.
concentrated on the individual particle contacts. It appears that the grading distribution had no sig-
Also, the more compressible nature of grading M7 nificant influence on rockfill elasticity; in fact no
with respect to the behaviour of grading M5 was con- definite trends were observed between κ and the ratio
sistent with the previous explanations because of the Dmax /Dmin for the tested specimens during unloading.
better gradation and the higher fine content of grading Time-dependent strain rates plotted in Figure 6 were
M5 with respect to grading M7. higher for the more compressible gradings. It was
345
0.020 controlled by the rockfill grading distribution. The
principal aim of the reported research has been the
0.015 M5 dry study of the effect of the grading distribution on rock-
(MPa–1)
M3 sat. M5 sat.
fill behaviour, focusing on the effect of the degree of
0.010
M3 dry M7 dry uniformity of the grain size and the influence of the
0.005 fine fraction.
M7 sat.
A programme of oedometer tests have been per-
0.000 formed on samples following four different gradings.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Strains during each load increment and collapse defor-
Dmax/Dmin mations have been measured. Rockfill response has
been described in terms of five parameters which
Figure 12. Values of parameter κ for the tests performed. characterize the elastoplastic compressibility model
developed by Oldecop & Alonso (2001).
Table 5. Ratio of the creep index, λt to total compressibility
The results indicate that gradings with a higher
(λi + λd0 ). uniformity have a more compressible behaviour and
enhanced collapse deformations than well graded dis-
Dry conditions Saturated conditions tributions when they have in common the D50 dimen-
sion. In the case of gradings with the same degree
λt /λi λt /(λi + λd0 ) of uniformity, a smaller D50 dimension means a less
compressible behaviour and a reduced collapse defor-
Test % % mation. It has been observed that the addition of a fine
EP1 2.08
fraction favours the increase of stiffness even in the
EP2 1.60 case of well graded materials.
EP3 1.06 Rockfill deformations are a result of particle break-
EP4 1.56 age. Two factors related with the particle breakage
EP5 1.59 have been considered to understand the obtained
EP6 1.24 results: the concentration of high stress levels on con-
EP7 1.80 tacts and the defects or flaws contained in rockfill
EP8 1.42 particles. Well graded distributions result in more con-
tact points among particles than uniform gradings.
Also, increasing the fine fraction means an increase in
obtained that the ratio between the creep index param- the number of contacts between particles and a more
eter λt and the compressibility parameters was nearly uniform distribution of contact forces. A larger num-
constant, and varies from 1.4 × 10−2 to 2 × 10−2 in ber of defects are more likely in bigger particles and
percentage. Table 5 summarizes the values found in this explains the more compressible behaviour and col-
all tests performed. lapse deformations observed in samples with larger
Hardin and Marsal parameters were obtained for D50 (for a similar coefficient of uniformity).
all the oedometer tests in order to quantify the particle It appears also that the elastic (unloading/reloading)
breakage due to the applied loading path. They were behaviour of rockfill is not affected by the grain size
derived considering that the post compacted grading distributions analyzed here.
distribution was the initial grading, in order to isolate It has been observed that poorly graded samples
the effect of the oedometer loading. The analysis indi- exhibit a higher time-dependent strain rate. This is
cated that tests exhibiting a higher particle breakage a trend observed also for the compressibility of the
(according to the indices) did not correspond to the specimens tested. It has also been found that the ratio
more compressible tests. The Hardin index, in par- between λt and the compressibility parameter is nearly
ticular, quantifies particle breakage by means of the constant for all the tests performed.
variation in the area below the accumulated grading The development of particle breakage due to the
curve; therefore this index is not useful to compare oedometer tests performed was also investigated. It
particle breakage between gradings having different was found that Hardin and Marsal indices could not be
shapes of the accumulated grain distribution curve. related in a consistent manner with the compressibility
observed in tests.
5 CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Rockfill structures accumulate permanent defor-
mations in time and develop collapse when they The first author acknowledges the support of the
are wetted. These deformation characteristics are ‘‘Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca del
346
Departament d’Innovació, Universitats i Empresa’’ Nobari, E.S. & Duncan, J.M. 1972. Effect of reservoir filling
of the ‘‘Generalitat de Catalunya’’ and the European on stresses and movements in Herat and rockfill dams.
Social Fund. Department of Civil Engineering. Report No. TE-72–1.
University of California.
Oldecop, L.A. & Alonso, E.E. 2001. A model for rockfill
compressibility. Géotechnique, 51 (2), 127–139.
REFERENCES Ramon, A. 2006. Efecte de la granulometria en el comporta-
ment d’esculleres. Graduate thesis. UPC.
Marsal, R.J. 1973. Mechanical properties of rockfill. Sowers, G.F., Williams, R.C. & Wallace, T.S. 1965, Compre-
Embankment Dam Engineering. Casagrande Volume. sibility of broken rock and settlement of rockfills. Proc.
Hirschfeld, R.C. & Poulos, S.J., eds. John Wiley & Sons. 6th ICSMFE, Montreal, 2, 561–565.
Montobbio, D. 2001. Influencia de la granulometria en la
compresibilidad de las escolleras. Graduate thesis. UPC.
347
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the mechanical characterization of the volcanic ashy soils (silty sands)
covering the Pizzo d’Alvano massif (Campania Region). Frequently, they are in unsaturated condition with
significant suction values, due to the finer portion of their grain size distribution, that strongly influences their
mechanical behaviour. The structure of undisturbed samples is the result of their air-fall origin with an open
configuration (metastable structure) that induces collapse when saturation occurs. On the contrary, the remoulded
material shows a more stable structure. However, these soils show a remarkable creep behaviour and therefore
significant secondary settlements. In this work, the experimental data obtained by means of tests performed on
unsaturated samples are discussed. The results obtained in a wide range of practical stress level indicate that
beside suction, also the initial specific volume of the soil and the overburden pressure influence the magnitude
of both time-dependent and collapse settlements.
Ashy soils represent a remarkable portion of the unsat- 2.1 Tested materials
urated pyroclastic cover that can be found in Campania
Laboratory tests were performed on a non-plastic
Region (Southern Italy). Such cover derives from the
ashy soil (Bilotta & Foresta 2002); its main physical
Somma—Vesuvius volcanic activities both as primary
properties are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2.
air-fall deposition and as debris colluvial deposition.
This material, in undisturbed state (air-fall depo-
Frequently, rapid flow type movements triggered by
sition), is characterized by a high value of νini and
particular intense meteoric events involve pyroclastic
by a metastable structure. These features are caused
soils. The periodic occurrence of depositional events
by its air-fall deposition. On the contrary, remoulded
from landslide phenomena is highlighted by the pres-
samples (alluvial deposition) show a νini lower than
ence, at the toe of the valleys, of alluvial fans of various
undisturbed materials (Table 2).
ages superimposed onto older debris deposits. The
soils constituting the older deposits are frequently used
in the construction of structures founded or realized Table 1. Composition of tested soils.
with them such as road embankments.
The design of suitable works as well as a correct Clay Silt Sand Gravel
stability analysis aimed at flowslides modelling need
a thorough understanding of the mechanical behaviour Grain size distribution % % % %
of the abovementioned soils. To this aim, in situ
(Sorbino & Cascini 2002) and laboratory investiga- Upper bound limit 4.7 53.6 40.6 1.1
Lower bound limit 1.4 40.9 51.3 6.4
tions (Bilotta & Foresta 2002, Sorbino & Foresta 2002,
Bilotta et al. 2006) were started and they are still in
progress at University of Salerno (Italy).
The main objective of the research presented in this Table 2. Average index properties of tested soils.
paper is focused on the investigation of the stress-strain
response under two different stress paths (oedomet- Gs vini Sr γd
ric and triaxial) of both undisturbed and remoulded
samples. The influence on compressibility (stiffness, Soil state % kN/m3
viscosity and collapsibility) of the initial suction (s)
Undisturbed 2.549 3.595 74.8 6.93
and initial specific volume (vini ) of the soil were Remoulded 2.552 2.982 92.1 8.65
investigated.
349
Remoulded samples were prepared by hand mixing and 140 mm high, have been tested under suction rang-
material at natural water content with distilled water in ing from 0 kPa to 50 kPa and mean net stress (p − ua )
order to form a slurry with 1.5wL initial water content. varying between 10 kPa and 477 kPa. A stress con-
This slurry was then statically compressed in a large trolled rate of 2.5 kPa/h was chosen to obtain a constant
consolidometer under an effective vertical stress of suction loading for both the isotropic and anisotropic
10 kPa. The consolidated soil was initially air dried for tests. The suction equilibrium was checked by moni-
one day and then used to sample the test specimens. toring the pore water pressure variation for a time of
about 24 hours at the end of the loading stage. In this
time, small increase (about 1 kPa) of pore water pres-
2.2 Type of performed tests sure was registered in respect to the imposed target
value. This last circumstance is imputable to the creep
Different tests were performed to investigate the stress- deformation of the material.
strain response of the materials. The suction was The collapsible behaviour of these soils was studied
imposed by the axis translation technique. The lay- performing, in both oedometer and triaxial appara-
out of the controlled suction apparatuses used in this tuses, particular tests referred as ‘‘collapse tests’’
work is reported by Aversa & Nicotera (2002). The in the following. In these tests the specimens were
suction equalization stages (either directly caused by initially subjected to an imposed suction value. After
changing the suction or indirectly induced as a conse- the equalization of the imposed suction was reached,
quence of loading) were controlled by monitoring the the specimens were compressed either in multiple
water volume change of the specimens (Fig. 1). It was steps (oedometer tests) or with constant stress rate of
assumed that the equilibrium was achieved when the 2.5 kPa/h (triaxial tests), until a prefixed stress level.
rate of water volume change, expressed by εw (Fig. 1) At this point, the suction was reduced, from the ini-
was sufficiently low (about 0.004 log(min)−1 ). tial value to 0 kPa, either gradually in multiple steps
Oedometer tests with control of suction were (oedometer and triaxial tests) or suddenly by flooding
performed to study compressibility, creep and col- the specimens (in oedometer tests only).
lapsibility. Specimens with diameter of 56 mm and
20 mm high have been tested at several values of
suction (0 kPa, 30 kPa, 50 kPa, 100 kPa, 150 kPa,
3 TEST RESULTS
200 kPa). Vertical stresses ranging from 5 kPa to
2400 kPa were applied both for 24 hours and for 240
3.1 Viscosity properties of tested soils
hours. A minimum time of 24 hours was selected to
ensure the equalization of the water content change The creep behaviour of these material was in part
induced by loading (Fig. 1b). already highlighted in a previous paper (Bilotta et al.
Collapsibility of the soils was also investigated by 2006). Additional results obtained by performing long
triaxial tests with control of suction. Specimens with term creep tests with 240 hours load permanence are
diameter of 68 mm and 70 mm, respectively 136 mm shown in Figure 2. In the figure Δεv represents the
difference between total vertical strain and primary
consolidation strain that occurs at the end of primary
time (min) consolidation (teop ). This behaviour was interpreted
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 by using the non-linear creep function proposed by
0 0 Yin (1999). Such a function, represented with dashed
a) line in Figure 2, was later used to evaluate long term
-0.05 -0.005
= V/V
time (min)
-0.15 -0.015 - 0.00
0 0
- 0.01 t load = 10 days
-0.01 b)
v
w
-0.05
-0.02 - 0.02
5
-0.03
-0.1 - 0.03
-0.04 water phase
solid phase
-0.05 -0.15 - 0.04
t eop 24 hours 240 hours 100 years
Figure 1. Examples of equalization stages in oedometer
tests: (a) during an imposed suction variation; (b) after a Figure 2. Comparison between measured data and fitted
load variation. curve for a vertical stress of 160 kPa and teop = 2 min.
350
stiffness of the investigated soils. The final slope of Table 3. Vertical stress adopted in oedometer tests.
experimental data, commonly denoted by coefficient
of secondary consolidation (Cαε ), is represented with Initial stress Final stress Mean stress
a continuous line in the same graph. It appears that a value value values
more realistic prediction of the secondary deformation
can be performed by using Yin’s model as the curves Line n# Symbol kPa kPa kPa
show a non linear trend of creep strain (Δεv ) with the
[1] 19.1 36.9 28.0
logarithm of time. However, in this section, the linear [2] ♦ 36.9 87.9 62.4
creep coefficient (Cα ) was used in order to easily rep- [3] 87.9 160.4 124.2
resent the influence of νini , suction and stress levels on [4] <*> 160.4 298.1 229.3
the viscous properties of the investigated ashy soils. [5]
298.1 599.9 449.0
Figure 3a shows, for undisturbed saturated speci- [6] − 599.9 1193.1 896.5
mens, a non linear trend of Cα with the logarithm of [7] + 1193.1 2379.6 1786.4
the effective vertical stress with a maximum average
value of 0.11 mm/log (min) for stress level exceeding
300 kPa. On the contrary, for remoulded saturated The curved shape of the Cα − s relationship
specimens an almost linear trend of Cα with the log- at various stress levels (numbers in brackets in
arithm of the stress level can be observed. The values Fig. 3b, c)—furnishes Cα values decreasing with the
of vertical stress adopted in the performed oedometer increasing suction for stress levels lower than 600 kPa
tests are reported in Table 3. (Fig. 3b, c). For undisturbed specimens such a trend
disappears at stress levels higher than 600 kPa. For
remoulded specimens the above mentioned trend is
less marked, independently of the stress level (Fig. 3c).
v ini = 3.617 ± 0.076 (a) Comparing Figure 3b and Figure 3c, at the same stress
C (mm/log(min))
0.2 I;
level, it is possible to note that Cα values for remoulded
0.15 Rm; vini = 3.005 ± 0.030 specimens are lower than those attained by undis-
turbed specimens. This observation seems to suggest a
0.1
reduced effect of suction on Cα in remoulded material.
0.05
0.1
0.08 [7] where σν = σν(i+1)−σνi is the net vertical stress
0.06
variation; εc = (Hc(i+1) − Hci )/Hci is the primary
[5]
[4] consolidation strain corresponding to the stress inter-
0.04
[3]
val σν and Hc represents the height of the specimens
0.02
[1]
[2] at the end of primary consolidation.
0 Figure 4 shows, for saturated specimens, the vari-
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 ation of the modulus Eimm as a function of νini at
s = ua w (kPa) different stress levels (line marked with numbers in
brackets). As it can be noted, the modulus Eimm
Figure 3. Trend of linear creep coefficient (Cα ), for increases as far as νini decreases. A negative expo-
remoulded and undisturbed specimens, (a) with effective nential law was found to be adequate to interpolate
vertical stress, (b, c) with suction and vertical stress applied. experimental data.
351
30 The increment of the modulus Eimm can be up to
E imm = a + b ×exp ( vini ) 5 times the corresponding saturated value, depending
25 2 on the stress level.
[7] 0.928 < R < 0.976
The long term stiffness modulus Etot100 was calcu-
Eimm (MPa)
20
lated as reported in Equation 2.
15 [6]
Δσν
[5] Etot100 = (2)
10
[4] |Δεtot |
[3]
5 [2]
where εtot = (Hdef − Hci )/Hci , is the total strain
[1]
0 corresponding to the stress interval σν and Hdef is
the height of the specimens calculated as difference
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
between Hc and the creep settlement evaluated at a
initial specific volume vini
time of 100 years by using Yin’s model (Yin, 1999).
Figure 6 shows the variation of the modulus Etot100 ,
Figure 4. Immediate oedometric modulus (Eimm ) trend with
initial specific volume and vertical stress level. under various stress levels (Table 3), as a function
of νini (Fig. 6a) and suction (Fig. 6b, c). As already
observed for the modulus Eimm , Etot values increase
as νini decreases and suction increases. Figure 6b
18 Undisturbed samples (a) highlights a marked variation of the modulus Etot ,
Eimm (MPa)
20
Davies, 2002). Controlled suction triaxial tests are
imm
15
-50 0 50 100 150 200 [6] more time consuming than oedometer tests due to
10
s = ua the size of the specimens (see section 2.2). For these
reasons, the collapsible behaviour of the investigated
[5]
soils was mainly studied by using controlled suction
5
[4] oedometer tests. Some preliminary tests were also car-
[3]
[2]
[1]
ried out in triaxial apparatus, with the aim of checking
0 if compression stress paths different from confined
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 ones (oedometer) lead to substantial effects on the
s = ua w (kPa) magnitude of collapse.
A series of tests were interpreted by using the double
Figure 5. Trend of the immediate oedometric modulus Eimm
with the applied suction and the vertical stress level.
oedometer procedure. A number of similar specimens,
approximately with the same νini were tested. One
was saturated by flooding at the beginning of the test
while the others were kept under an imposed value
The variation of the calculated modulus Eimm with of suction. All of them were compressed, in multiple
the applied suction is shown in Figure 5a, b for undis- steps, up to a maximum stress level of about 2400 kPa.
turbed and remoulded specimens respectively. Up to The difference of vertical deformation between the
a certain value of the overburden stress at the end of specimens with imposed suction and the flooded spec-
the load increment, the modulus Eimm increases with imen (referred as εcoll in Fig. 7) can be attributed to
suction. The threshold values are respectively 300 kPa the soil collapse.
(line 4 in Fig. 5a) for the undisturbed specimens and As it can be observed from the figure, the magnitude
1193 kPa (line 6 of Fig. 5b) for the remoulded ones. of collapse is a function of both the suction level and
Above such thresholds, the influence of suction seems the value of νini . In particular, for undisturbed speci-
to be negligible. mens (Fig. 7a), a maximum collapse of 9% is attained
352
20 (a) 0.02 Undisturbed samples (a)
18 v - ua (kPa)
16 Etot 100 = c + d ⋅ exp ( vini) 0
[7] 2
Etot 100 (MPa)
9 -0.03 s = 50 kPa
7 [6] s = 100 kPa
5 [5] -0.04
3 s = 150 kPa v ini = 2.954 ± 0.039
1 -0.05
2.5 s = 200 kPa
2 -100102030405060
1.5 s = ua - uw (kPa)
[4] Figure 7. Results of double oedometer tests performed on
undisturbed and remoulded specimens.
Etot 100 (MPa)
1 [3]
[2]
0.5 [1]
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 σv - ua (kPa)
10 100 1000 10000
s = ua w (kPa)
18 0
Remoulded samples (c)
16 lower bound limit
[7]
14 -0.02
Etot 100 (MPa)
12
10 upper bound limit
[6] -0.04
8
εcoll
6 [5] [3]
[4] [2] -0.06
4
[1] s = 50 kPa
2
0 -0.08
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250
s = ua w(kPa) -0.1
Figure 6. Trend of the total oedometric modulus Etot100 Figure 8. Results of collapse tests on undisturbed speci-
(a) with the initial specific volume and the vertical stress mens.
level, (b, c) with the applied suction and the vertical stress
level.
Table 4. Type of collapse tests performed.
in correspondence to a stress value of 160 kPa. After Symbol Apparatus Type test vini Stress path
this stress level, the collapse tends to decrease as the
overburden stress increases. A similar trend is shown oedometer 1 3.172 ± 0.127 k0
in Figure 7b for remoulded specimens. For these last • oedometer 2 3.687 ± 0.091 k0
ones a maximum collapse of about 4% is attained for triaxial 3 3.318 ± 0.124 isotropic
a vertical stress of 600 kPa and a suction of 200 kPa. triaxial 4 3.429 ± 0.088 0.73 < η < 1
The experimental data obtained by collapse tests
are shown in Figure 8. These tests were performed
on undisturbed specimens subjected to initial suction
of 50 kPa. Such specimens, as already mentioned in water pressure at the base of the specimens (type tests
section 2.2, were loaded until a target stress value was 1,3,4 reported in Table 4). In this last cases, the initial
reached. At this time, the suction was reduced in two suction was decreased in three steps, respectively with
manners: either by suddenly flooding the specimens suction values of 20 kPa, 10 kPa and 0 kPa.
with distilled water (type test 2 in Table 4) or gradu- The magnitude of collapse of the flooded speci-
ally reducing the initial suction by increasing the pore mens is in good agreement with the trend shown by the
353
calculated collapse curve for undisturbed specimens (Etot100 ) higher than undisturbed specimens. The
(double oedometer Fig. 7a). It is worth noting that the modulus Eimm is strongly influenced by suction
other experimental data (black squares in Fig. 8) show up to a threshold value of the applied overbur-
a collapse trend much closer to the calculated curve den stress; the effect of suction on the variation
for remoulded specimens (double oedometer Fig. 7b). of Etot100 is less marked for remoulded material;
This last circumstance can be explained by looking at Etot100 can be used for a quick evaluation of long
the average initial specific volume of these specimens, term settlements;
which value is closer to the average value of remoulded – if the same conditions (stress level and suction) are
ones. These results highlight that the magnitude of considered, the magnitude of collapse is strongly
collapse of this ashy soil is strongly influenced by the influenced by either the initial specific volume of
value of νini and the stress level. the material and the stress path performed.
In Figure 8 the preliminary experimental data
obtained in collapse tests carried out in controlled suc-
tion triaxial apparatus are also reported (type tests 3, REFERENCES
in Table 4). The type test 3 were conducted in isotropic
conditions while the type test 4 were performed Aversa, S. & Nicotera, M.V. 2002. ‘‘A Triaxial and Oedometer
with an obliquity value η = q/(p − ua ) ranging from Apparatus for Testing Unsaturated Soils,’’ Geotechnical
0.73 to 1. Testing Journal, GTJODJ 25(1): 3–15.
The collapse exhibited by the last specimens (η= 0) Bilotta, E. & Foresta, V. 2002. On the measured shear strength
of some pyroclastic soils of Sarno mountains. Proceed-
is of the same order of magnitude of that shown by ings. of the 3rd International Conference on Unsatu-
the lower bound limit of the confined specimens (type rated Soils, UNSAT 2002, 10–13 March, Recife, Brazil,
test 1). This is true despite their average values of 2: 495–500. Rotterdam: Balkema.
νini (3.429 ± 0.088). On the contrary, a different Bilotta, E., Cascini, L., Foresta, V. & Sorbino, G.
behaviour is shown by the isotropically compressed 2005. Geotechnical characterization of pyroclastic soils
samples that exhibit negligible collapse values. involved in huge flowslides. Geotechnical and Geological
Such results seem to suggest that the collapse mag- Engineering Journal 23: 364–402.
nitude is also dependent on the stress path performed, Bilotta, E., Foresta, V. & Migliaro, G. 2006. Suction Con-
as already evidenced by Vilar & Davies (2002). trolled Laboratory Tests on Undisturbed Pyroclastic Soil:
Stiffnesses and Volumetric Deformations. Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on Unsaturated Soils,
UNSAT2006 (GSP 147), 2–6 April, Carefree, Arizona,
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS USA, 1: 849–860.
Cascini, L. & Sorbino, G. 2002. Soil suction measurement
In order to analyse the influence of suction on the over large areas: a case study. Proceedings of the 3rd Inter-
stress-strain behaviour of ashy soils, experimental national Conference on Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT 2002,
tests were performed through the use of triaxial 10–13 March, Recife, Brazil, 2: 829–834.
and oedometer suction-controlled apparatuses. The Sorbino, G. & Foresta, V. 2002. Unsaturated hydraulic char-
acteristics of pyroclastic soils. Proceedings of the 3rd
results obtained on both undisturbed and remoulded
International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT
specimens are summarized in the following points: 2002, 10–13 March, Recife, Brazil, 1: 405–410. Rotter-
– a maximum average value of Cα for the undisturbed dam: Balkema.
specimens and a linear trend with the logarithm Vilar, O.M. & Davies, G.I. 2002. Collapse behavior anal-
ysis of a clayely sand using different testing procedures.
of the applied stress for the remoulded ones were
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Unsat-
founded; a reduced effect of suction on Cα was urated Soils, UNSAT 2002, 10–13 March, Recife, Brazil,
evidenced for the remoulded material; 2: 571–576.
– the remoulded specimens exhibit immediate oedo- Yin, J.-H. 1999. Non linear creep of soils in oedometer tests.
metric modulus (Eimm ) and long term stiffness Géotechnique 49(5): 699–707.
354
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Swelling pressures of clay samples compacted at different values of initial void ratio and degree
of saturation were measured using constant volume oedometer tests. In addition, volume change behaviour of
compacted samples during wetting was investigated in oedometer tests under various overburden pressures. It
was confirmed that collapse behaviour is not observed in samples with pre-wetting volumetric water content
more than a critical value. Furthermore, for those samples with volumetric water content less than the critical
value, good correlation is found between the volume change percent and the normalized overburden pressure
(the pre-wetting overburden pressure divided by the corresponding swelling pressure of an identical sample).
355
Swelling Pressure (kPa)
600
400
200
0.8
0
0.7
1
0.8 0.6
0.6
0.4 0.5 Void Ratio
Degree of Saturation 0.2
0 0.4
356
0.54
CVSPO tests (Swelling pressure in kPa)
COPVC tests (Overburden pressure in kPa, Volume change percent)
0.56 = 0.33
w
0.58 (1280,-1.82%)
0.60 Sp=500
500
Pre-wetting void ratio (e)
Sp=400
0.62 Sp=300
300
0.64 250 410
410
(1280,-5.03%)
Sp=250 (1280,-0.18%)
(1280,-6.47%)
0.66 (320,0.08%)
210
(80,0.94%)
0.68 Sp=160 165
(320,-0.95%) (160,-0.04%)
(160,0.25%)
(160,-0.47%)
0.70
(160,-0.73%)
(160,-1.17%) 130 (80,0.75%)
0.72
(80,0.34%) 100 Sp=100
0.74 70
70
0.76
0%
%
%
48
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
10
Pre-wetting degree of saturation (%)
as much as required. The equalized pressure is known corresponding swelling pressure of 38 COPVC tests.
as the swelling pressure. The measured swelling pres- Then the volume change percentages of 38 samples are
sures of these samples were used to approximate the plotted versus the normalized parameter of overburden
equal swelling pressure lines in the e-Sr space. The pressure divided by swelling pressure of sample. This
results of CVSPO tests on pure clay samples are plotted new plot is presented in figure 5.
on Fig. 4. Good correlation is observed between the volume
The remaining 38 COPVC tests were also carried change percent and normalized overburden pressure
out on samples compacted to different values of void except for a few samples which showed no collapse
ratio and degree of saturation. In these tests the soil compression even though the values of normalized
sample is compacted by applying specific overbur- overburden pressure were relatively high. Inspection
den pressure to the pre-wetting void ratio and degree of these tests indicated that in all such cases the degree
of saturation, then the sample is allowed to saturate of saturation prior to wetting was high and the volumet-
by inundation and the volume change of the sample ric water content prior to wetting was correspondingly
is recorded under the specific overburden pressure. high. This led to the proposal of a critical value of
Some of the results of COPVC tests are plotted on pre-wetting volumetric water content, above which
Fig. 4 in e-Sr space, the numbers in brackets are collapse compression would not occur on wetting,
overburden pressure in kPa and volumetric strain irrespective of the value of overburden pressure. The
(expansion positive), respectively. volumetric water content of selected samples is pre-
In addition, the results of CVSPO tests were used sented on figure 5. Two samples with volumetric water
to try to correlate the volume change of samples in content around 0.39 have no volume change while the
COPVC tests with the ratio of overburden pressure to normalized overburden pressure of one is twice the
swelling pressure. other. The third sample with volumetric water content
of around 0.33 has no volume change while the nor-
malized overburden pressure is as high as 3.6. These
3 DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS results support the proposal that if the volumetric water
content is more than a critical value the soil shows
As previously explained, CVSPO test results are used negligible volume change on wetting regardless of
to obtain approximate contours of swelling pressure in the overburden pressure. The critical volumetric water
e-Sr space. These contours are used to interpolate the content seems to be about 0.33 for the clay soil used in
357
8%
6%
4%
2%
w= 0.387
V0/V
w= 0.392
0%
w= 0.328
-2%
-4%
-6%
-8%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(Pover)/Sp
Figure 5. Correlation between normalized overburden pressure and volume change percent for samples with volumetric
water content smaller than the critical value.
this investigation. The line of volumetric water content swelling test where the overburden pressure is very
equal to 0.33 is plotted on figure 4. small (i.e. 1 kPa) and the swelling pressure is as high
By using the concept of the soil water character- as expected the P approaches zero and the parameter a
istic curve, that relates volumetric water content to expresses the volume change percentage of the sample.
matric suction, it could be stated that the critical vol- Similarly, in a collapse potential test where the over-
umetric water content corresponds to a critical value burden pressure is very high and the soil structure is as
of suction. The volumetric water content versus total metastable as possible the fraction −a/c expresses the
suction of the same material is presented by Biglari volume change percentage of the sample. The parame-
et al. 2008. ter b is the shape parameter and affects the curvature of
The best fitting curve of the remaining COPVC test equation 1. Since all three correlation parameters have
results is shown in figure 5 and is expressed by the physical meaning the following tests are suggested to
following equation obtain them
−b 1. Free swelling test on highly compacted soil with ini-
V a(P − 1)
= −b
(1) tial water content approximately 2∼3 percent dry
V0 P +c of optimum.
2. Collapse test on relatively dry sample under high
where; P = Poverburden /SP is the normalized overbur- overburden pressure where the normalized overbur-
den pressure and a, b, c are the correlation parameters. den pressure exceeds 10.
The coefficient of correlation between laboratory mea- 3. Some COPVC tests with corresponding CVSPO
sured values and values obtained from equation 1 is tests.
R 2 = 0.880 and the correlation parameters for the soil
investigated in this study are; a = 0.0419, b = 1.1861 When the correlation parameters of equation 1 are
and c = 0.5544. found one can approximate the volume change percent
Equation 1 satisfies the CVSPO tests that results no of the sample at various overburden pressures by
volume change when P = 1. Furthermore, in a free knowing the swelling pressure only.
358
4 CONCLUSION Biglari, M., Shafiee, A. & Ashayeri, I. 2008. Determination
of soil suction state surface in composite clays by filter
A series of constant overburden pressure volume paper method, 1st ECUS, Durham, England.
change tests was performed on soil samples with dif- Fredlund, D.G. 2006. Unsaturated soil mechanics in engi-
ferent values of pre-wetting void ratio and degree neering practice, J. Geotech. And Geoenv. Eng. ASCE,
Vol. 132, No. 3, pp. 286–321.
of saturation. It was confirmed that for samples Fredlund, D.G. & Morgenstern, N.R. 1977. Stress state vari-
with volumetric water content more than a critical ables for unsaturated soils, J. Geotech. Engrg. Div., ASCE,
value negligible volume change occurs during wet- Vol. 103, No. 5, pp. 447–466.
ting. Normalized overburden pressure was used to Fredlund, D.G. Pham, H.Q. 2006. A volume-mass consti-
predict wetting-induced volume change percentage of tutive model for unsaturated soils in terms of two inde-
soil samples with volumetric water content less than pendent stress state variables, Unsaturated Soils, ASCE,
the critical value. Good correlation was found with a Geotechnical special publication No. 147. pp. 105–134.
proposed equation that needs three correlation coeffi- Holtz, W.G. & Gibbs, H.J. 1956. Engineering Characteristics
cients. The physical meanings of the coefficients have of Expansive Clays, ASCE Transactions Paper No. 2814,
Vol. 121.
been discussed and the required tests to measure the Jennings, J.E.B. & Burland, J.B. 1962. Limitations to the
coefficients have been suggested. use of effective stresses in partly saturated soils, Geotech-
nique, London, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 125–144.
Lawton, E.C. 1986 Wetting-induced collapse in compacted
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS soils, Ph.D. thesis Washington State Univ., Pullman,
Wash.
The first author wishes to thank Mr. M. Shirazian and Lawton, E.C., Fragaszy, R.J. & Hetherington, M.D. 1992.
soil mechanics laboratory staff of IIEES for their helps Review of wetting-induced collapse in compacted soils,
in performing tests. J. of Geotech. Eng., ASCE, Vol. 118, No. 9, pp.
1376–1394.
Matyas, E.L. & Radhakrishna, H.S. 1968. Volume change
characteristics of partially saturated soils, Geotechnique,
REFERENCES London, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 432–448.
Mitchell, J.K. 1976. Fundamentals of soil Behaviour, Wiley,
Ashayeri, I. & Yasrebi, S.S. 2005. Evaluating effects of New York.
compaction characteristics on swelling pressure of com- Pereira, J.H.F. & Fredlund, D.G. 2000. Volume change
pacted clays, Proceedings of International Conference on behaviour of collapsible compacted Gneiss soil,
Problematic Soils, GeoProb 2005. Eastern Mediterranean J. Geotech. And Geoenv. Eng. ASCE, Vol. 126, No. 10,
University, Famagusta, N. Cyprus. pp. 907–916.
Barden, L., Madedor, A.O. & Sides, G.R. 1969. Volume Tadepalli, R. & Fredlund, D.G. 1991. The collapse behaviour
change calculations of unsaturated clay, J. Soil Mech. And of a compacted soil during inundation, Can. Geotech. J.,
Found. Div., ASCE, Vol. 95, pp. 33–51. Ottawa, Vol. 28. pp. 477–488.
359
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
J.L. Brown
University of Ulster, Belfast, UK
V. Sivakumar
Queen’s University, Belfast, UK
ABSTRACT: Compacted clay fills are placed in an unsaturated condition and over time the fill will become
saturated if the water table rises. The bimodal pore size distribution often prevails in these soils. This will lead to a
combination of aggregate swelling and collapse during wetting, which can considerably change the stress regime
in the fill. This paper examines the stress regime within compacted fills during wetting when lateral expansion
is restricted. A one dimensional consolidation chamber was used to examine the behaviour of kaolin compacted
to different initial bulk densities, representing un-engineered fill, engineered fill and heavily engineered fill.
Wetting was performed under overburden pressures of 25 kPa, 50 kPa and 100 kPa. High lateral pressures and
sample swelling were observed, which have significant implications on the stress distribution behind retaining
structures where compacted clays are used as backfilling materials.
1 INTRODUCTION 0.20
v
Light
The presence of two pore fluids in unsaturated soils compaction
leads to substantial behavioural differences between Heavy
0.15
Change in specific volume
361
Ground surface
Final
groundwater table A
Initial C
groundwater table
362
Displacement
80
transducer
70
100kPa
Base drainage 0
Vertical 0 10 20 30 40 50
lines
Pressure Cell Time (Hrs)
Figure 4. One dimensional consolidation chamber.
Figure 5. Horizontal stress against time for un-engineered
fill.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Time (Hrs)
The samples of kaolin prepared at different initial bulk
densities were allowed to saturate without any attempt Figure 6. Vertical stress against time for un-engineered
to control the suction. Therefore the discussion pre- fill.
sented in this paper is a qualitative assessment of the
stress regime in unsaturated soils rather than specific time two different mechanisms (i.e. wetting induced
proposals on the subject since the suction change is collapse or swelling) may be observed at sample mid
unknown. height and the base.
The horizontal stress was calculated by averaging Figure 5 shows the variation of horizontal pressure
the horizontal pressures measured by the two diamet- during the wetting of un-engineered fill. The lateral
rically opposite pressure cells located on the chamber pressure tended to increase to a peak value and then
walls. Vertical stress was calculated by averaging the reduce. For example in the case of the sample wetted
vertical pressure measured above and below the sam- under 50 kPa of overburden pressure the horizontal
ple. The sample was inundated from the base, thus stress increased from 43 kPa to 64 kPa within a period
during the wetting the wetting front moved from the of 2 hours, then reduced until the pressure stabilised
sample base to the top. The vertical pressure cell on at 37 kPa. Figure 6 shows the average vertical pres-
the chamber base will therefore be the first to respond sure plotted against time. The vertical stress first
to the effects of wetting. The horizontal pressures increased to a peak value before decreasing as the inun-
are taken at the sample mid-height; hence at a given dation progressed. For example, in the case of 50 kPa
363
160 140
140 120
Horizontal Stress (kPa)
20 20
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 7. Horizontal stress against time for engineered fill Figure 9. Horizontal stress against time for engineered fill
case 1. case 2.
80
140
100kPa 70
120
50kPa
Vertical Stress ( kPa)
60
Vertical Stress ( kPa)
100
50
80
40
60
30
40 25kPa
20
20 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Hrs) Time (hrs)
Figure 8. Vertical stress against time for engineered fill Figure 10. Vertical stress against time for engineered fill
case 1. case 2.
of overburden pressure the average vertical pressure pressure increased from 79 kPa to 132 kPa over a
increased from 51 kPa to 67 kPa and subsequently period of 4 hours, after which the horizontal pres-
reduced. The pattern of behaviour observed at different sure reduced and stabilised at 100 kPa. The vertical
overburden pressures was the same, with the horizon- pressure increased as the wetting progressed to a peak
tal and vertical stresses increasing at the beginning of value and then diminished to a final value. For exam-
the wetting process as the overburden stress increased ple under an overburden pressure of 100 kPa the stress
from 25 kPa to 100 kPa. increased from 84 kPa to 119 kPa before falling to the
The horizontal stress and the vertical stress against final value of 110 kPa.
time are displayed in Figures 7 and 8 respectively for One test simulating engineered fill case 2 was car-
engineered fill case 1. The average horizontal stress ried out under an overburden pressure of 50 kPa.
initially increased to a peak value before reducing and Figures 9 and 10 display the horizontal stress and the
stabilising as the inundation proceeded. For example vertical stress against time respectively. The lateral
under an overburden pressure of 100 kPa the lateral horizontal stress increased from 90 kPa to a peak
364
A
Loading
Collapse
Wetting
Yield Curve
Suction, s
Path
2µm C
365
6
v
5
25kPa
Displacement (mm)
4 Side Side
Friction Friction
3
2 Vertical
100kPa Pressure Cell
1
Figure 16. Side friction acting in the consolidation
chamber.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (Hrs)
4.5
4
50kPa
3.5
Displacement (mm)
3
Figure 17. (a) Initial aggregate orientation (b) Final aggre-
2.5 gate orientation.
2
the bottom of the sample. Aggregate swelling will only
1.5 result in a pressure increase when swelling is restricted.
1
In the case of vertical pressure at the base, the restric-
tion to aggregate swelling comes from the side friction
0.5 between the sample and the chamber walls (Fig. 16).
However in semi-infinite space such friction effects
0 do not exist and the situation across the deposit can be
0 10 20 30 40 50
considered to be ‘‘truly one dimensional’’. Therefore
Time (hrs)
the vertical pressures presented in Figures 6, 8 and 10
are not a true representation of the stress regime that
Figure 15. Displacement against time for engineered fill
case 2.
might have existed at the sample mid height.
Based on the foregoing argument it is possible to
explain the reduction in lateral pressures at the end of
swelling was observed as a result of the wetting. wetting though the sample swelled overall as result of
The swelling behaviour indicates that the wetting path inundation. At the start of wetting the lateral pres-
remained inside the LC yield locus. The vertical sure rapidly increases and at one point it becomes
pressure response will be examined alongside these the major principle stress and the vertical pressure
observations. the minor principle stress, assuming no frictional
Figures 6, 8 and 10 show the average vertical resistance between the sample and the consolidation
pressure at the sample mid height. Vertical pres- chamber. Aggregates attempting to expand, triggered
sure increased at the beginning of the wetting pro- by the suction reduction, will orientate themselves
cess and then subsequently reduced as the inundation in a minimum energy condition (Murray & Brown
continued. The overburden pressure applied at the top 2006). The vertical direction provides less resistance
of the sample was maintained at a constant value; to swelling; hence the particles will expand in the
hence the changes shown in Figures 6, 8 and 10 are vertical direction and not the horizontal direction,
caused by the increase/decrease in vertical pressure at which is illustrated in Figure 17. The re-orientation of
366
particles is an important mechanism that can Lloret, A., Villar, M.V., Sánchez, M., Gens, A., Pintado, X. &
qualitatively explain some of the observed soils Alonso, E.E. (2003) Mechanical behaviour of heav-
behaviour, though further research is necessary. ily compacted bentonite under high suction changes.
Géotechnique 53(1): 27–40.
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ships in soil. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
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Experimental research inundating compacted clay fills characteristics of partially saturated soils. Géotechnique,
in a laterally confined environment was conducted (18), 432–448.
in a one dimensional loading chamber. This work Murray, E.J. & Brown, J. (2006) Assumptions in equilibrium
simulated the behaviour behind a retaining structure. analysis and experimentation in unsaturated soil. Proc. 4th
The horizontal and vertical pressures and surface dis- Int. Conf. on Unsaturated Soil, Arizona (2): 2401–2407.
placements were recorded. The effect of varying the Navaneethan, T. (2003) Pre-yield characteristics and earth
compaction effort and the overburden pressure during pressure coefficient of overconsolidated clays. PhD The-
sis, Queen’s University Belfast, UK.
wetting was examined. A combination of high lateral Schmidt, B. (1966) Discussion: Earth pressure at rest related
stresses and sample swelling were observed during to stress history. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 3(4):
the wetting process. The results indicate reorienta- 239–242.
tion of particles under one dimensional loading. These Sivakumar, R. (2005) Effects of anisotropy on the behaviour
findings have important practical implications for the of unsaturated compacted clay. PhD Thesis, Queen’s
designers of retaining structures, when calculating the University Belfast, UK.
maximum possible stresses acting on a wall. Further Sivakumar, R., Sivakumar, V., Blatz, J. & Vimalan, J. (2006)
advances in this research are essential. Twin-cell stress path apparatus for testing unsaturated
soils. Geotechnical Testing Journal 29(2): 1–5.
Sivakumar, V. (1993) A critical state framework for unsatu-
rated soil. PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield, UK.
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Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. & Josa, A. (1990) A constitutive unsaturated compacted clay Part 1: Wetting and isotropic
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Bishop, A.W. (1958) Test requirements for measuring the (2002) Relationship between K0 and overconsolida-
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to stress history. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 2(1): ities on moraine slopes induced by loss of suction: a case
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Georgiadis, K., Potts, D.M. & Zdravkovic, L. (2003) The rated compacted kaolin: the initial states and final states
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Géotechnique 53(1): 11–25. Wheeler, S.J., Sharma, R.S. & Buisson, M.S.R. (2003) Cou-
Habib, S.A.E-A. (1995) Lateral pressure of unsaturated pling hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behavior in
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Conf. on Unsaturated Soils, Paris (1): 95–100. Wheeler, S.J. & Sivakumar, V. (1995) An elasto-plastic crit-
Jaky, J. (1948) Earth pressure: Pressure in silos. Proc. ical state framework for unsaturated soil. Géotechnique
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367
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
N. Barnel
Electricité de France, Département MMC, France
ABSTRACT: The present work aims at studying the coupling between mechanical stress, suction and degree of
saturation on compacted expansive clays. Isotropic compression tests were performed on compacted MX80 clay
under constant water content condition and with suction monitoring. The experimental results showed a decrease
of suction when the isotropic total stress is increased. Moreover, when plotting the suction-degree of saturation
relationships, together with that obtained from previous work, the hysteresis phenomenon and the effect of soil
porosity were evident. Finally, the compression curves of these suction-monitored tests are compared with those
of suction-controlled tests, showing the effect of suction on the mechanical behaviour.
369
100
T01
T02
T03
10
p (MPa)
1
(a)
0.1
30000 (b)
dV (mm3)
20000
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the isotropic cell.
10000
20
by-step until 0.1 MPa. Each step was maintained until
16
stabilisation of the soil volume change and the total
suction change. Pressure and volume changes of the 12 (d)
volume/pressure controller and the RH changes were 8
recorded. The volume change of the soil specimen was 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
calculated using the calibration results performed on 40 t (h)
20
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
10 (e)
The results obtained from the three tests are pre- 0
sented in Figure 2. The confining pressure (Figure 2a) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
was controlled by the volume/pressure controller. The t (h)
370
The results obtained at the end of each loading step 1 1
for test T01 are plotted in Figure 3. The initial state of 0.9 0.9
e (-)
e (-)
Note that the water content of the soil w was assumed 0.7 0.7
to be constant during the test. For each loading step, 0.6 0.6
s (MPa)
s (MPa)
plots). When p was increasing, s increased slightly 16 16
until 120 MPa and then decreased with increasing p.
For p ≥ 5 MPa, the s-p plot shows a unique and linear 12 12
0 10 20 30 40 50 50 60 70 80 90
It can be observed in the s-Sr plot that s decreased p (MPa) Sr (%)
when Sr was increasing. During the loading path
(increases of p), s decreased from 115 to 95 MPa while Figure 4. Test T02. Relationships between void ratio (e)
Sr increased from 45 to 57%. Nevertheless, when pressure (p), degree of saturation (Sr ) and total suction (s).
suction was increasing during the unloading path, Sr
initially remained almost constant until a suction of
about 108 MPa and then reduced from 56 to 51% when to 20 MPa and then reduced to 9 MPa at p = 50 MPa.
suction increased up to 112 MPa. The e-s plot is simi- During unloading, s increased to 24 MPa when p
lar to the s-Sr plot because e and Sr were all calculated reduced to 0.2 MPa. The relationship between s and p
from the volume change of the soil specimen. on unloading can be correlated using a linear function
The results of test T02 are presented in Figure 4. with a slope ds/dp = −0.30. The initial degree of
When increasing the pressure from 0.1 to 50 MPa, saturation was Sr = 55%. During the loading path, Sr
the void ratio decreased from 0.90 to 0.57. After the increased to 87% corresponding to s = 9 MPa. During
unloading, the final value of void ratio was 0.60. The the unloading path, Sr reduced slightly to 83% while
initial total suction in the soil was 18 MPa even though s increased significantly to 24 MPa.
the imposed suction by KCl solution was 20 MPa. The results of test T03 are presented in Figure 5.
When the pressure was increasing, s increased slightly During loading from 0.1 to 50 MPa and unloading to
0.2 MPa, the void ratio decreased from 0.82 to 0.48 and
increased at the end to 0.49. The s-p plot shows a gen-
0.52 0.52 eral decrease of suction when pressure was increasing
and a linear correlation with a slope ds/dp = −0.46
0.48 0.48 can be determined.
On the s-Sr plot, loading reduced slightly the total
e (-)
e (-)
0.44 0.44
suction from 30 to 25 MPa (at p = 20 MPa); Sr was
increased from 56 to 93%. After that, loading from
0.4 0.4
20 to 50 MPa decreased quickly s from 25 to 9 MPa
while Sr increased slightly from 93 to 97%. During
0 10 20 30 40 50 95 100 105 110 115 120
p (MPa) s (MPa) unloading from 50 to 0.2 MPa, s increased from 9 to
120 120 30 MPa while Sr decreased from 97 to 95%.
115 115
In Figure 6, the total suction measured is plotted ver-
sus water content for all the tests. The results obtained
s (MPa)
s (MPa)
110 110
from Tang & Cui (2005) and Delage et al. (2006) are
105 105 also plotted. In the work of Tang & Cui (2005), MX80
100 100 clay was compacted at w = 8.5%, e = 0.67. After that,
total suction was imposed on the soil under free-swell
95 95
condition. On the other hand, in the work of Delage
et al. (2006), MX80 clay was compacted at w = 8.2%,
0 10 20 30 40 50 44 48 52 56 60
p (MPa) Sr (%)
e = 0.57. The water retention curve was obtained by
Figure 3. Test T01. Relationships between void ratio (e) imposing total suction using saturated salt solutions
pressure (p), degree of saturation (Sr ) and total suction (s). under constant volume condition.
371
0.9 0.9 1000
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
e (-)
e (-)
0.6 0.6
100
0.5 0.5
s (MPa)
0.4 0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
p (MPa) s (MPa)
35 35
10
30 30
T01
25 25
s (MPa)
s (MPa)
T02
20 20
T03
15 15
Delage et al. (2006)
10 10 1
5 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 50 60 70 80 90 100 Sr (%)
p (MPa) Sr (%)
0.9 T02
1000
T03
0.8
Void ratio
0.7
100
0.6
s (MPa)
0.5
10
0.4
Present work 0.1 1 10 100
Tang & Cui (2005) Pressure (MPa)
Delage et al. (2006)
1
Figure 8. Void ratio versus the logarithm of pressure.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
w (%)
T03 in Figure 8. In this figure, the results of one test
Figure 6. Suction versus water content. presented by Tang et al. (2007b) are also plotted.
This concerns the compression curve of MX80 clay
with a total suction controlled at 39 MPa. It can be
It can be observed that the water retention curves observed that the results for the loading stage from 0.1
obtained from different works are similar at high suc- to 5 MPa in test T02 are similar to that from the test by
tion range (higher than 20 MPa). At low suction range, Tang et al. (2007b). At higher pressure, the curves are
the results from the present work are different from that different from each other: a linear relationship between
presented by Delage et al. (2006). e and log p can be observed for the test with suction
For further analyses, the total suction is plotted control while for the tests at constant water content
versus degree of saturation in Figure 7 for all the (suction monitored) condition, the slope of the curves
tests of the present work and the test presented by starts to change when p is higher than 10 MPa.
Delage et al. (2006). It can be observed that the s-Sr
plots obtained from different tests are different and
no unique relationship exists even at the high suc- 4 DISCUSSION
tion range. In order to analyze the effect of suction
changes on the compressibility of the soil, void ratio The initial suction measured in the cell was found to
is plotted versus logarithm of suction for tests T02, be slightly different from the imposed values. This can
372
be partly attributed to the accuracy of the suction con- 0.02 μm, identified by Delage et al. (2007) for intra-
trolled by vapour equilibrium technique or the suction aggregates pores. This means that the micropores of
measured by RH sensor. On the other hand, the initial the tested three samples were initially not saturated. In
air humidity in the gap between the lower base of the this case, it was possible that with mechanical com-
cell and the metallic block may also affect the initial pression, the micropore size was decreased, resulting
suction measured. in an osmotic suction increase. When the size of micro-
The matric suction change upon mechanical load- pore can not be changed anymore due to especially
ing under undrained condition has been investigated the increase in internal forces in the clay particles, the
under K0 conditions (Rahardjo & Fredlund, 2003; suction changes start to be governed by the degree
Tarantino & Tombolato, 2005; Delage et al. 2007) or of saturation changes in inter-aggregates macropores
isotropic pressure condition (Kawai et al., 2002). Suc- and common matric suction decrease with compres-
tion has been found to monotonically decrease with sion was observed. This would be what happened in the
increasing pressure following a linear function with a three tests conducted. Following this explanation, only
slope ds/dp = −0.1 to −0.8. Suction was limited to a suction decrease would be obtained when compress-
1 MPa in these works. ing a soil sample having micropores that were initially
In the work of Blatz & Graham (2003), the total saturated. Taking the value of 0.02 μm to represent
suction in a compacted sand/bentonite mixture was the micropore size and applying Laplace-Jurin’s law,
monitored using a psychrometer and the suction range a corresponding suction of 7.3 MPa can be obtained.
measured was 0–8 MPa. Isotropic compression tests This means that all the tests on the samples with an
performed also showed a suction decrease when pres- initial suction higher than 7.3 MPa would present the
sure was increasing with a linear function; the average phenomenon of suction increase followed by a suction
value of the slope was ds/dp = −0.83. decrease.
In the present work, total suction was monitored In the s-Sr plot (Figure 7), the compression path cor-
using a relative humidity sensor and the suction range responds to a wetting path of the water retention curve
measured was 9–120 MPa. During compression, a (increasing of Sr and decreasing of s). And vice versa,
slight suction increase was observed at the beginning the unloading path corresponds to the drying path.
followed by a decrease in suction. For the decreas- The difference between these two curves represents
ing part, a similar relationship between suction and the well-known hysteresis phenomenon.
pressure has been observed and the slope of the linear Works on the retention curves of deformable clays
correlation is ds/dp = −0.30 to −0.46. (Romero & Vaunat 2000) have shown that the log s-w
The structure of compacted bentonite was described curve is strongly dependent on stress, void ratio and
in different scales by Kröhn (2003): the clay parti- hydraulic history at low suction range. That is in agree-
cle (∼300 nm) corresponds to a stack of lamella; ment with the results obtained in the present work
the clay grain (∼0.1 mm) corresponds to an assem- (Figure 6): for a given value of water content, suc-
bly of particles. The pore size distribution of MX80 tion is lower in the soil having higher dry density (or
clay compacted at w = 8.2% and e = 0.65 has been lower void ratio).
observed by Delage et al. (2007) by using mercury The deviation from the linear trend of the com-
intrusion porosimetry. A typical bimodal porosity was pression curves at high stresses in oedometer tests at
observed with entrance pore radii of about 0.02 μm for constant water content was equally noted by Tang et al.
intra-aggregates pores and 2 μm for inter-aggregates (2007a), Perdok et al. (2002) among others. In the
pores. After Pusch & Yong (2003), water is absorbed in present work, these inflection point (Figure 8) cor-
compacted bentonite by two mechanisms: absorption responds to the inflection point obtained on the s-Sr
on exposed mineral surfaces, representing the osmotic curves (Figure 7). Regarding the change of the slope on
suction; and storage in pore space, representing the the s-Sr plot, it is often explained by the air entry value
matric suction. of the water retention curve which is the limit of the
Even though utilisation of Laplace-Jurin’s law is saturated state and the unsaturated state (Rahardjo &
incorrect for the description of the osmotic suction Fredlund, 2003).
(as it is based on capillary phenomenon), for a global The compression curve of Tang et al. (2007b)
analysis, it can be used to estimate the pore radius presented in Figure 8 was performed under suction
that would separate the smaller water saturated pores controlled at 39 MPa. The initial total suction in the
from the larger unsaturated pores. Putting the initial test T02 is 18 MPa. It can be observed that the com-
suctions of tests T01 (115 MPa), T02 (18 MPa) and pression curves of the two tests are similar during the
T03 (30 MPa) in the Laplace-Jurin equation by taking loading path from 0.1 to 5 MPa. Lloret et al. (2003)
an air-water interfacial tension of 0.073 N/m and a performed suction-controlled oedometer tests on com-
zero contact angle, a separating radius of 0.001 μm pacted FEBEX bentonite and observed a decrease of
was obtained for test T01, 0.008 μm for test 02 and the apparent preconsolidation stress when suction is
0.005 μm for test 03. All these values are smaller than decreasing. In the work of Lloret et al. (2003), soil
373
specimens were prepared at the same initial state and REFERENCES
then conducted to various suction values prior to the
compression tests. The soil samples having different Alonso, E.E., Vaunat, J. & Gens, A. 1999. Modelling the
suction value then had different values of void ratio: mechanical behaviour of expansive clays. Engineering
the lower the suction, the higher the value of void ratio. Geology 54(1–2), 173–183.
In the case of tests presented in Figure 8, the initial Blatz, J.A. & Graham, J. 2003. Elastic-plastic modeling of
unsaturated soil using results from a new triaxial test with
suction values are different, 18 MPa (for test T02) and controlled suction. Géotechnique 53(1), 113–122.
39 MPa (for test performed by Tang et al. 2007b). Delage, P., Marcial, D., Cui, Y.J. & Ruiz, X. 2006. Age-
Nevertheless, their initial void ratio values are similar ing effects in a compacted bentonite: a microstructure
(0.90). As a result, it can be concluded that the effect approach. Géotechnique 56(5), 291–304.
of void ratio on the compressibility of compacted soil Delage, P., Le, T.T., Tang, A.M., Cui, Y.J. & Li, X.L.
is more significant than the effect of suction in this 2007. Suction effects in deep Boom Clay block samples.
range of suction. Géotechnique 57(1), 239–244.
Kawai, K., Weichuan, W. & Ogawa, K. 2002. The behavior of
unsaturated soil compressed isotropically under undrained
condition. In Jucá, J.F.T., de Campos, T.M.P. & Marinho,
5 CONCLUSION F.A.M. (ed.), Unsaturated Soils. Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on
Unsaturated Soils (UNSAT 2002), Recife, Brazil, Vol. 2:
Three isotropic compression tests at constant water 521–528. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
content and with monitoring of the total suction were Kröhn, K.P. 2003. New conceptual models for the resatura-
performed on compacted expansive MX80 clay. The tion of bentonite. Applied Clay Science 23, 25–33.
results showed a slight increase in total suction (s) in Lloret, A., Villar, M.V., Sanchez, M., Gens, A., Pintado, X.
the beginning followed by a decrease when the pres- & Alonso, E.E. 2003. Mechanical behaviour of heav-
sure (p) was increased. The initial suction increase ily compacted bentonite under high suction changes.
would be explained by the non saturation of the Géotechnique 53(1), 27–40.
Perdok, U.D., Kroesbergen, B. & Hoogmoed, W.B. 2002.
micropores of the compacted samples: with mechan- Possibilities for modeling the effect of compression on
ical compression, the micropore size was decreased, mechanical and physical properties of various Dutch soil
approaching the clay particles and thus resulting in an types. Soil & Tillage Research 65, 61–75.
osmotic suction increase. For the suction decreasing Pusch, R. & Yong, R. 2003. Water saturation and retention of
part, a linear s-p relationship was observed with a slope hydrophilic clay buffer—microstructural aspects. Applied
ds/dp varying from −0.30 to −0.46. The water reten- Clay Science 23, 61–68.
tion curves obtained (suction versus water content, and Rahardjo, H. & Fredlund, D.G. 2003. K0 -volume change
suction versus degree of saturation) were compared characteristics of an unsaturated soil with respect to var-
with the existing results from previous works on the ious loading paths. Geotechnical Testing Journal 26(1),
79–91.
same material. It was observed that the water retention Romero, E. & Vaunat, J. 2000. Retention curves of
curves are influenced by various aspects: hysteresis, deformable clays. In Tarantino & Mancuso (ed.), Exper-
void ratio, initial state, etc. The compressibility curves imental Evidence and Theorical Approaches in Unsatu-
(void ratio versus logarithm of pressure) obtained at rated Soils: 91–106. Rotterdam: Balkema.
constant water content were compared with the exist- Tang, A.M. & Cui, Y.J. 2005. Controlling suction by the
ing curves performed at constant total suction. Similar vapour equilibrium technique at different temperatures
results have been obtained in the low pressure range; and its application in determining the water retention
but in the high pressure range (p > 5 MPa), it was properties of MX80 clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
observed that constant slope was kept in the case of 42(1), 287–296.
Tang, A.M., Cui, Y.J., Eslami, J. & Défossez, P. 2007a.
controlled suction whereas the slope became smaller Compressive behaviour of four agricultural soils from
when the pressure was higher than 10 MPa in the case France under confined uniaxial test. In T. Schanz (ed.),
of constant water content. It was noted also that the Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics; Springer Pro-
effect of void ratio on the compressibility is more ceedings in Physics 112: 475–482.
significant than the effect of suction. Tang, A.M., Cui, Y.J. & Barnel, N. 2007b. A new isotropic
cell for studying the thermo-mechanical behavior of unsat-
urated expansive clays. Geotechnical Testing Journal
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 30(5), 341–348.
Tarantino, A. & Tombolato, S. 2005. Coupling of hydraulic
and mechanical behaviour in unsaturated compacted clay.
The authors are grateful to Ecole Nationale des Ponts Géotechnique 55(4), 307–317.
et Chaussées and French Electricity Company (EDF)
for their financial support.
374
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D.G. Fredlund
Golder Associates, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
ABSTRACT: Soil compaction is one of the major activities in geotechnical engineering involving earthworks.
The compaction curve is used to find the optimum water content that maximizes dry density. Since its introduction
by Proctor in 1933, several researchers have provided qualitative explanations for the inverted parabolic shape
of the compaction curve. However, fundamental research on the compaction process and the evolution of
compaction characteristics are limited, particularly from a quantitative sense. In order to understand the driving
mechanisms of soil compaction, this paper investigates the effect of soil suction, stiffness and pore air pressure
on the shape of the compaction curve, from an unsaturated soil mechanics standpoint. This paper presents an
approach to predict the soil compaction curve during undrained loading. Particular attention is focused on the
derivation of the compressibility coefficient due to net stress. Model predictions of the compaction curve are
compared with some experimental results from the literature.
375
Initially, Hilf ’s (1948) approach for pore pressure element, m1s = compressibility of soil particles with
development is presented. This is continued with respect to net stress (σy − ua ), m2s = compressibility
Fredlund & Morgenstern’s (1976) volume change the- of soil particles referenced to matric suction (ua −uw ),
ory for a compacted soil and the derivation of the dry (σy − ua ) = change in net stress, and (ua − uw ) =
density of soil. change in soil suction.
Since soil particles are incompressible, it is
accepted that deformation is primarily due to compres-
2.1 Pore pressure development during static sion of the pore fluid (i.e., the air and air/water mix-
compaction ture). The independent stress state variable concept is
One of the main simulations for the generation of the utilized in the derivation; namely, net stress (σy − ua )
compaction curve is that of pore pressure develop- (causes a reduction in volume with compression), and
ment. Hilf (1948) developed a relationship between matric suction stress (ua − uw ) (generally results in
pore pressure and applied stress, which is based on volume increase with compression). Once the overall
one-dimensional K 0 soil compression, Boyle’s law, volume change is computed, the corresponding dry
and Henry’s law, and is expressed as follows: density can be easily computed.
1
ua = (1−S0 +hS0 )n0
σy (1) 3 MODELLING ASSUMPTIONS
1+ (ua0 +ua )mv
Kurucuk et al. (2007) showed that the assumption
where; ua = change in absolute pore air pressure, of constant coefficients of compressibility during
S0 = initial degree of saturation, h = coefficient of compaction does not produce a proper shape of the
solubility, n0 = initial porosity, ua0 = initial absolute compaction curve especially on the dry side of the
air pressure, mv = coefficient of volume change in optimum water content. Their analysis showed that it
saturated soil, and σy = change in applied vertical is m1s that controls the volume changes during com-
stress. paction because the associated change in suction may
Hilf (1948) developed this equation assuming that be neglected. The parameter m1s was represented as a
air and water phases are undrained, and volume function of saturation and decreases with decreasing
reduction is due to air dissolving in the water and saturation. However, the experimental results pre-
compression of free air. Both liquid and solid parts sented by Loret et al. (2003) showed that m1s decreased
were considered to be volumetrically incompressible. with both suction and net stress. Therefore, following
Hilf also assumed that the change in pore air pres- the functional form suggested by Sheng et al. (2007),
sure is equal to the change in pore water pressure, the volumetric strain, ignoring suction change, may be
and therefore, matric suction change was insignifi- presented as:
cant. Experimental results on suction change during
compaction can be found in literature (e.g. Li 1995, dV d (σnet − ua )
Montanez 2002). It is shown that matric suction only εv = = λvp (3)
V (σnet − ua ) + s0
decreases marginally with a density increase and may
be approximated to be constant. Therefore, Hilf’s
where; εv = volumetric strain, (σnet − ua ) = mean net
analysis assuming constant suction during compaction
stress, ua = pore air pressure, s0 = suction, λvp =
appears to be close to the real situation. Further justifi-
slope of the normal compression line (NCL) of the
cation for assuming constant matric suction during the
saturated soil, and V = initial total volume of the soil
compaction test is presented in Kurucuk et al. (2007).
element.
This gives m1s as:
2.2 Computation of volume change and dry density
λvp
The volume change constitutive relationship as appli- ms1 = (4)
cable to K0 loading, which is defined in terms σy − ua + s0
of two independent stress variables as proposed by
Fredlund & Morgenstern (1976) for unsaturated soils, This assumption will be used and discussed further
is used for the calculation of compaction curves: in the modelling of the compaction curve. It is reason-
able to replace mv in Equation 1 by m1s . A numerical
Vv example of the variation of m1s during compaction pro-
εv = = ms1 σy − ua + ms2 (ua − uw ) (2) cess is given in the following section. Equations (1),
V
(3) and (4) were used in incremental forms to com-
where; εv = volumetric strain, Vv = overall volume pute the incremental and total volume change and the
change of soil element, V = initial total volume of soil corresponding dry density values during compaction.
376
4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES Figure 3 shows an example of compaction curve
for clay sandy soil (liquid limit = 39%, plasticity
The performance of the proposed model is demon- index = 15%) adopted from Kenai et al. (2006).
strated by comparing the experimental results pre- Experimental results shown in figure are for static
sented by Montanez (2002) and Kenai et al. (2006). (σy = 2100 kPa) and dynamic (external gross energy
Figures 1 and 2 show the compaction curves for sand- input 3000 kJ/m3 ) compaction tests. Both predicted
bentonite mixture with bentonite content of 5% and compaction curves are produced from quasi-static
15% by weight. Montanez’s experimental data present compaction up to external pressures, σy , of 2100 kPa
values for the Standard Proctor Test (BS, external gross and 4000 kPa respectively.
energy input = 637 kJ/m3 or kPa). In Figures 1 and Model parameters used for prediction of the above
2, two model predictions are also shown. The curves compaction curves are shown in Table 1, 2 and 3.
shown by dashed lines represent the static compaction Initial pore air pressure (ua0 ) is taken to be equal
curve predicted by the model for undrained (air/water) to atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa). For a certain
loading up to external quasi-static pressure, σy , of soil, a lower initial porosity was assumed and the
637 kPa. The curves shown by solid lines are for equal computations were performed for a range of mois-
energy input, calculated by integrating the applied ture contents which also define the values of initial
stress σy with respect to volumetric strain. The actual degree of saturation (S0 ). The water solubility value is
energy input into the soil was computed on the basis adopted from Fredlund & Rahardjo (1993). The val-
of the values applicable at the optimum water con- ues of λvp (slope of the NCL) are selected to best fit
tent, which were found to be 16 kJ/m3 and 18 kJ/m3 the experimental results and compared with the mea-
respectively. sured values from literature. These values are found
to be generally in the range of experimentally mea-
sured values. Table 2 shows the initial equilibrium
suctions measured for compacted specimens at differ-
ent moisture contents given by Montanez (2002). They
are presented as constant suction contours which are
h∗ 0.02 0.02
λvp 0.045 0.13
n0 34 % 36 %
Figure 2. Comparison of predicted and experimental com- Gs 2.656 2.660
paction curves for well graded sand with 15% bentonite (after
Montanez, 2002). ∗ Water solubility
377
Table 2. Initial matric suction (s0 ) values.
378
governing the compaction process was identified as Hogentogler, C.A. 1936. Essentials of soil compaction.
the coefficient of compressibility with respect to net Proceedings Highway Research Board, National Research
stress or m1s . It was also identified that the variation Council, Washington, D.C., 309–316.
in drainage conditions during compaction may influ- Kenai, S., Bahar, R. & Benazzoug, M. 2006. Experimental
ence the results. Future experiments will be targeted analysis of the effect of some compaction methods on
mechanical properties and durability of cement stabilized
to develop a comprehensive set of data to examine soil. Journal of Material Science, 41: 6956–6964.
the modelling assumptions and improve modelling Kurucuk, N., Kodikara, J. & Fredlund, D.G. 2007. Pre-
capability. diction of compaction curves. 10th ANZ Conference on
Geomechanics, 2: 115–119.
Lambe, T.W. 1960. Structure of compacted clay. Transac-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS tions, ASCE, 125: 682–705.
Lee, D.Y. & Suedkamp, R.J. 1972. Characteristics of irregu-
Thanks are rendered to Monash University for pro- larly shaped compaction curves of soil. Highway Research
viding a Monash Graduate Scholarship and financial Board, 381: 1–9.
Li, Z.M. 1995. Compressibility and collapsibility of com-
assistance to the first author for her PhD candidature. pacted unsaturated loessial soils. Unsaturated Soils. Proc.
1st Int. Conf. on Unsaturated Soils (UNSAT 95), Paris,
France (ed. Alonzo, E.E. and Delage, P.), Rotterdam:
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structure of compacted clay. Journal Soil Mechanics and ily compacted bentonite under high suction changes.
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unsaturated soils. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pacted sand-bentonite mixtures. PhD thesis, University of
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relations for volume change in unsaturated soils. Canadian Olson, R.E. 1963. Effective stress theory of soil compaction.
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Hilf, J.W. 1948. Estimating construction pore pressures 89, No. SM2: 27–45.
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Conference in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineer- paction, Engineering News-Record, 111: 286.
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Hilf, J.W. 1956. An investigation of pore water pressures in elling approach for unsaturated soils using independent
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379
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Prediction of the residual void ratio of clayey soils after drying based
on their initial state, physical properties and structure
ABSTRACT: Bardanis & Kavvadas (2006) proposed an empirical relation between residual void ratio er of
clayey soils after drying and simple properties: initial void ratio eo , liquid limit wL and specific gravity Gs .
Additional results are presented in this paper which support a new relation based on plastic limit wP , along
with new results from undisturbed soil specimens, which indicate the possible effect of structure due to natural
processes. A generalised relation therefore would predict er from eo , wP , Gs and an empirical parameter related
to the structure of natural soils. However, the findings of this study indicate great scatter in correlations of er
with soil index properties. Additionally, studies on undisturbed soils indicate considerable influence of soil stress
history on er , thus complicating the development of a generalized relation for predictive purposes.
381
first achieved (second inflection point of curve (b) in 1.0
Fig. 1) or simply er itself. Residual void ratio er there-
fore emerges as a critical parameter for constitutive 0.8
modeling of deformable unsaturated soils.
0.6
er/eO
2 PREDICTION OF RESIDUAL VOID RATIO
0.4
Anticipating the advantages of using er rather than sr
for use in constitutive modeling, Bardanis & Kavvadas 0.2
(2006) proposed an empirical relation predicting er on
the basis of tests on low to high plasticity clays and
0.0
marls (Eq. 1). Residual void ratio er is predicted from 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
the initial state of the soil, as expressed by initial void eO/eL
ratio when drying starts, eo , the physical properties
of the soils, as expressed by their liquid limit wL and Figure 2. Normalised residual void ratio er /eo vs nor-
specific gravity Gs , and an empirical parameter m, malised initial void ratio eo /eL at the beginning of drying
found equal to 0.43. with the empirical relation proposed by Bardanis & Kavvadas
(2006) and expected extensions (dashed lines).
m
er = eo 1 − · eo (1)
wL · Gs
obtained from the experimental results in Table 1 has
Equation 1 was obtained from ten experimental 90% degree of correlation and passes through point
points obtained for four materials. Residual void ratio {er /eo = 1, eo /eL = 0}.
values were measured on specimens left to dry in Equation 1 was derived from a small number of
atmospheric conditions from a slurry condition or experimental points. Still the degree of correlation was
after being consolidated one-dimensionally and then very high, the best-fit equation passes through point
unloaded to zero overburden stress. Since then experi- {er /eo = 1, eo /eL = 0}, which is expected given
mental results from other soils have been collected and the normalisations used, and the scatter of the points
they are presented in Section 3. Index properties of the around the best-fit line is relatively small. For eo /eL
soils tested by Bardanis & Kavvadas (2006) are pre- tending to 0, er /eo is logically expected to tend to
sented in Table 1, along with initial and residual void unity. Using eo to normalise er expresses essentially
ratio values. The experimental results with the plot how much the total volume of an initially saturated
of Equation 1 are presented in Figure 2. Equation 1 specimen decreases due to drying, while using eL to
normalise eo as correlation parameter expresses that
Table 1. Index properties of the soils tested by Bardanis & the state relative to the nature of the soil (expressed
Kavvadas (2006) along with eo and er values. by the void ratio at liquid limit, eL = Gs · wL ) is the
determining correlating factor.
wL Ip Gs eo er
Soil (%) – – Condition1 – –
3 ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Chania
FOR RECONSTITUTED SOILS
clay 24 9 2.68 Slurry 1.05 0.35
Slurry 1.04 0.34
100 kPa 0.59 0.33 Although small, the number of experimental points
200 kPa 0.52 0.31 used by Bardanis & Kavvadas (2006) was sufficient
400 kPa 0.51 0.34 to support a conceptual relation between er and the ini-
1600 kPa 0.43 0.31 tial state and physical properties of reconstituted soil
Speswhite slurries as well as of reconstituted soils consolidated
Kaolin 64 32 2.61 Slurry 2.81 0.72 one-dimensionally and then unloaded. Still it was
Corinth considered important that further experimental results
Marl 34 12 2.67 Slurry 1.27 0.51
were gathered in order to study residual void ratio and
800 kPa 0.66 0.51
Kifissia its correlation with the physical properties and the ini-
Marl 31 16 2.66 600 kPa 0.57 0.34 tial state of soil. In Table 2 additional experimental
results obtained for two more soils tested at NTUA
1 The stress reported in column ‘‘Condition’’ is the maximum are presented and in Table 3 additional experimental
stress applied one-dimensionally to a slurry of the soil and results from various sources. With the experimental
then removed before drying started. results presented in Tables 2 & 3 the total number of
382
Table 2. Index properties of additional soils tested along 1.0
with eo and er values. Bardanis &
Kavvadas, 2006
0.8
wL Ip Gs eo er New data
Soil (%) – – Condition1 – –
0.6
eO/eL
Ioannina
lake silt 24 1 2.55 100 kPa 0.69 0.58 0.4
Kifissia
clay 41 21 2.67 600 kPa 0.70 0.34
0.2
1 The stress reported in column ‘‘Condition’’ is the maximum
stress applied one-dimensionally to a slurry of the soil and 0.0
then removed before drying started. 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
eO/eL
Fleureau et al. (1993) Bardanis & Kavvadas (2006) and the empirical rela-
Sterrebeek loam 27 2.652 Slurry
4 0.78 0.61
200 0.61 0.52 tion they proposed. As observed, the scatter of the
Orly loam 31 9.5 2.652 Slurry 1.23 0.39 sum of all data now is much larger, even though it
Jossigny loam 37 17.5 2.653 Slurry 1.26 0.46 seems evenly distributed on either side of the linear
White clay 61 30 2.673 Slurry 2.00 0.88 relation proposed. Regression analysis of the whole
Montmorillonite 170 110 2.643 Slurry 7.40 0.95
Dineen (1997)
set of data shows that the equation describing the lin-
Speswhite Kaolin 64 32 2.61 200 1.15 0.76 ear relation between er /eo and eo /eL does not change
London clay 74 45 2.64 200 1.12 0.42 significantly but the degree of correlation drops from
Melgarejo et al. (2002) 90% to 44%. This picture of the whole set of data on
2.652 200
Colluvium
Fleureau et al. (2002)
95 48 1.27 0.80
the er /eo -eo /eL plot showed that an alternative rela-
La Verne clay 35 16 2.71 Slurry 1.42 0.75 tion should be investigated. Following the same line of
Cunningham et al. (2003) thought regarding the parameters that should be used
Silty clay 28 18 2.64 200 0.54 0.44 to express the relation of residual void ratio to physical
Fleureau et al. (2004)
Silty sand 19 9 2.69 Slurry 0.77 0.35
properties and initial conditions, an alternative to eL
Fredlund (2004) was examined.
Regina clay 75 50 2.65 6.2 kPa 3.00 0.45 In Figure 4 all the experimental data available
400 kPa 1.40 0.45 are plotted but the void ratio at liquid limit has
Agus & Schanz (2006)
Bentonite/sand 130 97 2.65 Slurry 4.50 0.70
been substituted with the void ratio at plastic limit,
Abou-Bekr et al. (2006) eP (eP = Gs · wP ). As observed, the scatter of data
Sikkak 50 27 2.64 Slurry 1.98 0.51 decreases significantly and an exponential relation
Peron et al. (2006) between er /eo and eo /eP appears as the best-fit curve.
Bioley silt 32 15 2.71 Slurry 1.33 0.57
Pineda &
This is described by Equation 2.
Colmenares (2006)
Clayey silt 28.3 10.7 2.64 Slurry 0.53 0.44
er eo
1 The stress reported in column ‘‘Condition’’ is the maximum = 1.108 · exp −0.42 · (2)
eo eP
stress applied one-dimensionally to a slurry of the soil and
then removed before drying started.
2 Assumed value.
3 Value derived from the slope of the full saturation line in Equation 2 has 81% degree of correlation. The line
the e-w plots presented by the authors. described by Equation 2 does not pass through point
{er /eo = 1, eo /eP = 0} as should theoretically be
expected. If the best-fit line is forced to pass through
experimental points rose to 30, obtained for 21 materi- point {er /eo = 1, eo /eP = 0} it is described by Equa-
als, ranging from pure high plasticity clays (even pure tion 3 which has 80% degree of correlation. Equation 3
kaolinites and montmorillonites) to silty sands. diverges only slightly from Equation 2 as shown by
In Figure 3, all the additional new data are plot- their comparison in Figure 4 (dashed and solid lines
ted (empty circles) over the experimental points from respectively).
383
1.0 1.4
Data
+25%
Forced through 1 1.2
0.8
Best fit 1.0
+50%
Predicted er
0.6 (exponential)
–25%
er/eO
0.8
–40%
0.4 0.6
0.2 0.4
0.2 Outliers
0.0 in Fig. 5
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0.0
eO/eL 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Measured er
Figure 4. Normalised residual void ratio er /eo vs nor-
malised initial void ratio eo /eP with best fit (exponential) Figure 6. Predicted values of er against measured values.
and if forced through point {er /eo = 1, eo /eP = 0}.
384
Table 4. Index properties of natural soils tested or found in 1.0
the literature along with eo and er values.
wL Ip Gs Initial eo er
Soil (%) – – suction – –
0.8
Corinth Marl 34 12 2.67 9 kPa1 0.64 0.62
Colluvium2 95 48 2.65 1000 kPa3 1.10 0.80
er/eO
3 Measured with calibrated filter papers.
0.4
Bardanis & Kavvadas (2004) have presented a labo- +35%
ratory investigation of the virgin drying of the Corinth
Marls. These naturally occurring marls are found in
the greater area around the city of Corinth in Greece 0.2 -35%
and especially along the 6.3 km long and 80 m high
Corinth Canal. The excellent long-term stability of
the canal’s steep slopes (the canal is 115 years old
and its slopes have an inclination of 4.5:1 without
0.0
any benches or berms) has driven the research in the 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
engineering behaviour of the Corinth Marls, as their eO/eP
structure and partial saturation contribute greatly to
the stability of the slopes. Being cemented, this natu-
ral material exhibits higher values of air-entry pressure Figure 7. Experimental points for slurries and overcon-
solidated samples with best-fit curve (exponential) forced
and residual void ratio than when reconstituted and through point {er /eo = 1, eo /eP = 0}, the lines defining
reconsolidated to the same void ratio as the natural ±35% from the best-fit curve and two points for soils with
material. Bardanis & Kavvadas (2004) have attributed natural structure (empty circles with shade). The arrows start
this behaviour to the cementation of the undisturbed from points corresponding to the same material reconstituted
Corinth Marl, which does not exist in the recon- and reconsolidated.
stituted/reconsolidated specimens. This point seems
to be the one more worthy of further investigation,
as experimental results for unsaturated properties of of an empirical equation predicting residual void ratio
marls (especially focusing on the effect of their cemen- therefore would have the characteristics of Equation 4;
tation in their drying behaviour) are scarce, if any, in a parameter me controlling the curvature of the expo-
the literature. More information on the engineering nential equation and a parameter Ms introducing the
behaviour of Corinth Marl and the role played by its structure of natural soils. In this study me was found
cementation may be found in Kavvadas et al. (2003). equal to −0.38.
Melgarejo et al. (2002) presented preliminary
results from their investigation into the unsaturated
er eo
properties of a colluvium from Brazil. What their = Ms · exp me · (4)
results show is that although the natural structured soil eo eP
has lower initial void ratio than the same soil recon-
stituted to a slurry condition, consolidated to 200 kPa Parameter Ms cannot be measured yet with the very
and then unloaded, they both dry to the same value of limited data available so far and should be consid-
residual void ratio. ered conceptual for the time being. Still its presence
In Figure 7 all the experimental data are plotted is evident from the differences observed between
along with these additional data for undisturbed spec- reconstituted /reconsolidated soils and natural soils.
imens of natural soils which are indicated by arrows Parameter Ms must take such values that er /eo never
starting from the experimental points corresponding becomes higher than unity. From Equation 4 therefore
to the same soils reconstituted, reconsolidated and it is easily obtained that although Ms is higher than
then unloaded. These data are very few. They indi- unity, it also has an upper bound found to be equal
cate however that natural soils exhibit a higher er /eo to { exp[me · eo /eP ]}−1 . It is here emphasized that the
ratio than that exhibited by the same soils when recon- increasing factor Ms reflects the structure of natural
stituted, reconsolidated and unloaded. A general form materials rather than that created by loading history.
385
The effect of this type of structure created in reconsti- one-dimensional conditions) will exhibit if this con-
tuted soils is already taken into account in the empirical ceptual formulation is sound. If it is, such analysis
relation by using as a correlating parameter the ratio will also yield a relation between the empirical factor
eo /eP rather than initial void ratio eo by itself. Ms and structure.
5 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The initial empirical relation proposed by Bardanis & Part of the research by M.E. Bardanis has been
Kavvadas (2006) that relates residual void ratio er with funded by the National Scholarship Foundation (IKY)
initial void ratio eo , liquid limit wL and specific grav- of Greece.
ity Gs has been found valid for additional experimental
data from new tests and test results collected from vari-
ous publications. Although the scatter of the additional REFERENCES
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side of the linear relation proposed by Bardanis & Abou-Bekr, N., Bendi-Ouis, A., Taibi, S. 2006. Characteriza-
tion of the clay of Sikkak earth dam core (west of Algeria).
Kavvadas (2006), it is so large and the degree of corre- In Miller et al (eds), Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Unsaturated
lation has dropped so much that an alternative relation Soils, Carefree, Arizona, 2–5 April, 2006, 1607–1616,
where wL has been substituted with wP is proposed as Reston, Virginia: ASCE Press.
this exhibits higher degree of correlation. All experi- Agus, S.S., Schanz, T. 2006. Drying, wetting, and suc-
mental points but two (out of a total of 30) lie within tion characteristic curves of a bentonite-sand mixture. In
a range of ±35% from the best-fit exponential equa- Miller et al. (eds), Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Unsaturated
tion. As far as actual values of er are concerned, for 24 Soils, Carefree, Arizona, 2–5 April, 2006, 1405–1414,
out of 30 experimental points the predicted values lie Reston, Virginia: ASCE Press.
within a range of ±25% of the measured values, and Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique 40(3):
for the whole set of experimental points predicted val- 405–430.
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values. These ranges are very large for the proposed tion of the virgin drying of the Corinth Marls, in T. Schanz
equation to be used for predictive purposes. Still this (ed.), Unsaturated Soils: Experimental Studies, Proc. of
scatter is sufficiently low to support a soundly based the Int. Conf. ‘‘From Experimental Evidence towards
theoretical relation between the parameters used. It Numerical Modelling of Unsaturated Soils’’, Weimar,
is also sufficiently low to justify the need for further 17–18 September 2003, 421–432, Berlin: Springer.
experimental research on various soils in pursuit of Bardanis, M., Kavvadas, M. 2006. Prediction of the limit-
this type of empirical relation. ing void ratio of clayey soils after drying. In Miller et al.
(eds), Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Unsaturated Soils, Carefree,
Despite these limitations of the proposed empiri- Arizona, 2–5 April, 2006, 1085–1096, Reston, Virginia:
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experimental points from tests on undisturbed sam- 2003. The mechanical behaviour of a reconstituted unsat-
ples of soils indicates that natural soils exhibit a higher urated silty clay. Géotechnique 53(2): 183–194.
er /eo ratio than that exhibited by the same soils when Dineen, K. 1997. The influence of soil suction on com-
reconstituted, reconsolidated and unloaded. Although pressibility and swelling, PhD Thesis, Imperial College
this latter observation cannot yet be quantified (espe- of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of
cially given the very small number of experimental London.
Fleureau, J.M., Kheirbek-Saoud, S., Soemitro, R., Taibi, S.
data available for soils with natural structure), it may 1993. Behavior of clayey soils on drying-wetting paths.
be conceptually expressed by the formulation of Equa- Can. Geotech. J. 30: 287–296.
tion 4, which introduces an empirical factor increasing Fleureau, J.M., Hadiwardoyo, S., Kheirbek-Saoud, S. 2004.
the value of residual void ratio predicted from eo , Simplified approach to the behavior of compacted soils
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387
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: An evaluation of swell prediction utilizing the filter paper test for measurement of soil suction
was conducted in this investigation. Filter paper tests were conducted on four types of clay soils including
claystone of the Denver and Pierre Shale Formations, from Colorado, USA, Black Cotton clay from Texas, USA
and a sandy clay from Nunn, Colorado, USA. This paper presents the results of the filter paper calibration and
measurement of suction values at low water contents for unsaturated soils and their use in predicting volume
change. Total oven-dry suction values for the four soil types tested ranged from 6.32 pF to 6.51 pF. The calculation
of the suction compression index, Ch , based on an oven-dry suction value of 6.25 pF rather than an oven-dry
suction value of 6.4 pF results in an increase in Ch of 19.4% for the Denver formation and 16.0% for the Pierre
Shale tested.
389
2.1 Specimen preparation Kelvin’s equation and the measured relative humidity
and temperature within the container.
The clay soil specimens were prepared for the filter
The filter papers were removed from the containers
paper and oedometer testing using a modified moist
at intervals of 2 days, 4 days, 7 days and 11 days and
tamping system at the optimum water content and
weighed to determine the water contents. The calcu-
100% of the maximum dry density. The soils were
lated suction value was then correlated to the measured
initially allowed to air dry and were processed to pass
water content of the filter papers.
through the number 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
The soil specimens were remolded and compacted
into rings suitable for the oedometer tests. The sam- 2.3 Filter paper tests
ple preparation procedure is presented in a companion
The specimens for the filter paper tests were prepared
paper (Chao et al. 2008).
in pairs. Each pair of brass rings were measured and
weighed. Based on the volume of the ring, the mass
2.2 Filter paper calibration of soil at optimum water content needed to fill the
ring at 100% of the maximum density was calculated.
The filter paper calibration curve for the batch of
This total mass was divided in fourths and compacted
Whatman No. 42 filter papers used in these experi-
into layers in the brass rings. Once the specimen pairs
ments was developed by Chao (2007) using a NaCl
had been compacted, they were placed in an oven at
solution and molalities ranging from 0.001 to 2.70.
110◦ C to reduce the water content. The objective vol-
The range of filter paper water contents evaluated
umetric water contents were 10%, 7.5%, 5%, 3%,
based on this range of molalities was approximately
2%, 1% and 0% or fully oven-dried. To achieve this,
13% to 35%. The resulting filter paper calibration
the specimens were removed periodically from the
curve is shown in Figure 1.
oven, allowed to cool briefly, and weighed. Based on
Because the suction measurements were being
the initial optimum water content and the change in
attempted for filter paper water contents below the
mass, the water content after drying was determined.
minimum water content for the calibration data (Chao,
Once the calculated water content had been reduced to
2007) that was being used, an effort was made to deter-
near the target water content, the drying process was
mine the total suction for filter paper with a water
discontinued.
content below 13%. To do this, a digital hygrometer
The specimens were then allowed to cool for
was sealed inside the lid of one of the filter paper con-
approximately one half-hour, and new measurements
tainers. Three oven-dried filter papers were placed in
of diameter and height were taken to calculate the
the container and the container was sealed. Three other
dried volume of the specimen. The specimens were
containers were also prepared each containing three
also weighed individually prior to being placed in the
oven-dry filter papers. This allowed simultaneous
sealed container for the filter paper test. The fil-
measurement of the relative humidity and tempera-
ter paper tests were performed according to ASTM
ture within the environment. The equilibrated water
D5298-03. Two sizes of Whatman No. 42 filter paper
contents of the filter paper could then be related
were used for the tests. The slightly larger diameters
to the relative humidity and temperature of the test
of papers were as placed on either side of the smaller
environment. The total suction was calculated using
diameter filter paper to provide protection from soil
contamination.
The filter papers were placed in the oven overnight
to remove any existing moisture. They were then
7.0
removed, handled only with tweezers and placed in
6.0 Data from 3-Week Equilibration Period a dessicator to cool for several minutes prior to being
Data from 2-Week Equilibration Period placed with the soil. Because of shrinkage during dry-
(kPa)
5.0
Whatman No. 42 Filter Paper ing the soil specimens typically slid easily out of the
brass rings in which they were compacted. Two pieces
Log Total Suction,
4.0
390
specimens was placed on top of the upper soil speci- Table 1. Test conditions for filter paper calibration.
men and three additional filter papers were rested on
the screen. The lid was sealed and a piece of electrical avg.
tape was placed around the lid to provide an additional filter
seal for the jar. The container was then placed within paper
a climate-controlled box for 7 days at a temperature of Relative water
approximately 23.0◦ C(73.4◦ F). Temp. humidity content(1) Total suction
Time ◦C % % kPa, (pF)
After a seven-day equilibration period, the container
was opened and the mass of water within the filter Initial 23.4 22.3 – 204,488 (6.32)
papers was determined. Five water content tins with 2 Days 23.4 23.8 2.75 195,617 (6.30)
lids were weighed empty and cool using an enclosed 4 Days 23.3 23.3 2.73 186,156 (6.28)
scale, capable of precision to 0.0001 grams. Once the 7 Days 22.9 26.7 3.39 179,665 (6.26)
mass of the containers was obtained, the plastic jar 11 Days 23.2 28.5 4.29 170,950 (6.24)
containing the soil specimens and filter papers was
(1) Average of three filter papers.
unsealed and opened. The upper filter papers being
used for measuring total suction were quickly placed
into individual tins with lids and weighed. The pair 7.0
of specimens were then separated carefully to prevent Measured Total Suction
any soil contamination of the inner measuring papers. 6.0 Chao (2007)
ASTM Matric Curve
The two matric suction papers were then individually 5.0
weighed in covered moisture tins as well. The moisture
tins were then propped open slightly, to allow moisture 4.0
loss during drying, and then placed in the drying oven 3.0
R2 = 0.997
so that the water content of the filter papers could be
determined. The soil specimens themselves were then 2.0
ing the weights of the tins. The filter papers were left in
the oven overnight to dry. The soil samples were oven Figure 2. Bilinear filter paper calibration curve for what-
dried for 48 hours. Each was weighed after that period man no. 42 filter paper (Modified from Chao, 2007 and
to determine the oven-dry mass and the water contents. ASTM).
3 RESULTS AND ANALYSES Figures 3 and 4 show second and third-order poly-
nomial equations that were fitted to the data. The
3.1 Filter paper calibration matric suction calibration curve shown by the dashed
line in the figures is the curve outlined in ASTM
Four sets of three filter papers were prepared in sep- D5298-03.
arate containers and the papers were weighed at 2, 4, Compared to the linear curve fit, the correla-
7 and 11 days. The water content of the filter papers tion coefficients did not increase significantly for the
did not vary between days 2 and 4 days but increased second and third-order polynomial equations. Also
by about 0.5% between days 4 and 7 and then by 0.9% as indicated by the very small magnitudes of the
between days 7 and 11. Table 1 presents a summary coefficients for the second and third-order terms,
of the measured temperatures, relative humidities and even the polynomial equations represent a near linear
calculated suctions within the filter paper container relationship.
over the 11-day period.
The soil suction results were then calculated using
the calibration curves shown in Figure 2 which depicts
3.2 Filter paper test results
a bilinear interpolation of the calibration shown in
Figure 1 with the additional points included. The results for the four soils tested using the filter
The additional points shown on the curve depict paper method are summarized in Table 2. Each total
the measured water contents of the filter paper which suction point represents the average total suction cal-
ranged from 2.75% to 4.29% and the decreasing total culated from the water content of three filter papers
suctions for the monitoring period from 204,488 kPa and each matric suction value represents the average
(6.32 pF) initially to 170,950 kPa (6.24pF) on day 11. matric suction calculated from the water content of
391
7.0 Table 2. Summary of filter paper test results.
Measured Total Suction
6.0 Chao (2007)
Volumetric
ASTM Matric Curve Suction, kPa
5.0 Water
4.0
Soil type Content, % Total Matric Osmotic
392
Table 3. Summary of oven-dry suction values and percent 7.10
Total Suction, pF
total suction(1)
pressure, swell, 6.70
6.50
Denver 9.58 5.23
6.40
formation 19.15 0.60 246,153 6.40
47.88 2.66 6.30
393
directly from the slope of the SWCC between the exist- of swell potentials, the oven-dry suction values var-
ing water content of a soil and the assumed oven-dry ied over a range of 63,280 kPa (0.06 pF). This means
intercept. Because of this, as this value of the soil suc- that assuming the same suction value for the oven-dry
tion at an oven-dry condition decreases, the value of Ch water content of a non-expansive soil and an expansive
is going to increase, thereby resulting in higher values soil may result in miscalculation of the swell potential
of predicted volume change. Table 4 presents a sum- for both soil types. However, the range in values of
mary of calculations of Ch assuming different values oven-dry suctions is quite small and the differences
of total suction, pFo , at an oven-dry state. The value measured may be due to the difficulties in calibrating
of Ch was calculated using water contents close to the the filter papers at very low water contents.
average in-situ water contents for the Denver Forma- A statistical analysis was performed to evaluate the
tion and the Pierre Shale tested in this research. For results obtained from the individual filter papers for
the Denver Formation, a water content of 18.6% with the soil specimens prepared at oven-dry water con-
a total suction of 4.63 pF was used and for the Pierre tents. Tests for equal variances were carried out to
Shale a water content of 17.0% and a total suction of determine if the total suction values at oven-dry water
4.31 pF was used. The calculated values are plotted in contents, for each soil, displayed normal distribu-
Figure 6. tions. Additionally, student T-tests were performed
Calculating Ch based on an oven-dry suction value using varying sets of oven-dry data, both among soil
of 6.25 pF rather than an oven-dry suction value of types and combining soil types into groups to deter-
6.4 pF will result in an increase in Ch of 19.4% for mine if the total suctions were statistically different
the Denver formation and 16.0% for the Pierre Shale for the four soil types. The statistical results indi-
tested. Often the value of this oven-dry intercept is cate that there is no significant difference between the
assumed to be a constant value for all soils when results obtained for the Denver Formation and those
predicting volume change for a particular soil. For the obtained for the Pierre Shale. The values obtained for
soils tested, which generally cover an assorted range the Nunn Clay and the Texas clay were found to be
significantly statistically different from the claystones
yet not significantly different from each other.
Table 4. Comparison of Ch values calculated using different
oven-dry suctions.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Denver formation Pierre Shale
Total suction values at oven-dry water contents for
Oven-dry suction Calculated values of Ch using equation the four soil types tested ranged from 206,060 kPa
pFo by Perko (2000) (6.32 pF) to 315,021 kPa (6.51 pF). The soil with the
6.25 −0.279 −0.179 largest percentage of clay size particles, Texas Black
6.40 −0.233 −0.154 Cotton clay, did exhibit the highest average suction
6.42 −0.228 −0.151 value at oven-dry conditions and the Nunn Clay which
6.44 −0.223 −0.149 has the largest range of particle sizes, and had the least
6.46 −0.218 −0.146 plasticity, exhibited the largest range of oven-dry suc-
7.0 −0.130 −0.093 tion values. Using values of the oven-dry total suction
within the range of values measured appears to have a
significant effect on the calculated value of the suction
compression index Ch .
0.00
–0.05
Suction Compression Index, Ch
–0.10 REFERENCES
–0.15
394
Cumbers, J.M. 2007. Soil Suction for Clay Soils at Oven- Nelson, J.D. and Miller, D.J. 1992. Expansive Soils: Problems
Dry Water Contents and the End of Swelling Conditions. and Practice in Foundation and Pavement Engineering,
Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Wiley, New York.
Fredlund, D.G. and Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the McKeen, R.G. 1992. A Model for Predicting Expansive
soil-water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Soil Behavior. 7th International Conference on Expansive
Journal, Vol. 31. pp. 521–532. Soils. Dallas, Texas, USA. pp. 1–6.
Hamberg, D.J. 1985. A simplified method for predicting Perko, H.A., Thompson, R.W., and Nelson, J.D. 2000. Suc-
heave in expansive soils. M.S. thesis, Colorado State tion Compression Index Based on CLOD Test Results.
University, Fort Collins, CO. Geo-Denver 2000. pp. 393–408.
Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H. 1997. Review of Soil-Water
Characteristic Curve Equations. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering. pp. 1106–1117.
395
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: A new swelling potential index for expansive soils, the Standard Absorption Moisture
Content (SAMC), was recommended in Chinese Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrades JTG D30-
2004. In order to validate the index, sixteen soils were obtained from six typical areas where expansive
soils exist in China. Extensive tests on soil properties indicative of swelling potential, such as Atter-
berg limits, free swelling ratio, clay content, SAMC, cation exchange capacity, specific surface area and
montmorillonite content, were conducted. Correlations between the various indices were obtained and
analyzed. The study shows that SAMC is more strongly correlated with the mineralogical and chemical
properties, which determine swelling potential in nature, than other physical indices. Therefore, the new
swelling potential index was validated to be reliable to identify and classify swelling potential of expansive
soils.
397
Table 1. Swell potential rating system.
seal
Swell potential class SAMC (%) PI (%) FSR (%)
glass container
Low 2.5–4.8 15–28 40–60
box
Medium 4.8–6.8 28–40 60–90
High >6.8 >40 >90 soil sample
porous plate
saturated salt solution
system for expansive soils (Tab. 1) in the Chinese Spec- Figure 1. A glass container (Constant Humidity).
ifications for Design of Highway Subgrades (China
Ministry of Communications 2003). However, the
index has been tested only for a small range of expan-
sive soils, so the applicability to identify and classify 3. Desiccator, a glass container similar to the one
expansive soils still needs further study. The objec- shown in Figure 1, but with calcium chloride
tives of this study was to validate and evaluate SAMC powder in the bottom instead of saturated salt
as a swelling potential index through (1) quantifying solution.
physical and mineralogical properties of 16 expan- 4. Aluminum Box which is 1.5 cm in height and 6 cm
sive soil samples in 6 areas in China, (2) examining in diameter and used to hold samples in the oven,
and analyzing the correlation between SAMC and the desiccator or constant humidity container.
mineralogical indexes, and (3) comparing the results 5. Electronic Balance with measurement precision
of classifying swelling potential. It should be noted of 0.001 g.
that the method has not yet been compared with direct
measurements of swelling potential on undisturbed The test procedure is as follows:
samples.
1. Weigh the oven dried aluminum box with the
electronic balance, record the weight as W0 .
2. Cut undisturbed soil into slices, put 4 g of them into
2 THE STANDARD ABSORPTION the box, weigh the aluminum box and soil sample
MOISTURE CONTENT together and record the weight as W1 .
3. Place the aluminum box holding the soil sample on
2.1 Definition and physical meaning of SAMC the porous plate in the constant humidity container.
The standard absorption moisture content (SAMC) Then seal the container and place it in a room with
is the equilibrium water content when the soil is constant temperature of 25◦ C.
dried from its natural water content at (25 ± 2)◦ C and 4. Take out and weigh the box holding the soil sam-
(60 ± 3)% relative humidity. ple every day, then put it back into the container.
The moisture absorbed on the surface (and in the Observe the change of weight till it changes little.
interlayers) of montmorillonite mostly contributes to Record the final weight as W2 .
the amount of moisture absorption of the soil in this 5. Put the box holding soil sample into the oven and
condition (Yao et al. 2005). The more montmorillonite keep for 5 hours at 105–110◦ C.
the soil sample contains, the bigger SAMC is. There- 6. Take the box out of the oven and put it into the
fore, SAMC indirectly reflects the montmorillonite desiccator. Keep for 1 hour to make its temperature
content of the soil. reach the room temperature. Then, weigh the box
holding soil sample as W3 .
The SAMC can be calculated according to the
2.2 Test methods of SAMC
following formula,
The devices used to measure SAMC of expansive soils
are as follows:
W2 − W 3
1. Constant Humidity Container, a glass container wa = (1)
W3 − W0
with 1000 ml saturated or oversaturated sodium
bromide (NaBr) solution in the bottom, and it
should be placed in a room at 25◦ C (Figure 1). Where wa = SAMC (%); W2 −W3 = the maximum
2. Oven where the temperature can be controlled at weight of absorbed moisture (0.001 g); and W3 −W0 =
105–110◦ C to dry samples. the weight of dry sample (0.001 g).
398
To ensure accuracy, parallel tests should be con- capacity (TCEC) and exchangeable cations were deter-
ducted. The permissible error is 0.2%, with regard the mined by atomic absorption spectroscopy.
average. The average value is taken as the final result. It has been reported that air-dry samples and oven-
dry samples could also be used in the SAMC test
(Xu et al. 2006). However the initial water content,
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS microstructure of the sample and the change of mois-
ture content in the test would be different so the
3.1 Sampling site selection measured SAMC would be less real. Therefore, undis-
turbed samples were still used in the SAMC test.
Sampling sites were carefully selected based on six
physiographic zones described by Liao (1984). Undis-
turbed soil samples were obtained from Ningming
basin and Nanning basin in the autonomous region 3.3 Statistical analysis
of Guangxi Zhuangzu, Nanyang basin in Henan prov- Correlation coefficients of the linear relationships
ince, Hanzhong of Shanxi Province, and Zhaotong and between SAMC and MC, SSA, and CEC were used
Chuxiong of Yunnan province. These places are typi- to validate SAMC as a swelling potential index for
cal of areas in China that have widespread distributions expansive soils. In addition, Pearson’s correlation
of expansive soils. Sampling locations and description coefficients of the relationships between the various
are summarized in Table 2. physical properties indices and the obtained miner-
alogical soil properties were used to reevaluate the
3.2 Laboratory tests usual indices for rating swelling potential of Expansive
Soils.
Laboratory tests include measuring SAMC as well as
Atterberg limits, free swelling ratio (FSR), particle-
size distribution, CEC, SSA and mineralogical com-
position; these are usually used as swelling potential 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
indices. The samples were sieved to remove coarse
fragments >2 mm prior to analysis for the various The main laboratory test results are summarized in
indices. The Atterberg limits (PL, LL, PI), were Table 3. According to the results, the linear relation-
measured according to JTJ-051-93: T0118-93 (China ship and the correlation coefficients between SAMC
Ministry of Communications 1996). FSR was mea- and MC, SSA, and CEC has been analyzed and is
sured according to JTJ-051-93: T0124-93. The grain shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
size analysis was conducted with the addition of Figure 2 shows a strong linear correlation between
(NaPO3 )6 as a dispersant to better determine the SAMC and MC, the regression coefficient is 0.960. It
dispersive capability of the soil in its natural state. can be explained as follows: expansive soils typically
Then, the clay content (the percentage <0.002 mm) contain strongly hydrophilic clay minerals (mont-
was obtained through the grain size analysis. The morillonite and illite). Montmorillonite is the main
clay minerals were especially examined using X-ray mineral influencing the shrink-swell behavior of the
diffractometry (XRD). To identify the clay minerals expansive soils due to the high ability to absorb water
quantitatively, the specimens were treated to remove on inner and outer surfaces of montmorillonite crys-
organic matter, carbonates and iron oxides, and ori- tals. The adsorbability is 1013.3 to 2026.5 MPa. In
ented glass slides were prepared in three ways: normal, the standard test condition (25◦ C in temperature and
heated and glycolated (Al-Homoud et al. 1996). As 60% in relative humidity), the absorbability is very
a result, MC was obtained. The water-air adsorption stable. There is also illite, kaolinite and other clay
balance method was used to examine specific surface mineral in expansive soils, but their ability to absorb
area (SSA) of soil specimens. Total cation exchange water is much lower than montmorillonite’s. The water
Location Origin Source of materials Geological times Geomorphology unit Sample no.
399
Table 3. Soil parameters for expansive soils.
50 400
MC = 3.275 SAMC + 0.612 CEC = 22.09 SAMC + 97.32
CEC (me/1kg)
40 2 350 2
R = 0.960 R = 0.883
300
MC (%)
30
250
20
200
10 150
0 100
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
SAMC (%) SAMC (%)
Figure 2. Relationship between standard absorption mois- Figure 4. Relationship between standard absorption mois-
ture content and montmorillonite content. ture content and cation exchange capacity.
400
350 SSA= 26.03 SAMC+ 28.23 and SAMC is strongly correlated with montmoril-
2 lonite content (MC).
SSA (m 2/g)
300 R = 0.952
250 Figure 3 and Figure 4 also show good linear rela-
200
tionships between SAMC and SSA and CEC. This is
because the specific surface area of montmorillonite
150
is larger than specific surface area of Illite and other
100
clay minerals. Therefore, the larger the SSA, the bigger
50
SAMC. It has been found that CEC is highly correlated
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 with SSA (Gill & Reaves, 1957), so it is reasonable
SAMC (%)
that a good linear relationship occurs between SAMC
and CEC.
Figure 3. Relationship between standard absorption mois-
ture content and specific surface area.
In conclusion, SAMC is strongly correlated with the
mineralogical soil properties. Montmorillonite is the
main reason why an expansive soil undergoes appre-
absorbed by montmorillonite accounts for a large per- ciable volume following a change in moisture content.
centage of the water in an expansive soil in this test Cation exchange capacity reflects the adsorbability of
condition. Therefore, SAMC reflects the degree of the crystal lattice of expansive soil, the amount and
montmorillonite present, the more montmorillonite type of cation are the extrinsic factors that influence the
contained in expansive soils, the bigger the SAMC, hydrophilicity and shrink-swell behavior of expansive
400
soils. Therefore, SAMC also reflects the basic proper- Table 6. Classification results.
ties of expansive soils, and it could be a swelling index
for expansive soils. Sample no. Method 1 Method 2
Table 4 gives the Pearson’s correlation coefficients
1 moderate moderate
(r) of the relationship between the various physi-
2 moderate moderate
cal property indices and the mineralogical properties 3 moderate moderate
indices (MC, SEC, and SSA). It shows that the PI is 4 low low
also strongly correlated with the mineralogical indices. 5 moderate moderate
This is because PI not only represents the dispersibility 6 moderate moderate
of clay minerals of expansive soils due to exchange- 7 low low
able cations but also reflects the degree of absorbtion 8 low low
of water by osmosis which directly influences the 9 low low
shrink-swell ability of expansive soil. 10 low low
11 low low
However, the other indices, PL, free swelling ratio
12 high moderate
(FSR) and clay content (CC) are not well correlated 13 moderate moderate
with the mineralogical indices. As for FSR, it cannot 14 high high
reflect the characteristic of expansive soils and the test- 15 high high
ing result is influenced by many extrinsic factors, as a 16 low low
result it gives a wide range of values. CC can not repre-
sent the swelling potential either, because the potential
is mainly controlled by strongly hydrophilic clay min- 5 CONCLUSIONS
eral such as montmorillonite. If soil only contains most
of weakly hydrophilic minerals such as kaolinite, even Based on the above research results, the following
if the clay content is large, it would not mean that the conclusions can be drawn:
soil possesses high swelling potential. 1. The swelling potential indices can be classified
In order to validate the applicability of the new as physical properties indices and mineralogical
index SAMC and the swelling potential rating sys- properties indices. Mineralogical properties indices
tem recommended in the Chinese Specifications for involve montmorillonite content, specific surface
Design of Highway Subgrades, the swelling potential area and cation exchange capacity. These reflect
of expansive soil samples were classified according and influence shrink-swell behavior of expansive
to Method 1, the rating system shown in Table 1, and soils in nature, and therefore they are reliable
Method 2, the rating system which mainly involves swelling potential indices.
mineralogical and chemical properties indices and is 2. The standard absorption moisture content is lin-
shown in Table 5. The classification results are sum- early correlated with mineralogical properties of
marized in Table 6. The consistency between the expansive soils, it possesses clear physical mean-
results of the two methods shows that the recom- ing and reflects the characteristic of expansive soils,
mended swelling potential rating system involving the and therefore it can be used as a swelling index.
new swell index SAMC may correctly identify and 3. The classification results of the recommended
classify swelling potential of expansive soils. swelling potential rating system involving of the
new swell index SAMC are consistent with the rat-
Table 4. Correlations between physical indices and miner- ing system mainly involving of the mineralogical
alogical indices. properties indices. It shows that swelling poten-
tial of expansive soils can be correctly identified
r PL LL PI FSR CC SAMC and classified according to the recommended rat-
MC 0.759 0.912 0.940 0.748 0.580 0.979 ing system. This suggests that SAMC can be used
SSA 0.585 0.781 0.927 0.666 0.414 0.940 practically as a swelling index. However, it should
CEC 0.745 0.901 0.818 0.738 0.580 0.975 be noted that the method has not yet been compared
with direct measurements of swelling potential on
undisturbed samples.
Table 5. Swelling potential rating system (China Ministry
of Railways, 2001). REFERENCES
Swell potential class MC (%) CEC (meg/kg) FSR (%)
Al-Homoud, A.S., Khoury, H. & Al-Omari, Y.A. 1996.
Low 7–17 100–190 40–60 Mineralogical and engineering properties of problematic
Medium 17–27 190–360 60–90 expansive clayey beds causing landslides. Bulletin of the
High >27 >360 >90 International Association of Engineering Geology, 54:
13–31. Paris.
401
China Ministry of Communications. 2003. Specifications different clay mineralogical compositions. Can. J. Soil
for Design of Highway Subgrades JTJ013-2002. Beijing: Sci. 58: 159–166.
China communications Press, China. Shi, B., Jiang, H.T. & Liu, Z.B. 2002. Engineering geological
China Ministry of Communications. 1996. Test Methods of characteristics of expansive soils in China. Engineering
Soils for Highway Engineering JTJ051-93. Beijing: China Geology 67: 63–71.
Communications Press. Snethen, D.R., Johnson, L.D. & Patrick, D.M. 1977. An
China Ministry of Construction. 2003. Technical Code for evaluation of expedient methodology for identification of
Building in Expansive Soil Area GBJ112-87. Beijing: potentially expansive soils. Soil and Pavements Labora-
Chinese planning press. tory, U.S. Army Eng. Waterway Exp. Sta., Vicksburg, MS,
China Ministry of Railways. 2002. Code for Rock and Soil Rep. No. FHWA-RE-77-94, NTIS PB-289-164.
Classification of Railway Engineering TB 10077-2001. Tan, L.R. 2007. Identification and Classification of Swell-
Beijing: China Railway Publishing House. shrinking Soil. Soil Engineering and Foundation. 21(4):
Gill, W.R. & Reaves, C.A. 1957. Relationships of Atter- 85–88.
berg limits and cation-exchange capacity to some physical Thomas, P.J., Baker, J.C. & Zelazny, L.W. 2000. An expansive
properties of soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 21: 491–494. soil index for predicting shrink-swell potential. Soil Sci.
Karathanasis, A.D. & Hajek, B.F. 1985. Shrink-swell poten- Soc. Am. J. 64: 268–274.
tial of montmorillonitic soils in udic moisture regimes. Williams, A.B. 1958. Discussion of the prediction of total
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49:159–166. heave from double oedometer test. South African Institu-
Lambe, T.W. 1960. The character and identification of expan- tion of Civil Engineers, 5(6): 49–51.
sive soils. Fed. Housing Admin. Rep. 701. U.S. Gov. Print. Xu, X.C., Chen, S.X. & Yu, F. 2006. Effect of different
Office, Washington, DC. sampling methods on standard absorption water content.
Liao, S.W. 1984. Expansive Soil and Railway Engineering. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering.
Beijing: Chinese Railway Publishing Press. 25(10): 2135–2139.
Mitchell, J.K. 1976. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. New Yao, H.L., Yang, Y. & Cheng, P. 2004. Standard moisture
York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. absorption water content of soil and its testing standard.
Parker, J.C., Amos, D.F. & Kaster, D.L. 1977. An evaluation Rock and Soil Mechanics. 25(6): 856–859.
of several methods of estimating soil volume change. Soil Yao, H.L., Cheng, P., Yang Y., & Wu, W.P. 2005. Theory
Soc. Am. J. 41: 1059–1064. and practice concerning classification for expansive soils
Peck, R., Hanson, W. & Thornburg, T. 1974. Foundation using standard moisture absorption water content. Science
Engineering. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. in China Ser. E. Engineering & Materials Science. 48(1):
Ross, G.J. 1978. Relationships of specific surface area and 31–40.
clay content to shrink–swell potential of soils having
402
Shear behaviour
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Determination of fracture parameters (tensile strength, fracture toughness) is essential in deter-
mining the cracking behaviour of soils. In drying soils, a crack initiates when the tensile stresses exceed the soil
strength. Crack propagation is considered to be governed by the stress state in the crack front and subsequent
dissipation of fracture energy, for which Fracture Mechanics Theory can be used. In this context characterizing
the soil for these two parameters require two different testing equipments. The tensile strength was determined
using existing equipment (direct method) at the Soil Mechanics Laboratory of UPC whereas new equipment was
designed for the fracture toughness determination. The results of tensile strength tests are consistent with pub-
lished literature. Fracture toughness decreases as the moisture content increases; an attempt is made to explain
this using the concept of Rate Process Theory and Activation Energy of soils.
405
The dry soil was sieved through a mechanical sieve
of 1.18 mm (sieve no. 16); the material passing was
used for the test. Distilled water was added in required
quantity to achieve the intended moisture content.
Once a visibly homogeneous paste was obtained, its
moisture content was determined before pouring it
into the CT-moulds. Moisture content was determined
again when the experiment was completed. The CT-
mould was filled with the prepared material in three
layers in order to have a homogeneous density. Load-
ing pins were inserted to the specimens after removing
from the moulds and a Methacrylate plate was inserted
between the specimen and the nuts of the loading pin
in order to ensure the correct load transmission to the
right fracture zone just below the initial crack. The
load was applied manually, with a constant frequency.
The fracture load was determined counting all the
weights in the loading pan after the specimen failed.
The procedure was repeated for all the specimens.
The moisture contents of the test specimens were
16%, 18%, 19%, and 21%, with an initial crack length
of 10, 15, and 20 mm for the medium and 20, 30, and
40 mm for the big specimen. For each size, moisture
content and initial crack length, tests were repeated
with a minimum of two specimens and in some cases
with three. A total of 55 specimens were tested.
Table 1 gives the details of the geometry of the
test specimens, with length (L), width (B), and thick-
ness (W). A circular hole of diameter (φ) was made
form a distance (d) to the edge of the specimen for
loading pins.
Figure 1. a) Grain size distribution; b) typical water reten- P
tion curves for different dry unit weights (Barrera 2002). KI = √ k̂(α) (1)
B D
KI2
Table 1. Details of CT-test specimens. GIC = (1 − ν 2 ) (2)
E
L B W d φ Fracture toughness (K) was calculated by eq.1,
Mould (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) where D is the characteristic dimension of the spec-
Medium 60 25 45 15 12
imen (in the present case W = D); P is the fracture
Big 120 50 90 30 24 load; and B is the width of the specimen. k̂(α) is a
function depending on the geometry of the specimen
(α = a/W). k̂(α) was calculated using two different
empirical formulas, given by Eq. 3 (ASTM-E399-83
1983) and Eq. 4 (Srawley 1976). The fracture energy
(G) was calculated using Eq. 2, with υ = 0.3 and
E = 4.2 MPa (Barrera 2002).
k(α) = (30.96α − 195.8α 2 + 730.6α 3 − 1186.3α 4
+ 754.6α 5 ) (3)
k(α) = (2 + α)
0.886 + 4.64α − 13.32α 2 + 14.72α 3 − 5.6α 4
×
(1 − α)3/2
406
variation of the tensile strength with moisture content
for all tests carried out. The maximum tensile strength
is obtained with a moisture content of about 16% to
17%. The OMC (Optimum Moisture Content) of the
soil is around 13.5% with a degree of saturation of
approximately 80%.
According to Towner (Towner 1987), the ten-
sile strength is a material property that depends in
general on both suction and water content. More-
over the relationship also depends on the degree of
inherent or induced anisotropy that may exist in the
material.
Several methods are available to determine the ten-
sile strength of soils. Accuracy of the values depends
on the test methods used and the equipment. The direct
method is considered to be the most straightforward
and reliable. In the present study, because of the trape-
zoidal shape of the equipment, the tension was applied
only to the central zone.
Figure 4 shows the variation of tensile strength with
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of direct tensile strength
equipment.
moisture content for two dry densities. A clear dif-
ference in the tensile strength for different densities
on the dry-side is observed, whereas on the wet-side
the difference is smaller. Similar behaviour has been
2.3 Direct tensile strength test observed by other authors (Favaretti 1996; Tamarakar,
Tensile strength was determined using an equipment Toyosawa et al. 2005; Rodríguez 2006).
designed by Rodríguez (Rodríguez 2002), the equip-
ment is similar to the one explained by Mikulish 3.2 Fracture toughness
and Gudeus (Mikulish and Gudeus 1995). The equip-
ment is made up of 3 main parts, (see fig. 3): two Figure 5a shows the variation of fracture load for the
pieces of trapezoidal shape, one fixed and another two specimen sizes (medium and big) at various mois-
one freely movable on application of external force, ture contents. As a common and well known trend, here
and a central part that is removed just before the also the fracture load increases with decrease in initial
application of the load; this is the only part of the crack length (Lee, Lo et al. 1988; Nichols and Grismer
specimen which will be subjected to tension during
the test.
A total of 42 tests were conducted for two different
densities (18 tests with γ = 16 kN/m3 , and 24 tests
with γ = 19 kN/m3 ) with average moisture content
ranging from 12% to 30%. For each density and mois-
ture content the tests were repeated with a minimum of
two specimens and in some cases three. The soil used
and the preparation of the material was the same as
explained earlier for the fracture toughness tests. The
depth of the soil placed in the equipment was fixed
and the weight of the soil was varied to obtain differ-
ent densities. The tensile strength (σT ) was calculated
directly by dividing the area of soil under tension by
the total load applied.
407
bond ruptures that constitute the mechanism of frac-
ture are provoked by the energies of thermal vibrations
(Cottrell 1964). This is valid for many materials:
metals, glass, ceramics, rocks, concrete, etc. which
can be considered as single phase and/or continu-
ous medium. Soils, however are particulate media,
and usually two-phase (solid particles and pore fluid
when fully saturated) or three-phase systems (solid-
pore fluid-air when un-saturated). The most important
characteristic of such materials is the behaviour of
stress-strain relationship depending on the degree of
saturation keeping aside the temperature effects. At
a given temperature the variation in degree of satura-
tion will affect the stress-strain behaviour. Therefore
the fracture behaviour of soils depends largely on the
variation of degree of saturation (suction and tensile
strength) which affects the fracture toughness.
Figure 6 shows the fracture toughness vs mois-
ture content. The data points follow an exponential
behaviour, with decreasing K values for increasing
moisture content. Bazant and Prat (Bazant and Prat
1988) observed a similar behaviour on the fracture
energy of concrete with temperature. Fracture energy
decreased exponentially with increase in temperature.
They used Rate Process Theory and Activation Energy
to explain the behaviour, which generally follows a for-
mula of the type ȧ = f (K) exp(−U /RT ) (Cherepanov
1979), where U = activation energy of bond rup-
ture; R = universal gas constant; T = absolute
temperature; K = stress intensity factor; and f (K) =
empirical monotonically increasing function.
Further studies are necessary to establish the appli-
cability of the rate process theory and activation energy
408
to explain the variation of fracture toughness with soil Barrera, M.B. 2002. Estudio experimental del compor-
moisture change. tamiento hidro-mecánico de suelos colapsables (In Span-
ish). Technical University of Catalonia.
Bazant, Z.P. and Prat, P.C. 1988. ‘‘Effect of temperature and
4 CONCLUSIONS humidity on fracture energy of concrete.’’ ACI Materials
Journal (July–August): 262–271.
At lower moisture contents (drier moisture content to Cottrell, A.H. 1964. The Mechanical Properties of Matter.
OMC), the effect of density is more pronounced on the New York, John Wiley & Sons.
tensile strength, whereas at moisture content wetter to Cherepanov, G.P. 1979. Mechanics of brittle fracture. New
OMC, there seems to be little effect of density and is York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
almost negligible at saturation. Favaretti, M. 1996. Tensile strength of compacted clays. State
of the art in Unsaturated Soils, E.E. Alonso and P. Delage,
Fracture toughness (Mode I) of Barcelona Silty eds, Rotterdam, Balkema.
soil significantly depends on the moisture content. It Lee, F.H., Lo, K.W. et al. 1988. Tension crack development
decreases monotonically with the increase in mois- in soils. ASCE J. Geotech. Engrg. 114(8): 915–929.
ture content. The data points of fracture toughness vs Mikulish, W.A. and Gudeus, G. 1995. Uniaxial tension, biax-
moisture content follow an exponential curve. Similar ial loading and wetting tests on loess. First Int. Conf. on
behavior was observed for concrete with temperature. Unsaturated Soils, Paris, Balkema/Presses des Ponts et
This prompts to check the applicability of Rate Pro- Chaussées.
cess Theory and Activation Energy to explain such a Nichols, J.R. and Grismer, M.E. 1997. Measurement of frac-
behavior. ture mechanics parameters in silty-clay soils. Soil Science
162(5): 309–322.
Rodríguez, R. 2006. Hydrogeotechnical characterization of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS a metallurgical waste. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
43: 1042–1060.
The research reported in this paper has been carried Rodríguez, R.L. 2002. Estudio experimental de flujo y trans-
out within the framework of two research projects porte de cromo, níquel y manganeso en residuos de la zona
minera de Moa (Cuba): Influencia del comportamiento
financed by the Spanish Ministry of Education hidromecánico (In Spanish). Technical University of
and Science (BIA2003-03417 and CGL2006-09847). Catalonia.
Their support is gratefully acknowledged. Srawley, J.E. 1976. Wide range stress intensity factor
expressions for ASTM E-399 standard fracture toughness
REFERENCES specimens. Int. J. Fracture 95: 475–476.
Tamarakar, S.B., Toyosawa, Y. et al. 2005. Tensile strength of
compacted and natural soils using newly developed ten-
ASTM-E399-83. 1983. Standard test method for plane-
sile strength measuring apparatus. Soils and Foundations
strain fracture toughness of metallic materials. American
45(6): 103–110.
Society for Testing and Materials.
Towner, G.D. 1987. The mechanics of cracking of drying
Ávila, G. 2004. Estudio de la retracción y el agrietamiento
clay. J. Agric. Engrg. Res 36: 115–124.
de arcillas. Aplicación a la arcilla de Bogotá (In Spanish).
Technical University of Catalonia.
409
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Compacted soils are generally unsaturated soils, at least initially after compaction, although
they may become saturated over time as a result of rising water tables, surface water infiltration, etc. The tensile
strength of compacted soils can be an important design parameter for earth dams and embankments and should
be considered in the design and development of earthwork specifications. A laboratory study was performed to
determine the tensile strength of four compacted soils representing a wide range of geologic materials including
an alluvial clay from Mississippi, a Piedmont residual soil from Georgia, a loess soil from Nebraska and a
lacustrine clay from Massachusetts. Proctor curves for each soil were developed using Reduced, Standard, and
Modified compaction energy. Following compaction the tensile strength of each specimen was determined using
the Double Punch Test. The results showed that the Double Punch Test is most reliable near the Optimum Water
Content. The measured tensile strength for each water content in the range of OWC ±6% was normalized by the
tensile strength at the Optimum Water Content for each level of compaction effort. The results showed a linear
trend between Normalized Tensile Strength and the deviation from the Optimum Water Content.
1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Satyanarayana and Satyanarayana Rao 1972; Fang and
Fernandez 1981; Favaretti 1991, 1995) to evaluate ten-
1.1 Tensile strength of compacted soils sile strength. By far, the majority of previous studies
have used Indirect Tensile Tests, including: 1) the Split
The tensile strength of soils has received relatively
Tensile Test; 2) Bending Tests; and 3) the Double
minor attention in the past 40 years, perhaps because
Punch Test.
it is assumed that the tensile strength is a small quan-
tity in comparison to compressive strength or perhaps
because engineers have a poor understanding of ten-
1.2 The Double Punch Test
sile strength. Tensile failure of soils can occur in
natural soils, such as in slope failures, landslides, The Double Punch Test (DPT) was developed by Fang
or cuts or in compacted soils in slopes, embank- and Chen (1971, 1972) as an indirect method for
ments, dams, or clay liners. The development of determining the tensile strength of compacted soils.
tension cracks in soils is an indication that tensile A schematic of the Double Punch Test is shown in
strength may be important in various design situa- Figure 1. The Double Punch Test is essentially an
tions. Compacted soils are by default unsaturated and unconfined splitting test which is performed by first
they may remain unsaturated throughout their life or centering a standard cylindrical compaction specimen
they may take on water as a result of water infil- between two steel discs centered on the top and bot-
tration or water flow, as through an earth dam. The tom of the specimen. A vertical load is then applied
engineering properties of compacted soils are there- slowly on the discs until the specimen reaches fail-
fore dependent on a range of water content that the ure. The tensile strength of the soil is then calculated
soil may have after compaction, but in some cases from the maximum load using the theory of plas-
may be critical immediately after compaction has been ticity. Fang and Chen (1972) plotted the results of
completed. tensile strength as calculated by the Double Punch Test
Previous studies on the tensile strength of com- versus the Split Tensile Test and found an excellent
pacted clays have used both Direct Tensile Tests (e.g., comparison.
Tschebotarioff et al. 1953; Dash and Lovell 1972; The Double Punch Test is an attractive approach to
Ramiah et al. 1977) and Indirect Tensile Tests (e.g., determining tensile strength of compacted soils for a
Narain and Rawai 1970; Fang and Chen 1971, 1972; number of reasons; 1) the test is easy to perform and
411
clay from Mississippi; 2) Geo-Hydro (GH)—a
Piedmont residual clay from Atlanta Georgia;
3) Nebraska Loess (NBL)—a Late Wisconsinan loess
deposit from east-central Nebraska; 4) Connecticut
Valley Varved Clay (CVVC)—a lacustrine clay and
silt deposit from Amherst, Massachusetts. The soils
represent a wide range of geologic materials. Stan-
dard engineering properties of the four soils are given
in Table 1.
412
ratio bH/a2 , and the soil compression-tensile strength Table 3. Summary of compaction and tensile strength tests.
ratio qu /σt (Fang and Chen 1972). According to Fang
and Chen (1972) the value of k for soils compacted Water Dry Tensile
in a Proctor mold is approximately 1. Favaretti (1995) content density strength
suggested that using a k value of 0.9 would provide Specimen (%) (Mg/m3 ) (kPa)
a better correlation between results from the Double Buckshot Clay
Punch Test and the Brazilian Test. 1R 10.7 1.42 3.8
2R 16.8 1.40 10.8
3R 19.1 1.43 10.4
4R 21.9 1.55 10.0
3 RESULTS 5R 24.1 1.45 5.4
1S 10.3 1.54 11.3
Table 2 gives a summary of the Optimum Water Con- 2S 15.4 1.48 16.5
tent (OWC) and the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) 3S 18.1 1.60 18.1
obtained for each level of compaction energy for each 4S 21.6 1.61 15.6
of the four soils. Results of all compaction and tensile 5S 24.5 1.60 8.3
strength tests are given in Table 3. 1M 10.7 1.64 21.6
Figures 2 and 3 show the variation in tensile strength 2M 15.4 1.68 38.2
3M 18.0 1.64 33.1
with compaction water content and compacted dry
4M 20.7 1.70 17.6
density for all tests. The results are highly scattered 5M 23.8 1.64 11.0
and clearly show no apparent trend. This is generally
to be expected as the soil specimens exhibit degrees Geo-Hydro
of saturation from 60% to 90% along the compaction 1R 9.8 1.51 4.5
2R 12.8 1.52 10.1
curves for each of the compaction energies. It should
3R 15.1 1.71 8.8
be expected however that for a given soil dry den- 4R 17.7 1.72 5.7
sity the soil with the lower degree of saturation, will 5R 19.2 1.70 3.7
exhibit higher tensile strength. Some of the variation 1S 9.4 1.62 7.9
in Figures 2 and 3 may be related to problems in the 2S 12.2 1.63 16.6
testing procedure discussed in paragraph 1.2. 3S 16.2 1.75 15.5
This is particularly noticeable at very low and very 4S 19.3 1.77 4.2
high water content. At these extreme water contents, 5S 20.0 1.78 3.4
the soil dry densities are low and difficulties in per- 6S 24.0 1.72 1.3
1M 8.6 1.70 15.7
forming the Double Punch Test are encountered. In
2M 11.4 1.79 36.6
particular, at very low water content, failure of the 3M 15.6 1.90 16.4
specimens is very abrupt and the specimen often does 4M 20.1 1.70 3.7
not fail along vertical failure planes as assumed; at 5M 21.4 1.73 2.1
very high water content, the end punches simply pene-
Nebraska Loess
trate into the ends of the specimen without producing a
1R 11.5 1.53 9.3
tensile failure. Based on these observations, it appears 2R 14.8 1.57 8.5
that the DPT is likely to be most applicable within 3R 17.8 1.62 7.6
a relatively narrow range of water content near the 4R 19.3 1.60 5.0
Optimum Water Content where the soil behaves more 5R 22.6 1.59 2.0
plastic. 1S 10.6 1.65 14.5
Figure 4 shows the variation in tensile strength for 2S 13.3 1.68 14.3
the Buckshot Clay as a function of the compaction 3S 17.2 1.71 8.4
4S 19.5 1.70 5.9
Table 2. Interpreted optimum water content and maximum 5S 24.0 1.56 1.3
dry density. 1M 9.0 1.67 26.7
2M 14.1 1.80 26.6
Reduced Standard Modified 3M 17.8 1.79 8.4
4M 20.4 1.72 5.5
OWC MDD OWC MDD OWC MDD 5M 23.9 1.61 1.8
Soil (%) (Mg/m3 ) (%) (Mg/m3 ) (%) (Mg/m3 ) CVVC
1R 8.1 1.41 1.9
BSC 22.5 1.61 21.0 1.63 20.0 1.73 2R 12.3 1.41 2.9
GH 20.0 1.71 18.5 1.78 15.6 1.90 3R 15.9 1.38 3.8
NBL 17.8 1.62 17.0 1.71 15.0 1.81 4R 19.8 1.41 6.0
CVVC 25.0 1.43 22.5 1.59 19.7 1.71
(continued)
413
Table 3. (continued) 50
Buckshot Reduced
Water Dry Tensile 40 Buckshot Standard
content density strength
CVVC
Tensile strength (kPa)
30
Soil Reduced Standard Modified
20
BS 8.0 15.0 22.5
GH 3.0 7.5 20.0
10 NBL 7.2 9.0 17.5
CVVC 6.0 10.5 15.5
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Water Content (%)
may be estimated from the linear trends shown in
Figure 4. The other three soils showed similar results.
Figure 2. Variation in tensile strength with water content.
The interpreted tensile strength at the OWC for
each level of compaction energy for all four soils is
50
given in Table 4. The interpreted tensile strength at
Buckshot
GeoHydro the OWC may be then used to calculate the ‘‘Normal-
40 Nebraska ized Tensile Strength’’, i.e. tensile strength at any water
Tensile Strength (kPa)
414
3 a project. The results appear to be insensitive to soil
Buckshot Reduced type, at least within the range of characteristics for the
Buckshot Standard four soils tested.
Normalized Tensile Strength
Buckshot Modified
2 Regression Line
4 CONCLUSIONS
Buckshot
3 GeoHydro specifications.
Nebraska
CVVC
2 Trend Line REFERENCES
415
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Rammed earth is both an ancient construction technique and the name for the material produced
by the technique. Rammed earth is gaining in popularity around the world due to its ecological and sustainable
attributes. Walls of rammed earth are formed by taking a graded mixture of (usually) locally-won soil and
compacting the mixture between formwork in a similar manner to concrete. The formwork is then removed
leaving a solid earth wall. There is little scientific understanding of the source of strength in rammed earth and
design to date has used empirical approaches. In this paper we consider rammed earth as an unsaturated soil
thus explaining one source of strength to be from suction. Laboratory tests have been carried out on rammed
earth samples including unconfined compression and Brazilian tests (to measure strength) and filter paper tests
(to determine the water retention properties). The tests all indicate that a source of strength in rammed earth
derives from suction and conclusions are drawn as to their levels in ancient rammed earth structures.
417
can be found in a series of papers by Hall (e.g. Hall spherical (Fisher 1926) assuming a wetting angle of
and Djerbib, 2004) where the hydraulic behaviour is zero. Developments of this theory towards realistic
linked to particle size distribution through experimen- soils has progressed via the works of Gillespie and
tal and analytical work. However neither of these or Settineri (1967) who extended to a finite liquid-solid
the few other published studies make the link between contact angle, and Pietsch (1968) who took account
suction and strength in rammed earth. of surface roughness of the particles by assuming a
Our contention is that rammed earth can be regarded separation distance between idealised smooth spheres.
as a compacted unsaturated soil. Modern rammed Lian et al. (1993) provided a mathematical basis for
earth is usually prepared and compacted into place the interactions between a liquid bridge and rough
at optimum moisture content. With further drying, rigid spheres which were applied more recently by
made easy by the large surface area of the walls, Molenkamp and Nazemi (2003). It is clear that further
the material must reach a very low degree of satura- developments could begin to approach the pore struc-
tion. This is likely to be even lower than the degree tures likely to be present in rammed earth, with large
of saturation found in compacted soils with which particle size ranges, angularity and surface roughness.
geotechnical engineers are familiar. Therefore high In addition, at the continuum level double-structure
suctions must be generated within the walls, hence models for unsaturated soils (as reviewed recently in
providing some apparent cohesion. The purpose of Gens et al. (2006)) could provide suitable frameworks
the research described below is to begin to verify this for constitutive modelling of rammed earth materials.
theory. If rammed earth can be regarded as a manu- The effect of relative humidity (RH) is particularly
factured unsaturated soil it is then possible to bring a important for rammed earth due to the large exposed
greater degree of scientific rigour to the study of the surface areas. Total suction s (the sum of matric and
material and to the development of economic design osmotic suctions) is linked to the relative humidity of
codes. the pore air through Kelvin’s equation, which can be
Clearly this suction-induced increase of apparent expressed as
cohesion with drying cannot be unlimited. A com-
pletely dry rammed earth mix would have no apparent ρw RT
s=− ln(RH ) (1)
cohesion due to suction as no water would be present. wv
However this is both unrealistic (as rammed earth in a
structure will never completely dry) and in the labo- where R = the universal gas constant, T = absolute
ratory as, even at oven dry conditions (i.e. zero water temperature, ρw = density of water and wv = the
content), adsorbed water will still be present on clay molecular mass of water vapour (Likos and Lu 2004).
particles and will be available to generate suctions. Equation 1 is plotted in Figure 1 for T = 20◦ C.
Other studies (e.g. Toll and Ong, 2003) have shown The figure shows that small variations in RH between
that in soils similar to rammed earth the contribution 100% and 95% lead to large changes in total suction
to strength from suction reduces as the degree of sat- up to around 1MPa. Small variations in RH below
uration reduces, so although suction increases as the 95% then lead to relatively small changes in suction
soil dries out, the contribution to strength reaches a (although the actual values of suction are large). Such
peak and then drops away (Toll, 1990). The appar- low values of RH are likely to be present in the arid
ent cohesion in rammed earth is therefore expected to parts of the world where heritage structures contain-
peak between the two limits of zero water content and ing rammed earth can be found and thus supports
saturation. the hypothesis that suction is the significant provider
of strength in rammed earth. Structures existing in
1.1 Suction and relative humidity
100%
Rammed earth includes particles with a much greater 90%
range of sizes than in the unsaturated soils that 80%
Relative Humidity
70%
are commonly studied. However, there is no reason 60%
why the presence of water in liquid bridges should 50%
not provide strength through established mechanisms. 40%
A liquid bridge exists in a soil pore where both air 30%
20%
and water are present in the pore space. The surface 10%
tension acting at the interface of the water and air, 0%
combined with tension in the water, act to provide 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
an attractive force across the pore, which provides Suction (kPa)
an unsaturated soil with an apparent cohesion. This
liquid bridge force between the soil particles was Figure 1. Relation between relative humidity and total
first idealised by considering the soil particles to be suction.
418
regions in which RH is in the descending part of air-drying of the samples. A tensiometer was used in
the curve of Figure 1 will experience relatively small each test to measure suction during shearing. These
changes in suction, thus leading to stability over time. instruments have been developed at Durham Univer-
Evaporation of pore water is affected by the relative sity for the measurement of high suctions up to the
humidity (RH ) of the pore air compared to that of the air entry value of the ceramic incorporated into these
adjacent air outside the wall. In practice drying of the devices, in this case 1500 kPa (Lourenço et al. 2006).
walls will continue until the pore air humidity equals Cylindrical samples (200 × 100 mm dia.) were
the humidity of the surrounding air. prepared using a Proctor split compaction mould,
as outlined in Walker et al. (2005), with modifi-
cations following Horncastle (2006). Samples were
2 LABORATORY TESTING compacted in 5 layers following which a screed of
particles passing a 425 μm sieve was placed on the
The aim of the laboratory testing described below top surface of the cylinder. This screed served a dual
was to confirm a link between suction and strength in purpose of producing both a flat loading surface and
rammed earth and also to study the changes in water a fine particle paste on which to place the tensiome-
retention behaviour as changes are made to the mix ter. Immediately following application of this screed,
constituents. Laboratory testing consisted of uncon- the Proctor split mould was removed and the mass
fined compression tests, Brazilian tests and filter paper and height of the sample recorded. Dry densities of
tests. The basic rammed earth mixture used in this between 2017 and 2061 kg/m3 were achieved using
study was taken from a development site at Aykley the same compactive effort each time. Once samples
Heads, Durham, which included a large rammed earth had air dried to the required water content for testing
wall completed in 2006. The mixture used on site they were wrapped in an impermeable sheath secured
was blended from material dug from the site (alluvial with rubber O-rings placed against steel loading plates
sand), coarse aggregate and a powdered clay/silt mixed at the top and bottom of the sample. The samples were
in proportions (0.25:0.60:0.15; aggregate:sand:clay) then left for at least 7 days to allow suctions to equili-
using a horizontal axis mixer. In the laboratory tests brate throughout the sample. When it was considered
described here, this mixture was first sieved to remove that the samples were ready for testing, the top plate
material retained on a 14 mm sieve. This was neces- was replaced with a loading plate drilled to accommo-
sary to enable testing on standard sized samples. The date a tensiometer. The samples were sheared under
sieved basic mix constituents are given in Table 1. constant water content conditions in a triaxial test-
The basic mix was altered for the Brazilian and ing rig. Displacement was controlled at a constant
filter paper tests to include a 10% increase in sand 0.1 mm/min and measurements of suction, load and
(mix A) and a 10% increase in clay (mix B). The axial displacement taken every 10 seconds using the
dry density/water content relationship for the basic logging software Triax (Toll 1999).
mix was obtained using the vibrating hammer com- Figure 2 shows plots of deviator stress against
paction test (BS1377:2, 1990) and showed an optimum suction measured for the seven tests.
water content of approximately 8–10%. The vibrating- The figure provides strong evidence of a link
hammer was used as it was thought closer to the between starting water content and strength as indi-
field compaction that would be used during wall con- cated by the dotted envelope to the results. However,
struction and the method of sample preparation for this can also be stated as a link between suction present
the compression tests (in comparison to the standard in the sample at the start of testing and strength.
Proctor test).
700
500
Seven unconfined compression tests at constant water
400
content were carried out on the basic rammed earth
mix at variable water contents achieved through 300
200
100
Table 1. Constituents for basic rammed earth mix. 10.2 9.4 8.6 8.4 7.1 5.5
0
Constituent % by mass Passing Size 0 200 400 600 800
Suction (kPa)
419
Another feature evident from this figure is the differ- the filter paper method over the tensiometers used in
ence in the change in suction during shearing. In sam- the unconfined compression tests is that much higher
ples with initially high water contents, suction rises suctions can be measured with the former.
during the test. For the low water content samples the The filter paper specimens were prepared at 55 mm
opposite is seen to happen. This is consistent with the diameter with a height of 22 ± 2 mm from each of
concept of a unique water content to suction relation- mixes A and B at a starting water content of 10%.
ship at the Critical State as proposed by Toll (1990). Dynamic compaction of these specimens in an adapted
It also complies with the framework including a Con- Proctor apparatus proved difficult to control so these
tinuously Disturbed Line (CDL) for unsaturated soils specimens were instead statically compacted in a triax-
proposed by Croney and Coleman (1954) and revisited ial rig to the required thickness maintaining the same
recently by Tarantino (2007). target dry density of 2.05 Mg/m3 . Then a sandwich
Figure 3 shows plots of axial total stress against of three filter papers was inserted between two com-
axial strain for the seven tests. Here it is notable that pacted samples and the joint wrapped with electrical
there is brittle behaviour for the low starting water tape. An additional filter paper was suspended above
content samples and ductile for high water content the soil sample and the whole system placed inside a
samples. Linking Figures 2 and 3 it is possible also closed sealed jar and left to equilibrate for two weeks
to conclude that stiffness of a rammed earth sample inside a constant temperature container at 25 ± 1◦ C.
is linked to suction. Further aspects of these tests are By preparing a batch of samples and leaving them to
explored in more detail in Jaquin et al. (2007a). dry to different moisture contents before filter paper
testing it was possible to determine portions of the
drying part of the soil water retention curve.
2.2 Brazilian and filter paper tests
Following the filter paper tests the same samples
Following the unconfined compression tests described were then quickly tested using a modified Brazilian
above the basic rammed earth mix was remixed to test. This test is widely employed to determine tensile
increase the coarse (sand) fraction (termed mix A) or strengths in rocks and involves compressive loading of
to increase the fine (clay) fraction (termed mix B). a circular disc sample across a diameter to failure. An
What limited advice there is at present for the design analytical solution exists (assuming elasticity) linking
of rammed earth mixes is based on mix proportions of the tensile strength of the sample σt with the applied
the fractions. In this part of the study the aim therefore load P as follows:
was to investigate the effects of changing the particle
size distribution in a controlled way on the strength 2P
(and additionally) on the water retention properties. σt = (2)
The filter paper test is an indirect method of mea- πdt
suring both matric and osmotic suction where filter
papers are arranged adjacent to or sandwiched Where d = sample diameter and t = sample thick-
between, soil samples which are then left to equi- ness. Clearly most soils are unsuitable for this type of
librate. The final water content of the filter paper test having little or no tensile strength and also often
provides the suction present in the soil sample via a cal- being too friable to withstand these conditions. For
ibration curve. In these tests the procedure described the rammed earth samples at low water contents no
by Leong et al. (2002) was used. The advantage of problems of this nature were experienced. The reuse
of samples from the filter paper test for the subse-
quent Brazilian test proved successful although it was
700
important to minimize the time between completing
600 the filter paper test and starting the Brazilian test.
5.5
Deviator Stress (kPa)
420
14 6
12 Mix A
5
10
4
8
6 3
4 2
2 1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
Time (days) 90 140 190 240 290
14 Tensile strength (kPa)
12
Figure 6. Brazilian test results.
Water content (%)
10
8
6 might be explained by consideration of the likely pore
4 structures in these samples. The finer mix will have a
2 more widespread network of smaller sized pores than
0
the coarse mix. Therefore it is likely this mix will carry
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 more of its pore water as bulk (funicular) water than the
Time (days) coarse sample. So for a given suction it will need more
water as much will be trapped in the bulk masses, pro-
Figure 4. Drying of samples with time. Mix A (upper); viding less potential than water in the pendular regime.
Mix B (lower). This feature can also be linked to the theoretical analy-
9
sis of Likos and Lu (2004) where theoretical soil-water
8
Mix A - total retention curves for coarser materials lie below those
Mix A - matric for finer materials.
Water content (%)
7
Mix B - total
6 Mix B - matric
Figure 6 shows the results of the Brazilian tests.
5 The water content at the time of the test is plotted
4 against tensile strength calculated from Equation 2. As
3 water content reduces so tensile strength increases as
2
expected if suction is a source of tensile strength. For a
1
0
given tensile strength there is more water in mix B than
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 in Mix A. Again this links to the idea that in mix B more
Suction (kPa) water is held in the funicular regime, contributing less
to strength than ‘‘equivalent’’ pendular water. The plot
Figure 5. Soil-water retention curves for rammed earth also shows that tensile strength increases rapidly at
mixes A and B. very low water contents as might be expected to occur
in the surface of a rammed earth wall under prolonged
two mixes, which has the greatest influence on dry- dry conditions.
ing. Rather it is the pore size distribution which must
be critical, dependent on the former but also on com-
paction. From Equation 1 there is a direct link between 3 DISCUSSION
suction and RH so it is natural that all samples dry to
the same suction approximately. It seems obvious from these results that suction must
Figure 5 shows the drying portion of the soil-water provide a significant component of the strength of
retention curves for the two mixes A and B taken unstabilised rammed earth and therefore understand-
from the filter paper results. Both matric and total ing of its evolution from compaction, through drying
suctions are plotted showing that osmotic suction is to long-term changes in relative humidity is important
of secondary importance in these samples, as might for the stability of a rammed earth structure. Con-
be expected from the nature of the pore water. The sidering that most walls are of considerable thickness
suctions rise to a high level at the very low water con- (usually >300 mm and much greater in heritage struc-
tents reached by the samples indicating again the need tures) it can be surmised that a gradient of water
for the filter paper test in the determination of suc- content exists through the wall thickness. At the
tions. The coarser mix (A) appears to have a SWRC surface water content is low and suction is high. Per-
lying below that of the finer mix (B) thus having a meability will also reduce as water content decreases in
lower water content for a given suction value. This these locations. Thus the centre of a rammed earth wall
421
will be protected to some degree from water ingress, Gens, A., Sanchez, M. & Sheng, D. 2006. On constitutive
and will maintain a relatively constant level of suction modelling of unsaturated soils. Acta Geotechnica, 1(3),
and hence strength. This behaviour has been recorded 137–147.
in the laboratory by Hall and Djerbib (2004), referred Gillespie, T. and Settineri, W.J. 1967. The effect of capillary
to as the ‘‘Overcoat Effect’’. The high suctions present liquid force on the force of adhesion between spherical
solid particles. Journal of Colloid Interface Science 24,
at the surface of a rammed earth wall will suck in 199–202.
impinging water. Surviving heritage structures often Guillaud, H., Houben, H., Alva, A., Rodrigues, R., Pinto, F.,
have design details that reduce impinging water, e.g. Sastre, J.M., Shimotsuma, K. and Castellanos, C. 2004.
large overhanging eaves, features usually thought to Earthen Architectural Heritage on UNESCO’s ‘World
aid longevity due to reduction in impact. The results Cultural Heritage List’. UNESCO, Paris, France.
above indicate that these features also serve to maintain Hall, M. and Djerbib, Y. 2004. Moisture ingress in rammed
surfaces at high suction and hence high strength. earth: Part 1—The effect of soils particle size distribution
While knowledge of unstabilised rammed earth is on the rate of capillary suction. Constr. Bldg. Mats, 18(4),
vital to the conservation of existing structures it is 269–281.
Horncastle, T. 2006. Rammed earth construction. School of
accepted that it is unlikely to become widely used in Engineering Durham University, MEng Dissertation.
temperate parts of the world for new-build due to its Jaquin, P.A., Augarde, C.E. and Gerrard, C.M. 2006. Anal-
surface friability which, despite the discussion above, ysis of historic rammed earth construction. Proc. 5th
is inferior to concrete. It is stabilised rammed earth, Int. Conf. Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions,
however, that is likely to be the choice in these areas. Nov 6–8, New Delhi, India. Vol. 2, 1091–1098.
For this material, in addition to suction there will be Jaquin, P.A., Augarde, C.E. and Gerrard, C.M. 2007. His-
cementation between agglomerations of particles to toric rammed earth distribution, International Journal
add to the tensile strength. The interaction between of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and
the free water available in the material at time of Restoration (submitted).
Jaquin, P.A., Augarde, C.E., Gallipoli, D. and Toll, D.G.
compaction and the stabiliser (e.g. cement) is clearly 2007a. The strength of rammed earth materials. Géotech-
important and much more difficult to study. The rel- nique (submitted).
ative contributions to strength from cementation and Leong, E.C., He, L. and Rahardjo, H. 2002. Factors affect-
from suction will depend on many variables, such as ing the filter paper method for total and matric suction
pore size distribution, proportions of stabiliser, curing measurements. Geotech. Test. J. 25(3): 322–333.
conditions amongst others. This is an important area Lian, G., Thornton, C. and Adams, M.J. 1993. A theoret-
of future research. ical study of the liquid bridge forces between two rigid
spherical bodies. Journal of Colloid Interface Science 161,
138–147.
Lilley, D.M. and Robinson, J. 1995. Ultimate strength of
4 CONCLUSIONS rammed earth walls with openings, Proceedings—ICE:
Structures & Buildings 110(3), 278–287.
This study is the first (to the authors’ knowledge) Likos, W.J. and Lu, N. 2004. Hysteresis of Capillary
that has treated rammed earth as an unsaturated soil. Stress in Unsaturated Granular Soil. Journal Engineering
The tests described above are intended to support this Mechanics ASCE 130(6): 646–655.
theory qualitatively and pave the way for further labo- Lourenço, S.D.N., Gallipoli, D., Toll, D.G. and Evans, F.D.
ratory testing, which will be necessary if rammed earth 2006. Development of a Commercial Tensiometer for
Triaxial Testing of Unsaturated Soils. 4th International
materials are to be modelled in a modern geotechnical
Conference on Unsaturated Soils, April 2006 Phoenix,
framework. USA.
Molenkamp, F. and Nazemi, A.H. 2003. Interactions between
two rough spheres, water bridge and water vapour.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Géotechnique 53(2): 255–264.
Pietsch, W.B. 1968. Tensile strength of granular materials.
The first author has been supported by an EPSRC Nature 217, 736–737.
DTA grant. The use of the rammed earth material from Tarantino, A. 2007. A possible critical state framework for
unsaturated soils, Géotechnique 57, 385–389.
the Aykley Heads Site, Durham by Rivergreen Devel- Toll, D.G. 1990. A framework for unsaturated soil behaviour.
opments Ltd is gratefully acknowledged. The third Géotechnique 40(1): 31–44.
author contributed through an ERASMUS placement Toll, D.G. 1999. A data acquisition and control system for
at Durham University in 2007. geotechnical testing. Computing developments in civil
and structural engineering, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Toll, D.G. and Ong, B.H. 2003. Critical-state parameters
REFERENCES for an unsaturated residual sandy clay, Géotechnique 53,
93–103.
Walker, P., Keable, R., Martin, J. and Maniatidis, V. 2005.
Croney, D. and Coleman, J.D. 1954. Soil Structure in Relation
Rammed Earth, Design and Construction Guidelines.
to Soil Suction (pF), J. Soil Science, 5(1), 75–84.
BRE Bookshop: Watford.
Fisher, R.A. 1926. On the capillary forces in an ideal soil.
Journal of Agricultural Science 16, 492–505.
422
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a study on the effect of high suctions on the value of the residual strength of
a high plasticity clay. Tests were carried out in a Bromhead ring shear apparatus adapted to allow for control of
the relative humidity around the shear box during shearing. Data were obtained by testing samples of remolded
FEBEX bentonite (wL = 102, IP = 53) prepared close to its plastic limit and further loaded and sheared under
suctions ranging from 0 to 120 MPa. Experimental data shows evidence of a huge increase of the residual shear
strength when the sample is sheared in unsaturated conditions. As a matter of fact, the shear strength envelope
at a suction of 75 MPa is characterized by a null cohesion and a residual friction angle φrdry equal to 28◦ ,
that is 21◦ higher than the value in saturated conditions (7◦ ). Such a result extends to high plasticity clays the
conclusions already obtained in previous studies on a low plastic silty clay (wL = 30, IP = 16, increment of φr
between saturated and dry conditions equal to 5◦ ) and a medium plastic clay (wL = 55, IP = 28, increment of
φr equal to 15◦ ). An explanation to such high changes in values of residual shear strength is finally discussed in
the light of the process of clay aggregation during drying, whose existence is supported by visual observations
(micrographs obtained in an Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope) and evidences of changes in the
pore size distribution (measured by Microstructure Intrusion Porosimetry).
423
Table 1. Properties of the tested materials.
2006; Vaunat et al., 2007) are reported in the same Figure 1. General scheme of the Bromhead ring shear
table. apparatus adapted to suction control.
As in the previous studies, the material has been
tested in a Bromhead ring shear apparatus adapted
to control the relative humidity inside the shear box Due to the high plasticity of the clay, displacements
(Vaunat et al., 2007). A general scheme of the appa- required to attain the full residual state are of the
ratus is presented in Figure 1. A glass cap placed order of 80 mm.
around the shear box allows the sample to be iso-
lated from the laboratory environment. The value of As a result of the long times involved during suc-
suction is imposed in the isolated chamber by means tion equilibration and shearing stages, only three tests,
of a closed circuit of forced vapor convection con- labeled Test I, II and III, have been performed.
nected to a vessel with controlled relative humidity TEST I aimed at determining the residual strength
(the relative humidity in the vessel is in equilibrium envelope of the saturated material. It consists of a two-
with a solution saturated in salts placed at its bot- stage shearing test performed under normal stresses
tom). A hole perforated in the glass cap and further equal to 300 and 450 kPa. The results indicate that
sealed with silicon allows for installing a hygrom- the residual strength of saturated Febex bentonite is
eter (Model HMT 100, ±%RH at [0–90%RH] and characterized by a null cohesion and a friction angle
±1.7%RH at [90–100%RH]) that measures the tem- equal to 7.5◦ (see Fig. 3).
perature and relative humidity actually applied inside Test II is a five-stage test that aimed at defining the
the chamber during the test. Data is stored in real time residual shear strength envelope of the material at a
on a computer through a USB device (NI9001). The suction of 75 MPa and after resaturation. The sample
general procedure involves: was first equilibrated under a relative humidity equal
to 58% (suction equal to 75 MPa) and sheared con-
a. Preparation of a remolded sample close to its plastic secutively under a normal stress equal to 100, 200
limit. and 300 kPa. Afterwards, the system to control rela-
b. Consolidation of the sample under a given normal tive humidity was removed and the sample brought
stress. to saturated conditions by flooding. Material was
c. Suction application through the vapor transfer then sheared in two steps under normal stresses equal
technique. From that time, the evolution of rela- to 100 and 200 kPa, respectively. The accumulated
tive humidity and temperature inside the chamber displacement applied during all the test is 2535 mm.
started to be registered. Also, the vertical displace- Test III is a seven-stage test that aims at studying
ment experienced by the sample (uv ) was measured the residual strength envelope under suctions equal
by the LVDT. This stage is considered equilibrated to 18 and 45 MPa and after resaturation. The sam-
when the relative change in vertical displacement ple was initially sheared at a suction equal to 18 MPa
δuv /uv reaches values lower than 1%. Because of and three levels of stress: 100, 200 and 300 kPa. The
the low permeability of the clay, the time to reach sample was then brought to a suction of 45 MPa by
equilibrium has proved to be very long: 22 days changing the saline solution controlling the relative
have been necessary for a sample of 5 mm height humidity inside the vessel and further sheared under
to reach a suction of 75 MPa (in equilibrium with normal stresses equal to 300, 200 and 100 kPa, respec-
a relative humidity equal to 58% in the chamber). tively. Finally, the glass cap was removed and the
d. Shearing at a controlled displacement rate equal sample flooded before applying two shearing stages
to 0.32 mm/min. Pilot tests performed on Boom under normal stresses equal to 100 and 200 kPa. The
clay have shown that this velocity is low enough total displacement applied during this test is equal to
for keeping ‘drained’ conditions during the shear. 3873 mm.
424
3 SHEAR STRENGTH VS DISPLACEMENT 100kPa
CURVES 100kPa after suction change
200kPa
200kPa after suction change
Figure 2 shows the shear strength vs displacement 300kPa
curve obtained during Test III at a suction equal to 300kPa after suction change
B5
18 MPa for both the initial stage (prepared sample 120
dried to a suction equal to 18 MPa and sheared) and
after application of a suction of 45 MPa (prepared sam- B3
ple brought to a suction equal to 18 MPa, sheared, then
brought to a suction equal to 45 MPa, sheared and B6
80
then wetted down to a suction equal to 18 MPa and
(kPa)
sheared). The stress-displacement curves obtained in B2
both cases show very similar values after a displace-
ment equal to 50 mm. This result gives, on the one B7
hand, good feedback concerning the reliability of the 40
test procedure and, on the other hand, provides clues B1
to the fact that the residual shear strength is, in that
case, independent of suction history. Before 50 mm
of displacement, the curve corresponding to the first 0
shearing (Stages B1, B2 and B3) presents an initial 0 50 100 150 200 250
peak which disappears when shearing is applied on an Displacement (mm)
already pre-sheared sample (stages B5, B6 and B7).
Such a kind of response is reported in the literature Figure 2. Residual strength measured in the ring shear
for the case of saturated materials and is generally apparatus at a suction equal to 18 MPa.
attributed to the effort required initially to reorient the
particles in the direction of shearing. 180
Points relating the shear strength at large displace- s = 75 MPa
160 r = 28.2º
ments to the normal stress are reported in Figure 3.
s = 18 MPa, unloading
They evidence a linear relationship between both vari- 140
r = 22.5º
ables for the range of loads considered. Parameters
Shear stress (kPa)
425
40
35
30
25
tan–1( r / )
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Total Suction, S (MPa)
Figure 5. Sample of remolded FEBEX bentonite prepared
at the liquid limit (magnification 200x).
Figure 4. Variation of the friction angle with suction for the
low, medium and high plastic clays.
4 MICROSTRUCTURAL OBSERVATIONS
ESEM is a technique that consists of performing the Figure 6. Sample of remolded FEBEX bentonite prepared
Scanning Electron Microscopy under gas pressure, at the liquid limit and dried under a relative humidity of 7%
which allows for observing materials with liquid con- (magnification 215x).
stituents. It is in particular possible to observe changes
in soil structure during drying by controlling the tem-
perature and the partial vapour pressure inside the an important increase can be observed in the existing
observation chamber of the microscope. Figures 5, 6, 7 macro-voids accompanied by a general enhancement
and 8 show four ESEM micrographs taken on samples of the inter-particle porosity that degenerates in many
of remolded FEBEX bentonite prepared respectively at points in the creation of new macro-voids. Further con-
the liquid (Figures 5 and 6) and plastic limits (Figures 7 nection between macro-voids leads to the build-up of
and 8). The as-prepared structure of the material can isolated aggregates in the clay. An incipient formation
be observed in Figures 5 and 7. Figures 6 and 8 show of aggregated structure due to drying can be observed
the structure of the material after applying a relative in Figure 6.
humidity equal to 7%. The picture is slightly different for the sample pre-
At the liquid limit, the material presents a relatively pared at the plastic limit. Material presents initially
homogeneous structure characterized by stacks of clay a more complex structure where stacks of clay par-
particles of typically 10 μm size and few macro-voids ticles, micro-voids (with some local enlargements)
(two of them can be observed in the upper part of the and macro-voids can be observed. After application
micrograph). After drying at 7% of relative humidity, of drying under a relative humidity equal to 28%
426
Initial state (remoulded at plastic limit)
Final state (after consolidation, drying and shearing)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Entrance por size, d (nm)
Figure 7. Sample of FEBEX bentonite prepared at the a) pore size density function
plastic limit (magnification 200x).
Initial state (remoulded at plastic limit)
Final state (after consolidation, drying and shearing)
1.2
1
Intruded void ratio
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Entrance por size, d (nm)
b) accumulated pore size distribution
Figure 8. Sample of remolded FEBEX bentonite prepared Figure 9. Pore size distributions in a remolded sample
at the plastic limit and dried under a relative humidity of 7% of FEBEX bentonite before and after being sheared under
(magnification 200x). a vertical stress equal to 100 kPa and a suction equal to
120 MPa (sample was initially prepared close to the plastic
limit).
(suction approximately equal to 170 MPa), the size of
the macro-voids gently decreases at the expense of an
enhancement in the inter-particle porosity but without
significant changes in the general pattern of material to a remolded sample prepared close to the plas-
structure. It seems thus that preparation of the mate- tic limit and the other to the same sample once
rial close to the plastic limit create a pre-aggregated loaded under a vertical stress equal to 100 kPa, sub-
structure that remains stable during suction applica- sequently dried at a suction equal to 120 MPa and
tion. Effect of drying will in this case essentially stiffen finally sheared in the Bromhead shear apparatus.
the pre-existing structure. A comparison between both curves can be observed in
More quantitative insights can be realized by Figure 9. The sample prepared close to the plastic limit
analyzing the pore size distribution of Febex ben- presents a mono-modal pore size distribution with pore
tonite before and after being tested in the ring shear sizes concentrated between 0.3 and 3 μm, that is at
apparatus. Two pore size distributions have been the inter-particle level (the size of a particle is typi-
determined by the MIP technique: one corresponding cally of the order of 1 μm (1000 nm)—see Figure 5).
427
This peak disappears completely after the combination Training Network MUSE (Mechanics of Unsaturated
of loading, drying and shearing and the curve splits Soils for Engineering) is gratefully acknowledged.
into two parts. One part is associated with pore sizes
between 10 and 20 nm and existing thus at the intra-
particle level. The other part contains pores of size REFERENCES
higher that 10 μm, indicating the existence of an inter-
aggregate porosity. It is expected that a peak in the pore Bishop, A.W. 1971. Shear strength parameters for undis-
size distribution would have existed around the value turbed and remolded soil specimens. In Proceedings of
of 10 μm at the end of drying and would have further the Roscoe Memorial Symposium, Cambridge, Foulis.
been erased and distributed over a wider range of pore Bromhead, E.N. 1979. A simple ring shear apparatus. Ground
Eng., vol. 12, pp. 40–44.
sizes during shearing. Chighini, S., Lancellotta, R., Musso, G. and Romero, E.
2005. Mechanical behavior of Monastero Bormida clay:
chemical and destructuration effects. In Bilsel and
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS Nalbantoǧlu (eds), Proc. Int. Conf. on Problematic Soils,
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suction on the residual strength of FEBEX bentonite. Di Maio, C. 1996a. The influence of pore fluid composition
Experimental results allow for completing conclu- on the residual shear strength of some natural clayey soils.
sions already drawn for materials of lower plasticity In K. Senneset (ed.), Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Landslides,
2, 1189–1194. Rotterdam: Balkema.
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• Strong drying increases strongly the residual osmotic and mechanical effect. Géotechnique, 46 (4),
strength at relatively low normal stress (below 695–707.
300 kPa) I. Kenney, T.C. 1967. The influence of mineral composition
on the residual strength of natural soils. Proc. Geotech.
• The increase is due only to an increase in friction Conf. on the Shear strength properties of natural soils and
angle and not in cohesion. Rocks, 1, 123–129.
• Most of the increase in friction angle takes place Lupini, J.F., Skinner, A.E. and Vaughan, P.R. 1981. The
for suction below 100 MPa. For higher suctions, the drained residual strength of cohesive soils. Géotechnique,
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• The increase in friction angle is higher when the Mitchell, J.K. 1993. Fundamentals of soil behaviour. 2nd
plasticity of the clay is higher. For a low plastic silty edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
clay (wL = 30, IP = 16), the increase in friction Skempton, A.W. 1964. Long-term stability of clay slopes.
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Skempton, A.W. 1985. Residual strength of clays in land-
a suction equal to 75 MPa is equal to 2.5◦ , for a slides, folded strata ad the laboratory. Géotechnique,
medium plastic (wL = 55, IP = 28) clay to 15◦ and vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 3–18.
for a high plastic clay (wL = 102, IP = 53) to 21◦ . Sedano, J.A.I., Vanapalli, S.K. and Garga, V.K. 2007. Mod-
• Such an increase is explained by a process of clay ified ring shear apparatus for unsaturated soils testing.
aggregation or aggregation stiffening during strong Geotechnical Testing Journal, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 39–47.
drying that makes the material behave in a more Stark, T.D. and Eid, H.T. 1994. Drained residual strength
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essentially unchanged during drying. In that case, Vaunat, J., Amador, C., Romero, E. and Djeran-Maigre, I.
suction stiffens the aggregates of the material. 2006. Residual strength of low plasticity clay at high suc-
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS pp. 1279–1289.
Vaunat J., Merchán, V., Romero, E. and Pineda, J. 2007.
Residual strength of clays at high suctions. In Proceed-
Mr. Merchán wishes to thank Alβan Program, the EU ings of the 2nd International Conference on Mechan-
program of high level scholarships for Latin Amer- ics of Unsaturated Soils, Weimar, Germany, vol. 2,
ica, scholarship N◦ E05D052296CO. The support of pp. 151–162.
the European Commission through the Research and
428
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
T.B. Hamid
GeoConcepts Engineering Inc., Virginia, USA
ABSTRACT: This paper presents triaxial and direct shear tests results from literature conducted on soils under
unsaturated conditions with measurement of matric suction (ua − uw ). The results of these tests indicate that
matric suction has less influence on ultimate shear strength than on the peak shear strength. It is inferred from
the test results that neglecting suction is appropriate for analyzing slopes that contain pre-existing surfaces or
that have history of previous sliding. However, suction has a significant effect on the depth of tension cracks in
unsaturated soils and this should be considered as it reduces the factor of safety.
429
140
u a - u w = 100 kPa
Deviator Stress, kPa 120
100
40
20 (a)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Horizontal displacement (mm)
Volumetric Strain, %
-0.015
-0.01
u a - u w = 100 kPa
v/H0 -0.005
0
Axial Strain, %
0.005
Cui & Delage (1996) have presented suction con- Horizontal displacement (mm)
trolled triaxial test results of an Aeolian Silt (Liquid
Limit (LL) = 37% and Plasticity Index (PI) = 18%) Figure 2. Shear stress (a) and volume change (b) against
and are reproduced in Figures 1a and 1b. Figure 1a horizontal displacement at net normal stress = 105 kPa for
indicates that for a cell pressure of 50 kPa, when two values of suctions (Hamid, 2005).
suction value increased from 200 kPa to 1500 kPa,
peak shear strength increased from about 320 kPa
to 750 kPa. Volume change curves (Fig. 1b) indi-
cate typical behavior of overconsolidated clay, i. e. (LL = 28% and PI = 8%). For a net normal stress
initial compression followed by the dilation. The vol- (σn − ua ) of 105 kPa, increasing suction resulted in
ume change curves indicate that dilatancy increased an increase of peak shear strength and stiffness. Strain
as suction value increased. softening behavior and a pronounced peak are obvious
The shear strength and volumetric strain curves only for 100 kPa suction, illustrating an increasing brit-
indicate a tendency to level off at axial strains of tleness of the sample with increasing suction. Figure
about 8%, suggesting that the ultimate strength is 2 shows that both shear stress and volumetric strain,
being approached. However, at matric suction value of v/H0 (where v = vertical displacement and H0 =
800 and 1500 kPa volumetric strain is still changing specimen thickness) generally reached a steady state at
towards the end of the tests. Although a true ultimate horizontal displacement of about 4–6 mm, indicating
state is never reached in the tests presented in Figures an ultimate state is achieved.
1a and 1b, the rate of change of shear strength and volu- In Figure 2a, the ultimate shear stress of 100 kPa
metric strain reduce considerably except for 1500 kPa suction sample is approximately similar to the ultimate
suction. The degree of saturation after shearing was shear strength of the sample tested at 20 kPa matric
79% for 200 kPa, 75% for 400 kPa, 67% for 800 kPa, suction. The degree of saturation after shearing was
and 56% for 1500 kPa matric suction. about 90% and 75% for 20 kPa and 100 kPa matric
Figures 2a and 2b indicate the results of suction suction, respectively. A similar picture is seen for
controlled direct shear tests conducted on Minco Silt σn − ua = 155 kPa in Figures 3a and 3b.
430
200
180 u a - u w = 100 kPa
160
Shear stress (kPa)
140
120
100 u a - u w = 20 kPa
80
60
40
20 (a)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Horizontal displacement (mm)
-0.015
u a - u w = 100 kPa
-0.01
-0.005
v/H0
0
Figure 4. Deviator stress and volume change against axial
strain at confining stress = 50 kPa and various suctions.
0.005 (Toll & Ong 2003).
0.01 u a - u w = 20 kPa
(b)
0.015 presented in this paper. Similarly, constant water con-
tent test results for confining stress of 150 and 250 kPa
0 2 4 6 8 10
presented in Toll & Ong (2003) are presented in Figure
Horizontal displacement (mm) 5 but the plots of deviator stress against axial strain are
not presented in this paper. The slope of the best fit
Figure 3. Shear stress (a) and volume change (b) against lines of strength envelopes represents the friction angle
horizontal displacement at net normal stress = 155 kPa for for suction (φ b ). The values of φ b calculated from best
two values of suctions (Hamid, 2005). fit lines of Figure 5 are given in Table 1.
It is evident from laboratory test results presented
in Figures 1 through 5 and in Table 1 that the effect
of matric suction is generally less significant for the
Figure 4 shows constant water content test results ultimate friction angle for suction than the peak fric-
reported by Toll & Ong (2003). These tests were tion angle for suction. Particularly for low confining
conducted on Jurong residual soil (LL = 36% and and net normal stress (e.g. 50 kPa) the effect of suc-
PI = 15%). It can be seen that ultimate state is being tion on φult
b
is small (Figure 5). This conclusion is also
approached by the end of the tests cw50-230 (1), cw50- supported by Tarantino & Tombolato (2005) who con-
230 (2), cw50-300, and cw50-400. Further, the rate of cluded that water menisci have a negligible effect on
change of deviator stress (q) and volumetric strain gen- the ultimate shear strength.
erally reduce considerably toward the end of the tests A possible explanation of the effect of matric suc-
and an ultimate state can be reasonably assumed (Toll tion on the peak shear strength and ultimate shear
& Ong, 2003). The degree of saturation after shearing strength is presented in the following paragraphs.
was 66% for 230 kPa, 63% for 300 kPa, and 72% for In unsaturated soil, the meniscus around soil grains
400 kPa matric suction. contact points tends to draw the particles together.
The results of Figures 1 through 4 are plotted in This attractive force, called capillary force (Nc ), acts
Figure 5 as peak and ultimate strength envelopes. In perpendicular to the grain contact surface. It has been
order to plot the strength envelopes the test results shown that under certain conditions Nc increases with
for net normal stress of 210 kPa presented in Hamid an increase of suction (Kohgo et al. 1993). Increase in
(2005) were utilized but the plot of horizontal displace- Nc induces an increase of shear resistance between the
ment against shear strength and volume strain are not soil particles. This inhibits the relative sliding between
431
860 Table 1. Peak and ultimate friction angles for suction.
Peak
Ultimate Confining/Net normal
Shear stress (kPa)
660
stress (kPa) b )
Peak (φpeak Ultimate (φult
b )
460 50∗ 15 3
50• 47 26
260 150• 64 62
250• 68 59
(a) 105† 22 2
60 155† 28 9
100 600 1100 1600 210† 30 23
u a - u w (kPa)
Note: ∗ Cui & Delage (1996); • Toll & Ong (2003); † Hamid
220 (2005).
n - u a = 210 kPa Peak
Ultimate
Shear stress (kPa)
180
n - u a = 155 kPa by adding water to the system the column of grains
140 will collapse.
Test results presented in Figures 1 through 4 indicate
100 strain softening behavior that suggests beginning of
destruction of bonding between soil particles due to
(b) n - u a = 105 kPa
interlocking and due to meniscus.
60
In the ultimate state particles slide over each other,
0 50 100 150 i.e. interlocking bond has been destroyed and bonding
u a - u w (kPa) due to meniscus has also been destroyed. Therefore the
soil shows a stable ultimate state, i.e. no further reduc-
860 tion in shear strength. In other words, as opposed to
Peak
3 - u a = 250 kPa the peak shear strength, in the ultimate state meniscus
Ultimate
bonds do not exist and an increase in matric suction
Shear stress (kPa)
660
does not cause an increase in ultimate shear strength.
460 - u a = 150 kPa
3
432
an important role in the development of tension cracks
in the slope. Ignoring cohesion implies that tension
cracks can not develop in the soil. Tension cracks are
generally developed above the groundwater table in
unsaturated clay and the effect of the matric suction
should be considered in the determination of depth of
tension cracks.
b
= 15 0
0.75. A value of μt = 1 indicates no effect of tension
25 cracks on factor of safety, on the other hand a value of
20 b
=10 0 μt = 0.75 indicate about 25 percent reduction in fac-
tor of safety calculated without considering the depth
15 of tension crack.
b
10 =50
5 5 CONCLUSIONS
0
As opposed to the peak shear strength, the effect
0 500 1000 1500
of matric suction appears to be less significant on
u a - u b (kPa) ultimate shear strength. Based on the laboratory test
results of unsaturated soils presented in this paper, it
Figure 6. Effect of matric suction on the depth of tension may be concluded that suction can be neglected for
crack. analyzing slopes that contain pre-existing surfaces or
433
that have history of previous sliding. However, the Fredlund, D.G. & Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil Mechanics for
effect of matric suction should be considered while Unsaturated Soils. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
incorporating the presence of a tension crack in slope Janbu, N. 1968. Slope stability computations. Via US army
stability analysis. Corps of Engineer, EM 1110-2-1901. 2003.
Hamid, T.B. 2005. Testing and modeling of unsaturated inter-
faces. Ph.D. dissertation submitted to Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering department. University of Oklahoma,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS USA.
Kohgo, Y., Nakano, M. & Miyazaki, T. 1993, Theoretical
The author wishes to extend a special thank to O. aspects of constitutive modelling for unsaturated soils.
Ayodeji, Fairfax County, Department of Public Works, Soils and Foundations. 33(4): 49–63.
Virginia, USA for reviewing this manuscript. Valu- Morgenstern, N.R. & Price, V.E. 1965. The analysis of
able comments and suggestions made by anonymous the stability of general slip surfaces. Geotechnique. 15:
reviewers also helped to improve the quality of this 70–93.
paper. This paper reflects the personal opinion of Spencer, E. 1967. A method of analysis of the stabil-
ity of embankments assuming parallel inter-slice forces
the author and not necessarily those of GeoConcepts Geotechnique. 17: 11–26.
Engineering, Inc. Toll, D.G. & Ong, B.H. 2003. Critical-state parameters for
an unsaturated residual sandy clay. Geotechnique. 53(1):
93–103.
REFERENCES Tarantino, A. & Tombolato, S. 2005. Coupling of hydraulic
and mechanical behaviour in unsaturated compacted clay.
Bishop. A.W. 1955. The use of the slip circle in the stability Geotechnique. 55 (4): 307–317.
analysis of slopes. Geotechnique. 5: 7–17. US Army Corps of Engineer. Slope Stability. EM 1110-2-
Escario, I. & Saez, J. 1986. The shear strength of partly 1901. 2003.
saturated soils. Geotechnique. 36: 453–456.
434
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D.G. Toll
School of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, UK
Z. Ali Rahman
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, National University of Malaysia (UKM), Selangor, Malaysia
D. Gallipoli
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper reports on a set of triaxial test data on an artificially bonded sand tested in unsaturated
conditions. Tests were performed using the axis translation technique to measure suctions while shearing under
constant water content conditions. The results at the Critical State are interpreted to obtain the variation in
the stress ratios: Ma representing the net stress component and Mb representing the suction component. These
are also presented as Critical State angles of friction, (φ a )c and (φ b )c . It is found that Ma is higher than the
saturated critical state stress ratio, Ms (i.e. (φ a )c > φc ). This supports the observation that we should not always
make the assumption that φ a = φ . The changes in Ma and Mb can be related to the different phases of water
retention behaviour. The regions of behaviour seem to be (i) before the air entry value Ma = Mb = Ms (ii) in
the desaturation stage Ma rises above Ms but Mb = Ms (iii) in the residual stage Ma remains constant and Mb
starts to reduce.
435
The net stress was then increased to the desired
value (50, 100 or 300 kPa) by reducing the pore
air pressure at constant cell pressure under constant
water content conditions (allowing volume change
to occur due to air flow, but preventing any flow of
water). The changes in pore-water pressure and vol-
ume were observed until consolidation was deemed to
be complete.
Specimens were then sheared under constant water
content conditions with radial net stress held constant.
Measurements of pore-water pressure and volume
change were made during shearing.
Figure 1. Particle size distribution for the Leighton Buzzard 3 SHEAR STRESS AT CRITICAL STATE
sand used to make the bonded soil. IN UNSATURATED SOILS
436
For the particular conditions of the Critical State, the Ma ( p − ua ) term. If the suction is zero then:
equation [1] can be rewritten as:
q
Ma = (7)
τc = (σ − ua ) tan(φ a )c + (ua − uw ) tan(φ b )c (3) ( p − ua )
437
Figure 3. Comparison of Critical State stress ratios for saturated and unsaturated tests.
3.2 Suction component, Mb Table 2. Critical State values of the state variables for all
tests.
The values of Mb have been calculated by re-arranging
Eq [4] so that Mb is given by: q p − ua ua − u w Sr
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (%) Ma Mb
q − Ma (p − ua )
Mb = (10) 285 196 492.0 16.9 1.39 0.02
(ua − uw )
213 121 403.6 18.1 1.39 0.11
210 121 385.9 18.2 1.39 0.11
From the previous discussion about Ma values, it 217 122 479.7 18.9 1.39 0.10
seems sensible to take an average value of Ma = 1.39 205 118 119.0 19.6 1.39 0.34
(based on Eq. [9]). Therefore, for tests performed at 348 216 260.5 19.6 1.39 0.18
higher suctions, Mb has been calculated from Eq. [10] 355 219 392.1 19.9 1.39 0.13
by assuming a constant value of Ma = 1.39. One value 211 121 498.7 19.9 1.39 0.08
of Ma has been adjusted slightly (1.36) as otherwise 230 127 168.8 20.7 1.39 0.32
an apparent negative value of Mb would be obtained. 282 194 100.7 21.8 1.39 0.12
For the lower suctions, the individual values of Ma 328 209 104.0 21.8 1.39 0.35
753 552 245.4 21.9 1.36 0.00
calculated from Eq. [9] in the previous section have
991 631 300.4 22.6 1.39 0.38
been used. The values of Ma and Mb calculated in this 313 155 87.7 24.2 1.39 1.12
way are given in Table 2. 821 575 5.4 31.1 1.42 1.23
The values in Table 2 are plotted against degree 825 577 3.3 40.3 1.42 1.23
of saturation in Figure 4(a). It can be seen that 108 86 0.1 46.6 1.25 1.23
Mb drops sharply at degrees of saturation below 141 97 6.1 47.9 1.38 1.23
30%. For comparison the soil water retention 735 545 1.1 48.4 1.34 1.23
curve at Critical State conditions is plotted with 137 96 1.2 70.7 1.42 1.23
Sr on the horizontal axis in Figure 4(b). It can 298 200 5.5 75.7 1.46 1.23
269 190 4.1 77.4 1.39 1.23
be seen that there is a sharp increase in suc-
tion below 30%, showing a mirror image. The
drop in Mb coincides with the sharp change in the
water retention behaviour (the end of the desatura- be related to the different phases of water retention
tion zone). behaviour in Figure 5(b). The regions of behaviour
The same data is plotted in terms of variation with seem to be (i) before the air entry value Ma = Mb =
suction in Figure 5(a). The changes in Ma and Mb can Ms (ii) in the desaturation stage Ma rises above Ms
438
Ma 1.5 Ma
1.5 35
35 '
′ Ms
30
Ms 30
1.0
Angle of friction,
Angle of friction,
Stress ratio, M
Stress ratio, M
25
1.0 25
Mb 20
Mb 20
15
15 0.5
0.5 10
10
(a) 5
(a) 5
0.0 0
0.0 0 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Matric suction (ua-uw): kPa
0 20 40 60 80 100
Degree of saturation, Sr: %
100
Residual
80
500
60
400
Residual
40
300 zone
200 20
Desaturation
Desaturation (b) zone
100 zone 0
(b) 0.1 1 10 100 1000
0 Matric suction (u a - uw): kPa
0 20 40 60 80 100
Degree of saturation, Sr: % Figure 5. (a) Variation in Critical State stress ratios with
suction (b) Degree of saturation vs suction at Critical State.
Figure 4. (a) Variation in Critical State stress ratios with
degree of saturation (b) Suction vs degree of saturation at
Critical State.
anomalous results with values of φ b in excess of φ .
The analysis here suggests that a value of φ a > φ
but Mb = Ms (iii) in the residual stage Ma remains should have been used, which would then give sensible
constant and equal to 1.39 while Mb starts to reduce. values for φ b .
It does of course have to be noted that the conditions
Mb = Ms in region (ii) and Ma = 1.39 in region (iii)
have been explicitly imposed in the present model.
Nevertheless, the possible range of values that satisfies 4 CONCLUSIONS
the values of the state variables q, p − ua and ua − uw
is not that large. A set of triaxial test results performed on unsaturated
It is particularly interesting that for this bonded specimens have been used to derive the variation in
material, the value of Mb seems to remains close the Critical State stress ratios: Ma representing the
to Ms even when the degree of saturation is signifi- net stress component and Mb representing the suction
cantly reducing. This is probably due to the uniform component. These are also presented as Critical State
nature of the bonded sand. The desaturation pro- angles of friction, (φ a )c and (φ b )c .
cess in this material probably represents a removal It is found that Ma is higher than the saturated crit-
of ‘‘bulk’’ water and the development of ‘‘meniscus’’ ical state stress ratio, Ms (i.e. φ a > φ ). This supports
water (Karube and Kawai, 2001) as opposed to emp- the observation that we should not always make the
tying of pores. In more widely graded materials, the assumption that φ a = φ .
desaturation process will be more complex (involving The changes in Ma and Mb can be related to the dif-
a wider range of pore sizes) and it might be expected ferent phases of water retention behaviour. The regions
that Mb (and hence (φ b )c ) would drop within the desat- of behaviour indicate that (i) before the air entry value
uration zone (Vanipalli et al, 1996; Toll and Ong, Ma = Mb = Ms (ii) in the desaturation stage Ma rises
2003). above Ms but Mb = Ms (iii) in the residual stage Ma
Toll et al (2006) interpreted values of φ b at peak remains constant and Mb starts to reduce. This pat-
state conditions for this artificially bonded soil based tern of behaviour is probably explained by the narrow
on the assumption that φ a = φ . This led to apparently range of pore sizes in the uniform bonded sand.
439
REFERENCES in Unsaturated Soils, Geotechnical Special Publication
No. 99, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston:
Atkinson, J.H. (1993). The Mechanics of Soils and Founda- pp. 222–234.
tions, London: McGraw Hill. Toll, D.G., Ali Rahman, Z. and Gallipoli, D. (2007). Towards
Ali Rahman, Z. (2008). The Engineering Behaviour of a Understanding the Behaviour of Unsaturated Bonded
Weakly Bonded Soil including the Unsaturated State. PhD Soils, Proc. 3rd Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils,
Thesis, Durham University. Nanjing, P.R. China, (eds. Yin, Z.Z., Yuan, J.P. and Chiu,
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Josa, (1990). A Constitutive A.C.F), Beijing: Science Press, pp. 139–142.
Model for Partially Saturated Soils, Géotechnique 40(3): Toll, D.G. and Malandraki, V. (1993). Stress Path Triaxial
pp. 405–430. Testing of a Weakly Cemented Soil. In Anagnostopou-
Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R. and Widger, R.A. (1978). los, A., Schlosser, F., Kalteziotis, N. & Frank, R. (eds.),
The Shear Strength of Unsaturated Soils, Canadian Geotechnical Engineering of Hard Soils—Soft Rocks,
Geotechnicl Journal, 15: pp. 313–321. Rotterdam: Balkema, Vol.1: pp. 817–823.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. (1993). Soil Mechanics for Toll, D.G., Malandraki, V., Ali Rahman, Z. and Gal-
Unsaturated Soils, New York: Wiley. lipoli, D. (2006). Bonded Soils: Problematic or Pre-
Karube, D. and Kawai, K. (2001). The role of pore water in the dictable? Proc. 2nd International Conference on Prob-
mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils. Geotechnical lematic Soils, Malaysia, Singapore, CI-Premier: pp.
and Geological Engineering, 19: pp. 211–241. 55–62.
Maccarini, M. (1987). Laboratory Studies of a Weakly Toll, D.G. and Ong. B.H. (2003). Critical State Parameters
Bonded Artificial Soil. PhD thesis, University of London. for an Unsaturated Residual Sandy Clay, Géotechnique,
Malandraki, V. and Toll, D. (2000). Drained Probing Triaxial 53(1): pp. 93–103.
Tests on a Weakly Bonded Artificial Soil. Géotechnique, Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E. and Clifton,
50(2): pp. 141–151. A.W. (1996). Model for the Prediction of Shear Strength
Malandraki, V. and Toll, D.G. (2001). Triaxial Tests on a with Respect to Soil Suction, Canadian Geotechnical
Weakly Bonded Soil with Changes in Stress Path. Jour- Journal, 33: pp. 379–392.
nal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Walker, S., Gallipoli, D. and Toll, D.G. (2005). The Effect
127(2): pp. 282–291. of Structure on the Water Retention of Soil Tested using
Toll, D.G. (1990). A Framework for Unsaturated Soil Different Methods of Suction Measurement. Proc. Inter-
Behaviour, Géotechnique, 40(1): pp. 31–44. national Symposium on Advanced Experimental Unsat-
Toll, D.G. (2000). The Influence of Fabric on the Shear urated Soil Mechanics, Trento, Italy, London: Taylor &
Behaviour of Unsaturated Compacted Soils, In Shackle- Francis, pp. 33–39.
ford, C., Houston, S.L. and Chang, N.Y. (eds.), Advances
440
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
T. Nishimura
Ashikaga Institute of Technology, Tochigi, Japan
H. Toyota
Nagaoka University of Technology, Niigata, Japan
ABSTRACT: The shear strength behaviour of an unsaturated silty soil in the high suction range was determined
from unconfined compression tests using specially designed shear testing equipment with a dual cylinder triaxial
cell. The relative humidity conditions of the compacted specimens used for testing were controlled in desicca-
tors in a temperature controlled chamber. The high suction values achieved in the compacted specimens were
calculated using Kelvin’s equation. The stress-strain curve behaviour of the compacted soil specimens with high
suctions following both the drying and wetting path were measured and presented in this paper. The peak values
of shear strength for all the tested specimens were observed to occur at axial strains lower than 1%. The test
results suggest that there is little difference in the measured shear strength values of the tested specimens at high
suction values. These results also suggest that the shear strength envelope is horizontal in the high suction range
for the soil tested.
441
compacted unsaturated soil specimens in the high suc- specimens. The water content (10%) and dry density
tion range both along the drying and wetting path from (13.73 kN/m3 ) used in the preparation of the spec-
unconfined compression tests. Predetermined relative imens correspond to the dry side of optimum mois-
humidity (RH ) conditions were achieved in the soil ture content (17%) and maximum dry density value
specimens by placing them in desiccators with differ- (15.1 kN/m3 ) determined from Proctors compaction
ent salt solutions in a temperature controlled environ- curve (Table 1). The inner surface of the steel mould
ment. These specimens were then placed in specially that was used for the preparation of the static com-
designed triaxial testing equipment with a dual cylin- paction specimens was coated with acrylic to achieve
der triaxial cell. The specimens were sheared without negligible friction between the inner surface of the
application of confining pressures. The unconfined steel mould and lateral surface of the compacted soil
compressive strengths of specimens with high suction specimen. This technique was useful in the removal
values were determined and the stress versus strain of relatively non-plastic silty soil specimens after
relationships are presented and discussed. compaction with ease and without any disturbance.
Temperature and
Temperature
100 Humidity controlled
chamber
80
Percent finer (%)
60
40 Desiccator
20 Salt solution
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Particle size (mm) Figure 3. Compacted specimens placed in desiccators with
different salt solutions to achieve high suction values in a
Figure 1. Grain size distribution curve. temperature controlled chamber.
442
The salt solutions such as Potassium Sulfate
(K2 S04 ), Potassium Nitrate (KNO3 ), Ammonium
Dihydrogenphosphate (NH4 H2 PO4 ), Sodium Chlo-
ride (NaCl), Magnesium Nitrate (Mg(NO3 )2 .6H2 O),
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2 .6H2 O) and Lithium
Chloride (LiCl) are commonly used to achieve dif-
ferent relative humidity conditions (Oteo-Mazo et al.
1995; Delage et al. 1998). These salt solutions are
capable of inducing RH in the range from 98% to
11% to the soil specimens in a controlled environmen-
tal chamber. In other words each of the salt solution is
capable of inducing a different suction value to the soil
specimens. The suction values that can be achieved in
the specimens range from 2,830 kPa to 296,000 kPa for
the RH values in the range of 98% to 11%. The value
of soil suction at a temperature of 20◦ C can be calcu-
lated using Lord Kelvin’s equation (Eq. 1) by knowing
the relative humidity (RH ).
443
14
minute. The axial deformation in the soil specimens
Volume = 20.403 x Voltage
along with their volume change behavior during the
12 R 2 = 0.998
shearing stage was measured until failure conditions
10 in the tested soil specimens.
Volume (cc)
6
3 TEST RESULTS
4
50
range. The RH values chosen in the study result in suc-
tion values in the range of 2830 kPa to 296,000 kPa in 40
the soil specimens. The prepared soil specimens were 30
then placed in the test set up of the triaxial test appara-
tus shown in Figure 4. The specimen to be tested was 20
covered with a rubber membrane in order to facilitate
10
measurement of volume change behavior during the
shearing stage. However, the influence of the rubber 0
membrane on the shear strength and the variation of 0 1 2 3
suction values during the shearing were not taken into Axial strain (%)
account in this paper.
Unconfined compression tests were conducted on Figure 7b. Stress-strain curve behavior of specimens fol-
the specimens using a shearing rate of 0.1% per lowing the drying path.
444
70 -1.0
RH 50% RH 40%
60 RH 60% RH 50%
-0.5 RH 60%
50 RH 70%
RH 80%
40
0.0
30
20 0.5
10
0 1.0
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Axial strain (%) Axial strain (%)
Figure 8a. Stress-strain curve behavior of specimens fol- Figure 9a. Dilation at unconfined compression on drying
lowing the wetting path. path.
70 -2.0
RH 70% RH 50%
60 -1.5 RH 60%
RH 80%
RH 70%
Volumetric change (%)
Deviator stress (kPa)
50 RH 80%
-1.0
40
-0.5
30
0.0
20
0.5
10
1.0
0
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Axial strain (%) Axial strain (%)
Figure 8b. Stress-strain curve behavior of specimens fol- Figure 9b. Dilation at unconfined compression on wetting
lowing the wetting path. path.
following the drying path. The peak values of stresses determined from stress versus strain relationships. The
were reached in the specimens at axial strains less term deviator stress is used in the paper as there will
than 1%. be a little influence of the confining pressure due to
the use of the rubber membrane. As discussed earlier,
the influence on rubber membrane was not considered
3.2 Volume change behavior during shearing stage in this study. The soil suction values of the specimens
Figure 9a, b show the volume change versus percent- were estimated using Equation 1 knowing the relative
age axial strain relationships for specimens at various humidity.
RH . While positive values indicate compression, neg- The entire soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC)
ative values suggest expansion, i.e., dilation, in the in the suction range of 0 to 106 is shown in Figure 10.
specimens. All soil specimens undergo some compres- The test data suggest that the gravimetric water content
sion during the initial stages of shearing. The specimen of the tested soil is low (i.e., less than 2%) for the
dilates during the later stages of shearing until the suction range in which the shear strength and volume
failure which typically occurs at axial strains lower change behavior was determined. The suction range
than 1%. studied in the present research program is mainly in the
residual stage of saturation (Vanapalli et al. 1996). The
water content in sands and silts at residual conditions
3.3 SWCC and the shear strength versus suction
can be low and may not transmit suction effectively
relationship
to soil particle or aggregate contact. Thus, even large
The unconfined compressive strength i.e., the suction values will not contribute towards significant
shear strength is half the maximum deviator stress increases in shear strength.
445
30 Figure 11a, b respectively. Numbers in parenthesis
correspond to magnitude of relative humidity applied
Gravimetric water content (%)
Wetting process
in the specimens by controlling relative humidity. The
1.5
unconfined compressive strength of the compacted
specimens was determined under unconfined condi-
1.0 tions using specially designed triaxial equipment with
a dual cylinder triaxial cell. The peak shear strength
Suction range used for
unconfined compression tests values for all the tested specimens were observed to
0.5 occur at axial strains lower than 1%. The variation of
shear strength with respect to high soil suction values
both for drying and wetting paths exhibited essentially
0.0
1000 10000 100000 1000000 horizontal shear strength envelope in the high suction
Soil suction (kPa)
range used in this study.
40
REFERENCES
Drying process Bishop, A.W. and Donald, I.B. 1961. The experimental study
20
Wetting process of partially saturated soil in triaxial apparatus, Proceed-
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ship between suction and swelling properties in a heavily
compacted unsaturated clay, Engineering Geology, 50:
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highlighting the high suction range are plotted in Modified ring shear apparatus to determine the shear
446
strength of unsaturated soils testing, Geotechnical Testing Oteo-Mazo, C., Saez-Aunon, J. and Esteban, F. 1995. Labora-
Journal, 30(1): 1–9. tory tests and equipment with suction control, Proceedings
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system for measuring volume changes in unsaturated Paris, 3: 509–1515.
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Geotechnical Engineering, 65–68. Vanapalli, S.K. and Fredlund, D.G. 2000. Comparison
Nishimura, T. and Vanapalli, S.K. 2005. Volume change of empirical procedures to predict the shear strength
and shear strength behavior of an unsaturated soil with of unsaturated soils uses the soil-water characteristic
high soil suction, 16th International Conference on Soil curve. Geo-Denver 2000, ASCE, Special Publication 99:
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 563–566. 195–209.
447
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
A.R. Estabragh
Faculty of Soil and Water Engineering, University of Tehran, Iran
A.A. Javadi
School of Engineering, Computer Science and Mathematics, University of Exeter, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of an experimental study on the effect of suction on compressibility
and shear behaviour of unsaturated silty soil under various types of loading. A series of laboratory experiments
have been conducted in a double-walled triaxial cell on samples of a compacted silty soil. In the experiments
the soil samples were subjected to isotropic consolidation followed by unloading and subsequent reloading
under constant suction. The experimental results will be presented in the context of an elasto-plastic model for
unsaturated soil. The effect of suction on mechanical behaviour of unsaturated silty soil will be presented and
discussed.
449
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 1.75
s = 300 kPa
A series of suction controlled consolidation and triax- 1.7
Specific volume,
ial tests were carried out on samples of compacted silty
soil to investigate the influence of suction on mechani- 1.65
cal behaviour of unsaturated soil. The silty soil used in s = 100 kPa
s = 200 kPa
this work consist of 5% sand, 90% silt and 5% clay. It 1.6
static compaction in nine layers with each layer being 100 1000
subjected to a vertical stress 1600 kPa. Mean net stress, p′ : kP
The tests on unsaturated soil samples were con-
ducted in a Bishop-Wesley hydraulic triaxial cell, Figure 2. Normal consolidation lines for different values of
modified to a double-walled cell by Estabragh et al. suction.
(2004). The suction in the samples was controlled by
the axis translation technique. The samples were ini-
tially subjected to an equalization stage. Subsequently
all samples were subjected to isotropic consolidation
0.12
to the defined mean net stress. The next stage involved
isotropic unloading to a predefined value and final step
was shearing (reloading). 0.1
s)
0.08
3 TEST RESULTS
0.06
In consolidation tests the mean net stress was increased
from 20 or 50 kPa to 550 kPa (target value) while hold-
ing suction constant (0, 100, 200 or 300 kPa). Typical 0.04
variation of specific volume (v) with mean net stress 0 100 200 300
(p ) during consolidation is shown in Figure 1. It is Suction, s : kPa
shown in this figure that the volume of soil decreased
as mean net stress increased. A continuous increase in Figure 3. Variation of λ(s) with suction.
mean net stress caused the soil to start yielding at some
point. The values of yield stresses were estimated by
the method of intersection of two linear segments of the
consolidation curve as suggested by Cui and Delage
(1996). As expected the yield stresss increased with
increasing suction. When the yield stress at a particu-
lar value of suction was exceeded, the soil state falls
1.82 on an isotropic normal consolidation line as shown in
s = 200 kPa
Figure 2. The slope of normal consolidation line (λ(s))
s = 300 kPa
1.77 and its intercept (N (s)) were calculated from results.
Specific volume, v
1.72
The variation of λ(s) with suction is shown in Figure 3.
Drained shear tests were performed at the end of
s = 100 kPa
1.67 unloading stage at constant cell pressure and suction.
In this work five cell pressures (50, 100, 200, 300 and
1.62 400 kPa), four suction (0, 100, 200 and 300 kPa) and
s = 0 kPa a number of pre-defined value of OCR (overconsoli-
1.57
dation ratio) were used. During the test the variation
1.52 specific volume and water content were recorded. Typ-
10 100 1000 ical results of the triaxial tests for s = 100 kPa are
Mean net stress, p ′ : kPa shown in Figure 4. Compression of a sample during
shearing is expressed using a negative sign, and a posi-
Figure 1. Variation of specific volume during consolidation tive sign is used for dilation of the sample in the graphs
for different values of suction. of volumetric strain versus axial strain.
450
1000 40 0
3 = 400 kPa
800
Deviator stress, q : kPa
30 0
Suction , s : kPa
600 3 = 300 kPa
20 0
400 3 = 200 kPa
3 = 50 kPa
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 100 200 300
3= 50 kPa
%
1 50 0
v:
3= 300 kPa
3 = 200 kPa
-1
Volume strain,
-5
3 = 100 kPa
-7
3= 400 kPa
30 0
-9
0 5 10 15 20
20 0
Axial strain, a :%
0 10 0 20 0 300
(b)
Suction, s : kPa
Figure 4. Stress-strain curves (a), volumetric–axial strain
curve at s = 100 kPa under various cell pressures. Figure 6. Variation of maximum deviator stress with
suction.
10 0
4 DISCUSSION
Cohesion,c : kPa
451
after which it became nearly constant. During shear- Based on the test results the following conclusion can
ing the volume of the sample increased after a slight be drawn:
initial contraction. In test with cell pressure of 100 kPa With increasing suction the yield stress increases
shearing continued up to an axial strain of about 18% but λ(s) generally decreases.
as shown in Figure 4. The deviator stress increased The LC yield curve is consistent with the model of
to a peak value of about 370 kPa at axial strain of Alonso et al. (1990).
nearly 2% and then remained nearly constant while the Dilatancy in the sample depends on the value of
volume of sample decreased. The shear tests for cell suction: at a constant cell pressure, a greater suction
pressures of 200, 300 and 400 kPa were performed causes more dilatancy.
up to 12, 15 and 18% axial strains respectively. In For a given cell pressure, the increase in soil stiff-
these tests the deviator stress increased to a peak value ness depends on the value of suction. Both suction and
and then remained nearly constant. In the tests with confining pressure affect the shear strength behaviour
cell pressure of 50 kPa and suctions of 200 and 300 of unsaturated soil and cohesion is also a function of
kPa the deviator stress first increased and then slightly suction in a non linear fashion.
decreased and during shearing the volume of these
samples increased after a slight initial contraction.
Therefore these samples with cell pressure of 50 kPa REFERENCES
exhibited a relatively brittle behaviour during shear-
ing. This behaviour can be attributed to the influence of Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Hight, D.W. 1987. Special
suction on the stiffness, brittleness and dilatancy of the problem soils. General report. In proceedings of the 9th
soil sample at low confining pressure. Figure 6 shows European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
typical results of variation of maximum deviator stress Engineer ing, Vol. 3, pp. 1087–1146.
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive for
with suction at constant cell pressure. This figure partially saturated soils. Géotechnique 40, No.3, 405–430.
shows that the deviator stress increases with increasing Bishop, A.W. (1959). The principle of effective stress.
suction. The brittleness of soil decreased with increas- Teknisk Ukeblad 106, No.39, 859–863.
ing confining pressure and the strength increases with Cui, Y, J., and Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic
increasing suction in a non linear fashion. Under con- behaveiour of an unsaturated compacted silt. Géotech-
stant suction the increase in cell pressure causes a nique, Vol. 46, No.2, 405–430.
progressive evolution from dilatancy to compression Estabragh, A.R., Javadi, A.A. and Boot, J.C. 2004. Effect of
behaviour until the dilatancy completely disappears. compaction pressure on consolidation behaviour of unsat-
Figure 7 presents another pattern of increase in cohe- urated silty soil. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 41,
No.3, 540–550.
sion intercept with increase in suction at the peak Fredlund, D.G., and Morgestern, N.R. 1977. Stress state vari-
shear stress for all samples tested at different confining ables for unsaturated soils. Journal of the Geotechnical
pressures. Engineering, Division, ASCE, Vol. 15, No.3, 313–321.
Fredlund, D.G., Rahardjo, H. and Gan, J.K.M. 1978. The
shear strength of unsaturated soil, Canadian Geotechnical
5 CONCLUSION Journal, No.15, 313–321.
Jenning, J.E.B. and Burland, J.B. 1962. Limitation to the use
of effective stress in partially saturated soils, Géotech-
An experimental program consisting of a series of con- nique, 12, No.2, 125–144.
trolled suction consolidation and drained triaxial tests Matyas, E.L. and Radhakrishna, H.S. 1968. Volume change
were used to investigate the effect of suction on subse- characteristics of partially saturated soils. Géotechnique,
quent mechanical behaviour of unsaturated silty soil. Vol. 18, No.4, 432–448.
452
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
B. Gatmiri
University of Tehran, Iran
Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses, France
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the mechanical behaviour of an unsaturated clayey sand. 12 triaxial
compression tests were performed on a sand-kaolinite mixture, including 3 saturated drained (CD), 3 satu-
rated undrained (CU) and 6 unsaturated constant water content (CW) triaxial tests. Unsaturated constant water
content tests were carried out with a double-walled triaxial cell and using the axis translation technique. The
soil samples were remolded and brought to initial matrix suctions of 100 and 150 kPa. The soil specimens were
consolidated and sheared under different values of net confining stress. Based on the results, the stress-strain and
critical state behaviour of the soil are shown in terms of net stresses and suction. The water retention behaviour
is presented as a surface relating degree of saturation to suction and specific volume.
453
saturation, Sr should be modified to take account of The soil samples had a diameter of 49.5 mm and
volume changes. The general hypothesis proposed by height of 100 mm and were compacted in 8 equal lay-
Gallipoli, Wheeler & Karstunen is: ers and brought to a dry density that was 84% of the
maximum dry density achieved in the Standard Proc-
Sr = f (v, s) (3) tor compaction test. The physical properties of soil
samples are given in Table 2.
where v is the specific volume. Considering Equa-
tion 3, Gallipoli, Wheeler & Karstunen proposed a Table 1. Classification properties of soil.
unique relationship between matrix suction and degree
of saturation incorporating the effect of changes in Soil type: (unified system) SC
specific volume as: Liquid limit % 23.5
Plastic limit % 14
m Plasticity index % 9.5
1 Specific gravity (Gs ) 2.66
Sr =
n (4)
1 + (v − 1)ψ · s Clay percent % 40
Optimum water content∗ % 9.58
Maximum dry unit weight∗ (kN/m3 ) 19.71
where , ψ, n, m are soil constants. Equation 4
∗
describes a series of water-retention curves of Sr plot- From standard proctor compaction test.
ted against s each for a different value of v. As the
specific volume decreases, the dimensions of voids Table 2. Physical properties of compacted soil samples.
would be expected to decrease, so that a higher value
of suction would be required to produce a given degree Wet unit weight (kN/m3 ) 18.04
of saturation, resulting in a corresponding shift of Dry unit weight (kN/m3 ) 16.64
the water retention curves. Initial Sr % 39.36
This paper presents the results of an experimental Moisture content % 8.4
programme including a series of 12 triaxial compres- Void ratio 0.568
Porosity 0.362
sion tests to study the mechanical behaviour and water
retention behaviour of an unsaturated clayey sand.
500
CD 200
2 TEST PROGRAMME & MATERIALS
400
300
on unsaturated soil samples of clayey sand. In addition
CD 100
consolidated drained (CD) and consolidated undrained
200
(CU) triaxial compression tests were performed to
define soil behaviour in the saturated condition. The CD 50
100
soil tested was a mix of 60% sand and 40% kaolin-
ite. The particle size distribution of the soil mixture is
0
shown in Figure 1 and classification properties of the 0 5 10 15 20 25
soil are given in Table 1. Axial strain %
(a)
Axial strain %
100 0 5 10 15 20 25
0
80
-1
Vol. Strain %
60
Finer %
-2
40 CD 50
-3
20 -4 CD 100
CD 200
0 -5
454
Three drained triaxial compression tests (CD) were 600
CW-S100-200
performed on saturated samples. The samples were
450
isotropically consolidated to effective consolidation
solidation pressures of 50, 100 and 200 kPa, with Axial Strain %
(a)
200
Axial Strain %
CU 200 0 5 10 15 20 25
0
150
Dev. Stress ( kPa)
-1 CW-S100-50
-2
CU 100
Vol. Strain %
100
-3
CW-S100-100
CU 50 -4
50 -5
-6 CW-S100-200
0 -7
0 5 10 15 20 25 (b)
Axial strain %
(a)
CW-S100-50
160
160
CW-S100-100 CW-S100-200
CU 200
Matrix suction ( kPa )
120
120
80
P.W.P ( kPa)
80
CU 100 40
40
CU 50 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Axial strain %
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 (c)
Axial strain %
(b) Figure 5. Results for constant water content tests at ini-
tial matrix suction of 100 kPa plotted against axial strain: a)
Figure 3. Results for saturated CU tests plotted against axial Deviator stress, q; b) Volumetric strains; c) Matrix suction.
strain: a) Deviator stress, q; b) Changes in P.W.P.
3 Figure 3.
S150
A series of constant water content triaxial tests were
2 carried out on unsaturated soil samples with a suction-
controlled doubled-wall triaxial cell, designed and
1
built at the University of Tarbiat Modares. After com-
0
paction of the soil samples, they were brought to initial
0 50 100 150 200 250 matrix suctions of 100 or 150 kPa using the method
Time (hr) of wetting and axis translation technique. During this
equalization stage an elevated air pressure of 300 kPa
Figure 4. Wetting curves during equalization stage. was applied to the top of the soil samples and water
455
750 in volume of the specimens were determined by mea-
CW-S150-200 suring the volume of flow in or out of the inner acrylic
600
triaxial cell and a correction was applied due to the
downward movement of the loading ram. A constant
Dev. Stress (kPa)
450
CW-S150-100
axial strain rate of 0.009%/min was applied to the spec-
300
imens to give consistent readings of matrix suction.
CW-S150-50 The shearing stage continued until the sample reached
150 a critical state. The results are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Axial Strain %
3 RESULTS
(a)
3.1 Saturated soil behaviour
Axial Strain %
The results of 6 saturated CD and CU tests are plotted
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. The saturated drained
CW-S150-50 tests (CD50, CD100 and CD200) (Fig. 2) show that
-2 both the deviator stress and the volumetric strain lev-
eled off at axial strains of 20–25% and the soil reached
Vol. Strain %
-4
CW-S150-100 a critical state. In the saturated undrained tests (CU50,
CU100 and CU200) (Fig. 3) the deviator stress and
-6
pore water pressure became constant at axial strains
CW-S150-200
-8 of 15–20% and similar to the drained tests the soil
reached a critical state. The stress paths for saturated
-10 drained and undrained tests are plotted in Figure 7.
The critical state and Mohr Coulomb parameters of
(b) the saturated soil are presented in Table 3 obtained
from CD and CU tests. Due to the relative compaction
210
CW-S150-100 CW-S150-50 of the soil, volumes of the specimens decreased dur-
CW-S150-200 ing drained tests and pore water pressure increased in
170
Matrix suction (kPa)
undrained tests.
130
back pressure of 200 or 150 kPa was applied to the bot- 300
tom of the specimen through a 5 bar high entry porous
ceramic disk to reduce the initial matrix suction of the 200
CD 100
456
Table 3. Critical state and Mohr Coulomb parameters during the shearing stage. Considering Tables 3 and 4,
obtained from saturated drained and undrained tests. the values obtained for ϕ from unsaturated constant
water tests have good consistency with the value
c (kpa) 3.8
ϕ (deg) 30.7
gained from saturated drained and undrained tests. The
M 1.30 values obtained for ϕ b are lower than the values gained
λ −0.061 for ϕ from constant water tests.
1.73 The variations of degree of saturation, Sr matrix
suction, s and specific volume, v are plotted in Figure 8
by passing a three dimensional fitting curve through
Table 4. Failure stress state and phase state variables at the data obtained from shearing stage. Considering
constant water triaxial tests. Figure 8, the specimen air volume tends to decrease
during axial loading and causes a decrease in the void
S100 S150 spaces and particularly volume of the specimen. As
Test the void ratio decreases, the specimens become denser
(σ3 − ua ) 50∗ 100 200 50 100 200 and the values of degree of saturation and soil matrix
suction increases.
(σ1 − σ3 )f 199.9 300 524 232.9 356 616
(ua − uw )f 152.5 153.7 151 186.8 199.1 191
(Sr )f % 49.5 53.7 62.9 45.8 52.2 61.9
(1 + e)f 1.53 1.48 1.41 1.53 1.50 1.4 4 CONCLUSIONS
c (kpa) 3.81 3.81
ϕ (deg) 33.15 34.62 34.13 29.57 31.39 30.8 In this paper the mechanical behaviour of an unsatu-
ϕ b (deg) 7.72 5.34 6.79 10.14 7.38 9.216 rated clayey sand was studied in terms of net stresses
and matrix suction, s. In addition, water retention
∗ Stress variables are in kPa. behavior was represented as a relationship between
degree of saturation, matrix suction and specific vol-
ume. Based on the results as the initial matrix suctions
of specimens increased the value of degree of satura-
1
tion reduced and this caused an increase in the value of
0.9 deviator stress during shearing. During constant water
Degree of saturation,Sr
457
Escario, V. & Saez, J. 1986. The shear strength of partly sat- and Construction in Tropical and residual soils, Honolulu,
urated soils. Some aspects of effective stress in saturated 263–295.
and partly saturated soil. Géotechnique 36(3): 453–456. Terzaghi, K. 1936. The shearing resistance of saturated soils
Fredlund, D.G., Rahardjo, H. Gan, J.K.M. 1987. Nonlinearity and the angle between the planes of shear. Proc. 1st Int.
of strength envelope for unsaturated soils. Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. 1:54–56.
Conf. expansive soils. New Dehli, 49–54. Toll, D.G. 1990. A framework for unsaturated soil behaviour.
Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R. & Widger, R.A. 1978. Géotechnique 40(1): 31–44.
The shear strength of unsatuarted soils. Can. Géotech. J. Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E& Clifton, A.W.
15(3): 177–197, 313–321. 1996. Model for the prediction of shear strength with
Fredlund, D.G. & Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the soil-water respect to soil suction. Can. Geotech. J. 33: 379–392.
characteristic curve. Can. Geotech. J., 31(4):533–546. Wheeler, S.J. & Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic critical
Gallipoli, D., Wheeler, S.J. & Karstunen, M. 2003. Mod- state framework for unsaturated soil. Géotechnique 45(1):
elling the variation of degree of saturation in a deformable 35–53.
unsaturated soil. Géotechnique 53(1): 105–112.
Ho, D.Y.F. Fredlund, D.G. 1982. Increase in strength due
to suction for two Hong-Hong soils. Proc. Conf. Engng
458
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
R. Charlier
Université de Liège, Belgium
J. Maertens
Jan Maertens bvba & Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
J.-C. Verbrugge
Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
ABSTRACT: Within the framework of a national project undertaken in Belgium (2003–2009), investigations
on the stability of temporary trenches in unsaturated soil are carried out by means of theoretical and experimental
approaches. It is well known that soil matric suction is an essential stress variable that influences the shear strength
of unsaturated soil and consequently slope stability. In this contribution, the characterisation of the shear strength
of a partially saturated quaternary loam is achieved by using simple unconfined compression tests. The derived
shear strength is then used for numerical simulations of a 5 m depth full-scale experimental trench, executed
and monitored in the unsaturated loam at the site of Belgian Building Research Institute (BBRI). Comparison
of numerical investigations and practical observations reveals that the adopted procedure remains on the safe
side. This paper includes descriptions of the laboratory investigations, full scale experiments and numerical
simulations.
459
Unconfined ca [kPa] Equation 1 proposed by Fredlund et al. (1978)
compression tests
τf = c + (σ − ua ) tan ϕ + (ua − uw ) tan ϕ b (1)
460
(a) unsaturated soil a function of the depth of the specimen: the samples
(b) saturated soil taken at a depth less than 2 m and those taken at a
greater depth. The distinction may be argued by the
heterogeneity of the ground. As revealed by the fric-
ca
tion ratio plotted on Figure 3, the 2 first meters exhibit
a more cohesive behaviour. If the data are grouped by
c' ' ' depth, then it can be observed that the apparent cohe-
1(b) 1(a)
, ' sion increases as the water content in the specimen
decreases, as would be expected.
Figure 2. Mohr circles at failure for an unconfined com- The determination of the SWRC has been made
pression test. with Richards apparatus. These results are presented in
Figure 5. An average of the experimental data and the
interpolation of Fredlund & Xing (1994) are plotted.
qc (MPa) Rf (%)
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 1 2 3 4 5 A different behaviour was also found for the samples
0 0 taken at more and less than 2 m.
2 2 Figure 6 depicts the apparent cohesion as a func-
4 4
tion of the matric suction for samples taken at depths
greater and less than 2 m. This figure is obtained using
z(m)
z(m)
6 6
the methodology proposed in Figure 1. In other words
8 8 it consists of coupling Figures 4 and 5.
10 10 As expected, the apparent cohesion increases as the
12 12
matric suction increases due to the increase of capillary
forces.
Figure 3. Average CPT results at the site of BBRI. The experimental data have been compared with
prediction methods listed in Table 1. The degree of
Table 2. Mechanical properties of the quaternary loam for
different periods of the year.
60
Sample depth < 2 m
apparent cohesion (kPa)
30
<2.25 m 8 29.6 30 20 0 0 0 0
2.25–3 m 0 33.1 25 10 18 8 0 0 20
3–7 m 0 34.4 30 14 40 18 40 18 10
>7 m 0 35 – – – – – –
Safety factors 1.14 <1 <<1 0
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
gravimetric water content (%)
A series of 35 unconfined compression tests have Figure 4. Results of the unconfined compression tests on
been conducted on undisturbed specimens of quater- the quaternary loam.
nary loam with a natural gravimetric water content
ranging from 17% to 25%. The specimens have been
taken at several depths ranging from 0.5 m to 3.5 m. 45
40
The quaternary loam was extensively investigated
35
volumetric water content (%)
461
60 vertical trench. The goal of the second experiment
apparent cohesion (kPa)
exp. data : depth < 2m
50
(June 2005–June 2006) was to provide insight on the
Oberg & Salfors 1997 beneficial effect of protection installed on a slope.
40 Vanapalli et al. 1996 The protection aims at minimizing the water infil-
30 tration and in turn the variations of soil suction with
time. As a consequence, the slope remained stable for
20
longer time. For the third experiment (June 2006–June
10 2007), an enlargement and deepening of the trench
0 was executed (see further). The specific goal of that
experiment was to analyze the effect of a change in
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
trench geometries since inclination has been taken
matric suction (kPa) into account.
In this contribution, the results of the third exper-
60
exp. data : depth > 2m imental trenches are presented. More details on the
apparent cohesion (kPa)
50 Oberg & Salfors 1997 results obtained for the previous experiments may be
40 Vanapalli et al. 1996 found among others in De Vos & Whenham (2007),
Whenham et al. (2007) and Tomboy et al. (2007). For
30
the third experiment, a 20 m long and 5 m deep exper-
20 imental trench has been executed in June 2006. The
10 profile of the trench is depicted in Figure 7. A total of
nearly 80 tensiometers were installed to monitor the
0
soil suction. The investigated depths range from 0.5 m
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 to 3.5 m.
matric suction (kPa) Figure 8 provides the matric suction measured
(weekly readings) during the period June 2006–June
Figure 6. Apparent cohesion derived from the matric 2007 in the quaternary loam at the site of BBRI, while
suction. Figure 9 presents the corresponding rain measure-
ments. The water table is situated at a depth of 55 m,
implying that it has no effect on the soil suction for the
saturation (Sr ) required for the estimating approach investigated depths.
has been calculated based on the SWRC curves while As a first approximation, changes in soil suction
the k value has been calculated based on the plasticity would result mainly from infiltration and/or evapora-
index Ip of the soil as proposed by Garven & Vanapalli tion. Figures 8–9 clearly point out that each decrease
(2006). of soil suction value at shallow depths corresponds to
The comparison reveals a relatively good agreement a rain period. The influence of rainfall on soil suc-
between the experimental data and the predictions tion appears mainly near the ground surface (0.5 m to
which tend to be on the safe side. 1.5 m depth). Moreover, it can be highlighted that dur-
ing summer, the evaporation involves a relatively rapid
increase of matric suction near the ground surface after
4 FIELD EXPERIMENTS a rain event. This observation is not valid in winter.
On the other hand, it is clear from Figure 8 that the soil
Three experimental trenches have been excavated suc- suction remains relatively constant for depths larger
cessively in the unsaturated loam of the site of BBRI than 2 m. In other words, the matric suction has a more
between 2004 and 2006. The objective of these exper-
iments was to visualise the influence of the seasonal
variation of soil suction on the stability of full-scale
trenches. The geometries of the trenches have been 11 m
chosen in accordance with this objective, i.e. it should North South
remain stable during the dry season due to apparent
cohesion while it should collapse during winter (when
the soil suction decreases). 10˚
5m 3m
The experiments started each time in June during
the dry period and took place during about one year.
During the first experiment (June 2004–June 2005), 20˚ 2m
the slope consisted of 3 m deep vertical walls. Fail-
ure occurred in January 2005 and emphasized the
primordial effect of soil suction on the stability of a Figure 7. Profile of the experimental trench.
462
Average 0,5m Average 1,0m Average 1,5m periods are given in Figure 10. It can be observed
Average 2,5m Average 3,5m that no damage occurred till the middle of February.
0 From December 2006 till February 2007, measure-
-10
ments reveal the soil suction value was about 0 near
the ground surface (depth < 2 m) while it decreases
Suction [kPa]
-20
from 20 kPa to nearly 0 kPa at 2.5 m depth (Fig. 8).
-30 On Figures 8–9, the failure period is represented
-40 by a vertical black line. It clearly points out that fail-
-50
ure occurred when the matric suction at 2.5 m fell to
nearly 0. A similar behaviour of the trench was already
-60
observed during the previous experiments (Whenham
07-Jun 07-Aug 07-Oct 07-Dec 06-Feb 08-Apr
et al. 2007 and Tomboy et al. 2007).
Figure 8. Average matric suction measurements around the
experimental trench at the site of BBRI.
40 5 NUMERICAL APPLICATION
8 9
18 17
4 7
a large period (as e.g. during the winter when the evap-
oration is very small and consequently the infiltration 14 15
higher). y
463
6 CONCLUSION Fredlund, D.G. & Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the soil-water
characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 31:
This paper aims at giving insights on the stability of 521–532.
trenches in an unsaturated soil. To that end both lab- Garven, E.A. & Vanapalli, S.K. 2006. ‘‘Evaluation of empir-
oratory and full-scale tests have been conducted. The ical procedures for predicting the shear strength of unsat-
urated soils’’, In Miller et al. (eds.) Proceedings of the
investigated soil is a quaternary loam which has been 4th International Conference on Unsaturated Soils. 2–6
characterised with laboratory tests. From a mechanical April 2006, Carefree, AZ. ASCE Geotechnical Special
point of view, unconfined compression tests provided Publication no. 147. pp. 2570–2581.
the variation of the apparent cohesion as a function Leclercq, J. & Verbrugge, J.C. 1986. Moisture influence on
of the water content. These results have been coupled the Cohesion of a Loam, Proceedings of the 8th Danube-
with the SWRC of the soil (obtained with the Richards European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Founda-
apparatus) in order to relate the apparent cohesion tion Engineering, Nuremberg, Fed. Rep. of Germany,
to the matric suction of the soil. These experimental September 24–26, 1986. Vol. 1: 147–149.
results appear to be in good agreement with traditional Öberg, A.-L. & Salfors, G. 1997. Determination of shear
strength parameters of unsaturated silts and sands based on
prediction methods. the water retention curves. Geotechnical Testing Journal,
An experimental trench has been constructed in Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 40–48.
order to analyse the influence of the matric suction on Tomboy, O., Whenham, V., De Vos, M., Charlier, R.,
the stability of the trench at full scale. Measurements Maertens, J. & Verbrugge. 2007. Influence of soil suction
reveal that sliding occurred when suction at 2.5 m tend on trench stability. XIV European Conference on Soils
to 0 while the suction at higher depths remains more Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. Madrid, Spain,
stable and the suction at lower depths equalled nearly September 24–27, 2007.
0 for several weeks. Vanapalli, S.K., Pufahl, D.E. & Fredlund, D.G. 1999.
The numerical investigations show that the appli- Interpretation of the shear strength of unsaturated
soils in undrained loading conditions. Proceedings of
cation of the apparent cohesion deduced from the the 52th Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Regina,
characterisation of the soil is on the safe side since the Saskatchewan, October 24–27, 1999: 643–650.
failure of the trench is modelled for a period which has Vanapalli, D.G., Fredlund, D.E., Pufahl, D.E. & Clifton, A.W.
not been critical in practice. So, the use of the predic- 1996. Model for the prediction of shear strength with
tion method to evaluate the apparent cohesion appears respect to soil suction. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 33:
to be on the safe side, at least for the studied case. 379–392.
Van Alboom, G. & Whenham, V. 2003. Soil investigation
campaign at Limelette (Belgium): Results. In J. Maertens
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—design and recent developments; Proceedings of
the 2nd symposium on screw piles, Brussels, Belgium,
BBRI—Research report. 2005. Stabilité des talus: Méthodes
May 7, 2003. Vol. 1: 21–70. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
de calcul avec prise en compte du degré de saturation du
Whenham, V., De Vos, M., Legrand, C., Charlier, R.,
sol, et déduction de règles pratiques pour l’exécution des
Maertens, J. & Verbrugge, J.-C. 2007. Influence of soil
tranchées et fouilles temporaires, biennale 2003–2005.
suction on trench stability. 2nd International Conference
De Vos, M. & Whenham, V. 2007. De stabiliteit van bouw-
on Mechanics of unsaturated soils, Weimar, Germany,
putten in overzadigde gronden. Geotechniek, 2007 1:
March 7–9, 2007.
50:55.
Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R. & Widger, R.A.
1978. The shear strength of unsaturated soils. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 15: 313–321.
464
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Oedometer tests were carried out on a silt used in flood embankment construction in Indonesia.
Three test series were carried out at dry-of-optimum, wet-of-optimum and prepared wet and then dried, initial
conditions. Where collapse was observed, the collapse potential for the specimen was evaluated and severity of
collapse determined. This material has been sampled from embankments in East Java, Indonesia where there is
a recurrent history of geotechnical failures. These preliminary results show the importance of good compaction
control at the site and help to explain some failures observed at the site.
465
the source located in central Java and entering the sea,
north of Surabaya in East Java.
The river level can vary as much as 10 m between
the dry and wet seasons. The embankment is a 10 m
high two-step embankment which is frequently over-
topped in the rainy season. At this site the Bengawan
Solo River is 100 m wide. Located to the landward
side of the embankment is the village of Kedunhardjo.
This village has to be evacuated each time overtopping
of the embankments occur. This is a recurrent prob-
lem along the length of the Bengawan Solo River as
Java is the most densely populated island in the world, (a)
with a population of 124 million. As a result many vil-
lages have to be relocated during periods of flooding.
Not only are there immediate financial consequences
but this repeated flooding has negative impacts
on local agriculture, particularly reducing crop
yields.
Figure 1 highlights some of the geotechnical prob-
lems encountered along the embankments of the
Bengawan Solo River. Figure 1a shows erosion of
the natural embankment which runs along one side of
the river at this section. It is this eroded material which
has been removed from the river bed and used to con-
struct the man-made embankment on the other side (b)
of the river. The material can therefore be considered
a transported alluvial silt. As such, it is unlikely that
a chemical agent provides the stabilising force in the
unsaturated condition. Therefore according to Barden
et al. (1973) it may be assumed that the bonding forces
are due to simple capillary forces or clay buttresses.
The natural embankment is in a continual state of ero-
sion and failure; evidence of which was observed along
the entire length of the natural embankment. Figure
1b shows a global slip failure which occurred on the
gabion reinforced section of the embankment. This
measure put in place by the Ministry for Public works,
(c)
due to previous failure of the embankment at this loca-
tion, was constructed during the dry season of 2005.
Figure 1. Failures along the Bengawan Solo Embankments:
The failure observed in Figure 1b occurred during the (a) erosion of natural embankments; (b) global failure of
first wet season after this construction, in December gabion reinforced embankments; (c) differential settlement
2005. This failure could be attributed to a deep-seated under concrete protection slabs.
collapse of a compacted fill under heavy loading, after
first wetting as described by Lawton et al. (1992).
In another location, Figure 1c, the Ministry installed as low as 0.8–1.0 Mg/m3 have been found along these
concrete slabs to act as protection to the slope of the embankments. Shear vane tests were also carried out
embankment against erosion. Differential settlements and the cohesion ranged from 20 kPa to 40 kPa,
and slippage of the slabs have been observed here. indicating a soft soil as classified in BS: 8004:1986.
The site was visited at the beginning of May 2006,
at the end of the wet season, one week previous, the
embankments had been overtopped and the village
3 LABORATORY TESTS
flooded. Sand cone tests were carried out and low
in-situ densities were found ranging from 1.18–1.36
3.1 Material properties
Mg/m3 alongside high moisture contents ranging from
36–43%. Dr Ria Soemitro of ITS, Surabaya working The material investigated here was sampled at a
in collaboration with the Ministry for Public Works depth of 1–1.5 m from the crest of the step of the
has communicated to the authors that in-situ densities embankment at a location close to a site of previous
466
failure. Table 1 presents the material properties for the 1.2
Bengawan Solo fill.
1.0
Figure 2 shows the soil water retention curve for the
Bengawan Solo fill material obtained using the filter 0.8
paper method. Specimens were prepared at a dry den-
e
sity of 1.2 Mg/m3 and five different moisture contents. 0.6
Whatman No. 42 filter paper was used and the sam- 0.4
ples were left for 7 days to allow equilibrium to be
0.2
reached. At a moisture content of 20%, the material at
this density has a suction of almost 1000 kPa. 0.0
0 1 10 100 1000 10000
Vertical Stress (kPa)
3.2 Oedometer tests (a)
collapsible.
e
Figure 3 presents oedometer tests carried out under 0.8
40
fully unsaturated test is shown alongside two wetting
35 paths where water was added at 63 kPa and 127 kPa
respectively. It can be seen that after inundation the
30
collapse curves follow closely the behaviour of the
25 fully saturated curve. The final reading of settlement
for all the collapse conditions presented here was taken
20
60 mins after the addition of de-aired water.
15
Oedometer tests were further carried out wet-
1 10 100 1000 of-optimum (Series B) to highlight the importance
Matric Suction (kPa) of initial moisture content in producing collapse.
These specimens were prepared at a dry density
Figure 2. Soil water retention curve. of 1.16–1.20 Mg/m3 and a moisture content close
467
to 36%. Under these conditions tests were carried out Table 3. Collapse potential and severity of collapse.
on a specimen soaked at the beginning of the test, an
unsoaked specimen and a specimen soaked at 63 kPa. Vertical Collapse
It is clear that under these wet conditions the addi- w ρd stress potential Severity
tion of water does not result in collapse, in fact slight Series (%) (Mg/m3 ) (kPa) (%) (Fookes 1990)
swelling was observed, Table 3. A 18.2 1.16 63 −9.9 Trouble
In Series C, the specimens were prepared at 36% 18.8 1.15 127 −13.8 Severe Trouble
moisture content and then dried to 20% moisture con- B 36.2 1.18 63 +0.004 Slight swelling
tent; two different dry densities were tested: 1.26 and C 20.1 1.38 63 +0.13 Slight swelling
1.38 Mg/m3 . It is evident here that the specimen at 19.8 1.38 127 −3.3 Mod. Trouble
1.26 Mg/m3 on wetting at 127 kPa resulted in signifi- 20.1 1.26 127 −9.1 Trouble
cantly more collapse than the specimen of dry density
1.38 Mg/m3 wetted at the same vertical stress.
Where collapse was observed the specimens were
evaluated in terms of their collapse potential. The col-
lapse potential was calculated from Equation (1) (after one third. This resulted in moving the severity from
Jennings & Knight 1957): a Trouble scenario to a Severe Trouble scenario. Fur-
thermore in Series C, an increase in loading pressure
−e of saturation resulted in similar specimens changing
Collapse Potential = × 100% (1) from exhibiting slightly swelling behaviour (+0.13%)
1 + eunsoaked
to exhibiting significant collapse behaviour (−3.3%).
The overburden pressure is a key factor in producing
where e is the decrease in void ratio of the speci- a collapsible material.
men on wetting under the desired pressure (63 kPa or From Series B it is clear that no collapse occurred on
127 kPa); eunsoaked is the void ratio of the unsoaked saturating a sample already wet-of-optimum. However
specimen at that pressure. Where swell potentials very slight swelling of negligible quantity occurred
(positive values) are presented in Table 3, they were (Table 3). These results are in agreement with the
calculated as in Equation (1), but with e equal to the suggestion by Lawton et al. (1989) that compact-
increase in void ratio of the specimen on wetting. ing wet-of-optimum can eliminate collapse behaviour.
The collapse potential test as originally carried out However this could not be implemented as a prac-
by Jennings & Knight (1957) involved saturating the tical solution in Indonesia where flood embankment
specimen after loading to 200 kPa. Here much lower works can only be carried out during the dry season
values of vertical stress were used: 63 and 127 kPa; due to high river levels. Even if soil was compacted at
still significant collapse settlements were observed. a moisture content wet-of-optimum, the climate would
Low pressures were chosen to identify if the collapse ensure that the material dried quickly resulting in spec-
mechanism could be responsible for collapse under imens not unlike those tested in Series C, where again
small loads such as those generated under the con- collapse was observed.
crete protection slabs installed at the site (Fig. 1c). From the retention curve (Fig. 2), a specimen at
Table 2 presents a qualitative guide to understanding 1.2 Mg/m3 dry density and 20% moisture content has
collapse potentials and the severity of the problem; a matric suction value close to 1000 kPa. For 36%
this guide is primarily for use in relation to tropical moisture content at the same dry density, matric suc-
residual soils, (Fookes 1990). tion lies close to 30 kPa. It is clear that suction is
In Table 3 the results of Series A highlight the influ- playing an important role in stabilising the structure
ence of the loading pressure at which saturation occurs; of the unsaturated soil and for this reason at higher
under the same initial conditions doubling the vertical moisture contents (i.e. wet-of-optimum) where suction
stress increased the collapse potential by more than is already low, no collapse has been observed. More
work is planned to include for suction monitored tests
Table 2. Guidance for collapse potential (after Fookes to be carried out in the oedometer to further verify the
1990). role of suction as the bonding force for this material.
The last two entries in Table 3, Series C highlight
Collapse potential (%) Likely severity of problem the influence of dry density on collapse potential. Both
saturated at loading pressures of 127 kPa, a decrease
<1 No problem in dry density of 8.5% from 1.38 Mg/m3 (96% ρdmax )
1–5 Moderate trouble to 1.26 Mg/m3 (88% ρdmax ) almost trebled the col-
5–10 Trouble
10–20 Severe trouble
lapse potential determined. The embankment under
>20 Very severe trouble investigation was constructed at 80–85% optimum
dry density; therefore the material as constructed
468
is at a dry density suitable for collapse conditions. The help of Dr. Ria Soemitro and the technical staff
Furthermore this result indicates that for this material of the Soil Mechanics Laboratory, ITS, Surabaya is
a small reduction in dry density can have a significant also greatly appreciated. Travel to ITS and the site
impact on the collapse behaviour. For this reason good investigation carried out at the Bengawan Solo River
control of compaction on site during construction is of was supported by a travel grant from the Carnegie
utmost importance. Trust.
The results identify that the Bengawan Solo fill
material is a collapsible material at low dry densities,
similar to those found in-situ and at dry-of-optimum REFERENCES
moisture contents. Collapse potentials as high as
13.8% have been determined indicating that there is Barden, L., McGown, A. and Collins, K. 1973. The collapse
a severe problem regarding collapse of the soil under mechanism in partly saturated soil, Eng. Geol., 7, 49–60.
these conditions. The loading induced by engineering Fookes, P.G. 1990. Tropical Residual Soils, Report of the
works at the site, combined with low dry densities, Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party,
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 23, 4–101
dry-of-optimum moisture contents and wetting from Futai, M.M. and Almeida, M.S.S. 2005. An experimental
the river may have resulted in fulfilling the conditions investigation of the mechanical behaviour of an unsat-
required to produce collapse. urated gneiss residual soil, Géotechnique 55, No. 3,
201–213.
Jennings, J.E.B. and Knight, K. 1957. The additional settle-
4 CONCLUSIONS ment of foundations due to collapse of structure of sandy
subsoil on wetting; Proc., 4th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech.
Results found that increasing the vertical pressure and Found. Engrg., Vol. 1, 316–319.
at which saturation occurred, resulted in higher col- Lawton, E.C., Fragaszy, R.J. and Hardcastle, J.H. 1989.
Collapse of compacted clayey soils, J. Geotech. Engrg.,
lapse potentials. Increasing the initial moisture con- ASCE, 115, 1252–1267.
tent of the specimen to wet-of-optimum, effectively Lawton, E.C., Fragaszy, R.J. and Hardcastle, J.H. 1991.
eliminated collapse behaviour. Small decreases in Stress ratio effects on collapse of compacted clayey sand,
dry density were found to significantly increase col- J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 117, 714–730.
lapse potentials. This result highlights the impor- Lawton, E.C., Fragaszy, R.J. and Hetherington, M.D. 1992.
tance of good compaction control during construction Review of wetting induced collapse in compacted soil,
of embankments using this material. The collapse J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 118, 1376–1394.
behaviour is thought to have been one of the main Mitchell, J.K. 1976. Fundamentals of soil behavior, Wiley,
mechanisms resulting in failure of the gabion rein- New York.
Pereira, J.H.F. and Fredlund, D.G. 2000. Volume change
forced embankment and the differential settlements behaviour of collapsible compacted gneiss soil, Journal of
under the protection slabs at the site. Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
These preliminary results are part of an ongoing 126, 907–916.
research being carried out at the University of Strath- Rao, S.M. and Revanasiddappa, K. 2006. The influence of
clyde on the Bengawan Solo fill material. Future work cyclic wetting drying on collapse behaviour of compacted
will include suction monitored and suction controlled residual soil, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering,
experiments to further improve the understanding 24, 725–734.
regarding the collapse behaviour of this material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
469
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Consolidated Undrained (CU) triaxial tests under different water contents were conducted
to study the strength and yielding character of unsaturated compacted silt used as fill material in the
Beijing—Kowloon railway embankment. It was found that the silt compacted dry of the optimum water content
exhibits a work softening character and has higher strength, while the silt compacted on the wet side of the
optimum water content exhibits a work hardening character and has lower strength. Within the water content
range under study (8.2%–29.2%), both the yield stress and strength decreases with the water content increase,
suggesting a water softening effect on the soil behavior. It was also observed that the Critical State Lines (CSL)
in q-p plane at different water content are linear parallel lines, meaning that the slope of the CSL was independent
of the value of the water content. Nonlinear relationship exists between the apparent cohesive strength and water
content, which shows the contribution of water content to shear strength. Besides, a simplified shear strength
formula relating water content was proposed.
Compacted soil can be encountered in nearly all areas where: τf = shear strength on a failure plane, c =
of earthwork related engineering: railway, airport, cohesion, σ is total stress normal to the failure plane,
highway embankment construction; earth dam erec- ua is pore air pressure, ϕ is angle of internal friction
tion; backfilling of pit foundations, retaining walls associated with the net normal stress, uw is pore water
and barriers etc. Soils after compaction usually exhibit pressure and ϕ b is angle of internal friction associated
favourable engineering properties such as higher shear with the matric suction. Note that for a saturated soil
strength, lower permeability and less compressibility ua = uw and c and ϕ become effective stress strength
because of the reduction in volume of voids during parameters.
compaction. A plastic flow rule of an unsaturated com- Actually, due to the difficulty in measuring suc-
pacted silt was proposed by Cui (1998) by studying tion, equation (1) was not widely used in engineering
the relationship between the direction of the plastic practice. To simplify the unsaturated soil strength
strain increment and the stress ratio; Research on the theory for practical use, several alternative forms of
behavior of a compacted silty sand during suction con- shear strength equations have been presented. A shear
trolled testing was put forward by Rampino (1998); strength formula of unsaturated expansive soil linking
Yoshimura (1998) studied the effect of suction and the shear strength and expansive force was proposed
moisture on strength and deformation of a compacted by Lu (1997); On the basis of fractal microstruc-
clay using an unconfined compression tests. ture, Xu (1998) studied the shear strength character
Numerous shear strength tests of unsaturated soil of unsaturated expansive soil; Using multistage triax-
have been conducted during the past 30 years. It ial tests, a hyperbola model describing a characteristic
is now widely accepted that the stress state for an of shear strength of unsaturated soil was put forward
unsaturated soil can be adequately described by two by Shen (1996) and Yu (1998). Based on micro anal-
independent stress state variables: the net normal stress ysis, Vanapalli and Fredlund (1996) adopted the soil
and the matric suction (Matyas and Radhakrishna, water characteristic curve (SWCC) to predict the shear
1968). These two variables can be used to describe strength of unsaturated soil. Combined Bishop’s for-
the shear strength of soil using a Mohr-Coulomb mula and Fredlund’s formula together, a shear strength
type equation with the following form (Fredlund and expressions taking water content as parameters was
Rahardjo, 1993) proposed by Miao (1999).
471
Different from saturated soil, the yield points of 300
unsaturated soil are distributed in the invariant stress
250
space p (net mean press)—q (deviatoric stress)—s
472
25 where: a, b, c, d are test parameters acquired from the
curves of c − ω and φ − ω.
Total cohension/kPa
20
3 YIELDING CHARACTERISTIC
15
0 10 20 30 40 OF UNSATURATED COMPACTED SILT
Friction angle/°
(b) In the q-p plane, a critical state line equation of unsat-
urated soil at different matric suction was proposed by
Figure 3. The curve of water content vs (a) total cohesion, Wheeler (1995) in the following form:
(b) vs friction angle.
473
375 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
325
This research is supported by National Natural Sci-
Deviator stress q/kPa
75 REFERENCES
25
50 100 150 200 250 300 Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
Mean net stress p/ kPa model for partially saturated soils, Geotechnique, 40(3):
405–430.
Figure 4. Yield loci in q-p plane at different water content. Cui, Y.J., Sultan, N. and Delage, P. 1998. Plastic flow of
an unsaturated compacted silt. Proceedings of the Second
International Conference on Unsaturated Soils: Beijing:
60 International Academic Publishers.
Lu Zhaojun, Wu Xiaoming and Sun Yuzhen. 1997. The appli-
50 cation of expansive force in unsaturated soils strength
theory. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering.
40 19(5): 20–27.
Lu Zhaojun, Zhang Huiming, Chen Jianhua and Feng Man.
30
1992. Shear Strength and Swelling Pressure of Unsatu-
rated Soil. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
20
14(3): 1–8.
10
Matyas E.L. and Radhakrishna, H.S. 1968. Volume changes
characteristics of partially saturated soils. Geotechnique,
0 Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 432–448.
0 10 20 30 40 Miao Linchang, Zhong Xiaochen and Yin Zonze. 1999.
The Relationship Between Strength and Water Content of
Expansive Soil. Rock and Soil Mechanics. 20(2): 71–75.
Figure 5. The curve of μ(ω) and water content. Rampino, C., Mancuso, C. and Vinale, F. 1998. Behav-
ior of the compacted silty sand during suction controlled
tests. Proceedings of the Second International Conference
From Fig. 4 with Fig. 5, it can be concluded that the on Unsaturated Soils: Beijing: International Academic
Publishers.
yielding strength of unsaturated soil is influenced sub- Shen Zhujiang. 1996. Some Problems of Unsaturated Soil
stantially by the water content. μ(ω) is not a constant in Present Study. Conference of regional geotechnical
but increases when water content decreases. engineering problem: Beijing Atomic Energy Publishers.
Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E. and Clifton,
A.W. 1996. Model for the Prediction of Shear Strength
4 CONCLUSION with respect to Soil Suction, Can. Geotech. Jnl., Vol. 33.
Wheeler, S.J. and Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic crit-
Stress-strain curves of unsaturated compacted silt ical state framework for unsaturated soil. Geotechnique,
45(1): 35–53.
from the Beijing—Kowloon railway embankment Xu Yongfu, Gong Yongping and Ying Zongze. 1998. Fractal
exhibited peak strength followed by strain softening characteristic of shear strength of unsaturated expansive
when compacted on the dry side of ωopt , and exhibited soils. Engineering Mechanics. 15(2): 76–81.
strain hardening when compacted on the wet side of Yoshimura, Y. and Kato, S. 1998. Effects of suction and soil
ωopt . Samples compacted dry side of ωopt are stronger moisture on strength and deformation of a compacted silty
than those compacted on the wet side of ωopt . clay in unconfined compression test. Proceedings of the
The shear strength and yielding stress increase with Second International Conference on Unsaturated Soils:
reduction in water content. Taking water content or Beijing: International Academic Publishers.
saturation degree as variables, the strength equation Yu Shenggang, Ma Yongfeng and Wang Zhao. 1998. The fea-
ture of suction and hyperbola model for shear strength of
proposed in this paper can be used easily in practical unsaturated soil. Proceedings of the Second International
engineering without measuring suction. Conference on Unsaturated Soils: Beijing: International
The slope of the critical state line M (ω) is a constant Academic Publishers.
with water content; the intercept of critical state line on Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil mechanics for
qaxis μ(ω) reflects the contribution of water content unsaturated soils. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
to shear strength.
474
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: A series of laboratory tests and experiments were conducted to obtain the shear-strength envelope
of an unsaturated lean clay soil. It was estimated with the equations proposed by Vanapalli et al. (1996) and
measured using the conventional direct shear apparatus following the procedure proposed by Vanapalli & Lane
(2002). Additionally, a physical model was vertically loaded to failure and shear strength along the surface was
calculated by back analysis. The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC) was estimated by means of the filter-paper
method. The results show a good approximation between the shear strength estimated and the one back calculated
from the physical model.
475
2.1 SWRC determination
The SWRC was determined following the standard
test method ASTM D5298-94, and the filter paper
used was Whatmann No. 42. The samples, compacted
at the desired dry density, were shaped using plas-
tic rings of 76.2 mm diameter and 30 mm height. The
specimens were wrapped in paper and saturated by
submerging the samples in water with the plastic rings
for a period of 48 hours. The saturated samples were
placed in a drying room with a constant temperature of Figure 1. Relationship between the fitting parameter, κ, and
the plastic index (from Vanapalli and Fredlund 2000).
27◦ C. Several 59 mm diameter by 20 mm height soil
specimens were extracted by forcing a ring cutter into
the samples, each one with different water content.
The calibration curve used was the bilinear equation
proposed by Leong & Rahardjo (2002) (Equations
1 and 2).
where ψ = soil suction; θs = saturated volumetric 2.3 Direct test shear on unsaturated soil
water content; θw = volumetric water content; hr = specimens
suction value for residual water content.
The samples were prepared following the same
procedure used in the filter paper test. They were
2.2 Predicting the shear strength extracted using a 59 mm square by 20 mm height
cutter. The procedure used in this investigation was
The function used to predict the shear strength was
the technique proposed by Vanapalli & Lane (2002).
the procedure proposed by Vanapalli et al. (1996).
The soil specimen was subjected to consolidation in a
This function is the more general, non-linear func-
conventional direct shear apparatus under an applied
tion using the entire soil water retention curve (i.e.
net normal stress of 27.6 kPa for a period of 24
0 to 1,000,000 kPa) and the saturated shear strength
hours (Fig. 2). The soil specimens were sheared at
parameters (Equation 4).
a strain rate of 1.25 mm/min. The specimens were
sheared using a direct test shear (Fig. 2) in accordance
τ = c + (σn − ua ) tan φ with ASTM standard D3080-98. It is assumed that
. /
there was no significant change in suction of the soil
+ (ua − uw ) ( κ )(tan φ ) (4) specimen during the shearing stage.
476
Figure 3. View of the physical model.
477
0.25
Gravimetric water content,w (%)
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.00
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1E+06
Suction (kPa)
Figure 8. Shear strength envelopes for a suction range from
Figure 6. SWRC by means of filter-paper test and Fred- 0 to 10000 kPa.
lund & Xing (994) fitting.
80
70
Table 1. Fredlund & Xing (1994) model parameters. 60
Shear strength estimated using
30
a (kPa) 2500
20
n 0.323
10
m 2.799
0
hr (kPa) 94567 5 10 15 20 25 30
Slices
60
50
Shear strength (kN/m²)
40
30
Figure 7. Shear strength envelopes for a suction range from Figure 10. Comparison between both the estimated enve-
0 to 100 kPa. lope (Vanapalli et al. 1996) and the measured envelope
(Vanapalli and Lane, 2002) and the obtained shear strength
from the physical model at a net normal stress of 27.65 kPa.
The slope failure obtained from the back analysis
has a factor of safety close to 1 (i.e. 0.98).
The estimated and observed shear-strength values Vanapalli et al. (1996) and Vanapalli & Lane (2002)
are shown in Figure 9. There is a good approximation are methods that estimate the unsaturated envelope.
between the estimated shear strength and the back- Both of them provide similar results for the range
analysis-shear-strength results. 0 kPa to 10000 kPa (Fig. 8), although the magni-
Figure 10 shows the back calculated value of shear tude of strength is larger using the first method in the
strength with a net normal stress of 27.6 kPa for range of suction of 0 to 4000 kPa and lower in the
comparison with the estimated envelopes. second part.
The calibration curve used was the bilinear equation The physical model used in the present research
proposed by Leong & Rahardjo (2002), which was was a very important tool of validation instead of more
proven to be satisfactory for the estimations used in costly tests (e.g. modified triaxial tests). Nevertheless,
the present paper. in future, a better system of suction measurement
478
during shearing of the soil must be used to provide Conditions. Annual Book of ASTM Standard, ASTM.
better values of shear strength at failure. West Conshohocken, PA.
The unsaturated direct shear experiments proposed Bao, C.G., Gong, B. & Zan, L. 1998. Properties of Unsat-
by Vanapalli & Lane (2002) show a reasonable cor- urated Soils and Slope Stability of Expansive Soils,
relation for a net normal stress of 27.6 kPa. More Keynote Lecture, UNSAT 98, 2nd International Confer-
ence on Unsaturated Soils, Beijing.
experiments using different net normal stress and Fredlund, D.G. & Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the Soil-Water
different dry density are required. Characteristic Curve, Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 34 No. 4, pp.
Fredlund, M.D. & Barbour, S.L. 1996. The Relationship
4 CONCLUSIONS of the Unsaturated Soil Shear Strength Function to the
Soil-Water Characteristic Curve. Canadian Geotechnical
During the development of this research project, the Journal. Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 440–448.
methods used were found to be useful, practical, eco- Khalili, N. & Khabbaz, M.H. 1997. A unique relationship for
nomic and efficient for predicting the shear strength x for the determination of the shear strength of unsaturated
soils. Geotechnique, 48. No. 5, pp. 681–687.
envelope. Both Vanapalli et al. (1996) and Vanapalli & Oberg, A. & Salfours, G. 1997. Determination of shear
Lane (2002) provided reasonable results for unsatu- strength parameters of unsaturated silts and sands based on
rated shear strength envelopes compared with actual the water retention curve. Geotechnical Testing Journal,
shear strength values back-calculated from a slope GTJODJ, 20. pp. 40–48.
failure surface. Leong, E.C. & Rahardjo, H. 2002. Factors Affecting the
Filter Paper Method for Total and Matric Suction Mea-
surements. Geotechnical Testing, Sept, 2002, Vol. 25
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No. 3.
Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E. & Clifton, A.W.
1996. Model for the Predicting of Shear Strength with
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support Respect of Soil Suction. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
from the IUC-UMSS program. 33(3): 379–392.
Vanapalli, S.K. & Fredlund, D.G. 2000. Comparison of
different procedures to predict unsaturated soil shear
REFERENCES strength. Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Saskatchewan, SK, Canada, S7N 5A9.
ASTM Standard. 1997. D 5298-94: Standard test Method for Vanapalli, S.K. & Lane, J.J. 2002. A simple technique for
the Measurement of Soil Potential (Suction) Using Filter determining the shear strength of fine-grained unsatu-
Paper, annual Book of ASTM Standard, Vol. 04.09. rated soils using the conventional direct shear apparatus.
ASTM Standard. 1999. D 3080-98: Standard test Method for Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada,
Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained P7B 5E1.
479
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: In humid and subtropical regions, for instance, Hong Kong, slope stability is threatened by
intense rainfall. Alternate rainfall infiltration and subsequent evaporation cause soil to be constantly subjected
to drying and wetting cycles. Hysteresis observed in the soil water characteristics curve seems to imply hysteresis
in unsaturated shear strength. Some attempts have been made in recent years to investigate changes of unsaturated
shear strength only within the primary drying and wetting cycles but not beyond. Also, the suction history effects
on shear strength are still unclear. In this study, re-compacted soil specimens of completely decomposed tuff are
tested in a modified direct shear box, subjected to different suction histories but sheared at identical net normal
stress as well as matric suction.
481
were subjected prior to shearing are depicted in
Figure 1 and Table 1.
The specimen identity, Xi_Y denotes that the CDT
specimen subjected to X (D = drying; W = wetting)
in the ith wetting drying cycle was sheared at matric
suction of Y kPa and net normal stress of 40 kPa.
Taking D1_20 as an example, the specimen was sub-
jected to drying path in the first wetting-drying cycle
before being sheared at matric suction of 20 kPa and
net normal stress of 40 kPa.
F
displacements, shear force, change of water content
400 E and diffused air volume monitoring respectively. All
Matric Suction (kPa)
482
Table 2. Index properties of the CDT. Table 3. Summary of θw , e and S values prior to and post
shearing for the six specimens.
Specific gravity 2.68
Maximum dry density (kg/m3 ) 1777 Before shearing After shearing
Optimum moisture content (%) 17.2
Initial moisture content (%) 17.3 ID θw (%) e S θw (%) e S
Sand content (≤2 mm, %) 25.0
Silt content (≤63 μm, %) 60.0 D1_20 31.0 0.663 0.794 31.8 0.669 0.781
Clay content (≤2 μm, %) 15.0 W1_20 27.8 0.657 0.700 29.6 0.673 0.735
Liquid limit (%) 34.2 D2_20 28.3 0.657 0.713 29.8 0.680 0.736
Plastic limit (%) 20.2 W2_20 28.1 0.657 0.708 29.8 0.683 0.734
Plasticity index (%) 14.0 D1_400 25.2 0.649 0.639 22.8 0.725 0.542
W1_400 23.9 0.634 0.615 21.0 0.757 0.486
483
150 40
(a) (b)
120
30
Shear stress (k Pa)
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Horizontal displacement (mm) Horizontal displacement (mm)
0.0 1
-0.1
Dilatancy, y/ x
0
D1_20
-0.2 D1_20 W2_20
W1_20
-1 W1_20 D1_400
D2_20
-0.3 D2_20 W1_400
W2_20
D1_400 -2
-0.4
(c) W1_400 (d)
-0.5 -3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Horizontal displacement (mm) Horizontal displacement (mm)
Figure 4. Results of direct shear tests on unsaturated re-compacted CDT specimens: (a) shear stress versus horizontal
displacement of Series 1 & 2; (b) shear stress versus horizontal displacement of Series 1; (c) dilatancy versus horizontal
displacement; (d) change in volumetric water content (θw ) versus horizontal displacement.
as well as the connecting channels among voids. Con- by the former is higher than the latter by 28%. This
sequently, a higher value of volumetric water content is consistent with Han et al. (1995) but contrary to
is required to produce a given suction. D1_400 and Gallage & Uchimura (2006). The higher shear strength
W1_400 demonstrate greater dilatancies in compari- given by the specimen at drying in comparison to
son to the specimens in the first series of testing and the one at wetting is attributed to the higher degree
thus a greater extent of increase in volumetric water of saturation (Sr) prior to, during and after shearing
content is expected. However, a counter response is as shown in Table 3 and Figure 4(d). There are two
given, i.e. the volumetric water contents of the two forms of liquid water in an unsaturated soil, namely the
specimens sheared at high suction decreases progres- bulk and meniscus water. Bulk water provides tangen-
sively with horizontal displacement. At such a high tial and normal forces at inter-particle contacts while
suction, water exists mostly in the form of menis- meniscus water imposes stabilizing influence through
cus water at inter-particle contact points. As the soil normal inter-particle forces. According to Wheeler
specimen dilates at 400 kPa, the coordination num- et al. (2003), inter-particular forces imposed by suc-
ber decreases, resulting in loss of meniscus water at tion within bulk water is dependent on both suction
the inter-particle contact points and hence reduction value and degree of saturation. The additional inter-
in volumetric water content. particle normal force due to meniscus water can be
assumed to be constant whenever a meniscus water
lens exits. The overall stability of the soil skeleton
is controlled by the number of inter-particle contacts
4 DISCUSSION
influenced by the meniscus water lens. At a high suc-
tion of 400 kPa, in which plastic changes of Sr in
4.1 Effects of suction history on shear strength
response to emptying of voids with water occurred, the
within the primary drying-wetting cycle
water phase is discontinuous and the water phase exists
In the literature, studies like Han et al. (1995) and mostly in the form of meniscus lenses. Thus, the higher
Gallage & Uchimura (2006) reported different stress- the Sr, the more is the number of contacts affected by
strain behavior exhibited by soil subjected to drying meniscus water and thus normal forces stabilizing the
and wetting. From the experimental results obtained soil particles. As a result, shear strength of D1_400 is
from D1_400 and W1_400, peak shear strength given greater than that of W1_400.
484
Meanwhile, a more pronounced dilative behavior is in this study, the contribution to increment in shear
associated with W1_400 as shown in Figure 4(c) due strength by Sr outweighs that of dilatancy at a given
to the smaller void ratio caused by drying and subse- suction and grows progressively with suction. Han
quent wetting. In saturated soil mechanics, the peak et al. (1995) demonstrated (Figure 5) that soil spec-
friction angle can be considered as the sum of inter- imens at drying attained higher peak shear strength
particle friction, rearrangement, crushing, and then than those at wetting did over the suction range beyond
the dilation contribution. Bolton (1986) proposed the 60 kPa. And, below 60 kPa suction, a counter case with
flowing empirical equation that relates the mobilized a discernible discrepancy associated exists. Thus, it
friction angle φ at a given stress state to the critical may be probable that there is a watershed (I) beyond
state friction angle φ crit and dilation angle ψ: which shear strength of a specimen at wetting is lower
than that at drying as a result of Sr decrement induced
φ = φ crit + 0.8ψ (2) by the drying-wetting cycle. And, the counter case
occurs below the suction at the watershed. This suc-
Also, according to Zhan and Ng (2006), tion value may be dependent on the soil properties,
like soil grain size distribution and soil-water charac-
τf = c +(σ−ua ) tan(φ + ψ)+(ua −uw )f tan φb (3) teristic curve. Referring to Table 4, it is hypothesized
that the higher the proportion of fine grains, the higher
where σ is the total normal stress, ua is the pore-air is the suction at which curves of shear strength versus
pressure, uw is the pore-water pressure, ψ is the dila- matric suction at drying and wetting intersect (inter-
tion angle, φb represents the effect of capillary force on sections I1 and I2 in Figure 5). However, intersection
frictional resistance, c is the true cohesion, and φ is I1 is deduced from the limited experimental results in
the internal frictional angle. These suggested that the this study. Further investigation and extra experiments
greater the dilatancy, the higher is the shear strength. are required to confirm this preliminary hypothesis.
Thus, it is expected that W2_400 should have higher
shear strength when comparing to D1_400. However, 4.2 Cyclic drying-wetting effects on shear strength
obviously, the effect of the lower S outweighs the
contribution of shear strength from the more dilative At a suction of 20 kPa, the shear stresses given by the
behavior in the case of W1_400. four specimens subjected to different drying-wetting
For the low suction cases, i.e. D1_20 and W1_20,
the difference in shear strength magnitude is relatively
800
less significant but the same trend (shear strength at Drying - this study
drying is greater than that at wetting) is observed. 700
Peak Shear Strength (kPa)
As discussed above, the influences induced by the two This study Han et al. (1995)
factors generally occurs in a counteracting manner.
For a given specimen on the drying path, higher initial Sand content 25% 49%
degree of saturation is associated with a less dilative Silt content 60% 25%
Clay content 15% 26%
behavior while the contrary case occurs in specimen Position of I 20 kPa 60 kPa
on the wetting path. At the two suction values studied
485
histories attain nearly the same maximum (around third international conference on unsaturated soils,
30 kPa) but at different increasing rates. The shear Vol. 2, 491–494, Recife, Bazil.
stress-displacement curve given by D1_20 is the high- Bolton, M.D. 1986. The strength and dilatancy of sand.
est among the four in test Series 1 with D2_20, W2_20 Geotechnique 36, No. 1, 65–78.
and then W1_20 lying below. This order of variation BSI. 1990. BS1377: Methods of test for soils for civil
engineering purposes. British Standards Institution.
is in consistent with that of volumetric water content Fredlund, D.G. & Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil mechanics for
prior to shearing. In this case, dilatancy no longer unsaturated soils. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
diverts the trend in shear stress variation. pp. 227.
Fuchu , D., Lee, C.F. & Wang, S. 1999. Analysis of
rainstorm-induced slide-debris flows on natural terrain
5 CONCLUSIONS of Lautau Island, Hong Kong. Engineering Geology. 50:
279–290.
Two series of direct shear tests were conducted on CDT Gallage, C.P.K. & Uchimura, T. 2006. Effects of wetting
specimens subjected to six different suction histories and drying on the unsaturated shear strength of a silty
to investigate the influences of drying-wetting cycles sand under low suction. Proc. of the 4th Int. Conf.
on unsaturated shear strength and corresponding vol- on Unsaturated Soils. Vol. 1. Carefree, Arizona, USA.
umetric behavior. The following conclusions can be 1247–1258.
drawn: Gan, J.K.M. 1986. Direct shear strength testing of unsat-
urated soils. M.Sc. Thesis; University of Sakatchewan,
i. strain softening is observed for soil specimens Saskatoon.
sheared at suction of 400 kPa while shear stresses Gan, J.K.M., Fredlund, D.G. & Rahardjo, H. 1988. Deter-
monotonically increase with horizontal displace- mintaion of shear strength parameters of an unsaturated
ment for specimens sheared at low suction of soil using direct shear test. Can. Geotech. J., 25, No. 3,
500–510.
20 kPa regardless of the suction history; Gan, J.K.M. & Fredlund, D.G. 1996. Shear strength charac-
ii. within the primary drying-wetting cycle, peak teristics of two saprolitic soils. Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 33,
shear strength attained by specimen at drying is pp. 595–609.
higher than that at wetting for both of the high and Han, K.K., Rahardjo, H. & Broms, B.B. 1995. Effects
low suction cases though the discrepancy in shear of hysteresis on the shear strength of a residual soil.
strength magnitudes is relatively less noticeable in E.E. Alonso & P. Delage (Eds), Unsaturated soils, 2,
the latter case; 499–504.
iii. dilatancy is more pronounced in the wetting path Hilf, J.W. 1956. An investigation of pore water pressure in
and in the second drying-wetting cycle which compacted cohesive soils. Technical Memo 654, Bureau
of Reclamation, Denver.
is attributed to the lower void ratio induced by Huang, S.Y., Fredlund, D.G. & Barbour, S.L. 1995. Measure-
drying-wetting cycles; ments of the coefficient of permeability of an unsaturated
iv. shear stress given by specimen at drying in the soil. E.E. Alonso & P. Delage (Eds), Unsaturated soils, 2,
primary drying-wetting cycle is greater than that 505–511.
in the second drying-wetting cycle. However, a Ng, C.W.W., & Pang, Y.W. 2000. Experimental investigations
reverse trend is observed in specimens at wetting; of the soil-water characteristics of a volcanic soil. Can.
v. both degree of saturation, Sr and dilatancy con- Geotech. J. 37: 1252–1264.
tributes to shear strength increment (see equation Ng, C.W.W. & Zhou, R.Z.B. (2005) Effects of soil suc-
(4)). In this study, the increment of shear strength tion on dilatancy of an unsaturated soil. Proce. Of
the 16th ICSMGE, 12–16 Sept. Osaka, Japna. Vol. 2,
contributed by Sr outweighs that of dilatancy. 559–562.
Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E., Clifton,
A.W. 1996. Model for the prediction of shear strength
ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS with respect to sil suction. Can. Geotech. J. 33:
379–392.
The authors express their gratitude towards the Wheeler, S.J., Sharma, R.J. & Buisson, M.S.R. 2003. Cou-
research grants offered by HKUST (CA-MG07/08. pling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behaviour
EG01) as well as Ove Arup and Partners Hong Kong in unsaturated soils. Geotechnique 53., No. 1, 41–54.
Zhan, L.T. 2003. Field and laboratory study of an unsaturated
Limited., Dr. Jack Pappin in particular. expansive soil associated with rain-induced slope stability.
PhD Thesis. The Hong Kong University of Science and
REFERENCES Technology, HKSAR.
Zhan, L.T. & Ng, W.W. 2006. Shear strength characteristics
of an unsaturated expansive clay. Can. Geotech. J. 43:
Alshihabi, O., Shahrour, I. & Mieussens, C. 2002. Exper-
751–763.
imental study of the influence of drying-wetting cycles
on the resistance of a compacted soil. Proceedings of the
486
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
R. Cardoso
Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal
E.E. Alonso
Universitat Poltècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
ABSTRACT: Marls are classified as hard-soils/ soft rocks and require special attention when used as construc-
tion materials since their mechanical and hydraulic properties change due to alternate wetting-drying cycles as
well as to other weathering processes. This evolution of behaviour is characterized by crack opening and/or loss
of bonding, having in general negative impact on the strength and compressibility of the material. Embankments
made with marls and other soft clayey rocks result in an agglomerated structure of rock fragments. The grading of
these materials evolves resulting in relevant modifications of the overall behaviour of the aggregate. Settlements
and loss of strength are the main concerns in practice and require suitable constitutive and computational models
to predict these phenomena. This paper presents a study where the evolution of Jurassic marls (Arruda dos
Vinhos, Portugal) is simulated considering concepts of unsaturated soil mechanics. The mechanisms leading to
the breakage and eventually the destructuration of rock particles are investigated. Numerical simulations of the
behaviour of individual rock fragments under wetting were performed and the contribution of initial suction has
been analysed. The results obtained provide an insight into the nature of degradation induced by wetting. They
also help to explain the overall mechanical behaviour of aggregates (compacted material) observed in suction
controlled oedometric tests presented in this paper.
487
2 DEGRADATION MECHANISMS observed (Fig. 1) that the drier the fragments ini-
tially subjected to wetting, the more significant the
The photographs of marl fragments before and after a degradation observed.
wetting cycle, presented in Figure 1, show the degrada- It was decided to explore the nature of these
tion phenomena of an unconfined set of particles with phenomena through numerical simulations of the
uniform size (particle dimensions varying between behaviour of individual rock fragments subjected to
9 mm and 4.75 mm) subjected to one wetting-drying suction cycles. They can also be useful at a larger
cycle in a laboratory environment (T = 20◦ C ± 5◦ C scale, when the mechanical behaviour of aggregates
and RH = 45% ± 10%). The water content before wet- of particles is investigated
ting was 9% (it corresponds to a suction of 10 MPa,
according to the water retention curve of the material).
Similar behaviour was observed for materials with dif-
ferent initial water contents. The observed degradation 3 NUMERICAL MODEL AND TESTS
was higher for drier fragments. PERFORMED FOR ITS CALIBRATION
A possible explanation of the degradation mecha-
nisms of marl fragments is schematically presented in The material under investigation comes from Aba-
Figure 2. During wetting the particle boundary is first dia Formation (Upper Jurassic, Arruda dos Vinhos,
wetted and a suction gradient is created inside the rock Portugal). Mineralogy analysis showed the presence
fragment. This suction gradient induces water transfer of chlorite and gypsum, besides quartz, CaCl2 and
and reduces in time until it reaches a zero value when mica. Its basic identification properties are presented
full saturation is reached. As long as there are suction in Table 1.
gradients, differential swelling deformations will be A coupled hydro-mechanical computational model
developed inside the rock fragment. (CODE_BRIGHT, Olivella et al. 1996) was used
The geometry and confinement of the fragment adopting the Barcelona Basic Model, BBM (Alonso
restrain swelling displacements and leads to tensile et al., 1990), as the constitutive mechanical model.
and shear stresses which eventually result in crack- The code solves the balance of water in liquid and
ing and destructuration. This degradation mechanism gas phases, adopting Darcy’s law and Fick’s law for
will be controlled by suction gradients. In fact, it was the calculation of the flux of water inside the mate-
rial. The intrinsic permeability was calculated by
Kozeny’s model and for the definition of the water
retention curve (WRC, in Fig. 3), Eq. (1) was used
1000.00
Drying _ Block
differential deformation due to swelling Wetting _ Block
(proportional to the differential of suction) WRC-Drying
100.00 WRC-Wetting
Total suction (MPa)
Wet zone
(sinitial<s<0) 10.00
sinitial
Dry zone 1.00
s=0 MPa
(suction=sinitial)
(saturated in
the border)
0.10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Tension development
(cracking) water content, w (%)
Figure 2. Degradation mechanisms inside a rock fragment. Figure 3. Water retention curves of Abadia marl.
488
(Van Genuchten, 1980), was assumed to start in a uniform manner at the parti-
cle boundary. Boundary suction was reduced from the
λ −λ
1−λ initial value to saturated conditions (s = 0) in 15 min-
P g − Pl utes. For simplification, a circular geometry (9 mm
Se = 1 + (1)
P diameter) was adopted under plane strain conditions.
Degradation mechanisms were investigated for the
where Se is the degree of saturation at the current liquid confinement conditions presented in Figure 4. Since
pressure, Pl . Pg is the gas pressure (assumed to be particles in the granular structure are confined by
the atmospheric pressure, 0.1 MPa), P is the pressure the neighbouring rock fragments, in a complex and
associated with the air entry value and λ is a fitting heterogeneous manner, more confinement cases were
parameter. analysed. Cardoso and Alonso (2008) present a more
Several experimental tests on marl samples were detailed analysis and describe the effect of other cases
performed to calibrate the numerical model, namely: analysed.
(i) swelling tests in oedometric conditions of rock Since fracture is not incorporated in the numerical
samples under different vertical stresses and with dif- model adopted, degradation will be identified by the
ferent initial suctions, (ii) Brazilian splitting tests and pattern of tensile stresses developed in the fragment
unconfined compression tests in marl samples under and by the pattern of plastic deviatoric deformation,
different suctions and (iii) suction controlled compres- δεsP , and of plastic volumetric deformation, δεvP . The
sion tests on marl samples in oedometric cells. The constitutive model is defined in terms of net mean
intrinsic permeability coefficient of the marl was also stress, calculated through
measured. Table 2 presents representative mechanical
and hydraulic parameters adopted in the model. p = p − max{patm ; pl } (2)
Value
Constitutive
model Parameter Description Fragment Backfill III
BBM λ(0) Stiffness parameter for changes in net mean stress for 0.027 0.104
virgin states in saturated conditions
λ(S) Stiffness parameter for changes in net mean stress λ(S) = λ(0) (1 − r)e−βs + r
for virgin states
r Parameter defining maximum stiffness 0.65 0.20
β Parameter controlling the rate of stiffness increase 0.05 MPa−1 0.05 MPa−1
with suction
κ Elastic stiffness parameter for changes in net mean stress 0.007 0.007
κs Elastic stiffness parameter for changes in suction 0.020 0.0002
p∗o Pre-consolidation stress for saturated conditions 1.0 MPa 0.5 MPa
pc Reference stress 0.27 MPa 0.05 MPa
M Slope of the critical state lines 1.0 1.0
K Parameter describing the increase in cohesion with suction 0.007 0.007
c0 Tensile stress resistance for saturated conditions 0.4M Pa 0.004 MPa
ν Poisson coefficient 0.25 0.25
WRC Pg Gas pressure (assumed to be equal to the 0.1 MPa 0.1 MPa
atmospheric pressure)
P Pressure corresponding to the air entry value 0.3 MPa (drying 1 MPa
branch) 0.9
MPa (wetting
branch)
λ Fitting parameter 0.20 (both branches) 0.20
Permeability k Intrinsic permeability 8 × 10−21 m2 8 × 10−18 m2
489
E 150
5 COMPACTED SAMPLES
490
q (kPa)
2500 1000
900
2000
800
10000 1800
MCC curve
(s=10MPa )
1000
saturated
Yielding point
10
600
Tensile yield
locus MCC
1 saturated
LC (q=0 ) curve
0 0
-60006001200 -60006001200
Figure 7. Stress path for point C (in the centre of the fragment) in space (p, q, s) (sinitial = 10 MPa).
491
observations during the wetting-drying cycle of marl Fragments Stiff frame
s (MPa)
gle fragments of marl: (i) global volume decrease
caused by drying (higher for higher suctions applied) 0
B C
is due to volume decrease of each particle when dried; Backfill 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
p (kPa)
(ii) collapse with full saturation is explained by particle
breakage and rearrangement of the broken fragments. Figure 9. Numberical model for the marl aggregate, load-
ing path followed and LC curves for the fragments and
Backfill III.
492
development of definite patterns of tensile stress, shear REFERENCES
stress and plastic deformation during wetting. These
patterns allowed the identification of degradation Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
mechanisms of fragments of marl. Suction gradients model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique, 40 (3),
inside the fragment, developed during wetting, play pp. 405–430.
a significant role. This gradient allows the develop- Burland, J.B. 1990. On the compressibility and shear strength
of natural clays. Géotechnique, 40 (3), pp. 329–378.
ment of differential swelling deformations, leading to Cardoso, R and Alonso, E.E., 2008, Degradation of com-
tensile stress/shear development and consequently to pacted marls—a microstructural investigation. Soils and
cracking. Foundations (in prep.).
The numerical results from individual rock frag- Gens, A. and Nova, R. 1993. Conceptual bases for a con-
ments provided a mechanical explanation for the stitutive model for bonded soils and weak rocks. Symp
overall behaviour of aggregates (compacted material) on Geotechnical Eng. Hard Soils-Soft Rocks, vol. 1, pp.
observed in experimental tests. Cracking development 485–494.
due to saturation leads to fragment size reduction and Leroueil, S. and Vaughan, P. 1990. The general and congruent
the collapse observed results from the rearrangement effects of the structure in natural soils and weak rocks.
Géotechnique, vol. 40 (3), pp. 467–488.
of the broken fragments. Oldecop, L. & Alonso, E.E. 2003. Suction effects on rockfill
Numerical simulation of oedometric tests on par- compressibility, Géotechnique, vol. 53 (2), pp. 153–164.
ticle arrangements, where different properties were Olivella, S., Gens, A., Carrera, J. and Alonso, E.E. 1996.
adopted for the fragments and for the backfill mate- Numerical formulation for simulator (CODE_BRIGHT)
rial, were also performed. The mixture behaves as a for coupled analysis of saline media. Eng. Computations,
‘‘double porosity’’ material as strains develops in time 13 (7), pp. 87–112.
in two time scales. An interesting result of modelling Pinyol, N.M., Alonso, E.E. Vaunat, J. 2007 A constitu-
was the observed trend towards a homogeneous distri- tive model for soft clayey rocks that includes weathering
bution of porosity inside the mixture, a result which effects Géotechnique vol. 57 (2), pp. 137–151.
Rouania, M. and Muir Wood, D. 1998. A kinematic harden-
agrees with experimental observations. ing model for structured clays, The geotechnics of hard
soils—soft rocks, Evangelista & Picarelli (eds), Balkema,
Rotterdam, vol. 2, pp. 817–824.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A closed-form equation for pre-
dicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
The authors would like to thank Professor Emanuel Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44, pp. 892–898.
Maranha das Neves for his useful comments in the Vaughan 1997. Engineering behaviour of weak rocks: Some
answers and some questions. Geotechnical Engineering
preparation of this paper. of Hard Soils-Soft Rocks. Balkema, pp. 1741–1765.
Acknowledgement is also due to the Portuguese Vaunat, J. and Gens, A. 2003. Bond degradation and irre-
Foundation for Science and Technology, FCT, for the versible strains in soft argillaceous rock. Proc. 12th
financial support that allowed this study (SFRH/BD/ Panamerican Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
25846/2005, POCTI/ECM/59320/2004). Engineering, vol. 1, pp. 479–484.
493
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
N. Massoudi
Bechtel Power Corporation, Frederick, Maryland, USA
ABSTRACT: Results of 60 experiments conducted on a well-graded, partially saturated sand at high stresses
are presented. These include drained and undrained isotropic compression, triaxial, and strain-controlled exper-
iments. A multiaxial cubical apparatus with a pressure capacity of 69 MPa (10,000 psi) was utilized. Results
indicate that the presence of even a small volume of air significantly affects the generated pore pressures in
undrained loading, and in turn influence the state of effective stress and strength of the soil. Additionally, high
confining stresses result in the dense sand responding in stress-strain characteristics resembling that typically
observed in loose sands. And finally, intermediate principal stresses highly affect the soils’ response and their
strength. High confining stresses also result is particle crushing, impacting material properties.
495
soils. Common to all is the effort to keep their appear- 100
496
Axial Strain (%)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Volumetric Strain (%)
0 Calculated
Measured
5
10
15
20
497
essentially unchanged, and the subsequent response partially saturated soils, but once the confining stress
resembled that for fully saturated conditions. It must becomes large enough to cause full saturation, any fur-
be noted that reaching of full saturation at 10.4 MPa ther increase in total stress does not cause an increase in
(1,000 psi) is associated with the 85% saturation level effective stress and from this point the φ = 0 concept
for the test sand. At other saturation levels this pressure does apply. In this case the undrained strength may be
would be different. {v.} The influence of interme- specified in terms of total stress parameters cu and φu .
diate principal stress on the soil’s response does not
depart from those that have been established for the
fully saturated condition (Ko et al., 1984). {vi.} The 5 INFLUENCE OF INTERMEDIATE
largest volume change during shear is associated with PRINCIPAL STRESS ON STRENGTH
larger b-values. This is regardless of the nature of vol-
ume change (expansion or contraction). {vii.} Any one It is now widely accepted that the intermediate prin-
experiment that produces the greatest volume change cipal stress can exert a significant influence on the
also produces the greatest pore pressure at failure. behavior of soils. The degree of such influence, how-
ever, can vary substantially. For instance, condition
of failure defined by a state of stress σ2 = σ1 (triax-
4 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS ial extension, TE) or σ2 = σ3 (triaxial compression,
TC) influences the magnitude of volume change or
Strength of partially saturated soils, like that of fully excess pore pressure whose reflections become visible
saturated soils, is controlled by the effective stresses on strength of the soils.
within that soil. The Mohr-Coulomb strength envelope The effective stress paths in triaxial plane repres-
obtained from the nearly saturated undrained triaxial enting conditions of TC (b = 0) and TE (b = 1) is
compression (TC, b = 0) experiments is presented in shown in Fig. 8. The number identifying a particular
terms of effective stress in Fig. 7. stress path refers to the total confining stress that the
The one distinguishing aspect of this envelope in specimen was subjected to before shear.
Fig. 7 (a) is its cohesive intercept which is thought to be It is noted that for the lower confinement levels, lack
due to capillary effects (apparent cohesion) because of of excess pore water pressure made the total and effec-
the <100% saturation, the large overconsolidation of tive stresses identical, and also the effective stress path
the compacted soil at low stresses, and the presence was identical to the total stress path. With increase in
of some fines in the soil. confining stress a larger volume of the pore air is dis-
The results are also plotted in terms of total stress, solved into the pore water, bringing the sample closer
as shown in Fig. 7(b). They indicate two different to a state of full saturation. Stress paths for other inter-
angles of shearing resistance, each belonging to dif- mediate principal stresses (not shown here) suggest
ferent states of saturation. A small cohesion intercept similar findings. Thus, depending on the magnitude of
and a φ = 27 degrees belong to the partially satu- confinement and the volume of air in voids, a nearly
rated state, whereas a rather large cohesive intercept saturated sample may respond as if it was 100% satu-
and φ = 0 manifest for the fully saturated state. rated and loaded under fully drained, partially drained
In general, the φ = 0 concept does not apply to and undrained, or fully undrained conditions.
The influence of intermediate principal stress on the
angle of shearing resistance is shown in Fig. 9.
498
the more widespread responses in the first approach.
A noticeable trend in the representation of φ vs. b-
value for the two approaches is: (1) the rather similar
shape of the two curves for identical magnitude of
stress and (2) the rather insignificant influence of c
on φ calculations at higher stresses.
6 KO EXPERIMENTS
499
Figure 13. Evolution of Ko values with stress history.
500
of full saturation, dictating the stress-strain-strength ‘Serra do Mar’ Brazil. Proceedings, 12th Intl. Conf. on
characteristics were comparable with those at full Soil Mech. & Found. Engrg., Rio de Janeiro: 1599–1602.
saturation. Bishop, A.W. 1960. The Measurement of Pore Pressure in the
The influence of intermediate principal stress on Triaxial Test. Conference. on Pore Pressure and Suction
stress-strain and strength of nearly saturated sand did in Soils, London: 38–46.
Casagrande, A. & Hirschfeld, R.C. 1960. Stress-Deformation
not significantly depart, in qualitative terms, from that and Strength Characteristics of a Clay Compacted to a
for fully saturated conditions, i.e., the greatest volume Constant Dry Unit Weight. ASCE Research Conf. on
change (dilative or contractive) seemed to be asso- Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, Boulder, Colorado:
ciated with the TE condition. Intermediate principal 359–417.
stresses, however, affected the angle of shearing resis- Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R. & Widger, R.A. 1978.
tance, such that φ for the TC condition is always lower The Shear Strength of Unsaturated Soils. Canadian
than that for the TE case, although at very high stresses Geotechnical Journal 15: 313–321.
this difference is much less pronounced. Fredlund, D.G. 1979. Appropriate Concepts and Technology
The test sand, although very dense, indicated rel- for Unsaturated Soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 16:
121–139.
atively high compressibility at high stresses, as often Hasan, J.U. & Fredlund, D.G. 1980. Pore Pressure Parameters
observed in normally consolidated soils. High stresses for Unsaturated Soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 17:
render even dense soils rather compressible. This is 395–404.
also observed in results of the Ko experiments, with Ko Ko, H-Y., Sture, S. & Janoo, V.C. 1984. Development of
values approaching 0.5 or even higher at high stresses, A 10,000 psi Multiaxial Cubical Cell for Soil Testing
which is partly impacted by particle crushing. with Pore Pressure Measuring Facilities. Report Submit-
ted to Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Lee, K.L. & Haley, S.C. 1968. Strength of Compacted
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Clay at High Pressure. ASCE Geotechnical Journal 94(6):
1303–1332.
The research described in this paper was funded Roberts, J.E. & De Souza, J.M. 1958. The Compressibility of
by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, Sands. Proceedings, 61th Annual Meeting of ASTM 58:
Waterways Experiment Station, Geomechanics Divi- 1269–1277.
sion, Vicksburg, Mississippi. This support is greatly Rohm, S.A. & Vilar, O.M. 1995. Shear Strength of Unsat-
acknowledged. urated Sandy Soils. Proceedings, 1st Intl. Conf. on
Unsaturated Soils, Paris, 189–193.
Terzaghi, K. 1936. The Shearing Resistance of Saturated
Soils. Proceedings, 1st International Conference on Soil
REFERENCES Mechanics 1.
Xu, Y.F. 2004. Fractal Approach to Unsaturated Shear
Abramento, M. & Carvalho, C.S. 1989. Geotechnical Param- Strength. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvir. Engrg.
eters for the Study of Natural Slopes Instablisation at 130: 264–272.
501
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
A.J. Puppala
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Texas, USA
ABSTRACT: A simple method is proposed in this paper to predict the variation of modulus of elasticity with
respect to matric suction in unsaturated sandy soils using the Soil-Water Retention Curve (SWRC) and modulus
of elasticity values under saturated conditions. Comparisons are provided between the predicted and measured
modulus of elasticity and settlement values from model footing test results on three different sands using this
method. The results of this study are encouraging as there is a good agreement between the predicted and
measured moduli of elasticity and settlement values.
503
2 BACKGROUND where (δ/δqp ) = slope of settlement versus plate
pressure, ν = Poisson’s ratio (a value of 0.3 was
2.1 Foundation settlement used for this study assuming drained loading con-
ditions), Bp = width or diameter of plate, and
The settlement of foundations consists of three
Iw = influence factor (i.e., 0.79 for circular plate
components.
and 0.88 for square plate). This value of modulus of
δ = δi + δc + δs (1) elasticity determined using Eq. (2) is representative
of soil within a depth zone which is approximately
where δ = total settlement, δi = immediate or elastic 1.5Bp ∼2.0Bp .
settlement, δc = consolidation settlement and δs =
secondary settlement or creep. 2.2 The relationship between the SWRC and the
The immediate or elastic settlement in coarse- shear strength/bearing capacity of unsaturated
grained soils occur under drained conditions while soils
in fine-grained soils they occur under undrained con-
ditions without significant dissipation of excess pore Vanapalli et al. (1996) proposed a semi-empirical non-
pressures. The total settlement in sands is associated linear function for predicting the shear strength of
with immediate or elastic settlement as there will be an unsaturated soil using the SWRC and the shear
relatively no consolidation or secondary settlement. strength parameters under saturated conditions. The
The foundation settlement in sands is convention- shear strength contribution due to matric suction from
ally estimated based on the theory of elasticity using that relationship can be determined using the equation
two soil parameters: modulus of elasticity, E and Pois- below:
son’s ratio, ν. According to the previous studies by
Lade and Nelson (1987), Lade (1988) and Lancel- τus = (ua − uw )(S κ )(tan φ ) (3)
lotta (1995), the technique or the procedure used in
the determination of E has a significant effect on where τus = Shear strength contribution associated
the estimation of immediate or elastic settlement. In with matric suction, (ua − uw ), S = degree of
comparison to E value, the Poisson’s ratio, ν does not saturation and κ = fitting parameter.
play an important role. For analysis purposes, these According to the studies by Vanapalli and Fred-
parameters may be assumed to be constant although lund (2000) and Garven and Vanapalli (2006), a fitting
they vary with time for undrained loading condition parameter κ = 1 is required for predicting the shear
(ν = 0.5 for idealized undrained case) and drained strength of unsaturated sandy soils (i.e., for soils with
loading condition (0.15 ≤ υ ≤ 0.35 for loose to dense Ip = 0).
sand). The nonlinear variation of shear strength with
The modulus of elasticity, E can be estimated respect to matric suction can be obtained by differ-
both from laboratory and field tests. In general, the entiating Eq. (3).
modulus of elasticity for fine-grained soils from con-
ventional triaxial tests can be underestimated due to dτus
tan φ b =
sample disturbance caused by stress relief and other d(ua − uw )
mechanical disturbance. To overcome this disadvan- d (S κ )
tage, Davis and Poulos (1968) suggested the use of = S κ + (ua − uw ) tan φ (4)
K0 -consolidation triaxial test results to derive modu- d(ua − uw )
lus of elasticity values. According to the test results
It is of interest to notice that the net contribution of
by Simons and Som (1970), the modulus of elasticity
suction close to the residual state conditions causes a
from K0 -consolidation triaxial tests are much higher
reduction in the shear strength of sandy soils since S is
than those determined from conventional undrained
small and the value of [d(S κ )/[d(ua − uw )] is negative
triaxial tests.
(see Fig. 1(a)).
Plate load tests, cone penetration tests, pressureme-
Vanapalli and Mohamed (2007) suggested an equa-
ter tests or geophysical methods (i.e., seismic method)
tion for predicting the bearing capacity of surface
are usually used to estimate in situ modulus of elas-
footings on unsaturated sandy soils as follows.
ticity values. In case of plate load tests (or model
footing tests), the modulus of elasticity can be cal- qult = [c + (ua − uw )S ψ tan φ ]Nc ξc + 0.5γ BNγ ξγ
culated using the equation below (Timoshenko and
Goodier 1951). (5)
504
100 where Eunsat = modulus of elasticity under unsatu-
Degree of Saturation, S (%)
rated condition, Esat = modulus of elasticity under
Air entry value saturated condition, S = degree of saturation, and α
(ua-uw)b Residual and β are fitting parameters.
suction value
In Eq. (6), the terms, (S)β and α control the nonlin-
ear variation of the modulus of elasticity. A value of β
equal to 1 is used for providing comparisons between
0 the measured and predicted modulus of elasticity val-
ues following the earlier concepts discussed for shear
bearing capacity
strength and bearing capacity of unsaturated sandy
Bearing capacity
Figure 1. SWRC and the variation of shear strength, bearing 3 TEST RESULTS
capacity, modulus of elasticity, and settlement behavior with
respect to matric suction in sandy soils. 3.1 Summary of the properties of the three sands
studied
weight, Nc and Nγ = bearing capacity factors from The properties of the sandy soils analyzed in this paper
Terzaghi (1943) and Kumbhokjar (1993) respectively are summarized in Table 1.
and ξc , ξγ = shape factors from Vesić (1973). The SWRCs for three sands are shown in Figure 2.
The results of the study by Vanapalli and Mohamed It can be seen that at the same degree of saturation,
(2007) demonstrate that the variation of bearing capac- Sollerod sand shows the highest suction value fol-
ity with respect to suction is nonlinear and has similar lowed by Coarse-grained sand and Lund sand. The
trends as the shear strength behavior (see Fig. 1(a)). Lund sand offers less resistance to desaturation due to
Their studies have also shown that the fitting parame- relatively low percentage of fines. In other words, the
ter ψ = 1 is required for sandy soils with Ip = 0 for
predicting the bearing capacity of unsaturated sandy Table 1. Summary of the data of three different sands.
soils using Eq. (5).
Vanapalli and
2.3 Estimation of modulus of elasticity Mohamed Steensen-Bach et al.
in unsaturated sandy soils (2006) (1987)
A simple equation is proposed in this paper for predict- Soil type Coarse-grained Sollerod Lund
ing the variation of modulus of elasticity of unsaturated
sandy soils using the SWRC and the modulus of Shear failure General shear failure
elasticity under saturated conditions extending simi- B(mm) × L(mm) 100 × 100 22 × 22
lar concepts described in section 2.2. In this equation, 150 × 150
two fitting parameters, α and β are used. c (kPa) 0.6 0.8 0.6
β φ (◦ ) 35.3 35.8 44
Eunsat = Esat + Esat α(ua − uw )(S) (ua − uw )∗b (kPa) 4.0 5.7 1.1
. /
= Esat 1 + α(ua − uw )(S)β (6) ∗ Air-entry value.
505
100 1000
Coarse-grained Sand
(Mohamed and Vanapalli 2006)
Degree of saturation (%)
80 900
(3)
BxL = 100x100 (mm)
(2) 800 (ua-uw) = 6 kPa
60
700
4 kPa
rated conditions. The tests results for two footings with
different matric suction values are shown in Figure 3. 600 2 kPa
The matric suction value at the center of gravity of the
matric suction distribution diagram from 0 to 1.5Bp 500
depth region was considered as the average value of
matric suction in the analysis of the results (Mohamed 400
and Vanapalli, 2006 and Vanapalli and Mohamed,
2007). This is the zone of depth in which the stresses 300
due to loading are predominant (Poulos and Davis
200
1974).
100 0 kPa
3.3 Sollerod and lund sand
Steensen-Bach et al. (1987) performed model footing 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
(22 × 22 × 20 mm) tests using a circular steel test
pit (0.2 m diameter × 0.12 m height). The variation of Settlement (mm)
degree of saturation due to the drainage of water from a
saturated sample or the imbibitions into an unsaturated Figure 3. The relationship between the applied stress versus
sample was monitored by means of an electronic bal- settlement in Coarse-grained sand.
ance. The model footing tests results for Sollerod and
Lund sand are shown in Figures 4 and 5 respectively.
Sollerod sand shows relatively low values of modulus
of elasticity in comparison to other sands studied. suction for two model footing tests conducted on
Coarse-grained sand. The fitting parameter, α was
estimated as 1.5 and 2.5 for 100 × 100 mm and
4 ANALYSIS OF THE TESTS RESULTS
150 × 150 mm footings respectively. For all the three
sands studied in this paper, comparisons are provided
4.1 Coarse-grained sand
between the measured and predicted values of settle-
Figure 6 shows the SWRC and the variation of modu- ments for an applied stress of 40 kPa. At this stress
lus of elasticity and settlement with respect to matric value, all sands exhibit elastic behavior.
506
1000 100
Sollerod Sand Coase-grained sand
Measured from
40 Tempe cell apparatus
Measured from
600 the test tank
20
500 1.96 kPa
0
400
600
Lund Sand 2
(Steensen-Bach et al. 1987)
400 0
(ua-uw) = 0.98 kPa 0 2 4 6 8 10
507
600 1000
Lund sand
Sollerod sand
Steensen-Bach et al. (1987)
Elastic modulus, E (kPa)
400
200
200
100
0 0
predicted predicted
measured measured
20 2.0
Settlement (mm)
Settlement (mm)
15 1.5
10 1.0
5 0.5
0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 1 2 3
Figure 7. The variation of modulus of elasticity and imme- Figure 8. The variation of modulus of elasticity and elastic
diate settlement with matric suction from model footing tests settlement with matric suction from model footing tests in
in Sollerod sand (Steensen-Bach et al. 1987). Lund sand (Steensen-Bach et al. 1987).
Table 2. Fitting parameter α for each test. iii. Residual zone: the modulus of elasticity non-
linearly decreases and approaches a constant
Soil α value.
Coarse-grained sand
100 mm × 100 mm 1.5 5.3 Variation of settlement with matric suction
150 mm × 150 mm 2.5
Sollerod sand The settlements gradually decrease with an increase
22 mm × 22 mm 2.5 in the modulus of elasticity values as matric suction
Lund sand increases in the boundary effect zone. In the transition
22 mm × 22 mm 1.5 zone, settlements are still decreasing to some extent
but gradually start increasing as the suction approaches
the residual zone. The settlement behavior in the resid-
ual zone approximately corresponds to the saturated
5.2 The variation of modulus of elasticity soil behavior for the Coarse-grained soil tested. This
with respect to matric suction can be attributed to the fact that the modulus of elastic-
ity at zero suction is almost the same as that at 10 kPa
From Figures 6, 7 and 8, it can be seen that the moduli of matric suction (i.e., degree of saturation is close to
of elasticity behavior is different in the three stages of zero) (Fig. 6).
desaturation; that is boundary effect zone, transition Sollerod and Lund sand (Figures 7 and 8 respec-
zone and residual zone (Vanapalli et al., 1999). tively) show relatively poor fit results in compari-
son to Coarse-grained sand (Figure 6) test results.
i. Boundary effect zone: the modulus of elasticity However, the proposed function (Eq. (6)) is able
linearly increases up to air-entry value. to provide reasonable trends of measured values of
ii. Transition zone: the modulus of elasticity nonlin- both modulus of elasticity and settlement for all
early increases up to a certain suction value then the three sandy soils in all the three zones of the
gradually decreases. SWRC.
508
6 CONCLUSIONS Maugeri, M., Castelli, F., Massimino, M.R. & Verona, G.
1998. Observed and computed settlements of two shal-
The conclusions obtained from this study are as low foundations on sand. Journal of Geotechnical and
follows. Geoenvironmental engineering 124(7): 595–605.
Mohamed, F.M.O & Vanapalli, S.K. 2006. Laboratory
1. The predicted modulus of elasticity and settlement investigations for the measurement of the bearing capac-
values using the proposed method are approxi- ity of an unsaturated coarse-grained soil, Proceed-
mately the same as the measured values. ings of the 59th Canadian Geotechnical Conference,
2. The fitting parameter value of α(=1.5) and Vancouver. (http://www.x-cd.com/SeatoSkyOnline/S1/
β(=1) are expected to provide reasonable estima- 0219-226.pdf).
Poulos, H.G. & Davis E.H. 1974. Elastic solutions for soil
tions of settlement behavior of unsaturated sandy and rock mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
soils in foundation engineering practice. How- Simon, N.E. & Som, N.N. 1970. Settlement of structures
ever, more test results are necessary both in the on clay with particular emphasis on London clay. Constr.
laboratory and in situ conditions. Industry Research Institute Assoc. Report 22, 51pp.
3. The modulus of elasticity start decreasing as suc- Steensen-Bach, J.O., Foged, N. & Steenfelt. J.S. 1987. Capil-
tion approaches the transition zone. It is of interest lary induced stresses—Fact or fiction? Proc. 9th European
to notice that the settlement behavior of foundations conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering,
in saturated conditions is similar to that of residual Budapest, Hungary, 83–89.
zone for the Coarse-grained sand tested. Terzaghi, K. 1943. Theoretical Soil Mechanics, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, NY, USA.
Timoshenko, S. & Goodier, J.N. 1951. Theory of Elasticity.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
REFERENCES Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G. & Pufahl. 1999. Influ-
ence of soil structure and stress history on the soil-water
Davis, E.H. & Poulos, H.G. 1968. The use of elastic theory for characteristics of a compacted till. Géotechnique 49(2):
settlement prediction under three-dimensional conditions. 143–159.
Géotechnique 18(1): 67–91. Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E. & Clifton,
Garven, E. & Vanapalli, S.K. 2006. Evaluation of empirical A.W., 1996. Model for the prediction of shear strength
procedures for predicting the shear strength of unsatu- with respect to soil suction. Canadian Geotechnical
rated soils. Proc. of the Fourth Int. Conf. on Unsaturated Journal 33(3): 379–392.
Soils, Carefree, Arizona, ASCE Geotechnical Special Vanapalli, S.K. & Fredlund, D.G. 2000. Comparison of
Publication 147(2): 2570–2581. empirical procedures to predict the shear strength of unsat-
Kumbhokjar A.S. 1993. Numerical evaluation of Terza- urated soils using the soil-water characteristic curve. Geo-
ghi’s Nγ . Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, American Denver 2000, ASCE, Special Publication 99: 195–209.
Society of Civil Engineers 119(3): 598–607. Vanapalli, S.K. & Mohamed, F.M.O. 2007. Bearing capac-
Lade, P.V. 1988. Model and parameters for the elastic ity of model footings in unsaturated soils, Experimen-
behaviour of soils. Proc. Conf. on Numer. Methods in tal Unsaturated Soil mechanics. New York: Springer.
Geomech. Roterdam: Balkema. 483–493.
Lade, P.V. & Nelson, R.B. 1987. Modeling the elastic Vesić A.B. 1973. Analysis of ultimate loads of shallow foun-
behaviour of granular materials. Int. J. Numer. and dations, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Analytical Methods in Geomech 11: 521–542. Division, ASCE 99 (SM1): 45–73.
Lancelotta, R. 1995. Geotechnical Engineering. Rotterdam:
Balkema.
509
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
J.E. Colmenares
National University of Colombia, Arauca, Colombia
ABSTRACT: This paper explores the pre-failure behaviour of a compacted clayey soil, when subjected to
shearing (axial compression) under undrained conditions. Specifically, the study focuses on the effect of the
suction state on the undrained Young modulus. The experimental programme carried out in a controlled-suction
triaxial cell involved two stages. In the first stage, samples were left to equalise at specified matrix suctions
using the axis translation technique. Afterwards, undrained axial compression tests with pore-water pressure and
sample deformation measurements were run at a relatively low constant displacement rate to allow for suction
equalisation throughout the sample. Axial stiffness could be related to the initial matrix suction before the
shearing stage. In this way, the evolution of the undrained Young’s modulus was tracked during shearing where
different responses were observed. To the authors’ knowledge, available information concerning this aspect of
unsaturated soil is very limited in spite of its practical relevance.
511
of non-linearity. According to Atkinson (2000), for the water content (wc), void ratio (e) and the degree of
saturated conditions, r can vary from 0.1 to 0.5. saturation (Sr ) of the sample at each stage of the test.
In the following sections studies on the influence of
matric suction on the stiffness decay curves for com-
2.3 Shear tests
pacted kaolin samples is presented. The influence of
matrix suction on the axial stiffness is analysed and Undrained compression tests with pore water pressure
interpreted, and test results presented and commented measurement were conducted using a conventional tri-
within a conceptual framework. In the last part of the axial apparatus (Bishop & Henkel, 1957), modified
paper, a simple model able to simulate the observed by Pineda (2004) to test unsaturated samples using
axial stiffness decay curves depending on the initial the axis translation technique (Hilf, 1956). Pore water
Young modulus, the current matrix suction, and the pressure uw was applied or measured at the base of
axial strain is proposed. the sample through a ceramic disc with an air entry
value of 500 kPa. Pore air pressure, ua was applied
at the top of the sample through a porous filter with
2 MATERIAL USED AND EXPERIMENTAL a low air entry value. Cell pressure σ 3 , pore water
PROCEDURE pressure uw and pore air pressure ua were each inde-
pendently controlled, and simultaneously axial load,
2.1 Compacted samples axial displacement and flow of water from the sample
were measured. Global displacement measurements
Commercial Kaolin (index properties shown in were made using conventional micrometers. The ini-
Table 1) was chosen as a soil to be tested. Dry pow- tial phase of each test consisted of a wetting stage
dered commercial kaolin was mixed with distilled during which the samples were brought to a matrix
water at a moisture content of 32% (3% less than the suction value of 25 kPa, 50 kPa, 100 kPa, 200 kPa,
optimum from the standard Proctor compaction test, 300 kPa or 400 kPa. This was achieved by applying
Herrera 2004). In order to allow hydration, the mate- a water pressure of 50 kPa to the base of the sample
rial was wrapped inside a self sealing polyethylene bag using an air back-pressure of 75 kPa, 100 kPa, 150 kPa,
and stored for 48 hours. Triaxial samples, 50 mm in 250 kPa, 350 kPa or 450 kPa to the top of the sam-
diameter and 100 mm high, were prepared by static ple, and a cell pressure of 80 kPa, 105 kPa, 155 kPa,
compaction in ten layers using a compression frame 255 kPa, 355 kPa or 455 kPa respectively. The wetting
at a fixed displacement rate of 1.5 mm/min. The total stage of each test was finished when no change in the
vertical total stress applied to the soil specimens was flow of water into the sample was registered (typically
equal to 400 kPa. This resulted in a dry density of after 4–30 days).
1.22 Mg/m3 , a void ratio of 1.145 and a degree of Then, each sample was subjected to shearing
saturation of 73%. The initial matrix suction of the in undrained conditions with measurement of pore
sample was measured using the filter paper technique water pressure. Shearing was conducted at a constant
(Chandler et al. 1992) and was found to equal 550 kPa. displacement rate equal to 0.05 mm/min. By mea-
suring the excess pore water pressure and keeping
constant the pore air pressure during shearing, it was
2.2 Determination of soil water retention curve possible to evaluate changes in matrix suction.
(SWRC)
The suction-water content relationships under drying
and wetting paths were obtained using the filter paper 3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
method where matrix suction of the soil can be related
to the water content of the filter paper using the cali- A comprehensive analysis of the influence of the
bration of Chandler et al. (1992). At the same stage matrix suction on the shear strength and volumetric
samples were weighed, and measured to determine behaviour of this material was presented by Pineda &
their volumes. The final weight was used to establish Colmenares (2005a, 2005b and 2006), respectively.
This paper focuses on the evaluation of the decay of
the stiffness as a function of matrix suction.
Table 1. Index and compaction properties of kaolin.
Liquid Limit (LL) 84% 3.1 Soil water retention curve (SWRC)
Plastic Limit (PL) 46% Figure 2 shows the gravimetric water content-matric
Plasticity Index (IP ) 38%
suction relationship for compacted commercial kaolin
Gs 2.61
Maximum dry density 1.24 Mg/m3
obtained during the drying process. Additionally, the
Optimum moisture content (OMC) 35% SWRC of reconstituted commercial kaolin (consoli-
dated to a total vertical stress of 200 kPa) obtained by
512
45 shows that although the macrofabrics are considerably
40 different, the microfabrics are probably similar.
Gravimetric water content (%)
513
200 25
s=400 kPa s=400 kPa
180 s=300 kPa Peak deviatoric stress
80 10
60
40 5
Sri = 90,1% Sri = 88,9%
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0.1 1 10
Axial strain a (%) log a (%)
Figure 3. Stress-strain-suction curves for Commercial com- Figure 6. Variation of Esec with axial strain during shearing.
pacted kaolin.
200
S i = 400kPa large strain zone (zone 3 in Figure 1). Secant modulus
Esec and tangent modulus were evaluated as Esec =
qi /εi and Etan = dqi /dεi , where i describes the current
S i = 300kPa
150
Deviatoric stress (kPa)
S i = 200kPa
strain value on shearing.
100 Figure 6 and Figure 7 shows the variation of secant
S i = 100kPa and tangent moduli with axial strain during shear-
S i = 50kPa ing where strain has been is plotted on a log scale.
50 S i = 25kPa
A strong non-linearity in the stiffness-strain curves is
observed in all samples. Different slopes of the stiff-
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ness decay curves were obtained for different initial
Axial strain (%) suction values. Secant modulus showed higher val-
ues than tangent modulus but also a higher slope was
Figure 4. Relationship between deviatoric stress and axial observed as suction increases. Arrows in Figure 6
strain at peak for compacted commercial kaolin. indicate the strain value at failure (εf ) which corre-
sponds to a slope change in the stiffness curve (see
8 Figure 6) and also with a value of tangent modulus of
7 cero (Figure 7).
Secant Modulus, E sec (MPa)
6
Figure 8 shows a comparison between secant and
tangent modulus for two kaolin samples with the
5
extreme suction values tested here. Squares are used
4
to describe the behaviour of the sample with a
3 matrix suction of s = 400 kPa while circles are used
2 to the sample with a suction value of 50 kPa. These
1 matrix suction values correspond to initial degree of
0 saturation values of 75.1% and 88.90%, respectively.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Figure 8 clearly shows the influence of the matrix suc-
Matric suction at peak (MPa) tion on the stiffness behaviour of compacted kaolin
samples. Although at very small strains both secant
Figure 5. Variation of the secant modulus at peak with the and tangent modulus have to be the same E0 = Etan =
axial strain. Esec (which is not contained in Figure 8), for strain
values greater than 0.1% secant and tangent mod-
uli are very different. For instance, at 0.2% of axial
4 STIFFNESS DEGRADATION
strain, the stiffness moduli were about 5 times greater
(25 MPa versus 5 MPa for Esec and 20 MPa versus
4.1 Experimental results
4 MPa for Etan ) in the sample with an initial suction
Using the experimental data contained in Figure 3, of 400 kPa compared with the sample with the lower
stiffness moduli (secant and tangent modulus) were suction value (50 kPa). As the strain increases both
calculated. Very-small and small-strain zones (zones tangent and secant modulus decrease. However, values
1 and 2 in Figure 1) were not determined due to the of tangent modulus decrease more quickly compared
accuracy of the gauges used during shear tests. For this with secant modulus which decreases slowly and tends
reason, stiffness moduli were evaluated only within the to reach a ‘‘limit’’ value at large strain.
514
20
Table 2. Parameters required for Equation (5).
s=400 kPa
Tangent Modulus, E tan (MPa)
s=300 kPa
15
s=200 kPa Initial matrix E0 ε0 εf
s=100 kPa Sample suction (kPa) (kPa) (%) (%)
s=50 kPa
s=25 kPa
10 M(0) 25 40100 0.001 10.2
M(1) 50 43000 0.001 10.0
M(2) 100 50250 0.001 8.50
5
M(3) 200 64900 0.001 5.60
M(4) 300 85000 0.001 4.50
0 M(5) 400 110000 0.001 2.70
0.1 1 10
log a (%)
5
0
0.1 1 10
Log a (%)
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
log a (%) Figure 9. Comparison between experimental and simulated
stiffness-decay curves (tangent modulus).
Figure 8. Comparison between secant and tangent modu-
lus for two compacted kaolin samples with different initial
suctions. Pineda (2007) on a kaolin sample compacted under
similar initial conditions to the triaxial samples.
Table 2 shows the parameters used to model the exper-
The analysis of the experimental behaviour of com- imental behaviour of samples with different initial
pacted kaolin samples indicates that although all initial suction values.
stress states are inside the inter-aggregate region of the Figure 9 shows the simulated stiffness decay curves
SWRC (s < 1500 kPa), which is mainly controlled in terms of tangent Young’s modulus Etan obtained
by macrofabric, the ‘volumetrically-stiffer’ effect of using Equation (1). The parameter r was obtained by
matrix suction leads to different stiffness responses. fitting the synthetic curves with the experimental data.
Good agreement was obtained in all cases although
4.2 A simple model of stiffness degradation some scatter is observed in samples with higher initial
during shearing suction values (e.g. s = 400 kPa in Figure 9).
This could be due to the brittle behaviour of this
As described above, a simple non-linear stiffness- sample which is not characterized in a ‘perfect’ way
strain behaviour can be represented in terms of rigidity by Equation (1). In order to improve the agreement
and degree of non-linearity. These two concepts are with experimental data, Equation (1) was modified to
defined by four soil parameters E0 and qf (which incorporate the influence of the matrix suction as
define the rigidity), and finally εf and εr (which define
the degree of linearity, where εr is a reference strain). ε r(s)
f
Equation (1) was used as a first attempt to describe Etan 1−
= ε
the experimental behaviour of unsaturated compacted r(s) (2)
kaolin samples. According to Atkinson (2000) param-
E0 εf
1−
eter r of Equation (1), which relates rigidity and degree ε0
of non-linearity, can vary from 0.1 to 0.5 for satu-
rated conditions but there are no reported values for where r(s) is a function of the initial matrix suc-
unsaturated samples. tion. To evaluate this relationship Figure 10 shows the
Young’s moduli at very small strains E0 were variation of the parameter r with the initial matrix suc-
obtained from bender element tests carried out by tion of each sample. A linear relationship was found
515
0.45 By comparison between fitted and calculated values
0.4 of the parameter r, it was possible to evaluate the mean
0.35 Experimental data error in each case. The maximum error in the predicted
0.3 value of r with respect to the fitted value was equal
Parameter r
Figure 10. Variation of the ‘‘r’’ parameter with the initial 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
matrix suction.
The influence of matrix suction on the pre-failure
behaviour of compacted kaolin has been presented in
to fit well with the experimental data which can be this paper. The stiffness-decay curves show a clear
defined as: dependence of the initial matrix suction.
From experimental results it is clear that although
r(s) = r(0) + μ · s (3) all initial stress states are inside the inter-aggregate
region of the SWRC (s < 1500 kPa), which is mainly
controlled by macrofabric, the ‘volumetrically-stiffer’
where r (0) is the value of the r parameter for kaolin
effect of matrix suction leads to different stiffness
in a saturated condition, s is the initial matrix suc-
responses.
tion value (kPa) and μ is the slope of the linear
The influence of matrix suction has been incur-
relationship which depends of the type of mate-
porated in a conventional stiffness strain relationship
rial. Using a value of r for saturated conditions
(Equation 1) using a linear relationship for r (s) (Equa-
equal to 0.44 (a typical value for kaolin), the value
tion 3). Using the r parameter for saturated conditions
of the slope μc an be mathematically expressed
(r (0)) the stiffness-decay curves of unsaturated sam-
in terms of initial and final suction values as fol-
ples can be determined. Good agreement between
lows:
experimental and calculated stiffness-decay curves
r(0)(smax − smin ) was obtained using Equation (5).
μ=− (4)
2pref
REFERENCES
where pref is a reference pressure and is equal to
1 kPa, smax and smin are the maximum and mini- Atkinson, J.H. & Sallfors, G. 1991. Experimental determina-
mum initial matrix suction values (in kPa). Using tion of soil properties. General report to Session 1. Proc.
equations (3) and (4), equation (2) can be re-written 10th ECSMFE, Florence 3, pp. 915–956.
as: Atkinson, J.H. 2000. Non-linear soil stiffness in routine
design. 40th Rankine Lecture, Geotèchnique 50 (5),
ε r(0)+μ·s pp. 487–508.
f
Etan 1− Bishop, A.W. & Henkel, D.J. 1957. The measurement of Soil
= ε
r(0)+μ·s properties in the triaxial cell. Edward Arnold (Publishers)
E0 εf Ltd. London.
1−
ε0 Burland, J.B. & Ridley, A.M. 1996. The importance of
⎛ ⎞ suction in soil mechanics. Proc. 12th Southeast Asian
r(0)(smax − smin ) Geotechnical Conference, May, Kuala Lumpur.
ε r(0)−⎝ ⎠·s
Chandler, R.J., Crilly, M.S. & Montgomery-Smith, 1992.
f 2pref
1− A low-cost method of assessing clay desiccation for low-
= ε ⎛ ⎞ (5) rise buildings. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engng, 92;2; 82–89.
r(0)(smax − smin )
r(0)−⎝ ⎠·s Colmenares, J.E. & Ridley, A. 2002. Stress-strain and
εf 2pref strength relationships for a reconstituted clayey silt.
1− UNSAT 2002 (Brazil), pp. 481–484
ε0
Gens, A., Alonso, E.E., Suriol, J. & Lloret, A. 1995. Effect
of structure on the volumetric behaviour of a compacted
Equation (5) defines a simple stiffness-strain relation- soil. Proc. Int. Conf. Unsaturated Soils, Paris, 83–88.
ship for compacted kaolin in terms of tangent Young’s Herrera, A.F. 2004. Estudio experimental del compor-
modulus Etan . tamiento volumétrico de muestras de caolín compactadas
516
sometidas a proceso de humedecimiento. Bachelor Dis- conditions. Proc. UNSAT 2006, Phoenix Arizona, ASCE
sertation, National University of Colombia. Geotechnical Special publication No 147, pp. 1109–1120.
Hilf, J.W. 1956. An investigation of pore water pressure in Pineda, J.A. 2007. Calibration and performance of
compacted cohesive soils. Tech. memo 654, U.S. Dept bender/extender elements. Internal report, UPC.
Interior. Pineda-Jaimes, J.A. 2003. An Experimental study of the
Mair, R.J. 1993. Developments in geotechnical engineering volumetric behavior of a shallow clay from Bogotá
research: applications to tunnels and deep excavations. basin following a drying path (in Spanish). MSc The-
Unwin memorial Lecture 1992. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 3, sis in Soil Mechanics, National University of Colombia,
pp. 27–45. Bogotá.
Pineda, J.A. 2004. Influence of matric suction on the shear Ridley, A.M., Burland, J.B. & Monroe, A.S. 1995. Uncon-
strength of a compacted soil (in Spanish). MSc The- fined compression tests with pore pressure measurements.
sis in Soil Mechanics, National University of Colombia, Proc. 11th African Regional Conference. SMFE. Cairo.
Bogotá, pp. 120. Romero, E., Gens, A. & Lloret, A. 1999. Water perme-
Pineda, J.A. & Colmenares, J.E. 2005a. Influence of suction ability, water retention and microstructure of unsatu-
on shear strength of a compacted soil under uncon- rated compacted Boom clay. Engineering Geology, (54),
fined condition. Part 1: Experimental results. Int. Symp. 117–127.
EXPERUS2005, Trento, pp. 215–220. Balkema. Thom, R., Sivakumar, R., Sivakumar, V., Murray, E.J. &
Pineda, J.A. & Colmenares, J.E. 2005b. Influence of suction Mackinnon, P. 2007. Pore size distribution of unsaturated
on shear strength of a compacted soil under unconfined compacted kaolin: the initial states and final states fol-
condition. Part 2: Shear strength prediction. Int. Symp. lowing saturation. Technical Note Gèotechnique 57 (5),
EXPERUS2005, Trento, pp. 215–220. Balkema. pp. 469–474.
Pineda, J.A. & Colmenares, J.E. 2006. Stress-strain-suction
behaviour of two clayey materials under unconfined
517
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper shows the results of an experimental programme aimed at evaluating the low-strain
shear modulus of a stiff clay (Boom clay, Belgium) and its dependency on water content changes (or, alternatively,
degree of saturation or suction) and hydraulic history. Resonant column and bender element tests were carried
out at different hydraulic states. Drying and wetting paths were followed using the vapour equilibrium technique,
in which samples were allowed to equalise in sealed chambers at controlled relative humidity (44% to 97%).
Time domain technique has been used to determine the travel time in bender element tests. The evolution of the
shear modulus was carefully monitored along these hydraulic paths. Shear moduli results and their dependence
on water content (suction or degree of saturation) and stress/hydraulic history, are discussed and interpreted. In
addition, discrepancies observed in the results between the two dynamic techniques are evaluated and discussed.
519
Table 1. Main properties of natural Boom clay. 1000
WP4 equipment
Property Value drying wetting
Vapour equilibrium technique (LiCl)
0.80
by Cardoso et al. (2007). Figure 2 shows the drying and
Pore size density function, - e nw/̀
520
Table 2. Main properties of Boom clay samples tested in to obtain the variation of water content, void ratio
resonant column tests. and degree of saturation. Moreover, relative humidity
and temperature were monitored using a hygrometer
Samples ψ w0 σ3 G installed inside the desiccator (refer to Figure 4).
(n◦ ) (MPa) (%) e (kPa) (MPa)
Shear modulus Gmax was evaluated by means of
1 4∗ 21.35 0.58 200 300 bender element transducers developed to determine
700 340 the shear wave velocity of soils (Shirley & Hampton,
2 10 15.21 0.62 200 360 1978). In this technique, two polarised piezoceramic
700 420 transducers (one transmitter and one receiver) are used
to transmit and capture a dynamic signal which trav-
∗ Initial condition of Boom clay sample. els through the soil sample. The time delay (or travel
time) between emitted and received signals is used
to determine the shear wave velocity (Vs ) where the
500
travel length has been commonly taken as the tip-to-
Low-strain s hear modulus, G (MPa)
521
faster decrease of the shear wave velocity compared to
Shear wave velocity, Vs (m/s)
600 Stiffness dominated by smaller voids of clay-
microstructure the drying path. Comparison of both drying and wet-
500 ting paths demonstrate clearly the hysteretic behaviour
400
Micro-Cracks
opening
of Vs for Boom clay subjected to hydraulic effects.
Crack opening also evolved on progressive wetting,
300 Sample Initial state
broken leading to sample breakage during the seventh wetting
200 step (see Figure 5). It is assumed that these microc-
100
Drying racks could also affect the observed response, due to
Wetting
the fact that Vs is transmitted trough the solid structure
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
of the material. Final values before sample breakage
Gravimetric water content (%) were Vs = 289 m/s, w = 13.6% and e = 0.64.
Figure 7 shows a comparison of the results using
Figure 5. Variation of shear wave velocity with gravimetric both techniques. Shear strains for resonant column
water content along drying-wetting paths. were obtained directly from the torsional motion of
the apparatus, while in the case of bender elements the
600
determination of shear strain was based on the piezoce-
ramic properties, bender size and sample size. Several
Shear wave velocity, Vs (m/s)
550 Drying
Wetting authors have determined that strain applied for bender
500
elements could be lower than 0.001% (e.g., Dyvik &
450 Madhus, 1985). In our case, based on the ceramic por-
400 perties (PZT-5B piezoceramic; Vernitron, 1992) and
350 Cracks opening
the dimensions of the transducer (length, width and
300
INITIAL STATE thickness) the strain generated by the transmitter ele-
250
ments was about 0.001% for an input voltage of 20Vpp .
This value is in agreement with the upper limit sug-
200
0,5 0,55 0,6 0,65 0,7
gested (e.g., Dyvik & Madhus, 1985; Sulkorat, 2007).
Void ratio (e) In addition, it is also expected that deflections gen-
erated in receiver elements are always smaller due to
Figure 6. Variation of shear wave velocity with void ratio signal attenuation through the soil sample. As shear
along drying-wetting paths. strain in the receiver element is unknown, the strain
used to compare resonant column results with bender
during the application of the drying and wetting paths. element tests was the one obtained for the transmitter
As complementary information, the Vs —void ratio (e) element (0.001%).
relationship is presented in Figure 6. As observed in Figure 7, shear moduli Gmax show a
The evolution of the shear wave velocity displays strong dependency on water content (the initial value
a hysteretic behaviour during the application of the of 200 MPa increases to a maximum of 524 MPa
hydraulic cycle. For the initial condition (w = 19.5%, at the end of the drying path). As previously indi-
e = 0.68) the measured shear wave velocity was cated, this increase in shear stiffness was also a
equal to 326 m/s. From this point on, shear wave consequence of the void ratio decrease observed on
velocity shows a quasi-linear increase as water con- drying. On the other hand, the degradation induced
tent decreases. On the other hand, as shown in Fig. 6, on the wetting path on the unconfined sample, led
this increase in Vs is also associated with the decrease
of void ratio observed during the shrinkage path. 600
Once a void ratio of e = 0.55 is reached, a further End of drying : w = 4.8% ; e = 0.55, Sr ≈0.25
Shear modulus, G (MPa)
522
to a final shear modulus of 152 MPa, considerable the European Commission, EU Programme of High
lower than the obtained during the drying path at Level Scholarships for Latin America, id number
equivalent water content. Shear moduli results using E04D027285CO.
both techniques compare well, despite the degradation
problems detected on the unconfined sample.
REFERENCES
5 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION Arulnathan, R., Boulanger, R.W. & Riemer, M.F. (1998)
Analysis of bender element tests. ASTM Geotechnical
Testing Journal, vol XXI, n 2, pp. 120–131.
The main properties of the material used in the Cardoso, R., Romero, E., Lima, A., Ferrari, A. (2007).
experimental programme (natural Boom clay) were A comparative study of soil suction measurement using
described in detail (initial state, water retention prop- two different hight-range psychrometers. Mechanics of
erties and pore size distribution). unsaturated soils. Weimar.
Shear stiffness results along drying and wetting Coll, C. (2005) Endommagement des Roches Argileuses
paths were continuously monitored using bender ele- et Perméabilité Induite au Voisinage d’Ouvrages Souter-
ments installed inside a desiccator. The results were rains, PhD Thesis, Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble.
compared with resonant column data, in which total Delage, P., Le, T.-T., Tang, A.-M., Cui, Y.-J. & Li, X.-L.
suction effects also induced higher shear stiffness. (2007). Suction effects in deep Boom Clay block samples.
Géotechnique 57, n 1, 239–244.
A quite good agreement was observed between the Lings, M.L. & Greening, P.D. (2001) A novel bender/extender
different techniques used, despite some degradation element for soil testing. Technical Note Geotechnique,
was detected in the unconfined sample with bender 51, n 8, pp. 713–717.
elements. Romero, E.E. (2001) Controlled suction techniques. Proc. 4◦
The drying results showed an important depen- Simposio Brasileiro de Solos Nao Saturados. Gehling and
dency of the shear stiffness with water content and Schnaid Edits. Porto Alegre, Brasil, pp. 535–542.
void ratio. At the ultimate drying stage, the stiff- Sanchez-Salinero, I., Roesset, J.M. & Stokoe, K.H. (1986)
ness increased only as a consequence of water content Analytical studies of body wave propagation and attenu-
changes, due to the fact that no important vol- ation. (Geotechnical Engineering Report N0. GR86-15)
Civil Engineering Department, University of Texas at
ume changes were detected below w = 6% (near Austin.
the shrinkage limit). This response was assumed to Shirley, D.J. & Hampton, L.D. (1978) Shear-wave measure-
be associated with the increase in stiffness of the clay ments in laboratory sediments. J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 63,
aggregations, where water is held at elevated total n 2, pp. 607–613.
suctions (around a total suction of 100 MPa). Sukolrat, J. (2007) Structure and destructuration of Both-
kennar clay. PhD Thesis, University of Bristol, UK,
396p.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Suriol, J. (1993). Medida de la deformabilidad de suelos
mediante el equipo de columna resonante. Revista de
Obras Públicas, n 3 (319) 140, pp. 57–66, Madrid.
The work described has been financially supported by Vernitron (1992) Ceramic acoustic elements in bimorph and
EIG-EURIDICE/SCK.CEN through a PhD collabora- multibimorph, for pick up cartridges, microphones paging
tion with UPC, which is greatly acknowledged. systems and other law frequency uses. Bulletin 66012/D.
The first author acknowledges the financial sup- Viggiani, G. & Atkinson, J.H. (1995) Interpretation of Bender
port provided by ALBAN PROGRAMME grants from Element Tests. Geotechnique, 45, n 1, pp. 149–154.
523
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Measurements of shear wave velocity provide a simple and direct way to determine the small
strain shear modulus of a soil. Shear wave velocity of an unsaturated soil are influenced by many factors, such
as the confining stresses in the plane of shear, void ratio and matric suction. The effects of confining pressure,
void ratio and matric suction on shear wave velocity have been studied by many researchers. However, as far as
the authors are aware, drying and wetting effects on shear wave velocity have rarely been studied. In this study,
drying and wetting tests at constant net mean stress were conducted on an unsaturated Completely Decomposed
Tuff (CDT) using a modified triaxial apparatus equipped with three pairs of bender elements. Drying and wetting
effects on multidirectional shear wave velocities and degree of stiffness anisotropy are investigated.
525
with three pairs of bender elements, to investigate the Hall effect transducers (Clayton et al. 1989) for
drying and wetting effects on multidirectional shear measuring the local axial and radial displacements of
wave velocities. each soil specimen. As a result, the current tip-to-
tip travelling distance of shear waves and the volume
change of each soil specimen can be determined
2 TESTING EQUIPMENT throughout each test.
Three pairs of bender elements were mounted on
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the modi- each soil specimen to measure the velocities of the
fied triaxial testing system for testing unsaturated soils shear waves propagating in different planes with dif-
used in this study. The axis translation technique (Hilf ferent polarizations. The shear wave velocity, νs(vh) ,
1956) was employed to control matric suction, so that was determined by a pair of bender elements incorpo-
cavitation could be avoided. Air pressure was con- rated in the top cap and base pedestal. The shear wave
trolled through a coarse low air-entry value corundum velocities, νs(hv) and νs(hh) , were evaluated by making
disk placed on top of a soil specimen, while water pres- use of a pair of bender element probes inserted into
sure was controlled through a saturated high air-entry the mid-height surface of each soil specimen. Details
value (3 bars) ceramic disk sealed to the pedestal of of the bender element probes are given by Ng et al.
the triaxial apparatus. The conventional base pedestal (2004). An HP3563A control system analyzer was
was modified so that both a high-entry value ceramic used as the shear wave generating and measuring sys-
disk and a bender element could be embedded into it. tem for the bender elements. The input signal consists
A spiral-shaped drainage groove that was 3 mm wide of a single sinusoidal pulse with a frequency of 4
and 3 mm deep connected to the water drainage system to 10 kHz. The range of frequency was selected to
was carved on the surface of the modified pedestal. Air obtain a clear signal and to minimize the near field
bubbles that may have been trapped or may have accu- effect (Sanchez-Salinero et al. 1986). The transmit-
mulated beneath the high air-entry value ceramic disk ted and received signals of the shear wave propagating
due to diffusion during long periods of unsaturated in the soil specimen were captured by the HP3563A
soil testing could be removed by flushing de-aerated control systems analyser simultaneously. The arrival
water along the spiral-shaped drainage groove. More time of shear wave was determined by measuring the
details of the modified triaxial testing system and base peak-to-peak time distance between the transmitted
pedestal are given by Ng & Yung (2008). and received signals (Callisto & Rampello 2002, Ng &
In addition to taking conventional external mea- Yung 2008). The traveling distance was determined as
surements of axial strain using a Linear Variable Dif- the current tip-to-tip distance between the transmit-
ferential Transformer (LVDT), the modified triaxial ter and receiver bender elements (Dyvik & Madshus
apparatus was equipped with two axial and one radial 1985, Viggiani & Atkinson 1995).
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the modified triaxial sys- Figure 2. Particle size distribution of CDT (Ng & Yung
tem for testing unsaturated soils (Ng & Yung 2008). 2008).
526
the particle size distribution of the CDT determined 5 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
by sieve and hydrometer analyses. The material is
yellowish-brown, slightly plastic, with a very small 5.1 Stress-dependent soil water characteristic
percentage of fine and coarse sand. The specific curves (SDSWCCs)
gravity (Gs ) of the material is 2.73. The liquid limit
The soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) repre-
and plasticity index of the fines portion (finer than
sents the water retention ability of an unsaturated soil.
425 μm) are 43% and 14%, respectively. According
A stress-dependent soil-water characteristic curve
to the Unified Soil Classification System, the CDT is
(SDSWCC) considers both the net normal stress effect
described as clayey silt (ML).
and volume change of a soil specimen. Ng & Pang
(2000) investigated the SDSWCCs of a completely
decomposed volcanic (CDV), and found that the spec-
3.2 Specimen preparation
imen subjected to a higher net normal stress possessed
Triaxial specimens, 76 mm in diameter and 152 mm a higher air-entry value, lower rates of desorption and
in height, were prepared by moist tamping method adsorption and a smaller hysteresis loop.
at the optimum water content of 16.3%. Each soil During the drying and wetting tests at constant net
specimen was compacted dynamically in ten layers mean stresses of 110 and 300 kPa, in addition to the
directly onto the base pedestal of the triaxial cell in measurements of shear wave velocities, total volume
order to avoid any disturbance caused by transporta- change and water volume change of each soil spec-
tion and to improve the contact between the specimen imen were also measured and recorded. Thus, the
and the ceramic disk. The under-compaction method SDSWCCs of the two recompacted CDT specimens
proposed by Ladd (1978) was adopted to achieve a subjected to net mean stresses of 110 and 300 kPa can
more uniform specimen. The middle four layers of be determined, as shown in Figure 3.
each soil specimen were compacted at the desired It can be seen from Figure 3 that net mean stress
dry density, while the top three layers were com- has a significant influence on the SDSWCCs. The soil
pacted to be 4% denser than the desired dry density specimen under a higher net mean stress tends to pos-
and the bottom three layers 4% looser. After sample sess a higher air-entry value. In Figure 3, the air-entry
preparation, the initial matric suction of soil speci- values of CDT are estimated as 55 and 85 kPa at net
men measured by a small tip tensiometer was about mean stresses of 110 and 300 kPa, respectively. When
54 kPa. suction increases beyond the air-entry values, the two
specimens start to desaturate but at different rates. The
specimen subjected to 300 kPa net mean stress shows
a lower desorption rate than the one under 110 kPa net
4 TESTING PROGRAM AND PROCEDURES
mean stress. The reason for the above observations is
probably that the soil specimen under higher net mean
To study the drying and wetting effects on shear wave
stress has a smaller average pore-size distribution and
velocities of CDT, two drying and wetting tests were
thus a better water retention ability (Ng & Pang 2000).
conducted on recompacted specimens at constant net
Upon completion of the drying phase up to a matric
mean stresses of 110 and 300 kPa.
suction of 250 kPa, the tests proceed to the wetting
Each soil specimen was firstly brought to the
phase. At net mean stresses of both 110 and 300 kPa,
desired net mean stress and then left for equalization at
there is a marked hysteresis between the drying and
zero suction. The equalization stage was considered to
be terminated when the changing rate of water content
was less than 0.04% per day (Fredlund & Rahardjo
1993), which corresponded to a water flow of about 100
527
wetting curves. The size of the hysteresis loop appears 450
(a)
Wetting
400
The variations of the measured shear wave veloci-
ties with matric suction during the two drying and 350
wetting tests are shown in Figure 4. It can be seen
300
that the variations of the shear wave velocities, νs(vh) ,
νs(hv) and νs(hh) , with matric suction follow a simi- 250 Drying
lar trend. The shear wave velocities increase with an -u a =110kPa
p(r-dw-p110)
200
increase in matric suction in a non-linear fashion at -u a =300kPa
p(r-dw-p300)
a reducing rate. At early stages of the drying pro- 150
cess, i.e. when matric suction is relatively low, bulk 0 50 100 150 200
Matric suction, u a -u w (kPa)
250 300
528
110 kPa, the shear wave velocities, vs(vh) , vs(hv) and respectively. This stiffness anisotropy is probably the
νs(hh) , increase by 48%, 46% and 47% as suction inherent stiffness anisotropy due to sample prepara-
increases from 0 to 250 kPa, respectively. While at tion, as discussed in Ng & Yung (2008). At a given
net mean stress of 300 kPa, the shear wave velocities, net mean stress, when matric suction increases, the
νs(vh) , νs(hv) and νs(hh) , only increase by 26%, 29% and degree of stiffness anisotropy increases slightly at a
30%, respectively, for the same suction change. The gradually reducing rate, but the increase is smaller
reason is probably that the specimen with higher stiff- than 1%. Similar to the SDSWCCs (see Fig. 3), there
ness at a higher net mean stress would have a higher is also a hysteresis between the drying and wetting
resistance to volume change due to drying and wetting curves. Though the changes in the degree of stiff-
(Ng et al. 2008). ness anisotropy and the size of hysteresis loop are
In an ideal elastic continuum, νs(hν) should be equal very small, the trends are clear. Therefore, drying and
to νs(νh) . However, the measured value of νs(hν) is wetting appear to have small effects on the degree of
consistently higher than νs(νh) , as shown in Figure 4. stiffness anisotropy.
The discrepancy between νs(hν) and νs(νh) may be
due to the preferred orientation of soil particles in
horizontal plane (Jardine et al. 1999, Ng & Leung
2007) or the different boundary conditions of different 6 CONCLUSIONS
bender elements (Pennington et al. 2001, Ng & Yung
2008). Drying and wetting effects on the shear wave
velocities of unsaturated CDT were studied by two
drying and wetting tests at constant net mean stress.
5.3 Drying and wetting effects on degree Three pairs of bender elements were used to measure
of stiffness anisotropy the multidirectional shear wave velocities, νs(vh) , νs(hν)
In this paper, the degree of stiffness anisotropy is and νs(hh) .
expressed as G0(hh) /G0(hv) or (νs(hh) /νs(hν) )2 . νs(hh) and During the drying and wetting tests, the shear
νs(hv) are chosen for determining stiffness anisotropy, wave velocities increased with an increase in matric
because they had the same boundary conditions, fre- suction at a reducing rate. Moreover, the changing
quency and travelling distance (Pennington et al. 2001, rate was lower at higher net mean stress. Similar
Ng et al. 2004). The variations of the degree of stiff- to the SDSWCC, there was a hysteresis between
ness anisotropy with matric suction during the drying the drying and wetting curves of the variations of
and wetting tests are shown in Figure 5. shear wave velocities with matric suction. The shear
It can be seen from Figure 5 that the variations of wave velocities measured during the wetting phase
the degrees of stiffness anisotropy with matric suction are consistently higher than those obtained during
at different net mean stresses follow a similar trend. the drying process, probably due to the irrecoverable
However, the degree of stiffness anisotropy at net mean volume shrinkage induced in the drying and wetting
stress of 300 kPa is consistently higher than that at net cycle.
mean stress of 110 kPa by about 1%. Initially at zero The degrees of inherent stiffness anisotropy of
suction, the degrees of stiffness anisotropy are 1.026 recompacted CDT specimens were 1.026 and 1.039
and 1.039 at net mean stresses of 110 and 300 kPa, at net mean stresses of 110 and 300 kPa, respectively.
The degree of stiffness anisotropy increased slightly
with matric suction at a reducing rate during drying
and wetting tests at constant net mean stress, but the
1.06 increase was smaller than 1%. The degree of stiffness
anisotropy also showed hysteretic characteristic during
2
G0(hh) / G0(hv) or ( vs(hh) /vs(hv) )
Wetting
1.05 drying and wetting tests, though the size of hysteresis
loop was very small. It can be concluded that drying
1.04
and wetting seem to have small effects on the degree
of stiffness anisotropy.
1.03 Drying
p -u a =110kPa
(r-dw-p110)
p -u a =300kPa
(r-dw-p300)
1.02 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Matric suction , u a -u w (kPa)
The authors would like to acknowledge the finan-
Figure 5. Variations of degree of stiffness anisotropy with cial support from research grants CA-MG07/08.EG01
matric suction during drying and wetting tests (Ng et al. and DAG04/05.EG31 provided by the Hong Kong
2008). University of Science and Technology.
529
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530
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Effects of unsaturated soil state on the local seismic response of soil deposits
F. D’Onza
University of Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT: This work is part of a wider research program in progress for several years at the Dipartimento
di Ingegneria Idraulica, Geotecnica e Ambientale (DIGA) of the Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II in
Naples, Italy focusing on the analysis of the effects of partial saturation on the seismic response of soil deposits.
This study is particularly relevant to the relatively high seismicity area of Naples (Italy), where unsaturated soils
are often encountered. The paper summarises a parametric study based on the experimental results obtained
during a comprehensive laboratory program carried out using a Resonant Column Torsional Shear device under
suction controlled conditions. A set of 1D linear analyses were carried out and interpreted in terms of a transfer
function, in order to highlight the role played by the unsaturated condition on the amplification function. Finally
a synthesis of the results is attempted in order to quantify the effect of partial saturation on subsoils characterized
by different plasticity index values. Results clearly show significant effects of the unsaturated state on the local
seismic response in terms of both amplification ratio and natural frequency. This could be particularly relevant
to the local response of deposits of limited thickness.
1 INTRODUCTION soils has been carried out and is still underway at the
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Idraulica, Geotecnica e
During a seismic event, a key role in the wave prop- Ambientale (DIGA) of the Università degli Studi di
agation is played by the shallowest deformable soil Napoli Federico II in Naples, Italy.
deposits above the bedrock. The shallow soils act The main goal is the investigation of the effects of
as a filter and significantly change the amplitudes mean net stress and suction on the initial shear stiffness
and frequency content of the reference input motion (G0 ) and damping ratio (D0 ) of soils with different
registered on outcropping bedrock. Therefore, for plasticity indices.
a proper ground surface motion determination the Different soils, in terms of particle grading, index
subsoil geometry, as well as the stiffness and dissi- limits and fabric, have been tested. These include a
pative properties of the soil above the bedrock should clayey silt and a silty sand compacted at the optimum
carefully be determined. water content following the standard and modified
The natural shallow soil deposits are often located Proctor procedures respectively as well as a pyroclas-
above the water table in a partially saturated state. In tic silty sand prepared by air pluviation technique and
spite of this, the effects of suction are often ignored in then saturated at constant volume. The main charac-
the determination of local seismic response, due to the teristics of the tested soils are summarised in Table 1.
experimental difficulties in measuring the stress-strain The experimental program has been carried out using
behaviour of unsaturated soils at small strains. a Resonant Column Torsional Shear apparatus prop-
The influence of unsaturated soil conditions on erly modified to perform tests in suction controlled
local seismic response has been demonstrated here condition, by means of the axis translation technique.
to be very relevant and justifies further efforts to Details of this device can be found in Mancuso et al.
investigate these effects. (2002).
G0 and D0 have been measured almost contin-
uously, by resonant column tests, along various
2 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE isotropic stress paths, including compressions and dry-
ing/wetting single stages or cycles. The main purpose
A wide experimental programme aimed at analysing of the experimental work has been the investigation of
the effects of suction on the mechanical behaviour of the influence of the stress state and history, in terms of
531
Table 1. Average properties of tested materials. 250
G0 (MPa)
150
Metramo
silty sand 13.7 9.5 86.9 100
Magispo
clayey silt 17.9 23.1 92.5 (ua-uw)s = 0 k Pa
50 (ua-uw)s= 100 k Pa
Pyroclastic (ua-uw)s= 200 k Pa
silty sand 0 55.2 100 a) (ua-uw)s= 400 k Pa
0
0 200 400 600 800
(p-ua) kPa
5
both suction and mean net stress, on the small strain (ua-uw)s = 0 kPa
(ua-uw)s = 100 kPa
behaviour of the tested soils. (ua-uw)s = 200 kPa
The observed behaviour during compression stages 4 (ua-uw)s = 400 kPa
at constant suction is qualitatively similar to that of
p (% )
saturated soils.
D0h(%)
In normally consolidated conditions, G0 increases 3
less than linearly while D0 decreases as the mean net
stress increases at constant suction. This is shown, for
2
example, in Figure 1 where the initial shear stiffness
and the damping ratio measured on Magispo clayey
b)
sand are reported as a function of the applied mean 1
net stress, (p − ua ) at constant suction, s. On the other 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
hand, at equal mean net stress and in normally consol- p-ua (kPa)
idated conditions, G0 increases and D0 decreases as
suction increases. Figure 1. a) Initial shear modulus, and b) initial damping
ratio versus mean net stress at different suction.
In more detail, the initial shear modulus seems to
be differently influenced by the suction level. As an
example, G0 values measured on the Magispo clayey 250
silt are plotted against suction in Figure 2, which refers
to experimental data shown in Figure 1. This figure
plots the shear modulus as a function of both mean net 200
stress at null suction (left diagram) and suction under
a mean net stress equal to 200 kPa (right diagram).
An S-shaped trend can be observed, which complies 150
G0 (MPa)
532
This is simplified by the Fisher’s model (1926) (which 1.0 e+2
refers to two spherical particles with a water menis- RCTS - Sr controlled tests
cus in between them), and Gili (1988) (which refers to bender element tests
more complex particle configurations and meniscus bender element tests in TX cell
RCTS - suction controlled tests
shapes). Such behaviour has a corresponding influ-
ence on the curve G0 : s. The way in which a real soil 1.0 e+0
moves from a behaviour dominated by bulk-water to a
behaviour dominated by menisci-water depends on the
values
soil grading curve, mineralogy and, for the same soil
in normally consolidated conditions, on the applied 1.0 e-2
mean net stress. In any case it is possible to identify
a defined suction value, s∗ , corresponding to the tran-
sition from a behaviour dependent on bulk water to a
behaviour dependent on menisci-water.
Together with the data gathered by the Authors, a 1.0 e-4 a)
number of other measurements of G0 in unsaturated 20
normally consolidated soils have been presented in the
literature. A detailed report about soils, compaction
procedures and testing conditions relevant to these 15
measurements can be found in Mancuso et al. (2002).
All these data confirm the above described trend in
r values
533
2.00 3 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
1.90
))/G 0 (0,p-ua)
1.80
1.70
A set of dynamic analyses have been carried out to
1.60
assess the effects of partial saturation on the local seis-
0(s) /Ga0(0)
1.9
1.8 initial shear modulus and damping ratio as a function
1.7 of mean net stress and suction. The assumption of a
a ))/G
1.6
linear response ensures the independency of the anal-
0(s) /G
),(p-u
1.5
yses on the input motion characteristics. A 30 m depth
G0 ((u a -u wG
1.4
1.3 and a shear wave velocity of 800 m/s was assumed for
PI
Ip=0%
1.2
PI
Ip=5%
the bedrock.
1.1 PI
Ip=10% Constant profiles of suction with depth have been
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
adopted since preliminary analyses demonstrate a neg-
(u a -u ws) / * (kPa) ligible influence of suction variation with depth on the
seismic response.
Figure 5. Ratio G0 (s)/G0 (0) versus equivalent suction. To take into account the dependency of G0 on suc-
tion and stress state, it has been first necessary to
model the variation of G0 with stress state in the
the equivalent suction seq corresponding to the same saturated condition and then take into account the
value of the normalized shear modulus in a reference additional effect of suction through Equation 1.
soil (with parameter values βref , rref and PIref ). Such The dependency of shear modulus on confining
equivalent suction seq can be related to the suction s in stress in saturated conditions has been modelled using
the generic soil. the relationship proposed by Rampello et al. (1994):
For relatively low-medium PI values it is reason-
able to assume a constant r index. In this case, the n
expression of the equivalent suction is obtained as G0 p
follows: =S (8)
pr pr
G0 (s) G0 (seq )
= (4)
G0 (0) gen G0 (0) ref where pr is a reference pressure, here taken equal to
−βgen ·s −βref ·seq
100 kPa and S and n are stiffness dimensionless param-
(1 − r) · e + r = (1 − r) · e +r (5) eters which describe respectively the initial stiffness
e −βgen ·s
=e −βref ·seq
⇒ βgen · s = βref · seq evaluated at reference pressure, and the sensitivity of
G0 on stress state. A relationship between the dimen-
βgen sionless parameters S and n of Equation 8 and the
⇒ seq = ·s (6)
βref plasticity index has been proposed by d’Onofrio &
Silvestri (2001) on the basis of a large number of data
βgen from literature, as reported in Figure 6.
seq = ·s (7)
βref The initial shear stiffness profile corresponding
to a given suction has been obtained combining the
Representing G0 (s)/G0 (0) versus seq , a unique dependency of shear stiffness on confining stress in
curve for every PI value is obtained once a βref is saturated conditions given by Equation 8 with the
fixed (Fig. 5). This curve allows easy evaluation of effect of suction under partly saturated conditions
the shear stiffness ratio G0 (s)/G0 (0) corresponding to given by Equation 1 in which s∗ has been assumed
a given suction whatever the soil. equal to 0 kPa. The values of β and r corresponding
534
1500 1.5
a)
1.4
marine clays
stiffness coefficient, S
1.3
fluvial clays
/f1(0)/F 1(0)
1000
1.2
1(ua-uw)
1.1 PI
IP=0
fF1(s)
500 S=217+805.84*exp(-Ip/18.94) 1 PI
IP=5
PI
IP=10
0.9 PI
IP=50
a 0.8
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000
0 50 100 150 200
(ua-uw), s((kPa)
plasticity index, PI (%)
1
1.2
PI
IP=0
b
1 PI
IP=5
0.8 PI
IP=10
stiffness index, n
0.8
/A1(0)
PI
IP=50
1(s) /A1(0)
0.6
n=0.68-0.162*exp (-Ip/23)
A1(ua-uw)
0.6
0.4
A
0.4
0.2 fluvial clays
0.2
marine clays b)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
plasticity index, PI (%) (ua-uw),s (kPa)
Figure 6. a) Stiffness coefficient and b) stiffness index Figure 7. First peak frequency (a) and first peak amplifica-
variation with PI. tion ratio (b) normalized by the corresponding values under
zero suction.
to different plasticity indexes have been calculated by values. This can be explained with reference to the
using Equations 2 and 3. simplified pattern of a homogeneous visco-elastic stra-
Analyses have been carried out by EERA code, a tum (i.e. with a constant value of G0 with depth) with
Shake—like code, designed by Bardet at the Southern shear wave velocity Vs and thickness H lying on a
California University (Bardet et al. 2000), working in deformable bedrock. In this case, it is possible to
the frequency domain. express the nth natural frequency fn and peak value
Modelling the soil as a linear visco-elastic medium of the amplification function An as a function of the
allows the evaluation of the results in terms of a transfer mechanical and geometrical properties of the stratum:
function (i.e. the ratio between the amplitude motion at
surface and bedrock as a function of frequency) which (2n − 1) · Vs 1
is influenced by the geometrical and mechanical prop- fn = ; An = (9)
4H μ + (2n − 1) π2 D0
erties of the soil but is independent on the input motion.
Analyses for each fictitious subsoil have been com-
pared with a similar analysis corresponding to a null The natural frequencies increase because the overall
suction profile. The results were examined in terms value of the shear wave velocity increases with suc-
of amplification ratio, comparing the response of the tion. As for the amplification ratio, it depends on both
subsoil in the unsaturated state with that of the same soil/bedrock impedence ratio, μ and internal damp-
subsoil under null suction condition. Figure 7 shows ing, D0 . The first peak of amplification significantly
the two ratios between the first peak amplification reduces at increasing suction, because the decrease in
A1(s) and the first frequency f1(s) in unsaturated condi- the impedance contrast plays a major role. The damp-
tions and the corresponding quantities A1(0) and f1(0) ing decrease with suction mainly affects the amplitude
under a null value of suction for different values of the ratios of the subsequent modes which also increase as
plasticity index. suction increases.
The natural frequencies increase while the ampli- As it appears from Figure 7, in analogy to shear
fication ratios decrease as the suction attains larger stiffness, an equal variation of amplification ratio and
535
1.5 If the unsaturated state is not taken into account,
a) the error on amplification ratio reaches 48% and that
1.4
on frequencies 38% for relatively high values of suc-
1.3 tion, depending on mechanical properties of the soil
/F 1(0)
1.1 PI
IP=0 deposits of limited thickness, as it is the case in the
fF1(s)
1 PI
IP=5 Neapolitan area.
PI
IP=10
0.9
Therefore, for a proper prediction of the local seis-
PI
IP=50
mic response of a particular site, it is important to
0.8 take into account the unsaturated state of the soil
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 deposit.
(ua-uw)s *, (kPa)
1.2 REFERENCES
PI
IP=0
1 PI
IP=5 Bardet, J.P., Ichii, K. & Lin, C.H. 2000. Eera a computer
PI
IP=10 program for equivalent—linear earthquake site Response
0.8
1(s) /A 1(0)1(0)
PI
IP=50 Analyses of Layered Soil Deposits. Software manual.
/A
0.6
d’Onofrio, A. & Silvestri, F. 2001. Influence of micro-
structure on small-strain stiffness and damping of fine
A
0.4
grained soils and effects on local site response. Fourth
0.2 international Conference on Recent Advances in Geotech-
b) nical Earthquake Engineering and soil Dynamics, San
0 Diego.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Fisher, R.A. 1926. On the capillary forces in an ideal soil,
Journal Agr. Science, 16: 492–505.
(ua-uw)s *, (kPa)
Gili, Y.Y. 1988. Modelo microestructural para medios
granulares no saturados. Doctoral Thesis, Universitat
Figure 8. First peak frequency (a) and first peak amplifica- Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.
tion ratio (b) normalized by the corresponding values under Mancuso, C., Vassallo, R. & d’Onofrio, A. 2002. Small
zero suction versus equivalent suction. strain behaviour of soils in controlled suction condi-
tions. Proceedings of the third international conference
peak frequency corresponds to different values of suc- on unsaturated soils, Recife, Brazil.
tion depending on PI values. It is then possible to plot Rampello, S., Silvestri, F. & Viggiani, G. 1994. The depen-
dence of small strain stiffness on stress state and history for
the normalized values of the first peak amplification
fine-grained soils: the example of Vallericca clay. I Symp.
A1(s) and frequency f1(s) , evaluated in unsaturated con- Pre-failure Deformations of Geomaterials; 1: 273–279.
dition, with respect to that corresponding to the same Balkema.
subsoil under a null suction condition (i.e. A1(0) , f1(0) ), Schnabel, P.B., Lysmer, J. & Seed, H.B. 1972. SHAKE:
as a function of the equivalent suction defined in the A computer program for earthquake response analysis
previous section. As expected the curves correspond- of horizontally layered sites. Report No. EERC 72-12,
ing to different values of PI overlap (Fig. 8). It is then Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of
possible to evaluate the variation with suction of both California, Berkeley.
first peak frequency and amplification of the trans- Vassallo, R., Mancuso, C. & Vinale, F. 2007. Modelling
the influence of stress-strain history on the initial shear
fer function for a homogeneous subsoil with a given
stiffness of an unsaturated compacted silt. Canadian
plasticity index by knowing the results for a reference Geotechnical Journal, April/March issue.
subsoil with the same geometric characteristics. Vassallo, R. & Mancuso, C. 2000. Soil behaviour in the small
and the large strain range under controlled suction condi-
tions. International Workshop on Experimental Evidence
4 CONCLUSIONS and Theoretical Approaches in Unsaturated Soils, Trento,
Italy, 75–90, Tarantino & Mancuso Ed.
Results clearly show the effects of partial saturation on Vinale, F., d’Onofrio, A., Mancuso, C., Santucci De
the local seismic response. Natural frequency values Magistris, F. & Tatsuoka, F. 2001. The pre-failure
behaviour of soils as construction materials. Pre-
of a soil deposits significantly increase with suction. failure Deformation Characteristics of geomaterials.
This effect is more evident for shallowest bedrocks. Jamiolkowski, Lancellotta & Lo Presti Ed.
Maximum amplification ratios, in the field of Yang, J. & Sato, T. 2001. Analytical study of saturation
earthquake motion characteristic frequencies, are sub- effects on seismic vertical amplification of a soil layer.
stantially reduced. Géotechnique, 52: 161–165.
536
Constitutive modelling
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Research interest in the thermo-mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils is growing as a result
of an increasing number of geomechanical problems involving both thermal and unsaturated effects. A new
constitutive model dealing with partially saturated soils under non-isothermal conditions is presented through a
unified and highly coupled constitutive approach. In the context of the elasto-thermoplasticity and the critical
state theory, the so-called ACMEG-TS model uses the concepts of multi-mechanism and bounding surface
theory. The generalized effective stress framework is adopted to represent the stress state in the soil. This model
brings advancements on the thermo-hydraulic couplings that directly affect the mechanical behaviour of the
materials. The constitutive relations based on the evolutions of the two key parameters (the preconsolidation
pressure and the air-entry suction) make it possible to reproduce the main features of the thermo-mechanical
behaviour of unsaturated soils. Theoretical aspects of the paper are supported by comparisons between numerical
simulations and experimental results extracted from literature.
539
of the soils by changing the degree of saturation for
the same suction value.
3 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS
540
which are assumed independent of temperature and critical pressure, pcr . M is the slope of the critical
suction value: state line in the (q − p ) plane and may depend on
temperature:
ne ne
p p
K = Kref G = Gref (3) 6 sin φ0
pref pref M = M0 − g (T − T0 ); M0 = (6)
3 − sin φ0
where Kref and Gref are the reference bulk and shear where φ0 is the friction angle at critical state at the
elastic moduli, respectively, at a reference pressure, reference temperature T0 and g is a material parame-
pref ; ne is a material parameter. ter. The preconsolidation pressure pc is shared by both
Using the concept of multi-mechanism plasticity yield limits which makes the two mechanisms cou-
(Mandel 1965), the total irreversible strain increment pled. Moreover, this parameter is the main hardening
p p
dεij is induced by two coupled dissipative processes: variable and depends on volumetric plastic strain εv
an isotropic and a deviatoric plastic mechanism. Each (in the sense of Cam-Clay model family according to
p,iso
produces plastic strain increments, dεij and dεij ,
p,dev Roscoe & Burland (1968)), on temperature and on suc-
tion. It has been shown that logarithmic relations of pc
respectively.
with temperature and suction are in good agreement
The yield limits of each mechanism, restricting the
with experimental observations (Salager et al. 2008).
elastic domain in the generalized effective stress space,
As a consequence, the evolution of pc with the THM
take the following expressions (Fig. 2):
variables is given by:
fiso = p − pc riso = 0 (4) pc εvp , T , s
⎧ p
dp
fdev = q − Mp 1 − b ln rdev = 0 (5) ⎨pc0 exp βεv
{1 − γT log [T /T0 ]} if s ≤ se
⎪
pc
= pc0 exp βεvp {1 − γT log [T /T0 ]}
⎪
⎩
× {1 + γs log [s/se ]} if s ≥ se (7)
where q is the deviatoric stress. b is a material param-
eter and d the distance (in the logarithmic plane)
between the preconsolidation pressure, pc , and the where pc0 is the initial preconsolidation pressure (at
initial temperature and under saturated conditions) and
β the plastic compressibility modulus. γT and γs are
material parameters. riso and rdev are the degree of plas-
tification of the isotropic and deviatoric mechanisms,
respectively. According to the bounding surface theory
(Dafalias & Herrmann 1980), this enables a progres-
sive evolution of the isotropic and deviatoric yield
limits during loading following the next two equations,
respectively (Hujeux 1979):
p,iso
εv (1 − riso )2 p,iso
riso = riso
e
+ p,iso
; driso = dεv
c+ εv c
(8)
p
εd (1 − rdev )
2
p
rdev = rdev
e
+ p; drdev = dεd (9)
a + εd a
e
where c and a are material parameters while riso and
e
rdev define the size of the elastic nuclei of the isotropic
p
and deviatoric mechanisms, respectively. εd is the
p,iso
deviatoric plastic strain and εv the volumetric plastic
strain induced by the isotropic mechanism.
Figure 2. Yield limits for the THM elasto-plastic frame- The flow rule of the isotropic mechanism is asso-
work. ciated, while the deviatoric one is not, and they are
541
assumed to take the following forms, respectively: two successive retention limits, fdry and fwet , upon
drying and wetting paths, respectively:
p
p,iso λiso
dεii = (10)
3 fdry = s − sd = 0 (13)
p,dev p 1 ∂q q 1 fwet = sd shys − s = 0 (14)
dεij = λdev +α M − δij (11)
Mp ∂σij p 3
where sd is the drying yield limit and shys a material
where α is a material parameter. The plastic multi- parameter considering the size of the retention hystere-
p p
pliers, λiso and λdev , are determined using Prager’s sis. If the initial state is saturated, the initial retention
consistency equation for multidissipative plasticity drying limit sd0 is equal to air-entry suction se and
(Prager 1958, Rizzi et al. 1996). The two consistency increases when suction overtakes se as follows:
conditions must be met simultaneously, leading to the
solving of two equations with two unknowns: sd = sd0 exp (−βh Sr ) (15)
⎧
⎨dF = ∂F : dσ + ∂F · dT + ∂F · ∂π · λp ≤ 0
∂σ ∂T ∂π ∂λp (12) where βh is the slope of the desaturation curve in the
⎩ p (Sr − ln s) plane (Fig. 3).
λ ≥ 0; dF · λp ≥ 0
Finally, because the air-entry suction of the mate-
rials depends on temperature and dry density, sd0 is a
where σ is the generalized effective stress vector and
p function of temperature and volumetric plastic strain
π the internal variable matrix (riso and εv for the
p (François & Laloui, 2007):
isotropic plastic mechanism and rdev and εv for the
deviatoric plastic mechanism). λ and F are the plastic
P
p ∂fdry p
dSrdry = λdry = λdry ≤ 0 (17)
∂s
p ∂fwet p
dSrwet = λwet = −λwet ≥ 0 (18)
∂s
542
where Sr0 is the initial degree of saturation. The simulations are displayed in the net stress reference
consistency conditions impose that: (σij,net = σij − pa ), although the model uses the
generalized effective stress.
⎧ ∂Fhyd ∂Fhyd ∂Fhyd
Figure 4 compares the numerical simulations with
p ∂F
⎪
⎪ dF = ∂s ds+ ∂T dT + ∂εvp dεv + ∂π hyd experimental results of oedometric compression tests
⎪ hyd
⎨
∂π p at different suctions and at ambient temperature.
× ∂λphyd · λhyd ≤ 0 (20) The initial strain observed at 0.1 MPa of net stress
⎪
⎪
⎪
hyd
⎩ p p is due to the suction path from 127 MPa to the suction
λhyd ≤ 0; dFhyd · λhyd ≥ 0
Figure 4. Numerical simulations of oedometric compres- Figure 7. Numerical simulation of retention curve of
sion tests of FEBEX bentonite at different suctions. Compar- FEBEX bentonite at two different dry densities ρd . Com-
isons with experiments. parisons with experiments.
543
Table 1. Material parameters of the FEBEX bentonite used of elastic swelling and plastic collapse predicted by
in the numerical simulations. ACMEG-TS. (v) Finally, the mechanical unloading
Elastic parameters takes place elastically.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
applied during compression. The subsequent compres-
sion paths clearly show the enhancement of the elastic This work was partly supported by the Swiss State
domain when suction increases. Figure 5 reproduces Secretariat for Education and Research SER, Grants
the numerical simulation of oedometric compression OFES C04.0021.
tests at two temperatures under 127 MPa of suction.
The initial strain observed for path (6) is due to the
temperature increase. Figure 6 underlines the effect of
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545
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Unsaturated soils present challenging aspects from constitutive modeling point of view
because stress-strain relationship have to include variables associated to the effect of air and water phase
and also to the interfaces between them. Most traditional constitutive models have considered the suction
(difference between air and water pressure) as an additional parameter that affects soil properties, as does,
for example a structuration parameter (Alonso et al. 1990). However there are now increasing evidence that
suction cannot be treated only as a parameter and that a comprehensive modeling of unsaturated materials
have to associate to it an extensive variable such that the product of this variable by suction enters as an
additional term in the energy balance of the triphasic medium (Houlsby 1997). In this paper, a model is
proposed to represent, in a thermomechanical approach the response of unsaturated soils under load and
suction changes. Energy concepts in triphasic medium are first revised and controlling variables defined
(Coussy 2004). They include strain
ij , net stress σ defined as the difference of total stress and air pres-
sure, change in volumetric water content
w and suction s. Relationship between s and
w integrates the
hysteresis of the retention curve as a hydraulic elastoplastic mechanism. Particular attention is given to the
thermomechanical consistency of the generalized potentials associated to the model, with the objective to
propose a comprehensive and sound formulation of the effect of suction on the response of unsaturated materials.
Keywords: hyperporoplasticity, poromaterial, unsaturated soils, interface energy, shift stress, dissipation,
energy function.
547
Table 1. Terminology. The Clausius-Duhem equality for an isothermal
process can be written now using the energy function
u : specific internal energy function of the porous skeleton as
g : specific Gibbs energy function
f : specific Helmholtz energy function σij d
ij + pl dφl + pg dφg − dfs = 0 (4)
gs : Gibbs energy func. of the skeleton
fs : Helmholtz energy func. of the skeleton where is important to notice that apart from the
d : dissipation function energy of the solid matrix, the energy corresponding
σij , p : stress tensor and pore pressure to the interfaces, fluid-fluid and solid-fluid, is consid-
ij , φ : strain tensor and porosity ered. The state equations obtained by derivation of eq.
mf : fluids concentrations [4] are expressed as
T : temperature
s : entropy σij = ∂
ij fs ; pl = ∂φl fs ; pg = ∂φg fs (5)
αij , αp : kinematic internal variables
χij , χp : generalized stress tensors The Clausius-Duhem inequality is the cornerstone
ρij , ρp : shift stress tensors of any energy approach to the constitutive equations of
fy : yield function materials allowing the determination of adequate con-
p
ij , φ p : plastic strain and porosity tensors jugate variables (Houlsby 1997; Coussy 2004; Laloui
Eχ : generalized poroelastic domain et al. 2003) and can be expressed as
φo : Lagrangian porosity
pl , pg : liquid and gas fluid pressures σij d
ij + pl dφl + pg dφg − dfs ≥ 0 (6)
φl , φg : liquid and gas current porosities
ϕl , ϕg : liquid and gas lagrangian porosities Using the relations φl = φ0 Sl +ϕl , φg = φ0 Sg +ϕg ,
Sg , Sl : saturation degree of gas and liquid phases 1 = Sl + Sg ,
jj = ϕl + ϕg where φo stands for the
fm : Helmholtz energy of the solid matrix initial porosity, and replacing them in eq. [6], after
fI : interface energy function some algebraic steps, one arrives to
g
fs : energy function of unsat. soil skeleton
(σij d
ij + pg dϕg ) + pl dϕl − (pg − pl )φo dSl − dfs ≥ 0
(7)
that the material is said to be unsaturated. The inter- Considering the incompressibility of the solid
nal energy of the porous continua admits as natural matrix eq. [7] yields
arguments
ij , mfα , s, αij , αp , then we can write
(σij + pl δij )d
ij − (pg − pl )(Sl d
jj − φo dSl ) − dfs ≥ 0
(8)
u = u(
ij , mfα , s, αij , αp ) (1)
The term Sl d
jj − φo dSl = d
w is called the
hydraulic strain and is used when the net stress is
where
ij is the strain tensor, mfα is the mass con- adopted as state stress variable to model partially sat-
centration of fluids, αij and αp are internal kinematic urated soils. The last set of conjugate variables has
variables. In eq. [1] the thermohydromechanical cou- been used by (Vaunat & Romero 2000) to develop a
plings associated with the surface tension or energy hydromechanical model based on BBM, (Alonso et al.
related to each fluid-fluid or fluid-solid are introduced. 1990). For isothermal process and using the first and
The Helmholtz free energy of the porous continua second laws of thermodynamics the increment of fs is
f = u − T s becomes
dfs = σij d
ij + pl dϕl + pg dϕg − Tdsi (9)
f = f (
ij , mfα , T , αij , αp ) (2)
where dsi is the irreversible part of the rate of
entropy production within a material element. The last
The porous skeleton Helmholtz energy function equation can be rearranged to give
(Coussy 2004) obtained extracting the mass concen-
tration of fluids fs = f − mfα gfα , becomes a function σij d
ij + pl dϕl + pg dϕg = dfs + d (10)
of the arguments
On the other hand, an evolution of the Helmholtz
skeleton energy can be obtained differentiating eq. [3]
fs = fs (
ij , φ, T , αij , αp ) (3) with respect to its variables
548
p p
dfs = ∂
ij fs d
ij + ∂ϕl fs dϕl + ∂ϕg fs dϕg function of the skeleton gs (σij , s,
ij ,
w ) can be written
as, (Collins & Houlsby 1997),
+ ∂αij fs dαij + ∂αp fs dαp (11)
Now, comparing eq. [10] and eq. [11] we have gs = −[gm1 (σij ) + gc1 (σij , s) + φo gI1 (s)]
p
+(σij
ij + s
wp )
d = Tdsi = −∂αij fs dαij − ∂αp fs dαp
p p
−[gm2 (
ij ) + gc2 (
ij , so ) + φo gI2 (so )] (17)
= χij dαij + χp dαp (12)
where χij and χp are called dissipative or general- where gm correspond to the energy of the matrix, gI
ized stresses and can be obtained as is the interface energy, gc correspond to the coupling
energy and so is the hardening parameter of the suction
χij = −∂αij fs ; χp = −∂αp fs (13) curve.
s = ∂
w fs (
w ) = ∂
w fI (
w ) (16)
Table 2. Notation.
where fI is the interface energy function. The rela-
tionship from eq. [16] shows clear hysteretic behavior p : mean net stress
s : suction
under non-monotonic flow conditions. In fact when a
q : deviatoric stress
sample of porous material is subjected to a wetting-
v : volumetric strain
drying cycle, a hysteresis loop is observed so that
w : hydraulic strain
the link between suction and degree of saturation is
s : deviatoric strain
not one-to-one. A model proposed by (Wheeler et al. κ∗ : slope of ICL in plane
v − ln (p)
2003) for the suction curve approximate its smooth κs∗ : slope of elastic branch in plane
w − ln (p)
nature by two straight lines with slopes κω∗ for the elas- pc : reference pressure
tic path and λ∗ω for the plastic one and will be used pat : atmospheric pressure
further. An advanced and more realistic assumption κω∗ : slope of the scanning curves
G : shear modulus
is to introduce explicitly a dependence of the suction
λ∗(s) : slope of NCL at suction s
curve on the porous volume, allowing to rewrite the
λ∗s : inelastic branch in plane
w − ln (p)
interface energy function as fI = fI (Sl , φ). Coussy λ∗ω : main wett-dry curves plane
w − ln (s)
(2004) shows that the latter relation can be expressed e : void ratio
after a dimensional and mathematical analysis as fI = fy
LC
: loading-collapse yield surface
φ − 3 fI φ (Sl ). For the case of decoupled poromaterials
1
So
f y : suction increase-decrease yield loci (o = I − D)
and under isothermal conditions, the Gibbs free energy
549
From eq. [18] the hydraulic strain
w derived using an appropriate potential energy function to tackle this
the state equation
w = −∂s gs1 will take the form phenomenon. The Legendre transformation becomes
a central tool in hyperporoplastic approach, because it
p allows a great number of possibles formulations inter-
w = −∂s gs1 = κs∗ + gI1 (s) (19)
s + pat changing extensive variables by the intensive ones.
Applying a partial Legendre transformation to eq. [20]
The interface energy function gI1 (s) can be defined for the case of isothermal poromaterial expressed as
explicitly using for example the model proposed by
(Wheeler et al. 2003). The Gibbs energy function of fsg1 = gs1 + p
v + q
s (24)
the skeleton gs (p, q, s) which includes the interface
energy gI (s) can be expressed as and eliminating p and q through eq. [23] a more
convenient energy function is obtained
p s + pat
gs1 = −κ ∗ p ln − 1 − κ ∗
s p ln
3
pc fsg1 = κ ∗ pc exp ∗s + G
s2 − κω∗ (s + pat )
pat v
κ 2
q 2
s + pat
− − κω∗ (s + pat ) ln −1 s + pat
6G pat × ln −1 (25)
pat
(20)
From eq. [25] the conjugate variables are obtained
By differentiation of the eq. [20], the expressions by using the corresponding state equations
for the strain state variables becomes
vs
p s + pat p = pc exp
v = −∂p gs1 = κ ∗ ln + κ ∗
s ln κ∗
pc pat
κs∗ pc s + pat
exp ∗s + κω∗ ln
v
p s + pat
w =
w = −∂s gs1 = κs∗ + κω∗ ln s + pat κ pat
s + pat pat
q = 3G
s (26)
q
s = −∂q gs1 = (21)
3G and the stiffness matrix modulus is derived by double
The compliance modulus is obtained by double differentiation of eq. [22]
differentiation of eq. [20] as g
vs
Cfs = pc exp
⎡κ ∗
κs∗ ⎤ κ∗
0 ⎡ 1 κs∗ ⎤
⎢ p s + pat ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ κ∗ κ∗ (s + pat )
0
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ κs∗ κs∗ p κω∗ ⎥ ×⎢ κs∗ κs∗ ⎥
D =⎢
gs
− − 0 ⎥ ⎣ β 0 ⎦
⎢ s + pat (s + pat ) 2 s + pat ⎥ κ ∗ (s + pat ) (s + pat )
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 0 0 3G
1
0 0 (27)
3G
(22)
where β = κs∗ /(κ ∗ (s + pat )) + κω∗ /κs∗ .
From equation [21a], it is possible to extract the
mean net stress and the deviatoric stress as 5.2 Trapped energy—hardening plasticity
⎛ ⎞
v − κs∗ ln s+p at
The coupled behavior between the mechanical and
⎠ = pc exp
vs
p
p = pc exp ⎝ the hydraulic phases in a partially saturated media
at
550
1 ∗ po
gs2 = − λ(s) − κ ∗ po ln − 1 Using the complementary state equations it is
2 pc possible to derive the shift or back stresses as
so + pat
− λ∗s − κs∗ po ln − λ∗ω − κω∗ ρp = ∂
vp f2 ;
g
ρs = −∂so f2
g
(34)
pat
so + pat that are written explicitly as
× (so + pat ) ln −1 (28)
pat
p
1 c
vs
As before, it is possible to obtain
g p
fs2 (
v , so ) from ρp = p exp
2 λ∗(s) − κ ∗
gs2 (po , so ) as
so + pat
fsg2
vp , so = −gs2 (po , so ) + po
vp (29) ρs = −(λ∗ω − κω∗ ) ln
pat
from where it is possible to extract po as 1 λ∗s − κs∗ c
p
vs
+ p exp (35)
p 2 so + pat λ∗(s) − κ ∗
vs
po = p exp
c
(30)
λ∗(s) − κ ∗ g
The translation matrix modulus R fs giving the
translation rule between the generalized stress space
where
vs =
v − (λ∗s − κs∗ ) ln((so + pat )/pat ).
p p
(χ -space) and the true stress space (σ -space) is
Replacing eq. [30] in eq. [29] the conjugate function g
g p obtained by double differentiation of f2 and is writ-
fs2 (
v , so ) becomes
ten as
p
∗ ∗ c
vs g po
fs2 = (λ(s) − κ )p exp ∗
g
+ (λ∗ω − κω∗ ) R fs =
λ(s) − κ ∗ (so + pat )
⎡ (s + p ) −(λ∗s − κs∗ ) ⎤
so + pat o at
0
× (so + pat ) ln −1 (31) ⎢ 2(λ∗(s) − κ ∗ ) 2(λ∗(s) − κ ∗ ) ⎥
pat ⎢ ⎥
×⎢ ∗
⎢ −(λs − κs )
∗
λ∗ω − κω∗ (λ∗s − κs∗ )2 ⎥
⎣ 2(λ∗ − κ ∗ ) − 0⎥
2(λ∗(s) − κ ∗ )so ⎦
g
Finally the energy function fs is expressed with all (s) po
its terms as 0 0 0
p (36)
vs −
v 3
fsg = κ ∗ pc exp − gI1 (s) + G(
s −
sp )2
κ∗ 2
p
vs 6 DISSIPATION AND YIELD FUNCTION
∗ ∗ c
− s
w + (λ(s) − κ )p exp ∗
p
+ gI2 (so )
λ(s) − κ ∗ The second required function to completely define the
(32) hydromechanical model for the fluid infiltrated porous
material is the dissipation energy which is an homo-
where gI1 (s) and gI2 (so ) represents the parts of the geneous function on the rate of plasticstrains and also
p p
g
energy function fs corresponding to the interface depends on the internal variables, d χπo , d
v , d
s .
energy. Explicitly eq. [32] becomes This function takes the form, (Moradessi et al. 1994;
Houlsby 1981)
p
vs −
v 3
fsg = κ ∗ pc exp + G(
s −
sp )2 d LC = χπo (s,
vp )[(d
vp )2 + M 2 (d
sp )2 ]1/2
κ∗ 2 (37)
s + pat
− κω∗ (s + pat ) ln − 1 − s
wp From eq. [37] the yield locus is obtain as a
pat degenerate case of Legendre transformation,
p
∗ ∗ c
vs
+ (λ(s) − κ )p exp ∗ χπ2 χ2
+ 2τ 2 = 1
LC
λ(s) − κ ∗ fy : (38)
χπ o
2 M χπ o
so + pat
+ (λ∗ω − κω∗ ) (so + pat ) ln −1 when eq. [38] is transformed to true stress space
pat
by using the standard shift stresses the resulting yield
(33) condition is
551
Dissipative Stress Space True Stress Space between the true stresses and the dissipative ones
through the back or shift stresses. The latter is phys-
ically derived from the fact that not all plastic work
is dissipated but trapped (or stored) as plastic energy.
Finally a modified version of BBM has been derive
within the framework of hyperporoplasticity.
REFERENCES
552
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
E.J. Murray
Murray Rix Geotechnical, Warwickshire, UK
B.J. Murray
School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, UK
V. Sivakumar
Department of Civil Engineering, Queen’s University of Belfast, Northern Ireland
ABSTRACT: A discussion is presented on meta-stable equilibrium and the significance in interpreting the
behaviour of unsaturated soils. The paper brings together examples of thermal, mechanical and chemical meta-
stable conditions to illustrate the problem in terms of thermodynamics. The arguments are extended to describe
collapse and hysteresis mechanisms in unsaturated soils and the critical state strength on the transition between
unsaturated and saturated conditions.
553
transfer for the condition where S, V and mi are the water is contained in a beaker and heated in a
variables of state. microwave. The water may not change to vapour at its
boiling point of 100◦ C if the water is ‘clean’ as nucle-
dU = TdS − pdV + μi dmi (2) ation of the vapour phase is inhibited. When water
exists at ambient pressure but at a temperature above
Equation 2 is the differential form of the ther- 100◦ C, it is said to be in a superheated state. If this
modynamic potential Equation 1 for infinitesimal meta-stable water is agitated, possibly by the introduc-
changes. tion of a solid substance, such as coffee, nucleation to
the vapour phase occurs and the liquid suddenly boils
as the superheated liquid changes to a vapour phase.
2 META-STABLE EQUILIBRIUM Accidental superheating of a liquid is best avoided for
safety reasons (Erné, 2000).
There are physical and chemical phenomena where At the other extreme of freezing it is interesting
analogous behaviour can be used to explain the under- to draw on the contents of a letter written by Joseph
lying concepts. A simple mechanical analogy of a Black (Professor of Chemistry in Edinburgh) in 1775
potential and its minimization is illustrated in Figure 1 to Sir John Pringle. In the letter the writer describes
where a ball is shown rolling down a valley side. The some crude experiments of the freezing of water: (i) of
ball at A has a tendency to reduce its potential energy water initially boiled then cooled to room temperature;
to a minimum value, which within the defined system and (ii) of water thawed from snow to room tempera-
is at D in the valley bottom. The potential energy for ture. Separate cups of boiled and unboiled water were
a ball of given mass is dictated by its height above the placed outside under freezing conditions. The boiled
valley floor. The significance of the minimization of water froze readily and the unboiled water remained
the thermodynamic potential for a soil is that equilib- fluid. However, on agitation with a toothpick, the
rium conditions are established and the potential of unboiled water also froze. Drawing on earlier work
the soil system comprising the particles, water and by Fahrenheit, who found that boiled water placed in
air achieves a minimum under this equilibrium state. glass globes purged of air did not freeze at tempera-
However, achieving an absolute minimum potential is tures some degrees below the normal freezing point, he
‘easier said than done’. Conditions can arise where a described how Fahrenheit found that the supercooled
meta-stable equilibrium is established where an abso- water suddenly froze on agitation or exposure to air.
lute minimum potential is not achieved as can be Black (1775) argued that since one effect of boiling
explained by again examining Figure 1. water was to expel the air, which it naturally contained,
As the ball rolls down the valley side it is possible then as soon as the water cooled it began to absorb
that a ledge (Position B) prevents the ball rolling down air again over a period of time; and the air entering
to the valley bottom, without some other factor agitat- the boiled water provided sufficient agitation to the
ing the ball in order for it to pass over the lip of the water to facilitate passing over the energy barrier and
ledge at Point C, to the more stable state at D. Point freezing.
B represents a position of meta-stable equilibrium as The examples of meta-stable superheated and
a lower equilibrium potential exists within the system. supercooled water illustrate that the creation of a new
The lip at C represents an ‘energy barrier’ preventing phase involves an interface, which in many situations
the ball from achieving a minimum potential state. costs energy and gives rise to an energy barrier to the
The phase changes of water present readily appreci- formation of the new phase, analogous to the energy
ated meta-stable conditions. Consider the case where barrier at Point C in Figure 1. The examples also illus-
trate that substances under meta-stable conditions can
experience dramatic change if a mechanism for change
exists. The phase changes of water are driven by
A
heat and chemical potentials. But the thermodynamic
potential of Equation 1 also includes a mechanical
decreasing potential term (pV) and there is no reason to sup-
Elevation
potential pose that similar abrupt energy changes will not occur
C at the extremes of mechanical change in soils. Such
B behaviour is considered true of unsaturated soils at the
extremes of near-saturation and very dry conditions.
Some caution must however be exercised as the
occurrence of meta-stable conditions may represent
D various degrees of stability. In fact, while stable con-
ditions may be perceived to exist, gradual changes
Figure 1. Analogy of ball rolling down valley side. may actually be taking place. Consider the nucleation
554
of gas bubbles in water and their attachment to the experimental observation that some aqueous solutions
sides of a container. The bubbles may be perceived as of inorganic salts, when cooled rapidly, first deposited
attaining meta-stable equilibrium and only with some crystals of a less stable form than that which normally
other influencing factor is a lower potential achiev- crystallises. Ostwald (1897) attempted to generalize
able by agitation of the bubbles allowing them to rise this sort of behaviour by propounding a ‘rule of stages’
through the liquid. However, the growth and decay which Mullen states as:
of gas bubbles (Keller, 1964), particularly within the
void spaces of soils, is complex (Murray, 2002) and the
rate of expansion and decay of the volume of free air ‘An unstable system does not necessarily change
is likely to influence the perceived equilibrium con- directly into the most stable state, but into one
ditions. Bardon and Sides (1967) concluded that in which most closely resembles its own, i.e. into
unsaturated soils there is evidence that equilibrium in another transient state whose formation from the
terms of Henry’s law may require a considerable time original is accompanied by the smallest loss of
interval, far greater than in the absence of soil particles. free energy.’
3 MINIMISATION OF THE POTENTIAL This quote succinctly summarises the law of stages
and also hints at a physical explanation for it. If the
Enthalpy, H , acts as the potential for work for a system transitions to lower energy states are governed by
at constant pressure (Callen, 1965) and is given by: energy barriers then the height of these energy bar-
riers will necessarily govern the rate at which the new
H = pV + U (3) states form. Hence, the state that forms from a meta-
stable state is governed not by thermodynamics, but
The Enthalpy Minimum Principle means that the by kinetics (the kinetic rate being defined as the rate
mechanical equilibrium of a specimen in the triax- of change from one state to another). In many circum-
ial cell under constant pressure is controlled by the stances the energy barrier will be much smaller, and
minimization of the enthalpy which acts as the ther- kinetics faster, for the transition to some intermedi-
modynamic potential. This is true not just for isotropic ate state that more closely resembles the initial state.
loading conditions. As shown by Murray and Brown A good example of this is the formation of ice crystals
(2006), under anisotropic stress condition p is the from cold supersaturated water vapour. In an elegant
mean stress, which complies with the term pV being experiment, Huang and Bartell (1995) cooled water
an extensive quantity. vapour very rapidly in a jet expansion and at 200 K
Consistent with the minimization of the total clusters of molecules formed. At this low temperature
enthalpy of a soil system at equilibrium is the min- the thermodynamically most stable phase of the clus-
imization of the individual components of the total ters is ice, however they demonstrated that liquid water
enthalpy. This is the same as saying that the stresses droplets initially formed and only at some finite time
and pressures within the soil system will adjust to later did these droplets then relax to form crystalline
achieve a minimum energy condition. A more com- ice. In fact, when ice did form it did so in a meta-stable
plete statement would be ‘the stresses adjust to a cubic form rather than the more stable hexagonal form
minimum under the volumetric restrictions’ as it is and only at some later stage did the cubic ice particles
necessary to allow for meta-stable equilibrium of the relaxed to hexagonal ice.
soil particle structure. There could be a lower thermo- It is worth noting that such phase transformations
dynamic potential and reduced stresses and pressures can take protracted periods of time and meta-stable
associated with a redistribution of the particles. The states can appear to be the most stable state (Murray
analogy of a ball on a ledge on the valley side may again and Bertram, 2006; Murray et al. 2005).
be drawn on. The ball is in meta-stable equilibrium on A similar cascade through a sequence of meta-
the ‘ledge’ but could achieve a lower potential if it stable states may occur as soils relax. For instance
were to roll down the slope to the valley bottom. This in soils that are subject to collapse, there are a num-
might correspond to collapse of a soil structure. At ber of interacting factors including the interparticle
the ledge, the components of the soil system minimise stresses, the re-orientation of soil particles (or aggre-
their potential within the confines of the system. gates of particles) and the movement of water and air
within void spaces that are changing anisotropically.
The interplay between these factors may lead to the
4 STAGED CHANGES formation of meta-stable states which form more read-
ily that the most stable state. Only given enough time
As discussed by Mullen (2001), in the early part and sufficient disturbance may the most stable state be
of the 19th century several researchers made the obtained.
555
5 HYSTERESIS AND COLLAPSE IN SOILS collapse is consistent with an abrupt energy change
from a meta-stable to a more stable, lower potential
The dependence of soil behaviour on stress history is state. The subsequent phenomenon of hysteresis and
apparent in moisture characteristic curves obtained on plastic irreversible strains are consistent with meta-
wetting and drying. On desaturation of a fine-grained stable conditions and the soil not necessarily changing
soil, an aggregated structure results as air begins to fill directly into the most stable state. The soil exhibits a
the larger void spaces, with water filling the smaller staged transition analogous to the transient meta-stable
intra-aggregate pore spaces with a small amount of phases observed by Ostwald (1897). Mathematical
water remaining at the inter-aggregate contact points. models of soils must take into consideration these
The aggregated structure persists during subsequent meta-stable states in addition to considering the most
wetting and drying. Only if the soil is wetted and thermodynamically favourable state.
sufficiently agitated would it be possible to restore a
dispersed soil structure.
Wheeler et al. (2003) describe the existence of bulk 6 CRITICAL STATE STRENGTH
water within the water-filled voids and meniscus water OF UNSATURATED SOILS
at the inter-particle contacts around air-filled voids.
The bulk water complies with the water retained within For saturated soils the deviator stress, q, at critical state
the smaller intra-aggregate pores of fine-grained soils is given by:
and the meniscus water complies with the water at the
points of contact between the aggregations. The suc- q = M (p − uw ) (4)
tion within the bulk water influences the normal and
tangential forces at particle contacts whereas the suc- where
tion within the meniscus water influences only the nor- M is the stress ratio parameter
mal forces at inter-particle or inter-aggregate contacts. q = (σ1 − σ3 )
Wheeler et al. (2003) link the irreversibility during p = (σ1 + 2σ3 )/3
wetting and drying, and the onset of plastic defor- uw is the pore water pressure
mations at suctions below suction levels previously σ1 and σ3 are the axial and radial total stresses in a
experienced, with hydraulic hysteresis forces arising triaxial cell test
from the bulk and meniscus water. This gives rise to
not only hysteresis but a plastic creep phenomenon This is based on the effective stress being the con-
during repeated wetting and drying. trolling stress state variable. However, in unsaturated
It is interesting to re-examine the results of a soils it is necessary to take account of the dual stress
suction-controlled oedometer test on highly expansive regime. Murray (2002), Murray & Sivakumar (2005)
clay reported by Alonso et al. (1995). The results and Murray & Sivakumar (2006) derive the follow-
are presented as Figure 2. During the first wetting ing equation for the stress state in an unsaturated soil,
path C1 , initial swelling was followed by collapse based on enthalpy being an extensive thermodynamic
compression as the suction was progressively reduced. variable:
The plot shows significant irreversible components vw
of compression during subsequent drying-stages of pc = (p − ua ) + s (5)
v
wetting-drying cycles C2 to C5 . The phenomenon of
where,
pc is the mean coupling stress
ua is the pore air pressure
vw is the specific water volume
v is the specific volume
s = (ua − uw ) is the matric suction
The results of triaxial shearing tests on unsaturated
kaolin (LL 70%, PL 34%, clay content 80%) tested
to the critical state (Wheeler & Sivakumar, 1995) are
plotted in Figure 3. The critical state results lie close
to a unique line given by the following equation:
q p
= Ma c − 1 + (6)
s s
Figure 2. Wetting-drying cycles performed on Boom clay ! !
under oedometer conditions (Alonso et al. 1995). where is the intercept on the q s axis at pc s = 1.
556
3.0
Ma Ma
2.0 0.6
1
M
q/s
1.5 Ma
0.4
Mb
1.0 M = 0.84
0.2 = 0.6
= 0.6
0.5
557
7 CONCLUSIONS Keller, J.B. (1964). Growth and decay of gas bubbles in
liquids. Proc. of the Symp. on Cavitation in Real Liq-
Unsaturated soils exhibit meta-stable conditions which uids. General Motors Research Laboratories, Warren,
can lead to abrupt changes such as collapse settle- Michigan, 1962, Ed. Davies R., Elsevier Publishing Co.:
ment. They also exhibit hysteresis in the moisture Amsterdam—London—New York.
Mullen, J.W. (2001). Crystallization. Fourth Edition, Elsevier
characteristic curves and plastic deformations below Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506 4833 3.
the previous maximum stress level consistent with a Murray, B.J. and Bertram, A.K. (2006). Formation and sta-
staged change to a lower potential. There are a number bility of cubic ice in water droplets. Phys. Chem. Chem.
of interacting factors affecting the rate, magnitude and Phys., 8, 186–192.
degree of change in any specific test. These including Murray, B.J., Knopf D.A. and Bertram A.K. (2005). The for-
the interparticle stresses, the re-orientation of soil par- mation of cubic ice under conditions relevant to Earth’s
ticles (or aggregates of particles) and the movement atmosphere. Nature, 434, 202–205.
of water and air within void spaces. Stress history and Murray, E.J. (2002). An equation of state for unsaturated
anisotropy of the soil affect the starting conditions and soils. Can. Geotech. J. 39, 125–140.
Murray E.J. and Brown, J. (2006). Assumptions in equilib-
will also play a major role. rium analysis and experimentation in unsaturated soils.
The transition of critical state strength from unsat- Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT 2006,
urated to saturated conditions also exhibits abrupt Carefree, Arizona, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publica-
changes as a result of soil fabric changes from an tion No 147, Ed. Miller, G.A., Zapata, C.E., Houston,
aggregated to a more dispersed soil structure, and S.L. and Fredlund, Vol. 2, 2401–2407.
the soil endeavouring to relax to a lower, more sta- Murray, E.J. and Sivakumar, V. (2005). Stresses and conju-
ble, potential state. It is argued that the suction acts as gate strain-increments in plotting experimental data for
an ‘energy barrier’ to the changes. unsaturated soils. International Symposium on Advanced
Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics, Trento, Italy,
27–29 June, Ed. Tarantino, A, Romero, E. and Cui, Y.J.
Murray E.J. and Sivakumar, V. (2006). Equilibrium stress
REFERENCES conditions in unsaturated soils. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on
Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT 2006, Carefree, Arizona,
Alonso, E.E., Lloret, A., Gens, A. and Yang, D.Q. (1995). ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No 147, Ed.
Experimental behaviour of highly expansive double- Miller, G.A., Zapata, C.E., Houston, S.L. and Fredlund,
structure clay. Proc. 1st Int. Conf. On Unsaturated Soil, Vol. 2, 2392–2400.
Paris, 1, 11–16. Ostwald, W. (1897). Studien über die Bildung und Umwand-
Barden, L., and Sides, G.R. (1967). The diffusion of air lung fester Körper. Z. Phys. Chem. 22, 289–330.
through the pore water of soils. Proceedings of the Toll, D.G. (1990). A framework for unsaturated soil behaviour.
3rd Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnique 40, No. 1, 31–44.
Foundation Engineering, Israel, Vol. 1, 135–138. Toll, D.G. (2003). On the shear strength of unsaturated soils.
Black, J. (1775). The supposed effect of boiling upon water, International Conference on Problematic Soil, Vol. 1,
in disposing it to freeze more readily, ascertained by Nottingham, UK, 127–136.
experiments. Letter to Sir John Pringle, Bart. P.R.S., Toll, D.G. and Ong, B.H. (2003). Critical state parameters
in Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775) of the Royal for an unsaturated residual sandy soil. Geotechnique 53,
Society, Vol. 65 (1775), 124–128. No. 1, 93–103.
Callen, H.B. (1965). Thermodynamics. John Wiley and Wheeler, S.J. and Sivakumar, V. (1995). An elasto-plastic crit-
Sons, Inc. ical state framework for unsaturated soils. Geotechnique
Erné, B.H. (2000). Thermodynamics of water superheated in 45, No.1, 35–53.
the microwave oven. Jnl. of Chemical Education, Vol. 77, Wheeler, S.J., Sharma, R.S. and Buisson, M.S.R. (2003).
No. 10, 1309–1310. Coupling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain
Huang, J.F. & Bartell, L.S. (1995). Kinetics of homogeneous behaviour in unsaturated soils. Geotechnique 53, No.1,
nucleation in the freezing of large water clusters. J. Phys. 41–54.
Chem. 99, 3924–3931.
558
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: A new unified constitutive hydro-mechanical model named ACMEG-s is formulated to improve
modelling of unsaturated soils in free or constrained conditions. Indeed, due to particular mechanical and
hydraulic boundary conditions, some natural and engineered fine grained soils are highly constrained. When
submitted to in-situ wetting-drying cycles, such soils are prone either to collapsing or to generating swelling
pressures. The proposed unified framework provides a direct explanation for complex confined behaviour of
unsaturated soils. A sophisticated saturated model based on two coupled plastic mechanisms has been extended
to deal with partially saturated states. The adopted stress framework includes a Bishop-type effective stress
for the mechanical part and the matric suction for the hydraulic part. Some simplifications brought by the so-
called generalised effective stress representation versus conventional net stress and suction representation are
overviewed and related to the definition of the ‘Loading Collapse’ yield curve. Other implications of the unique
mechanical stress associated with suction couplings are shown to be essential in prediction. The most pioneering
results from the model validation by integration via a custom numerical tool are exposed. The combination of
the advanced yet simple stress framework and the adapted yield locus is used for the prediction of oedometric
and constant volume tests, leading to a straightforward interpretation of swelling pressure tests.
559
2 BASIC IMPLICATIONS OF GENERALISED 1 106
EFFECTIVE STRESS Possible
Net stress yield limits
5
The original concept of effective stress (Terzaghi 8 10
interpretation
1936) intends reaching homogenization of a multi
e −1
dεije = Dijkl dσkl (1)
2 105
where dεije is the elastic strain increment of the solid
e
skeleton, Dijkl is the mechanical elastic matrix, and 0 Effective stress
dσkl the increment of effective stress. Among the interpretation
possible forms of effective stress extended to unsat- -2 105
urated soils, that of Bishop-Schrefler’s (Bishop 1959, 0 4 104 8 104 1.2 105
Schrefler 1984) is used: Mean stress pnet or p' (Pa)
σij = (σij − pg δij ) + Sr (pg − pl )δij (2) Figure 1. Drying path in two interpretations on Sion silt,
experimental data from Geiser et al. (2006).
where pg and pl define the gas and liquid pressures,
respectively, with the assumption of two idealised is unique, it is easy to determine whether the stress
homogenous fluid phases filling the porous space. σij state remains inside the elastic domain, on the basis
is the external stress. Sr is the degree of saturation, of the value of effective stress and yield locus only.
used to scale down the fluids contributions to the effec- Consequently, a single mechanical yield surface is
tive stress proportionally to their respective volumetric sufficient. Yielding is thus uniquely predictable upon
fractions. Equation (2) defines the ‘generalised effec- conventional mechanical loading path as well as along
tive stress’. Following the discussion from Nuth and wetting-drying processes. By opposition, if the num-
Laloui (2007), this effective stress constitutes a single ber of mechanical stress variables is double (e.g. net
mechanical stress variable to be used within advanced stress and suction), the strain increment will be divided
constitutive frameworks. However, if thermodynamic into two parts related to each stress variable, and
considerations (Hutter et al. 1999) do justify the choice the yield locus will be double. For instance in BBM
of this mechanical effective stress, they also con- type frameworks (Alonso et al. 1990) the only way to
verge towards the need for a second stress variable to yield upon drying (Fig. 1) is to introduce the ‘Suction
build an exhaustive stress and work conjugate strains Increase’ yield curve in addition to the ‘Loading Col-
hydro-mechanical framework, as written below: lapse’ curve. As illustrated in Fig. 1, such a SI yield
locus is no longer necessary when using generalised
σij = σnet ij + Sr sδij εij effective stress.
and (3) In the following, the analysis of experimental
s = pg − pl Sr
results within the proposed framework provides a con-
vincing justification for simplifying the yield locus as
σnet ij = σij − pg δij is the net stress and εij the skeleton proposed. Other advantages of framework (3) such as
strain. simplification in shear strength modelling have been
Equation (2) reveals an implicit direct dependency investigated by Nuth and Laloui (2007).
of the effective stress on both the matric suction and
the degree of saturation. The major contribution of
the use of a single mechanical effective stress is thus 3 CONSTITUTIVE MODELLING
perceptible at the constitutive modelling level. The
generalised effective stress (Eq. 2) is non linearly A new constitutive model for unsaturated soils
incremented either by modifications in the external was formulated to understand better the constrained
mechanical stress σij or in the matric suction s or behaviour under hydric cycles. The principle is first
a combination of both, the consequence of which to take advantage of the generalised effective stress as
is a generation of a skeleton strain ε. Its increment a single mechanical stress replacing the conventional
dε is decomposed into an elastic part and a plas- Terzaghi’s effective stress. Then, an advanced satu-
tic part (dε = dεe + dε p ). As the mechanical stress rated elasto-plastic constitutive model (Hujeux 1985)
560
is used as a reference for the conventional mechanical 1.2
behaviour (non linear elasticity, plastic mechanisms, (a)
hardening plasticity). The hydraulic behaviour of the A B
1 C
partially saturated soil (soil water retention curve) is
107
suction. Equation (4) below defines an improved
s C
‘Loading Collapse’ curve: e
106
⎧
⎨p̃c (s) = pc0 for 0 < s < se Yielding
" # 105
zone
⎩p̃c (s) = pc0 1 + γs log sse for s > se (4) B
104
Drying
pc0 is the initial preconsolidation pressure at zero
1000
suction, γs is a material parameter, and se is the air
entry suction (that is the suction beyond which the A (b)
E
degree of saturation becomes smaller than 1). Eq. (4) 100
4 6
100 10 10 108
accounts for the effect of capillarity on the size of the Mean effective pressure p' (Pa)
elastic domain.
The reference stress-strain relationship in the satu- (c)
rated model is basically given by equation (1) for the A
elastic behaviour. Irreversible behaviour of the soil 0
B Exp.
p
gives birth to a volumetric plastic strain εv follow- ACMEG-s
(-)
Drying
p
log CR = βεvp (5)
pCR0 -0.24
-0.48
3.1 Isotropic stress paths
100 104 106 se 108
Figures 2a and 2c plot the laboratory experimental Matric suction (Pa)
result of a wetting drying cycle on clay under free
mechanical boundary conditions. The fine grained Figure 2. Simulation of volumetric response to hydric cycle
material, initially slightly overconsolidated, is free to under constant null net stress. Experimental points from tests
deform. Plastic straining is observed up to the air entry on white clay (Fleureau et al. 1993).
561
value of suction se , while for suctions greater than se 10
6
0 A
(Eq. 3) like during an isotropic purely mechanical
loading. When Sr = 1, the volumetric
response is
thus identical in both εv − ln p and (εv − ln s) rep- -0.015
resentations, with standard unloading-reloading paths D
(path AB and CE) and elasto-plastic part (path BC). -0.03 C
Once se is reached the preconsolidation pressure is
imposed to increase with suction (Eq. 4), faster than
the mean effective stress increases (Fig. 2b), resulting -0.045
in recovering Wetting path
an elastic
response (CD). The elastic lin- Mech. path
ear path in εv − ln p whose slope is indicated in dot- -0.06 5
ted line in Fig. 2c for a matter of comparison permits 10
to estimate (via Eq. 2) the response in (εv −ln s) plane. Mean effective pressure p' (Pa)
The obtained solid line CD in Fig. 2c is non linear.
The swelling collapse behaviour upon soaking is a 0.02
(c)
second inbuilt feature of the model. It is widely observ-
able experimentally (Fig. 3c) when wetting a material B
0.01
under a high initial net stress. Again, this behaviour
(-)
0
constitutive framework,
even though the stress path is
Volumetric strain
562
well predicted and the qualitative trends for alternative 10
9
Initial Test 2
3.2 Oedometric conditions
ACMEG-s test 3
from an initial suction of 138 MPa shows the model Exp. test 5
to predict satisfactorily the trend and magnitude ACMEG-s test 5
of volumetric strains (Fig. 4b). Even though the 0.16
global swelling trend is observed upon wetting for
all tests, punctual decrease in εv is attributed to
0.08 Initial
(i) the occurrence of mechanical compression prior point
to or during equalization and (ii) seamless plastic
episodes with initiation of wetting collapse. Sub-
0 Wetting
sequent oedometric compression tests (Fig. 4c) at
constant suctions from 0 (test5) to 500 MPa (test1)
5 7 9
are also remarkably well-predicted with the proposed 10 10 10
framework. Matric suction s (Pa)
0.4
3.3 Swelling pressure (c) Exp. 1
Mod. 1
The experimental behaviour of fully confined sam- Exp. 2
ples submitted to a wetting path is plotted in Fig. 5b 0.3 Mod. 2
(-)
and 5c. During swelling pressure tests, the total strain Exp. 3
v
Mod. 3
is imposed to remain null whereas effective and net
Volumetric strain
0.2 Exp. 4
stresses are generated within the cell. As soil wetting Mod. 4
provokes swelling or collapse under free displace- Exp. 5
ment conditions, confined soaking generates stresses Mod. 5
0.1
to prevent such straining. According to the initial state
(level of suction), the maximum generated pressures
are variable. Also, the generated vertical stress σv
0
does not hold a linear dependency on matric suction,
and its evolution trend even tends to reverse twice
(Fig. 5b). -0.1 4 5 6 7 8
Again, with the help of the LC yield curve and 10 10 10 10 10
effective stress concept together, ACMEG-s provides Vertical net stress (Pa)
v
a straightforward interpretation of the swelling pres-
sure
record,
with a distinctive stress path in the planes Figure 4. Back prediction of hydro-mechanical tests under
s − p and (s − pnet ) (Fig. 5a). The deduced stress oedometric conditions (Lloret et al. 2004).
563
plane (s − σv ) (Fig. 5b) also reflects three zones of
Effective stress (a)
interest, the repartition of which is linked to the
100 Net stress shape of the LC curve. At the initiation of wetting,
i.e. domain A, the process is fully reversible as the
Matric suction (MPa)
1000 Equation (6) also indicates that the soil water reten-
SP1 EXP
(b)
SP2 EXP
tion curve model controls the non linearity of stress
SP3 EXP
response in (s − σv ) plane anytime. Then, wetting in
Matric suction s (MPa)
0.1
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Vertical net stress σ (MPa) 4 CONCLUSIONS
v
1.2
A unified constitutive framework for unsaturated soils
(c)
is proposed. It takes advantage of the generalised
1 effective stress along with advanced couplings includ-
Degree of saturation S (-)
Figure 5. (a) (b) Stress responses to swelling pressure This work was partly supported by Swiss Competence
tests (c) Soil Water Retention Curve. Experimental points: Center Environment and Sustainability, project ‘Trig-
bentonite (Lloret et al. 2004). gering of Rapid Mass Movements in Steep Terrain’.
564
REFERENCES Lloret, A., Romero, E. & Villar, M.V. 2004. FEBEX II
Project: Final report on thermo-hydro-mechanical labo-
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. & Josa, A. 1990. A Constitutive ratory tests, ENRESA.
Model for Partially Saturated Soils. Geotechnique 40(3): Nuth, M. & Laloui, L. 2007. Effective stress concept in
405–430. unsaturated soils: Clarification and validation of a unified
Bishop, A.W. 1959. The principle of effective stress. Tecnisk framework. International journal for numerical and ana-
Ukeblad 39: 859–863. lytical methods in Geomechanics. DOI 10.1002/nag.645.
Fleureau, J.M., Kheirbeksaoud, S., Soemitro, R. & Taibi, S. Schrefler, B.A. 1984. The finite element method in soil con-
1993. Behavior of Clayey Soils on Drying Wetting Paths. solidation (with applications to surface subsidence). PhD.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 30(2): 287–296. Thesis. University College of Swansea.
Geiser, F., Laloui, L. & Vulliet, L. 2006. Elasto-plasticity of Sivakumar, V. 1993. A critical state framework for unsat-
unsaturated soils: laboratory test results on a remoulded urated soils. PhD. Thesis. Sheffield, University of
silt. Soils and Foundations Journal 46(5): 545–566. Sheffield.
Hujeux, J. 1985. Une loi de comportement pour le charge- Terzaghi, K. 1936. The shearing resistance of saturated
ment cyclique des sols. In Génie Parasismique: 287–353. soils and the angle between the planes of shear. Inter-
Paris, Les éditions de l’ENPC. national Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Hutter, K., Laloui, L. & Vulliet, L. 1999. Thermodynamically Engineering: 54–56. Harvard University Press.
based mixture models of saturated and unsaturated soils. Van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A closed form of the equation for
Mechanics of cohesive-frictional materials 4: 295–338. predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
Laloui, L., Nuth, M. 2005. An introduction to the constitutive Soil Science Society of America Journal (44): 892–898.
modelling of unsaturated soils. European Journal of Civil
Engineering, 9(5–6): 651–670.
565
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
S. Wheeler
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT: Wheeler and co-workers have recently proposed an elasto-plastic framework involving the
coupling of hydraulic and mechanical behaviour in unsaturated soils. A characteristic of the model is that it
has been formulated in terms of Bishop’s stress and modified suction (i.e. suction multiplied by porosity).
By using these new stress variables it is possible to predict the influence of the degree of saturation on the
stress-strain behaviour. In particular, this new framework is able to represent the coupling between hydraulic
and mechanical behaviour, allowing the prediction of influences of changes in the degree of saturation on the
stress-strain behaviour and conversely, influences of volumetric strains on the water retention relationship. In this
paper a 3D generalization of the stress-strain governing equations of this model is proposed based on concepts of
multi-dissipative materials. This is a proper framework as in this model the coupled hydro-mechanical behaviour
is described by three elasto-plastic mechanisms.
567
Elastic volumetric strains can be expressed as:
κ dp∗
dεve = (6)
v p∗
λ − κ dp∗0
dεvp = (7)
v p∗0
568
When yielding only on LC curve, coupled
movements of the SI and SD curves are given by:
dsI∗ dsD∗
dp∗0
= = k2 (13)
sI∗ ∗
sD p∗0
dp∗0
p p
vdεv k1 dSr
= − (14)
p∗0 λ−κ λs − κs
2.2 3D generalisation
Based on the ideas collected from the 3D generalisa- Figure 3. Evolution of CSL with suction in ( p∗ , q) plane
tion of the BBM (Alonso, 1993), a 3D extension of the (data from Wheeler & Sivakumar (1995); after Khalili et al.,
model presented in Section 2.1 is proposed here. The 2004).
model will be formulated in terms of the three stress
invariants ( p∗ , J , θ ) and the modified suction (s∗ ). In the increase of suction is represented by an increase in
addition, the concept of generalised stress and strain cohesion maintaining the slope M of the CSL for sat-
vectors proposed in Vaunat et al. (2000) is adopted urated conditions. In here, the same assumption about
here, being: M is held and the increase of cohesion is implicitly
∗ ∗ ∗ T considered by using p∗ and s∗ as stress variables. From
σ̃ ∗ = σxx , σyy , σzz , τxy , τyz , τxz , s∗ (18) the observed behaviour, the assumption of considering
T M constant in the plane ( p∗ , q) seems to be reasonable
ε̃ = εxx , εyy , εzz , γxy , γyz , γxz , −Sr (19) (see Fig. 3). In fact, as Khalili et al. (2004) showed
using the triaxial experimental results of Wheeler &
The saturated model adopted as a limit condition Sivakumar (1995), Cui & Delage (1996) and Maâtouk
is a version of the Modified Cam Clay model which et al. (1995) re-plotted in the (p∗ , q) plane, that critical
is extended along the s∗ axis following the shape of state is represented by a unique state line for different
the LC shown in Figure 1. Accordingly, it is proposed levels of suction (Laloui et al., 2005).
that the yield curve for a sample at constant s∗ will be From this assumption and considering the shape of
described by an ellipse which exhibits an isotropic pre- the LC curve suggested by Wheeler et al. (2003), the
consolidation stress lying on the LC yield curve. The yield surfaces can be represented as shown in Figure 4.
resulting shape of the yield surface in the ( p∗ , J , s∗ ) A generalized version of the Modified Cam Clay in
space is a half elliptic cylinder (see Fig. 2) extended terms of (p∗ , J , θ, s∗ and p∗0 ) is proposed as follows:
∗
from the plane s∗ = sD to the plane s∗ = sI∗ .
In order to define the ellipse it is necessary to spec-
J2 1
ify the failure states. A critical state line (CSL) for the FLC = − ∗ p∗0 − p∗ = 0 (20)
unsaturated condition should be defined. In the BBM g 2 (θ) p∗2 p
569
joint action of several mechanisms that can act simulta-
neously. Concepts of multi-dissipative materials intro-
duced by Rizzi et al. (1996) have been considered to
take into account that different mechanisms can induce
plastic generalized deformations.
To develop the governing equations, a procedure
similar to the one presented in Sánchez et al. (2005)
has been followed here. A first step is the assumption
of an additive decomposition of the generalized strains
into elastic and plastic components; so, the increment
of total generalised strains can be expressed as:
n=na
d ε̃ = d ε̃ e + d ε̃ pn (26)
n=1
Figure 4. Three dimensional view of the yield surface in
( p∗ , q, s∗ ) stress space.
where na is the number of active plastic mechanisms
that correspond to one subset of the total plastic
where p∗ is the first invariant of the Bishop’s stress possible mechanisms. The model has three inelastic
tensor: p∗ = 1/3(σ1∗ + σ2∗ + σ3∗ ); J2 is the sec- mechanisms: LC, SD and SI. Two is the maximum
ond invariant of the deviatoric Bishop’s stress tensor number of simultaneous active plastic mechanisms
(sij∗ = σij∗ − δij p∗ ), and g(θ) is a function of the Lode i.e. LC plus SD or SI (see Section 2.1).
angle (equivalent to M in the (p∗ , q) space). Differ- In classical plasticity theory, it is assumed that the
ent expressions of g(θ) are given for different failure material behaves either in elastic or plastic fashion.
criteria (i.e. Alonso, 1993). The yield surface defines the transition from elasticity
The other two yield surfaces are the same of the to plasticity, stress states inside the yield surface are
isotropic conditions, equations (4) and (5), and are considered as elastic (F < 0). When a loading process
expressed in the following form: is inelastic, plastic strain rates are assumed to be gov-
erned by a flow rule. For the LC plastic mechanism,
the generalized strain increment can be expressed as:
FSI = s∗ − sI∗ = 0 (21)
∗ ∗
FSD = s − sD =0 (22)
∂FLC
d ε̃p = χLC = χLC mLC (27)
The generic expression introduced as follows will ∂ σ̃ ∗
be used in this work:
When the yielding is on the SI or SD surface, the
Fβ = s∗ − sβ∗ = 0 β = SI or SD (23) generalized plastic strain increment can be obtained
through:
As a first approximation, associated plasticity is
considered within this framework. Hence, the yield
surfaces and plastic potentials are defined by the same ∂Fβ
d ε̃p = χβ = χβ mβ (28)
equations. ∂ σ̃ ∗
The hardening rules can be expressed as:
p p In classical plasticity it is assumed that once yield
vdεv k1 dSr occurs (that is F = 0), the stresses must remain
dp∗0 = p∗0 − (24)
λ−κ λs − κs on the yield surface during plastic deformation. This
p p constraint is enforced by the consistency condition,
dSr vdεv
dsβ∗ = sβ∗ − + k2 β = SI or SD which implies that dF = 0. The consistency condi-
λs − κs λ−κ tions for the plastic mechanisms consider here are
(25) introduced as follows.
Consistency condition: LC yield curve:
2.3 Governing equations
The behaviour of the soil described by the model intro- ∂FLC ∗ ∂FLC ∗
dFLC = d σ̃ + dp0 = 0 (29)
duced above can be regarded as the consequence of the ∂ σ̃ ∗ ∂p∗0
570
Using equation (24), the consistency equation can Introducing (39) and (40) in (37) and (38) the final
be expressed as: expressions are obtained:
p
∂FLC ∗ ∂FLC ∗ v dSr T
mLC d σ̃ ∗ − HLC χLC − hβ χβ = 0 (43)
∗ d σ̃ + ∗ p0 dεvp − k1 =0
∂ σ̃ ∂p0 λ−κ λs − κs
(30) mβT d σ̃ ∗ − Hβ χβ − hLC χLC = 0 (44)
Consistency condition: SI/SD yield curves: where HLC , Hβ , hLC , hβ are moduli related to the
plastic mechanisms evaluated according to:
∂Fβ ∗ ∂Fβ ∗
dFβ = d σ̃ + ∗ dsβ = 0 (31)
∂ σ̃ ∗ ∂sβ HLC = −H1 mεT mLC (45)
Using the hardening rule for sβ (25), the following hβ = H2 msT mβ (46)
expression is obtained: Hβ = H3 msT mβ (47)
∂Fβ ∗ ∂Fβ ∗
p
−dSr v hLC = −H4 mεT mLC (48)
d σ̃ + ∗ sβ + k2 dε p = 0
∂ σ̃ ∗ ∂sβ λs − κs λ−κ v
(32) 2.4 Elasto-plastic stress-strain relations
In this model the material behaviour is described by
The following expressions are adopted for the elasto-plastic mechanisms that can be activated dur-
generalised moduli: ing the loading process. The set of active plastic
mechanisms is not known in advance. Therefore it is
∂FLC ∗ v necessary to use an iterative procedure to find them
H1 = ∗ p0 (33)
∂p0 λ−κ (Simó & Hughes, 1998). A possibility is to assume that
all the plastic mechanisms are initially active. Here it
∂FLC ∗ k1 is assumed that both plastic mechanisms are initially
H2 = p (34)
∂p∗0 0 λs − κs active: LC and β (that is SD or SI ).
The increment of generalised stress can be
∂Fβ 1 expressed in terms of the elastic operator and the
H3 = ∗ sβ∗ (35) elastic and total elastic generalised strain increment
∂sβ λs − κs
according to:
∂Fβ v
H4 = ∗ sβ∗ k2 (36)
∂sβ λ−κ d σ̃ ∗ = De d ε̃ − χLC mLC − χβ mβ ; β = SI , SD
(49)
Using the notation introduced above the consistency
equations (30) and (32) can be expressed as: where:
T
mLC d σ̃ ∗ + H1 dεvp − H2 dSrp = 0 (37) ⎛ ⎞
E11 E12 E13 0 0 0 0
⎜ E22 E23 0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
mβT d σ̃ ∗ − H3 dSrp + H4 dεvp = 0 (38) ⎜ E33 0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
De = ⎜ E44 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
The plastic volumetric strain and the plastic change ⎜ sym E55 0 0 ⎟
⎝ E66 0 ⎠
in degree of saturation are obtained as follows:
E77
dεvp = χLC mεT mLC (39)
and:
dSrp = χβ msT mβ (40) E11 = E22 = E33 = K + 4/3G = (v/k)p∗ + 4/3G;
E44 = E55 = E66 = G;
where the auxiliary vectors are as follows: E12 = E23 = E13 = K−2/3G and
E77 = K̄ = (1/ks )s∗
mε = (1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0)T (41)
Substituting this equation into the ones obtained
ms = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, −1) T
(42) from the consistency condition in the previous section,
571
the following expressions are obtained: The assumption that H is a P-matrix implies that
each diagonal element of the H matrix plus the corre-
T
mLC De d ε̃ − χLC mLC − χβ mβ sponding diagonal element of the Hc matrix is greater
than zero (i.e. (HLC + HLC
c
) > 0 and (Hβ + Hβc ) > 0).
− HLC χLC − hβ χβ = 0 (50)
Therefore, the condition of H̄ > 0 is satisfied for
mβT De d ε̃ − χLC mLC − χβ mβ each plastic mechanism. The solution of the sys-
tem (62) requires the inversion of the H matrix which
− Hβ χβ − hLC χLC = 0 (51) is assumed to be a P-matrix, obtaining:
Rearranging, −1
χ =H e (62)
χLC HLC + HLCc
+ χβ hβ + hβ = eLC c
(52) The choice of the plastic mechanisms initially
assumed active should be verified by checking that
χβ Hβ + Hβc + χLC hLC + hcLC = eβ (53) they are actually active (Simó & Hughes, 1998). If one
of them is not active, in this model, the case becomes
c
where HLC , Hβc , hcLC , hcβ , are moduli related to the plas- a single dissipative model.
tic mechanisms and eLC and eβ are variables linked Finally, the generalized stress increment (49) can
to the increment of generalised strains. The system be expressed as:
formed by Equations (52) and (53) can be written as:
n=na
&
χLC H̄LC + χβ h̄β = eLC d σ̃ ∗ = De d ε̃ − d ε̃ p (63)
(54) n=1
χβ H̄β + χLC h̄LC = eβ
After some algebra the following general equation
where: can be obtained:
572
Civil engineering European courses, UPC, Barcelona, Rizzi, E., Giulio, M. & William, K. 1996. On failure indica-
Spain. tors in multi-dissipative materials. International Journal
Cui, Y.J. & Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic behaviour of Solids and Structures. 33 (20–22): 3187–3214.
of an unsaturated compacted silt. Geotechnique (46): Sánchez, M., Gens, A., Guimarães, L. & Olivella, S. 2005. A
291–311. double structure generalized plasticity model for expan-
Houlsby, G.T. 1997. The work input to an unsaturated sive materials. International Journal for Numerical and
granular material. Geotechnique (47) 1: 193–196. Analytical Methods in Geomechanics (29): 751–787.
Khalili, N., Geiser, F. & Blight, G.E. 2004. Effective Simó, J. & Hughes, T. 1998. Computational Plasticity.
stress in unsaturated soils: Critical review with new evi- Springer: New York.
dence. International Journal of Geomechanics. ASCE; Vaunat, J., Cante, J., Ledesma, A. & Gens, A. 2000. A stress
4(2): 115–126. point algorithm for an elastoplastic model in unsaturated
Laloui, L. & Nuth, M. 2005. An introduction to the con- soils. International journal of plasticity (16): 121–141.
stitutive modelling of unsaturated soils. Multiphysics Wheeler, S.J. & Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elastoplastic critical
Geomechanics 651–669. state framework for unsaturated soil. Geotechnique (45)
Lloret, M. 2007. Numerical Modelling of Coupled Behaviour 1: 35–53.
in Unsaturated Soils. PhD Progress Report, University of Wheeler, S., Sharma, R.S. & Buisson, M.S.R. 2003. Cou-
Strathclyde and University of Glasgow, UK. pling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behaviour
Maâtouk, A., Leroueil, S. & La Rochelle, P. 1995. Yielding in unsaturated soils. Geotechnique (53) 1: 41–54.
and critical state of a collapsible unsaturated silty soil.
Geotechnique (45): 465–477.
573
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
A.R. Estabragh
Faculty of Soil and Water Engineering, University of Tehran, Iran
A.A. Javadi
School of Engineering, Computer Science and Mathematics, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
ABSTRACT: The effect of the unsaturated condition in soils is commonly expressed through suction. It is
generally accepted that the suction and degree of saturation have a significant effect on the mechanical behaviour
of unsaturated soils. However, the effect of degree of saturation is generally not included in the majority of
existing elasto-plastic constitutive models. It is believed that inclusion of degree of saturation in constitutive
models for unsaturated soils could lead to significant simplification for practical purposes. This paper presents
the results of an investigation into the effect of degree of saturation on the behaviour of unsaturated silty soil in
the light of a comprehensive set of experiments. The variation of degree of saturation during loading/unloading,
wetting/drying and reloading is studied. The results show that the degree of saturation has a direct effect on
the behaviour of unsaturated silty soil. The applicability of degree of saturation in an elasto-plastic constitutive
model proposed in the literature is examined in the light of the experimental data and a suggestion is made for
possible improvement in modelling of unsaturated soils.
575
class of models the unsaturated condition is expressed of the elasto-plastic model of Wheeler et al. (2003) for
through suction without any direct influence of degree unsaturated silty soil is also examined in the light of
of saturation, Sr . Therefore, these models are not experimental evidence and a suggestion is presented
able to provide correct predictions when the influ- for elasto-plastic modelling of unsaturated soils.
ence of hydraulic hysteresis on mechanical behaviour
is prevalent (e.g., when studying behaviour of a soil
under cycles of drying and wetting). The second
class of elasto-plastic models for unsaturated soils are 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
expressed in terms of a different set of constitutive
variables that include the degree of saturation in their A set of experimental tests were performed on sam-
definition (Bolzon et al., 1996; Karube et al., 1998 ples of a compacted silty soil following the procedure
and Karube and Kawai, 2001). The stress variable in explained by Estabragh et al. (2004). Several isotropic
this class of models has the form of Bishop (1959) compression tests involving loading to a virgin state
relationship given as: and unloading to a predefined stress, suction change
(wetting or drying) and subsequent reloading were car-
σij = σij − δij [ua − χ (ua − uw )] (1) ried out in this research program. During each stage of
the tests the variations of specific volume and degree
where σij is the total stress, σij has been referred to as of saturation were measured. From the results of these
Bishop’s stress (Bolzon et al. (1996) and Gallipoli et al. experiments the values of slope and intercept of normal
(2003)) or average skeleton stress (Jommi, 2000). χ compression lines in the v−ln p space were calculated
is a soil parameter depending on the degree of sat- for different values of suction.
uration and ranges between one (at saturation) and Typical experiments results are shown in Figs. 1
zero (dry condition), δij is Kronker’s delta and ua and 2. Data from these experiments were used to exam-
and uw are pore air pressure and pore water pressure ine the prediction capabilities of the model proposed
respectively. Although this class of models intro- by Wheeler et al. (2003).
duced Sr into the definition of a soil variable, they
have some limitations when predicting certain impor-
tant aspects of unsaturated soil behaviour such as
irreversible compression during the drying stages of
wetting-drying cycle and the influence of a wetting-
drying cycle on subsequent behaviour during isotropic
loading. Recently Wheeler et al. (2003) presented
a new model which involves coupling of hydraulic
hysteresis and mechanical behaviour and is suitable
for prediction of hydraulic response and mechanical
response of unsaturated soils. They concluded from
Houlsby’s theoretical analysis (Houlsby, 1997) of work
input for granular unsaturated soils that another alter-
native choice of stress state variables for isotropic
condition would be as:
576
Inspection of Figs. 1 (a) and 2 (a) shows that there
was a change in the slope of compression curve dur-
ing loading stage ab, corresponding to a yield point
on the LC yield curve. During isotropic loading (path
ab) when large plastic reduction in void ratio occurred,
a significant increase in the degree of saturation was
observed. In contrast, during subsequent unloading
(path bc), when only a very small elastic swelling
occurred, the changes of degree of saturation were
very small and irreversible changes of degree of satura-
tion were observed. As the specific volume decreases,
the dimensions of voids and the connecting passage-
ways between the voids tend to decrease, so that a
higher value of suction is needed to produce a given
degree of saturation. Figs. 1 (b) and 2 (b) show that
the main variation in degree of saturation occurred
after the yield point, as the great proportion of defor-
mation occurred after yielding when large changes of
specific volume were occurring. Inspection of Figs 1
and 2 shows that the degree of saturation increased in
the wetting path cd (Fig. 1 (b)) and decreased in the
drying path cd (Fig. 2 (b)). It shows that the value of
Sr was higher in the drying path (Fig. 2 (b)) than in the
wetting path (Fig. 1 (b)) at any given value of suction.
Figure 2. Effect of wetting on subsequent soil behaviour The occurrence of hydraulic hysteresis is obvious by
during loading, initial s = 50 kPa, final s = 300 kPa; vari- comparing the results of these two tests. In the sub-
ation of (a) specific volume; (b) degree of saturation with sequent reloading a yield point was observed, but the
mean net stress. value of the yield stress does not correspond to the
maximum value of mean net stress that was previ-
ously applied; this was because of the change in the
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS initial value of suction in the sample during wetting
or drying.
Figs. 1 (a) and 2 (a) show the results of two typical tests
involving an isotropic loading and unloading cycle a-
b-c at constant suctions of 300 and 50 kPa respectively; 5 MODEL PREDICTION
followed by a wetting (or drying) cycle cd and subse-
quent isotropic reloading de. The results for each of In order to show the capabilities of the model in
these two tests are presented in a conventional for- predicting different types of stress path in isotropic
mat consisting of two plots; in the first plot the stress conditions the following values of soil constants
path followed in the test is shown (Figs. 1 (a) and were obtained for the soil from the experimental
2 (a)) while in the second plot the variation of degree results:
of saturation is plotted against mean net stress, p (on
a logarithmic scale). In the test, the mean net stress λ (parameter for volumetric strain on LC curve) =
was increased from 20 kPa to 550 kPa during load- 0.075
ing path ab and then it was reduced from 550 kPa to k (parameter for elastic volumetric strains) = 0.013
50 kPa in the unloading path bc. During the unload- λs (parameter for change of degree of saturation on SI
ing path, suction was held constant throughout the test or SD curve) = 0.12 and
at 300 and 50 kPa in the first and second test respec- ks (parameter for elastic changes of degree of satura-
tively. Fig. 1 (a) shows the results from a typical test tion) = 0.032.
involving an isotropic loading and unloading cycle The initial state of the soil sample for test 1 is:
a-b-c at a constant suction of 300 kPa, followed by
a wetting cycle cd and a subsequent isotropic reload- p = 20 kPa, s = 300 kPa, v = 1.7519, Sr = 0.798
ing de. During the wetting stage, swelling occurred in and pc = 190 kPa.
the sample (path cd in Fig. 1 (a). As shown in Fig. The initial state of soil sample for test 2 is:
2 (a) loading and unloading were done at suction of
50 kPa; the drying stage continued until s = 300 kPa p = 20 kPa, s = 50 kPa, v = 1.7519, Sr = 0.798 and
and was followed by the subsequent reloading stage. pc = 150 kPa.
577
The increments of p∗ and s∗ can be expressed by the
following equations (Wheeler et al., 2003):
578
the measured results. It is shown that although the REFERENCES
model is able to predict qualitatively various aspects
of the soil behaviour, quantitatively, there are dif- Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
ferences between the measured results and model model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique, Vol. 40,
predictions. No.3, 405–430.
Bolzon, G., Schrefler, B.A. and Zienkiewiez, O.C. 1996.
Elasto-plastic soil constitutive laws generalised to par-
6 CONCLUSIONS tially saturated state. Géotechnique, Vol. 46, No. 2,
279–289.
Cui, Y.J. and Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic behaviour
The results show that significant variations occurred of an unsaturated compacted silt. Géotechnique, Vol. 46,
in Sr during isotropic loading. This can be attributed No. 2, 405–430.
to the influence of volumetric strains, as the main Bishop, A.W. 1959. The principle of effective stress. Teknisk
part of changes of Sr coincides with the post yield Ukeblad 106, No. 39, 859–863.
sections of loading stages where large changes of v are Estabragh, A.R., Javadi, A.A. and Boot, J.C. 2004. Effect of
occurring. The experimental results indicate the occur- compaction pressure on consolidation behaviour of unsat-
rence of hydraulic hysteresis in the drying and wetting urated silty soil. Canadian Geotechnical Journal No. 41:
stages. The model that was proposed by Wheeler 540–550.
Gallipoli, D., Gens, A., Sharma, R.S. and Vaunat, J. 2003. An
et al. (2003) for unsaturated soils is a new model that
elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the
includes coupling of hydraulic hysteresis and mechan- effect of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical
ical behaviour. The performance of the model was behaviour. Géotechnique, Vol. 53, No. 1, 123–135.
examined in the light of results of experiments on an Houlsby, G.T. 1997. The work input to an unsaturated
unsaturated silty soil in order to evaluate the capa- granular material. Géotechnique, Vol. 47, No. 1, 193–196.
bilities of the model in predicting some aspects of Jommi, C. 2000. Remarks on the constitutive modelling
unsaturated soil behaviour during loading, unloading, of unsaturated soils. In Proceedings of the International
drying, wetting and reloading. It is concluded from the workshop on unsaturated soils. 139–153.
comparison of estimated and measured results that the Josa, A., Balmaceda, A. Gens, A. and Alonso, E.E. 1992. An
elasto-plastic model for partially saturated soils exhibiting
model is able to predict qualitatively various aspects of
a maximum collapse. Proc. 3rd, Int. Conf. Computational
the soil behaviour. However, the model predictions for plasticity, Barelona, 815–826.
some conditions do not coincide with the experimen- Karube, D., Kato, S., Honda, M. and Kawai, K. 1998. A
tal results and in some cases there are considerable constitutive model for unsaturated soil evaluating effects
differences between them. It may be that some of of soil moisture distribution. In Proceedings of 3rd Int.
the mathematical expressions of the model should be Conf. on Unsaturated soils, Beijing, 485–490.
improved and the model needs to be fully validated Karube, D. and Kawai, K. 2001. The role of pore water in
by experimental data including extension to triaxial the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils. Geotech.
stress states. The effect of meniscus water on mechan- Geolog. Engineering, No.19, 211–241.
Wheeler, S.J and Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic crit-
ical behaviour is likely to be dominantly a function of
ical state framework for unsaturated soil. Géotechnique,
degree of saturation, Sr rather than s∗ . An increase of Vol. 45, No. 1, 35–53.
Sr suggests a decrease in the stabilising effect of menis- Wheeler, S.J., Sharma, R.S. and Buisson, M.S.R. 2003. Cou-
cus. Therefore for modelling the hysteresis effects, a pling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behaviour
model which includes a link between Sr and s∗ might in unsaturated soils. Géotechnique, Vol. 53, No. 1,
be appropriate. 41–54.
579
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
K. Georgiadis
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a constitutive model for unsaturated and saturated soils based on the critical
state framework. The model includes a versatile expression for yield and plastic potential surfaces, the option
of linear or nonlinear increase of shear strength with suction and three options for the shape of the unsaturated
isotropic compression lines. The latter feature is of particular importance as it controls the amount of potential
collapse the soil can experience due to wetting. Depending on the type of boundary value problem analysed a
linear, bi-linear or exponential relationship can be used. Two sets of finite element analyses are presented here
which investigate the influence of the shape of the isotropic compression line on the behaviour of strip footings
and axially loaded single piles.
581
Kβ2
η f J
' 1+
F p̃ + k · seq K2 constant k
= − Kβ1 = 0 (3)
G p̃o + k · seq η f
1+
K1 k = Sr
582
p = 1kPa pm lnp
v1(0)
v1(seq)
Option 1
1
(seq)
~ ~
1 pc 1/b p~m
1 (0)
Saturated (0) Figure 3. Variation of potential plastic reduction of specific
volume due to wetting with isotropic yield stress.
Option 2
583
~ ~ option is given by the following equation:
N(0) ⎛ ⎞
N(seq) λm x−b
⎝1− ⎠
λ (0) − κ p̃o
1 p̃∗o = p̃c x , where x = (21)
p̃c
1
Option 3
3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES
Saturated
3.1 General
Two boundary value problems analysed with the
Figure 4. Isotropic compression line for option 3 above constitutive model are presented in this paper.
(non-linear). The analyses aim to highlight the influence of the
shape of the isotropic compression line on the
behaviour of shallow and deep foundations.
where
3.2 Surface strip footing
v = vp − ve
−b All analyses involved a 2 m wide rough rigid strip foot-
p̃o p̃o seq + patm ing bearing on a uniform soil. The groundwater table
= λm ln c − κs ln (16)
p̃c p̃ patm was at −2 m with a hydrostatic pore pressure profile to
the ground surface. An air entry suction value of zero
The slope of the partially saturated compression line was used and therefore the soil was treated as partially
at any value of p̃o is calculated as follows: saturated from the water table to the ground surface.
Two sets of analyses were performed. In the first set
−b the footing was loaded to failure and in the second
p̃o p̃o the footing was first loaded to a certain load with the
λ seq = λ (0) − λm 1 − b ln (17) water table at −2 m and subsequently the groundwater
p̃c p̃c
table was raised to the ground level at constant applied
The initial slope of the isotropic compression load. Three different loads were considered: 100 kN,
line, λin (seq ), is obtained by setting p̃o = p̃c in 175 kN and 350 kN.
Equation 17: Both sets of analyses outlined above were per-
formed with options 1 (linear isotropic compression
line) and 3 (non-linear isotropic compression line).
λin seq = λ (0) − λm (18) The soil parameters used in the analyses are shown in
Table 1. Three values of b were considered: 0.1, 0.226
The parameter λm is therefore a measure of the and 0.472, which correspond to maximum potential
soil stiffness at low confining stresses and is depen- collapse at a confining stresses, pm , of approximately
dent on equivalent suction. It can be assumed that 265 MPa, 1000 kPa and 100 kPa, respectively. A con-
the initial slope of the isotropic compression line, stant value with depth of 1.5 was assumed for the OCR
λin (seq ), is given by equation (10). λm is obtained from throughout the soil. OCR in this case refers to the
combination of Equations 10 and 18 as follows: equivalent fully saturated state (seq = 0): OCR = p̃∗o /p̃.
λm = λ (0) (1 − r) 1 − e−βseq (19) Table 1. Material properties for footing analyses.
584
500 For the lower load of 175 kN only small settlements
450 take place, which initially increase linearly with the
400
350
rise of the groundwater table but level off as the
G.W.T. approaches the ground surface. For the higher
Load (kN)
300
250 load of 350 kN much larger settlements are predicted
200 Option
model 11 indicating failure.
150 b = 0.1 Unlike the predictions for the load-settlement
100 b = 0.226
50
curve, the shape of the isotropic compression line can
b = 0.472
0 be seen to greatly affect the behaviour of the footing
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 due to wetting. The settlements reduce significantly
Settlement (m) with increasing b. For the lower load of 175 kN an
increase of the parameter b from 0 (equivalent to the
Figure 5. Load-settlement curves. analysis with option 1) to 0.472 leads to a decrease of
the final predicted settlement of approximately 73%.
Rise of groundwater table (m)
For the larger load of 350 kN the effect of the para-
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 meter b is even greater. At a rise of the G.W.T. from
0
−2 m to −1 m the settlement predicted for b = 0
0.05 is 150% larger than that predicted for b = 0.472.
For isotropic stress states it is only the relationship
Settlement (m)
585
-5 Table 4. Material properties for Terrace Gravel, Lambeth
Clay and Chalk.
-20
maximum potential collapse takes place at a very high
-25 Cessation of confining stress pm ≈ 26000 kPa.
dewatering The Terrace Gravel, Lambeth Clay and Chalk layers
were modelled with the generalised Mohr-Coulomb
-30 model. The soil properties adopted for the analyses
Pile construction are shown in Table 4. A value of zero was set for
the angle of dilation for these layers. The Lambeth
-35 Clay was assumed to behave undrained. The Ko values
assigned to each soil layer were 0.5 for the Terrace
-40
Gravel, 1.15 for the Lambeth Clay, Lambeth Sands
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 and Thanet Sands, and 1.0 for the Chalk. These values
Piezometric Level
refer to the initial fully saturated conditions, prior to
pile construction.
Figure 7. Canary Wharf pile analyses—Pore pressure The concrete pile behaviour was modelled as linear
profiles. elastic. A Young’s modulus of 20 GPa and a Poisson’s
ratio of 0.15 were used in the analyses.
Table 2. Material properties for Lambeth sand. Figure 8 shows the load-displacement curves pre-
dicted with option 3 for the three different values of
αf 0.08 β 0.02 kPa−1 b. Unlike the footing case, where the parameter b did
not affect the predicted ultimate load, the ultimate pile
μf 2.0 κs 0.001 load increases with decreasing value of b, and con-
Mf 0.9 ν1 1.826 sequently increasing isotropic yield stress p̃o . In this
αg 0.01 μ 0.2 case the suctions and stresses in the partially saturated
μg 0.57 sair 15.0 kPa
zone are sufficiently high to produce p̃o values much
Mg 1.32 ψ 0.03 kPa−1
αc 1.667 m 0.35
higher than the equivalent p̃∗o value, therefore affecting
λ(0) 0.06 n 4.5 significantly the size of the primary yield surface.
κ 0.005 Sro 0.15 Plotted on the same figure is the load-displacement
r 0.25 curve predicted with option 2. It can be seen that this
curve is very close to and slightly lower than that pre-
dicted with option 3 for b = 0.226 (approximately
Table 3. Material properties for Thanet sand. 3% lower). This is due to the fact that the isotropic
compression line for option 2 is very close to that
αf 0.08 β 0.02 kPa−1 corresponding to option 3 and b = 0.226 for the con-
μf 2.0 κs 0.001 fining stress level relevant to this analysis (higher than
Mf 1.0 ν1 1.872
αg 0.01 μ 0.2
200 kPa).
μg 0.57 sair 13.0 kPa The progression of the vertical displacements of the
Mg 1.46 ψ 0.014 kPa−1 pile with the rise of the groundwater table, at different
αc 1.667 m 0.4 constant loads, is shown in Figure 9, for option 2 and
λ(0) 0.06 n 5.0 option 3 with b = 0.226. It can be seen that the results
κ 0.005 Sro 0.13 are in good agreement, with option 2 giving slightly
r 0.25 lower displacements at the higher loads of 32 MN and
26 MN, and identical results at the low load of 19 MN.
This is consistent with the results of the loading analy-
Three different values of the parameter b are inves- ses discussed above, therefore confirming that the two
tigated; b = 0.472 which corresponds to maximum models produce very similar results for the given αc
potential collapse at pm = 100 kPa, b = 0.226 which and b values, and the stress and suction range under
corresponds to pm = 1000 kPa, and b = 0.1 for which consideration.
586
60 Rise of water table (m)
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
50 0
40 10
20
30
30
Option 2
20 40
Option 3 - b=0.1 b=0.226 (d=14.2mm)
Option 3 - b=0.226 50 b=0.472 (d=14.2mm)
10
Option 3 - b=0.472 b=0.226 (d=20mm)
60 b=0.472 (d=20mm)
0
70 b=0.226 (d=30mm)
0 20 40 60 80 100
b=0.472 (d=30mm)
Settlement (mm) 80
Figure 8. Load-settlement curves for different values of b. Figure 10. Progression of vertical displacements for differ-
ent values of b.
587
compression line has a significant effect on the Cui Y.J., Delage P. & Sultan N. 2003. An elastoplastic model
predicted load-settlement curve. for compacted soils. 1 st Int. Conf. On Unsaturated Soils,
• For the suction and stress ranges involved in the Paris, 2, pp.703–709.
problems analysed (both footing and Canary Wharf Georgiadis K., Potts D.M. & Zdravkovic L. 2003. The
pile analyses), the response to rising groundwater influence of partial soil saturation on pile behaviour.
Geotechnique 53, No. 1, pp. 11–25.
table significantly depended on the shape of the Georgiadis K., Potts D.M. & Zdravkovic L. 2005. Three-
isotropic compression line. Dimensional Constitutive Model for Partially and Fully
• The Canary Wharf pile analyses showed that when Saturated Soils. International Journal of Geomechanics,
the model parameters α c (for option 2) and b Volume 5, Issue 3, pp. 244–255.
(for option 3) are selected such as to give simi- Lagioia R., Puzrin A.M. & Potts D.M. 1996. A new ver-
lar isotropic compression lines over the stress and satile expression for yield and plastic potential surfaces.
suction range relevant to the problem analysed, the Computers and Geotechnics 19, No. 3, pp. 171–191.
finite element predictions are also very similar. Matsuoka H. & Nakai T. 1974. Stress-deformation and
strength characteristics of soil under three different prin-
cipal stresses. Proc. Jap. Soc. Civ. Eng. 232, pp. 59–70.
Modaressi A. & Abou-Bekr N. 1994. Constitutive model
REFERENCES for unsaturated soils: validation on silty material. 3rd
Eur. Conf. Num. Methods Geotech. Eng. Manchester,
Alonso E.E., Gens A. & Josa A. 1990. A constitutive model pp. 91–96.
for partially saturated soils. Geotechnique 40, No. 3, Van Genuchten M.T. 1980. A closed-form equation for pre-
pp. 405–430. dicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
Arya L.M. & Paris J.F. 1981. A physicoempirical model to Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., pp. 892–898.
predict the soil moisture characteristic from particle-size Wheeler S.J., & Sivakumar V. 1995. An elastoplastic critical
distribution and bulk density data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., state framework for unsaturated soil. Geotechnique 45,
pp. 1023–1031. No. 1, pp. 35–53.
Bolzon G., Schrefler B.A. & Zienkiewicz O.C. 1996. Elasto- Yudhbir 1982. Collapsing behaviour of residual soils. Proc.
plastic soil constitutive laws generalised to partially 7th Southeast Asia Geot. Conf. Hong Kong. Vol. 1,
saturated states. Geotechnique 46, No. 2, pp. 279–289. pp. 915–930.
Booth A.R. 1975. The factors influencing collapse settle-
ment in compacted soils. Proc. 6th Reg. Conf. For Africa
on Soils Mech. And Found. Eng. Durban, pp. 57–63.
588
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Modifying the Barcelona Basic Model to account for residual void ratio
and subsequent decrease of shear strength relative to suction
ABSTRACT: The paper presents modifications to the Barcelona Basic Model to account for two aspects of
unsaturated soil behaviour affecting the predictions for both fine-grained and granular soils: stabilisation of
void ratio and different patterns of shear strength evolution with increasing suction. The first modification
improves predictions of volume change at suctions close to the residual state. The second modification improves
predictions of shear strength evolution with increasing suction for various types of soils. It is shown how
the proper selection of values for the new parameters introduced allows the prediction of either continuously
increasing shear strength, or stabilising shear strength, or even subsequently decreasing shear strength after an
initial increase. The paper concludes with a presentation of the differences caused by these modifications in the
shape of the yield surface in the p − q − s space and the possible shape of the boundary of plastic volumetric
deformation in the p-s plane.
The Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) introduced by BBM remains until today the reference constitutive
Alonso et al. (1990) was the first complete con- model describing the mechanical behaviour of non-
stitutive model for non-expansive unsaturated soils expansive unsaturated soils. The model is formulated
to capture the fundamental aspects of unsaturated in the p-q-s space, where p = (σ1 + 2σ3 )/3 − ua ,
soil behaviour. Since then other models based on q = σ1 − σ3 and s = ua − uw (ua and uw are the pres-
BBM have been proposed, which introduce more sures of the pore air phase and the pore water phase
detail into the prediction of unsaturated soil behaviour. respectively, and σ1 , σ2 and σ3 are the principal total
All these models are based on critical state theory stresses). The yield locus in the p-q plane is described
extended to include suction as a separate stress param- by Equation 1, where ps is the tensile strength devel-
eter. While they succeed in predicting the general oped by suction, as described by Equation 2, M is the
behaviour of unsaturated soils, such as the increase slope of the critical state line, po the yield stress on the
of shear strength with suction exhibited by clays and v-p plane (s = 0) and k the rate of the tensile strength
the volume changes with suction expected for the increase with suction.
corresponding total stress magnitude, they cannot pre-
dict certain specific characteristics which have been f1 p, q, s, p∗0 = q2 − M2 (p + ps ) (p0 − p) = 0 (1)
experimentally established. The first is the prediction
ps = ks (2)
of the range of suction in which shrinkage actually
takes place for relatively low total stress. The sec-
The yield stress po evolves with suction according to
ond is the possibility of subsequent stabilisation or
Equation 3 where p∗o is the yield stress on the v-p plane
decrease of shear strength after an initial increase
(s = 0), pc is a reference stress, κ and λ(0) the com-
up to the air-entry pressure, as alternatives to con-
pression indices on the v-p plane (s = 0) and λ(s) the
tinuous increase of shear strength exhibited by BBM
compression index for p > po (s = 0) as described by
and other models. The modifications introduced pre-
Equation 4, where r and β are empirical parameters.
dict volume decrease only up to the shrinkage limit
and the possibility of any shear strength evolution λ(0)−κ
scenario past the air-entry pressure of the soil, i.e. fur- po p∗o λ(s)−κ
= (3)
ther increase of shear strength, stabilisation of shear pc pc
strength or even decrease to a lower value or even
zero. λ(s) = λ(0) [(1 − r) exp(−βs) + r] (4)
589
The yield locus in the p-q-s space is supplemented by 400
Equation 5, where so is the yield suction on the v-s
plane.
300
q (kPa)
f2 (s, s0 ) = s − s0 = 0 (5)
200
As can be seen from Equations 1 to 5 (and from
Curve a in Fig. 1), BBM incorporates only 3 parame- 100
ters describing volume change directly associated to
a variation of suction: κs , λs & so . These param-
eters allow the prediction of an initial low volume 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
decrease (determined by κs ) up to an essentially arbi-
trary value of suction so (which can be considered to s (kPa)
describe physically the maximum suction applied to
the soil) and then a further (and generally larger) value Figure 2. Shear strength evolution with increasing suction
according to BBM (graphical representation of Eq. 6).
of volume decrease (determined by λs ). Although this
formulation is adequate for the range of suction sig-
nificantly below the shrinkage limit of the soil, with √ ∗ 2·λ(0)[(1−r)·exp(−βs)+r]−2·κ
λ(0)−κ
√ ) po
the additional advantage that it is analogous to the q= k · M · s · pc (6)
formulation for volume decrease under zero suction pc
conditions, it does not include a boundary correspond-
ing to the shrinkage limit (either in terms of suction The terms in Equation 6 have been placed in such
or void ratio) up to which volume may decrease, as a sequence, so as the different effect of each factor
presented by Curve b in Figure 1. For suctions close to can be distinguished. k 1/2 expresses the effect of the
residual water content, or higher, this type of formula- evolution of tensile strength. M expresses the direct
tion overestimates volume change as it underestimates effect of the slope of the critical state line on unsatu-
final specific volume/void ratio values. rated shear strength. s1/2 expresses the direct effect of
As far as shear strength is concerned, setting p = 0 suction increase on the increase of shear strength.
into Equation 1, and replacing ps , po and λ(s) from The rest of the terms essentially express the effect
Equations 2, 3 and 4 respectively yields Equation 6 of the loading history and the effect of drying-wetting
which represents the intersection of the 3-dimensional cycles (indirect effect of suction on the evolution of
yield surface with the q-s plane (for q > 0). Plot- shear strength).
ting Equation 6 in Figure 2 shows that BBM predicts Despite the presence of numerous other factors
continuous increase of shear strength with increasing however, none can alter the continuous increase of
suction. Although this is true for clays, it is not the shear strength shown in Figure 2 (as was proven by
case for sands, tuffs and sometimes silts, as shown extensive parameter analyses carried out). For com-
by experimental results presented by Fredlund et al. parison, the curve shown in Figure 2 has been obtained
(1995). for the set of values used by Alonso et al. (1990)
for the ‘reference soil’ they used for their predic-
tions with BBM (λ(0) = 0.2, κ = 0.02, r = 0.75,
e or β = 12.5 MPa−1 , pc = 0.1 MPa, p∗o = 0.6 MPa,
so sr ln s M = 1, k = 0.6).
Other constitutive models which do not incorpo-
s
rate a limiting value of void ratio change or alternative
possibilities for shear strength evolution have been
proposed (e.g. Wheeler & Sivakumar, 1995). Toll
(1995) presented a conceptual model for the drying
s and wetting of soil which predicts the limiting of
er (b) void ratio changes and therefore the calculated volume
changes up to the void ratio corresponding to shrink-
age limit. Kohgo et al. (1993a & b) and Kohgo (2004)
(a) have proposed models which have limiting parameters
for volume change and the capability to model alter-
Figure 1. Void ratio/Specific volume changes with increas- native patterns of shear strength evolution. Georgiadis
ing suction under zero total stress: Curve a does not account et al. (2003) proposed among other modifications that
for residual void ratio, while Curve b takes residual void ratio parameter k can vary with suction by setting k equal
into account. to degree of saturation and therefore the evolution of
590
k with suction equal to the soil-water characteristic without natural structure, and by Equation 9 for natural
curve of the soil. This approach solves the problem soils.
for soils expected to exhibit an initial increase of shear
strength with suction and then a subsequent decrease, m
er = eo 1 − · eo (7)
like granular soils, but it does not provide a universally wL · Gs
applicable equation for shear strength evolution, mak-
ing it therefore necessary to switch between equations eo
er = eo · exp me · (8)
for k for each type of material. wP · Gs
Other approaches in constitutive modelling of
eo
unsaturated soils have focused on combining LC and er = Ms · eo · exp me · (9)
SI curves into one single surface. Delage & Graham wP · Gs
(1996) proposed first that the two curves are probably
one single locus in the p-s plane. Sivakumar & Doran The set of Equations 7 to 9 allows the prediction of
(2000) presented first experimental evidence to sup- the residual void ratio and as a result the calculation
port this, while Tang & Graham (2002) took the effort of the residual specific volume for incorporation as a
one step further by proposing a conceptual but com- model parameter into BBM. The use of the residual
plete constitutive model with one single continuous void ratio in the formulation of the BBM allows more
3-dimensional yield surface in the p-q-s space. This realistic predictions of volume changes due to suction
constitutes a different approach towards incorporat- increase under constant total mean stress during elastic
ing the capability to model various scenarios of shear or elasto-plastic loading. It allows for the derivation
strength evolution. of a limiting line in the p-s plane up to which volume
changes do actually occur due to suction changes for
the same mean total stress magnitude. Past this line
3 THE MODIFICATIONS TO BBM the only volume changes that may occur are due to
mean stress p increase. This point is further discussed
Common shrinkage limit tests and a large number in Section 4.
of published drying curves indicate that clayey soils For the more accurate prediction of shear strength,
shrink to a minimum value of their void ratio during the most suitable term from Equation 6 was selected.
drying and then shrink no more, irrespective of how This was k and it was given such a form so as to pre-
large the suction becomes. As shown by Curve a in dict either continuous increase of shear strength, or
Figure 1 therefore the specific volume-suction curve initial increase and then stabilisation, or finally initial
described by only 4 parameters (initial value N of spe- increase and then decrease of the shear strength. In
cific volume at atmospheric pressure pat , κs , λs and so ) order for this to take place it is proposed that k may
should be substituted by the idealised Curve b shown in be described by a function of the degree of saturation
Figure 1 with a flat final portion corresponding to the which takes the form of Equation 10.
residual void ratio er (vr = 1 + er ). This curve needs
only one additional parameter for its description, either k = ζk · Sηr k (10)
the residual void ratio er , or the suction at which it is
first achieved. Recently, Bardanis & Kavvadas (2006) In Equation 10, k is the factor giving tensile stress,
proposed an empirical relation predicting the residual Sr is the degree of saturation and ζk and ηk are
void ratio of low to medium plasticity clays and marls empirical parameters.
which have been consolidated to various stresses from For ηk = 0 and arbitrary values of ζk , prediction
a slurry condition and then unloaded and left to dry of shear strength is essentially as in the BBM. For
to residual water content in atmospheric conditions. ηk = 1 and ζk = 1, k becomes equal to the degree of
The residual void ratio is predicted from the physical saturation as adopted by Georgiadis et al. (2003). For
properties of the soil (wL , Gs ) and its initial state before selected values of ηk and ζk the prediction of all scenar-
drying, as expressed by initial void ratio before drying, ios of the evolution of shear strength with increasing
eo , and an empirical parameter, m, found to be 0.43 suction is possible. In Figure 3 the effect of ηk for
for the soils tested by Bardanis & Kavvadas (2006). constant ζk is shown and in Figure 4 the effect of ζk
More recently Bardanis & Kavvadas (2008) proposed for constant ηk is shown. In order to plot Figures 3
another empirical relation (derived from many more and 4 a soil-water characteristic curve was assumed
soils and test results) based on wp rather than wL and an for the material corresponding to the parameter values
empirical parameter, me , equal to −0.38, along with mentioned in Section 2. This soil-water characteristic
its conceptual generalisation for soils with structure curve was produced by use of the Fredlund & Xing
by addition of another parameter, Ms . The proposed (1994) equation assuming the following values for the
relations by Bardanis & Kavvadas (2006 & 2008) are empirical parameters of the equation: a = 600 kPa,
represented by Equations 7 & 8 respectively for soils n = 4, m = 2 and sr = 5000 kPa. For the set of values
591
800 the initial slope and subsequent position of the q-s
curve.
600
4 EFFECT ON THE SHAPE
BBM, k=0.6 OF THE YIELD LOCUS
q (kPa)
ηk=0.2
400
Apart from the direct effect on the predictions of
ηk=0.5 volume change and shear strength evolution with
increasing suction, the modifications introduced into
200 BBM have a major effect on the shape of the yield sur-
ηk=1 face in the p-q-s space. In Figure 5a the intersection of
ηk=2 the 3-dimensional yield surface of the BBM with the
0 p-s plane is presented. The increase in the size of the
0 1000 2000 3000 yield locus in the p-q plane (or its trace on the p-s plane)
s (kPa)
is continuous according to the tensile strength increase
law on one side and the evolution of the LC curve with
Figure 3. The effect of parameter ηk on the evolution of
suction on the other. For a material exhibiting contin-
shear strength with suction. ζk is constant with a value of 0.6
and the rest of the parameter values are the same as those for uous increase of tensile/shear strength with suction,
the curve in Figure 2 (bold curve in this figure). the shape of the intersection of the yield surface
with the p-s plane for the modified BBM is expected
to be the same as for BBM (Fig. 5a). For materials
400 exhibiting shear strength stabilization or decrease after
an initial increase of shear strength however, the shape
BBM, k=0.6
of the intersection of the yield surface with the p-s
300
plane is expected to change as shown in Figures 5b &
5c respectively. For a soil with continuously increas-
ζk=1.0 ing shear strength with suction, the left point of the
q (kPa)
592
3.5
A
3.0
2.5 B
2.0
s (MPa)
1.5
1.0
0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60
p (MPa)
593
4.0 all types of materials, : maximum volume shrinkage
limited by residual void ratio, and various scenarios
3.5 κ=0 of shear strength evolution with suction. Apart from
3.0 κ=0.01 achieving the goals for which these modifications were
introduced, they also have a strong effect on the shape
2.5 of the 3-dimensional yield locus in the p-q-s space
s (MPa)
594
Fredlund, D.G., Xing, A., Fredlund, M.D., Barbour, S.L. Kohgo, Y., Nakano, M., Miyazaki, T. 1993b. Verification
1995. The relationship of the unsaturated soil shear of the generalized elastoplastic model unsaturated soils.
strength to the soil-water characteristic curve. Can. Soils & Foundations 33(4): 64–73.
Geot. J. 32: 440–448. Sivakumar, V., Doran, I.G. 2000. Yielding characteristics
Fredlund, D.G., Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the soil-water of unsaturated compacted soils. Mechanics of Cohesive-
characteristic curve. Can. Geot. J. 31: 521–532. Frictional Materials 5: 291–303.
Georgiadis, K., Potts, D.M., Zdravkovic, L. 2003. The Tang, G.X., Graham, J. 2002. A possible elastic-plastic
influence of partial soil saturation on pile behaviour. framework for unsaturated soils with high plasticity. Can.
Géotechnique 53(1): 11–25. Geotech. J. 39 ( . . . ): 894–907.
Kohgo, Y. 2004. Elastoplastic models for unsaturated soils Toll, D.G. 1995. A conceptual model for the drying and wet-
with two suction effects and unsaturated soil behavior. In ting of soil. In Alonso & Delage (eds), Proc. 1st Int.
Jucá et al. (eds), Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Unsaturated Soils, Conf. Unsaturated Soils, Paris, 2: 805–810, Rotterdam:
3: 905–915, Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger. Balkema.
Kohgo, Y., Nakano, M., Miyazaki, T. 1993a. Theoretical Wheeler, S.J., Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic critical
aspects of constitutive modeling for unsaturated soils. state framework for unsaturated soil. Géotechnique 45(1):
Soils & Foundations 33(4): 49–63. 35–53.
595
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: An elastic-plastic constitutive model for partially saturated soils is presented. It is formulated
in terms of two stress state variables, consisting of the effective stress tensor for partially saturated soils and
matric suction. The yield surface consists of a shear failure surface and a strain hardening cap. The plastic strain
rate is computed by means of non-associated flow rules for both yield surfaces. The capability of the developed
constitutive model is demonstrated by the numerical simulation of a series of suction controlled tests. In addition,
an extension of the model in order to account for swelling soil behavior is presented.
Partially saturated soils are three-phase media con- A basic assumption of the elastic-plastic constitutive
sisting of a deformable soil skeleton and the two model is the additive decomposition of the total strain
fluid phases water and air. The difference between tensor ε into an elastic part ε e and a plastic part εp :
the pressures in the water and the air phase, called
capillary pressure or matric suction, has a consider- ε = εe + εp (1)
able impact on the mechanical behavior of partially
saturated soils. Experimental evidence shows that an
From thermodynamic considerations (Houlsby,
increase in matric suction in general results in an
1997; Schrefler, 2002; Borja, 2004) it follows that
increase of the shear strength, the preconsolidation
a material model for the soil skeleton of a partially
pressure and the elasto-plastic stiffness of the soil.
saturated soil can be formulated in terms of the effec-
Furthermore, a decrease in matric suction, i.e. an
tive stress tensor for partially saturated soils (i.e., the
increase of the degree of water saturation, under high
Bishop stress with the Bishop parameter equal to the
values of external stress can result in an irreversible
degree of water saturation)
decrease of the soil volume, denoted as collapse on
wetting.
Several elastic-plastic material models for unsatu- σ = σ − p a I + S w ( pa − p w ) I (2)
rated soils have been proposed in recent years, see e.g.
(Alonso et al., 1990; Wheeler et al., 1995; Bolzon and matric suction
et al., 1996; Geiser et al., 2000; Gallipoli et al., 2003;
Tamagnini, 2004; Santagiuliana et al., 2006). Most of pc = pa − pw (3)
these material models adopt some type of Cam clay
formulation.
σ denotes the total stress tensor, S w represents the
In this contribution, a cap model for partially sat-
degree of water saturation and pa and pw are the pres-
urated soils is presented. It is formulated in terms of
sures of the fluid phases air and water; I denotes the
the effective stress tensor for partially saturated soils
second order unit tensor. In the present model pc plays
and matric suction, the latter playing the role of a
the role of a stress-like plastic internal variable. Hence,
stress-like plastic internal variable. The model is vali-
the elastic strain tensor solely depends on the effective
dated by an extensive series of suction controlled tests,
stress tensor and for the special case of linear elasticity
described in (Macari et al., 2001) and (Macari et al.,
the constitutive relations are given as
2003). In addition, lab tests for swelling soil behavior
are simulated numerically. To this end, the cap model is
extended by adopting ideas for modelling of swelling σ = C : εe = C : ε − εp (4)
presented in (Gens et al., 1992) and further developed
in (Sanchez et al., 2005). with C denoting the elasticity tensor.
597
The degree of water saturation S w is expressed as
a function of matric suction by the approximation
proposed in (Van Genuchten et al., 1985)
c n −m
p
S w = Srw + (Ssw − Srw ) 1 + (5)
pcb
norm of the deviatoric part of σ , L(ϑ) accounts for X is related to the first invariant of the stress, it follows
the dependence of the yield surface on the Lode angle from (2) that the difference between effective stress
ϑ according to (de Borst et al.,) and α, θ and k are and net stress is given as 3S w pc , which results in the
material parameters. terms related to S w in (12). In (12)
The functional form of the strain hardening cap is
given as λ pc = λ(0) (1 − r) exp(−βpc ) + r (13)
f2 σ , κ( pc ), pc = Fc s, I1 , ϑ, κ( pc ) is a scaling factor for the plastic volumetric strain rate.
− Fe κ( pc ) − Fs ( pc ) (8) It is assumed to decrease from λ(0) at zero matric
suction to λ(pc ) → r · λ(0) for pc → ∞ with β and r
with κ( pc ) ≤ I1 ≤ X (κ( pc )) and (with r < 1) as material parameters accounting for the
increasing plastic stiffness under hydrostatic loading
(
with matric suction (Alonso et al., 1990).
I1 −κ( pc ) 2 The plastic potentials g1 and g2 for the non-
Fc s, I1 , ϑ, κ( pc ) = L2 (ϑ) s2 + ,
R associated Koiter’s flow rule are obtained from the
(9) yield functions (6) and (8) by setting L(ϑ) = 1 and
by replacing θ by ψ, which determines the amount of
where R is a material parameter, defining the ratio of plastic dilation.
the major to the minor axis of the elliptic cap, and For more information on the constitutive model
κ( pc ) is a hardening parameter. refer to (Kohler, 2006; Kohler et al., 2007).
X κ( pc ) = κ( pc ) + R Fe κ( pc ) + Fs ( pc ) (10)
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SUCTION
denotes the apex of the elliptical cap. The yield surface CONTROLLED TESTS
of the cap model is shown in Fig. 1.
The hardening parameter κ( pc ) is obtained by cal- The extended cap model was validated by the numeri-
culating the intersection of the elliptical cap and the cal simulation of a series of suction controlled tests
failure envelope (Fig. 1) by inserting (71 ) with I1 = (Macari et al., 2001; Macari et al., 2003), which
κ( pc ) into (10) and making use of the so obtained were conducted on cubical specimens of a silty sand.
relation also for the special case of pc = 0 as The stress paths followed in the experiments included
hydrostatic compression (HC) tests, consisting of
X (κ( pc )) − X (κ(0)) − RFs ( pc ) loading and unloading at different values of matric suc-
κ( pc ) = κ(0) +
1 + Rθ tion, triaxial compression (TC) tests and conventional
(11) triaxial compression (CTC) tests as well as triaxial
598
extension (TE) tests and simple shear (SS) tests at dif- S w pc -relationship (5) were chosen according to values
ferent values of matric suction and different values of for silty sands given in the literature.
hydrostatic pressure, and a wetting path. Here, only comparisons of the predicted and mea-
The material parameters for the cap model, deter- sured constitutive response for the HC tests (Fig. 2)
mined from the experimental data, are given in the and the TC tests (Fig. 3 to Fig. 6) are shown. Results
second column of Table 1. In this table Xinit denotes for the CTC tests, TE tests, the SS tests and the wet-
the initial value for the apex of the cap at water sat- ting test can be found in (Kohler, 2006; Kohler et al.,
urated conditions. Since the relationship between the 2007). Since the test data are given in terms of net
degree of water saturation and matric suction was not stress, the numerical results are also shown in terms
known from the tests, the hydraulic parameters of the of net stress.
Figure 2. Comparison of the measured (dotted lines) and the Figure 4. Comparison of the measured (dotted lines) and
computed (continuous lines) response for HC stress paths at the computed (continuous lines) q − εq response for TC tests
3 different values of matric suction. at I1 = 600 kPa and 3 different values of matric suction.
599
Figure 2 demonstrates the ability of the model to and computed relation between the specific volume v
describe the stiffening effect due to matric suction and the shear strain εq . It follows from the latter figures
under hydrostatic loading. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the that both the increasing shear strength with increas-
measured and computed relations between the devi- ing matric suction and the dependence of the volume
atoric stress q and the shear strain εq for TC tests, change on matric suction can be well described by the
conducted at two different values of I1" (i.e. the first cap model.
invariant of net stress) and three different values of pc
(i.e., pc = 50 kPa, pc = 100 kPa and pc = 200 kPa).
For the same tests Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the measured 4 MODELLING OF SWELLING
p̂ = p − pa + χ pc (14)
p̂˙
ε̇vm = (15)
Km
Figure 6. Comparison of the measured (dotted lines) and
the computed (continuous lines) v − εq response for TC tests with K m representing the microstructural bulk modu-
at I1 = 600 kPa and 3 different values of matric suction. lus. The swelling strains at the macrostructural level,
600
caused by the microstructural strains, are considered of Xr /X close to 1. Consequently, different interac-
as irreversible strains. They are added to the plas- tion functions are used for microstructural swelling
tic strains due to loading. According to (Gens et al., and microstructural contraction (Sanchez et al., 2005).
1992) the volumetric swelling strain at the macrostruc- For the numerical simulation of the swelling tests,
tural level is obtained from the microstructural strain presented subsequently, the interaction functions for
through an interaction function h(Xr , X ), yielding swelling and contraction, are chosen as
*
ε̇v,sw
p
= h(Xr , X ) ε̇vm (16) Xr 2 Xr
hs (Xr , X ) = 1 − and hc (Xr , X ) =
X X
(17)
The interaction function depends on the position
of the cap for the current stress point, X , and on the First, the swelling pressure test, described in
position of a ‘‘reference cap’’, Xr , which contains the (Romero, 1999) is simulated. In this test an initially
current stress point (Fig. 7). The ratio Xr /X ≤ 1 unsaturated soil specimen was wetted at fully con-
characterizes the preloading of the macrostructure. straint deformations and subsequently dried. It can be
A small value of Xr /X indicates large previous
preloading and, hence, a dense macrostructure of the
soil. In this case a larger fraction of the microstructural
swelling strain will be present as deformations at the
macrostructural level. Conversely, a smaller fraction
of the microstructural swelling strain will be present
as swelling strains at the macrostructural level in the
case of a looser macrostructure, which is character-
ized by values of Xr /X close to 1. On the other hand,
microstructural contraction has a stronger impact on
the deformations at the macrostructural level for values
s pc
Fe (I1) + Fs(pc)
I' 1
r Xr X
Figure 8. Comparison of the computed soil response in a Figure 9. Comparison of the computed response in a
swelling pressure test (continuous line) with experimental free swelling test (dotted lines) and a Huder-Amberg test
results (crosses). (continuous lines).
601
seen in Fig. 8 that the model allows to represent the de Borst, R., and Groen, A.E. (2000). Computational
development of the first invariant of net stress, I1 , due strategies for standard soil plasticity models. In Zaman,
to wetting and subsequent drying quite well. An inter- M., Booker, J., and Gioda, G., editors, Modeling in
esting feature of this test is the fact that the largest Geomechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
value of I1" , i.e. the largest swelling pressure, occurs Gallipoli, D., Gens, A., Sharma, R., and Vaunat, J. (2003). An
elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the
before the specimen is fully saturated. This behavior is effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical
a consequence of the so-called collapse upon wetting, behaviour. Géotechnique, 53(1):123–135.
which is reproduced by the employed model (the two Geiser, F., Laloui, L., and Vulliet, L. (2000). Modelling
dotted lines in Fig. 8 represent the load collapse yield the behaviour of unsaturated silt. In Tarantino, A.,
curve). and Mancuso, C., editors, Experimental Evidence and
Fig. 9 contains a comparison of the computed soil Theoretical Approaches in Unsaturated Soils, 155–176.
response between a free swelling test and a Huder- 27:1079–1098.
Amberg swelling test. In a free swelling test the Gens, A., and Alonso, E.E. (1992). A framework for
initially unsaturated soil specimen is wetted, which the behavior of unsaturated expansive clays. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 29:1013–1032.
results in the soil response, shown in Fig. 9 by the dot- Houlsby, G.T. (1997). The work input to an unsaturated
ted lines. In a Huder-Amberg test the soil specimen in granular material. Géotechnique, 47(1):193–196.
an oedometer is loaded first in axial direction (part 1 Kohler, R. (2006). Numerical modelling of partially satu-
of the continuous lines), followed by wetting (part 2 rated soils in the context of a three-phase-FE-formulation.
of the continuous lines) and, subsequently, the axial Dissertation, University of Innsbruck, Austria.
loading is reduced in several steps, in each step keep- Kohler, R., and Hofstetter, G. (2007). A Cap Model for Par-
ing the axial stress constant until no further increase tially Saturated Soils. International Journal for Numerical
of the deformations is observed (parts 3 to 5 of the and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, in press.
continuous lines). Macari, E.J., and Hoyos, L.R. (2001). Mechanical beha-
vior of an unsaturated soil under multi-axial stress states.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, 24(1):14–22.
Macari, E.J., Hoyos, L.R., and Arduino, P. (2003). Constitu-
5 CONCLUSIONS tive modeling of unsaturated soil behaviour under axisym-
metric stress states using a stress/suction-controlled
The proposed cap model allows to represent basic cubical test cell. International Journal of Plasticity,
19:1481–1515.
features of the behavior of partially saturated soils,
Romero, E. (1999). Characterisation and thermal-hydro-
e.g. the increase of the shear strength and of the mechanical behavior of unsaturated Boom clay: an exper-
elasto-plastic stiffness with increasing matric suc- imental study. Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of
tion and an irreversible decrease of the soil volume, Catalonia, Spain.
denoted as collapse on wetting, due to an increase Sánchez, M., Gens, A., Guimarães, L.d.N., and Olivella, S.
of the degree of water saturation, under high values (2005). A double structure generalized plasticity model
of external stress. For the extensive suction controlled for expansive materials. International Journal for
tests conducted on a silty sand, documented in (Macari Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics,
et al., 2001; Macari et al., 2003), the proposed cap 29:751–787.
Santagiuliana, R., and Schrefler, B.A. (2006). Enhancing
model yields good agreement with the measured soil
the Bolzon-Schrefler-Zienkiewicz Constitutive Model for
behavior. In addition, the cap model was extended Partially Saturated Soil. Transport in Porous Media, 65:
to take into account swelling behavior of soils and it 1–30.
was shown that the soil behavior, observed in typical Schrefler, B.A. (2002). Mechanics and thermodynamics of
swelling tests, can be reproduced. saturated/unsaturated porous materials and quantitative
solutions. Applied Mechanics Reviews, 55(4):351–387.
Tamagnini, R. (2004). An extended Cam-Clay model for
unsaturated soils with hydraulic hysteresis. Géotechnique,
REFERENCES 54(3):223–228.
Van Genuchten, M. Th., and Nielsen, D. R. (1985).
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., and Josa, A. (1990). A consti- On describing and predicting the hydraulic proper-
tutive model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique ties of unsaturated soils. Annales Geophysicae, 3(5):
40(3):405–430. 615–628.
Bolzon, G., and Schrefler, B.A. (1996). Elastoplastic soil Wheeler, S.J., and Sivakumar, V. (1995). An elasto-plastic
constitutive laws generalized to partially saturated states. critical state framework for unsaturated soils. Géotech-
Géotechnique, 46(2):279–289. nique, 45(1):35–53.
Borja, R.I. (2004). Cam-clay plasticity. part V: A math-
ematical framework for three-phase deformation and
strain localization analyses of partially saturated porous
media. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, 193:5301–5338.
602
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Water-undrained one-dimensional compression tests with suction monitoring using Trento high-
capacity tensiometers were carried out. During the loading-unloading cycles, suction, total vertical stress, degree
of saturation, and specific volume were measured. It was observed that water retention behaviour is coupled
to mechanical behaviour through the specific volume and, in turn, mechanical behaviour is coupled to water
retention behaviour through the degree of saturation. The average skeleton stress and modified suction were
adopted as generalised stress variables to model coupled behaviour and derived a ‘virgin loading’ mechanical
boundary surface in the space: average skeleton stress, modified suction, and specific volume and a ‘main
wetting’ hydraulic boundary surface in the space: modified suction, degree of saturation, and specific volume.
This made it possible to investigate the yield loci in the generalised stress plane and it was observed that their
shape differs from those suggested in the literature.
603
2 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT and one potentiometer displacement transducer for
measuring the vertical displacements (34 mm travel
2.1 Trento high-capacity tensiometer with measured standard deviation of accuracy of
±0.01 mm). An electrovalve connected to the labora-
The Trento high-capacity tensiometer was used to
tory air supply system was used to control air pressure
measure matric suction (Tarantino & Mongiovì, 2002).
in the pneumatic actuator. The oedometer ring had
The tensiometer was calibrated in the positive range
diameter of 100 mm and height of 40 mm.
0–1500 kPa with a measured standard deviation of
accuracy of ±1.5 kPa. It was assumed that calibra-
tion could be extrapolated into the negative range 3 MATERIAL AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION
according to Tarantino & Mongiovì (2003).
Speswhite Kaolin with plastic limit, wP = 0.32 and
liquid limit, wL = 0.64 was chosen for tests presented
2.2 Oedometer cell for one-dimensional in this paper. The grain size distribution showed it to
compression tests have 0.20 silt fraction, and 0.80 clay fraction.
The soil was one-dimensionally compressed in the Samples were prepared according to the procedure
apparatus shown in Figure 1 (Tarantino & De Col, described by Tarantino & Tombolato (2005). Dry pow-
2008). It consists of an oedometer cell, a loading pad dered Kaolin was laid in a large plastic basin in layers
and a pneumatic actuator. The oedometer cell was of about 10 mm and each layer sprayed with dem-
made impermeable at its base by inserting a stain- ineralised water to reach the target water content.
less steel sheet between the base and ring. Two holes The moistened powder was hand-mixed and saturated
were machined into the loading pad to install two lumps were cut using four spatulas attached together.
tensiometers. An O-ring was positioned in the ten- The material was sieved through a 1 mm aperture sieve
siometer hole to avoid evaporation of soil water from to reduce the aggregate size. This size was considered
the measurement area. Tensiometers were kept in place acceptable when compared to the 20–25 mm specimen
by small caps (not shown in the figure) which were height. The moistened powder was wrapped inside two
tightened to the pad by means of three screws. sealed plastic bags, placed in a plastic container and
A membrane obtained by cutting and pasting nitrile stored in a high-humidity room for at least 7 days.
elastomer Bellofram rolling diaphragms was used to For the one-dimensional compression tests, the
seal the annular gap between the loading pad and powder was placed in the oedoemeter and then com-
the oedometer ring. The membrane attachment was pressed at loading rate of 5 kPa/min.
designed to minimise the volume of air enclosed by
the membrane. A sphere was interposed between the 4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
loading pad and the ram to ensure that no moments
were transferred to the loading pad. The kaolin powder was placed in the oedometer ring
The apparatus was equipped with a load cell for up to its height (40 mm). After placing the loading
measuring the vertical force (2000 N capacity with pad on the powder, a vertical stress of 150 kPa was
a measured standard deviation of accuracy of ±3 N) applied and the membrane was set in place. Tensiome-
ters were installed after applying a soil paste to the
porous ceramic and were allowed to equilibrate for typ-
ically 1–2 hours. Prior to measurement, tensiometers
were conditioned according to the procedure described
by Tarantino (2004).
The loading path involved loading-unloading
cycles to 300, 600, 900, and 1200 kPa (Figure 2). The
total vertical stress σv was increased or decreased at
the constant rate of 5 kPa/min and each applied vertical
stress was maintained constant for 30 min.
The states of the specimen under quasi-zero verti-
cal stress (14 kPa) were assumed to correspond to the
states referred to as ‘as-compacted’ in the literature.
The loading rate was selected on the basis of prelim-
inary tests carried out at loading rates of 20, 10, and
5 kPa/min (Tarantino & De Col, 2008).
After applying 150 kPa vertical stress, a calliper
Figure 1. Schematic layout of the oedometer cell for one- having 0.02 mm resolution was used to measure the
dimensional compression (Tarantino & De Col 2008). distance between the loading cap and a reference point.
604
3
1200 11 w=0.259
d v/dt=5 kPa/min
1050 w=0.275 w=0.254 w=0.236
Vertical stress, v : kPa
w=0.299
8 2.8 w=0.215
900 10
w=0.311
750
600 5 7 2.6
Specific volume, v
450 Tensiometer
insertion
300 2 4
2.4
150
1 12
3 6 9
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2.2
Time: min
To model ‘main wetting’ behaviour, data from the where v is the specific volume and φ, ψ, m and n are
seven one-dimensional compression tests lying on the parameters determined by best-fitting using the least
605
1 1.6
0.6
1.2
0.4
0.2 1
100 1000 10000 100000 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Normalised modified matric suction v s*: kPa Modified matric suction over average skeleton stress
s*/ "v: kPa
squares method. With respect to the equation origi- Within the boundary surfaces, the behaviour is
nally proposed by Gallipoli et al. (2003b), the specific reversible as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. In
volume and modified suction now replace the void particular, reversible degree of saturation paths (scan-
ratio and suction respectively. ning paths) appear to be independent of specific
The main wetting surface given by Eq. 2 acts as volume Figure 4 and can be described by the following
lower boundary surface in the space (s∗ , v, Sr ) (Vaunat equation:
et al., 2000; Gallipoli et al., 2003a; Tarantino &
Tombolato, 2005) and is associated with the suction Sr = Sr0 − κs s∗ (5)
decrease (SD) yield locus discussed by Wheeler et al.
(2003). where κs is the slope of the scanning paths in the plane
The capability of Eq. 2 to capture the effect of s ∗ − Sr .
specific volume on degree of saturation is shown in Reversible specific volume paths (unlolading-
Figure 5 where the degree of saturation is plotted reloading paths) appear to be independent of modi-
against the modified suction normalized with respect fied suction (Figure 3) and can be described by the
to specific volume, vψ s∗ . following equation:
To model ‘virgin loading’ behaviour, data from the
seven one-dimensional compression tests lying on vir- v = vk − κ ln σv (6)
gin compression curves and having void ratios of 1.0,
1.2, 1.4, 1.6, and 1.8 were selected. These data were
where κ is the slope of the unloading-reloading paths
interpolated using the following equation:
in the plane ln (σv ) − v and vk is the specific volume
∗ b at σv = 1 kPa.
s
v = vs · 1 + a (3)
σv
7 HARDENING LAWS
where a and b are best-fit parameters and vs is the
specific volume in saturated conditions at the same Wheeler et al. (2003) presented a constitutive model
average skeleton stress. The saturated specific vol- for isotropic stress states. Yield curves in the plane
ume vs was derived from tests on saturated specimens (p − s∗ ), with p being the mean average skeleton
(Tarantino & De Col 2008): stress, were assumed to be as shown in Figure 7. The
locations of the LC and SD curves are defined by p∗0
∗
vs = N1−D − λ ln σv (4) and sD and these are related to the plastic volumetric
p
deformations dεv and the plastic degree of saturation
p
where N1−D and λ are the saturated virgin loading change dSr by the following hardening laws:
parameters. The virgin loading surface given by Equa-
tion (3) acts as boundary surface in the space (σv , s∗ , v) p λ−κ dp∗0 ∗
dsD
and is associated with the load-collapse (LC) yield dεv = ∗ − k1 ∗
v (1 − k1 k2 ) p0 sD
locus discussed by Wheeler et al. (2003). (7)
The capability of Eq. 3 to capture the effect of aver- ∗
p λs − κs dsD dp∗0
age skeleton stress and modified suction on specific dSr =− ∗ − k2 ∗
volume is shown in Figure 6. (1 − k1 k2 ) sD p0
606
where λ and κ are the parameters of the mechanical This suggests that the yield loci SD and LC may not
model, λs and ks are the parameters of the water reten- have the form proposed in Figure 7.
tion model, and k1 and k2 are coupling parameters.
Let us assume that this constitutive model also
applies to one-dimensional stress states with p 8 YIELD LOCI
replaced by σv . During the one-dimensional virgin
compression, the soil contemporarily moves along the The yield locus SD can be derived by the intersection
mechanical boundary surface (Eq. 3) and the water of the ‘main wetting’ lower boundary surface (Eq. 2)
retention boundary surface (Eq. 2). The stress state is with the elastic wall defined by Eq. 5. The specific
then located on the bottom-right corner of the elas- volume that appears in Eq. 2 is the volume associated
tic domain shown in Figure 7. As such, during virgin with an elastic path reaching the SD yield locus and
∗
loading, s∗ ≡ sD and σv = σ0∗ . this is given by Eq. 6. The yield locus SD is obtained
p
The hardening law associated with dSr can then be in implicit form as follows:
derived by differentiating Eq. 2 and Eq. 5 and assum- ⎧ ⎫m
ing that the specific volume is given by Eq. 3. The ⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
p 1
hardening law associated with dεv can be derived Sr0 − ks s∗ = " # (10)
by differentiating Eq. 3 and Eq. 6. The following ⎪
⎩ 1 + φ vk − k ln σv ψ s∗ ⎪
n
⎭
hardening laws were thus obtained:
The yield locus LC can be derived by the intersec-
p dσ0∗ B ∗
dsD tion of the ‘virgin loading’ boundary surface (Eq. 3)
dεv = (A+B−C) ∗ − ∗
σ0 A + B − C sD with the elastic wall defined by Eq. 6. The following
∗ (8) implicit equation was obtained:
dsD ψ (A + B) dσ0∗
p
dSr = −DE − ∗ b
∗
sD E σ0∗ s
vk − k ln σv = vs · 1 + a (11)
σv
where:
The LC and SD yield loci derived from the water
λ vsat κ retention and mechanical boundary surfaces and their
A= ;B = b 1 − ;C = ;
vsat v v evolution with loading are plotted in Figure 8 for the
(9) compression test at w = 0.311. As expected, the LC
s∗ and SD yield curve have a more complex shape than
Sr /
1m
D = mnSr 1 − ; E = ψB + 1 − κs . assumed by Wheeler et al. (2003) in their basic model.
D
200
100 LC
SD
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Average skeleton stres, v" : kPa
607
9 CONCLUSIONS Houlsby, G.T. 1997. The work input to an unsaturated
granular material. Géotechnique 47 (1): 193–196.
The paper has presented water-undrained one- Jommi, C. 2000. Remarks on the constitutive modelling of
dimensional compression tests with suction monitor- unsaturated soils. In Experimental Evidence and The-
ing using Trento high-capacity tensiometers. Loading oretical Approaches in Unsaturated Soils, Proceedings
of an International Workshop (eds A. Tarantino and
and water retention paths were investigated using two C. Mancuso), pp. 139–153. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
generalised stress variables, the average skeleton stress Tamagnini, R. 2004. An extended Cam-clay model for
and the modified suction. unsaturated soils with hydraulic hysteresis. Géotechnique
We derived a ‘virgin loading’ mechanical boundary 54 (3): 223–228.
surface in the space: average skeleton stress, modi- Tarantino, A. 2004. Panel report: Direct measurement of
fied suction, and specific volume and a ‘main wetting’ soil water tension. In Proceedings 3rd International Con-
hydraulic boundary surface in the space: modified suc- ference on Unsaturated Soils (eds J.F.T. Jucá, T.M.P. de
tion, degree of saturation, and specific volume. In turn, Campos and F.A.M. Marinho), Recife, 3, pp. 1005–1017.
these boundary surfaces were used to derive the yield Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
Tarantino, A. & Mongiovì, L. 2002. Design and construction
loci in the generalised stress plane. It was observed of a tensiometer for direct measurement of matric suction.
that their shape differs from those suggested in the In Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Unsatu-
literature. rated Soils (eds J.F.T. Jucá, T.M.P. de Campos and F.A.M.
Equations for the LC and SD yield loci were Marinho), Recife, 1, pp.319–324.
obtained in implicit form. Future work will involve Tarantino, A. & Mongiovì, L. 2003. Calibration of tensiome-
defining simpler explicit equations for the yield loci ter for direct measurement of matric suction. Géotech-
and deriving suitable hardening laws. nique, 53 (1): 137–141.
Tarantino, A. & Tombolato, S. 2005. Coupling of hydraulic
and mechanical behaviour in unsaturated compacted clay.
Géotechnique 55 (4): 307–317.
REFERENCES Tarantino, A. & De Col, E. 2008. Compaction behaviour of
clay. Géotechnique, in press.
Boso, M. 2005. Shear strength behaviour of a reconstituted Vaunat, J., Romero, E. & Jommi, C. 2000. An elasto-
partially saturated clayey silt. PhD dissertation, Università plastic hydro-mechanical model for unsaturated soils. In
degli Studi di Trento, Italy. Experimental Evidence and Theoretical Approaches in
Gallipoli, D., Gens, A., Sharma, R. & Vaunat, J. 2003a. An Unsaturated Soils, Proceedings of an International Work-
elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the shop (eds A. Tarantino and C. Mancuso), pp. 121–138.
effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
behaviour. Géotechnique 53 (1): 123–136. Wheeler, S.J., Sharma, R.S. & Buisson, M.S.R. 2003. Cou-
Gallipoli, D., Wheeler, S.J. & Karstunen, M. 2003b. Mod- pling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behaviour
elling the variation of degree of saturation in a deformable in unsaturated soils. Géotechnique 53 (1): 41–54.
unsaturated soil. Géotechnique, 53 (1): 105–112.
608
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
F. Casini
Università Roma ‘‘La Sapienza’’, Roma, Italy
R. Vassallo
Università della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy
C. Mancuso
Università ‘‘Federico II’’, Napoli, Italy
A. Desideri
Università Roma ‘‘La Sapienza’’, Roma, Italy
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an interpretation of experimental results obtained at the Department of
Geotechnical Engineering of the Università di Napoli Federico II. The results are part of an extensive program
carried out to investigate the effects of partial saturation on the volumetric behaviour and on the initial shear
stiffness of a compacted silt. Tests were performed using two suction-controlled devices, a triaxial cell and a
Resonant Column Torsional Shear (RCTS) cell. The compatibility of experimental data with a Bishop Stress
Model (BSM) is discussed in the paper. The BSM permits highlighting of the two main effects of suction on soil
behaviour: the increase of the average stress acting on the soil skeleton and the hardening—cementing of the soil
packing. Hydraulic hysteresis is included in the definition of the water retention curve so that its effects, such
as the irreversible component of volume change recorded during drying paths, are automatically incorporated
in the predictions of the model.
609
Table 1. Average properties of the tested material after where σij are total stresses, ua is the air pressure, uw is
compaction. the water pressure, δij is the Kronecker delta, χ(Sr ) is a
weighing parameter which can account for the effects
w (%) γd (kN/m3 ) v Sr (%) of surface tension. In this work χ(Sr ) was assumed
equal to Sr . It has been argued that expression (1),
23.1 ± 0.3 15.59 ± 0.08 1.731 ± 0.009 86.9 ± 1.9
often called Bishop’s stress with χ(Sr ) = Sr , rep-
resents the average stress acting on the solid phase
if one neglects the work of the air-water interface
Table 2. Stress paths of tests mp05RC and mp07RC. (Hassanizadeh & Gray, 1980; Lewis & Schrefler,
1987; Hutter et al., 1999).
mp05RC mp07RC Starting from the modified Cam Clay model for
saturated conditions (Roscoe & Burland, 1968) and
p − ua ; ua − uw (kPa) p − ua ; ua − uw (kPa) using the conceptual framework proposed by Jommi
10 200 10 400 (2000) and Tamagnini (2004), the model is formulated
200 200 200 400 as follows.
200 400 200 100 As in the original modified Cam-clay model, elastic
200 100 200 400 behaviour is defined by:
200 400 200 200
200 100 550 200 1 1
200 200 – – ε̇ve = ṗ ε̇de = q̇ (2)
K 3G
610
The integration of Equation (4) yields to: The main drying and wetting curves are obtained
assuming different values for the constitutive param-
pc = pc sat · exp[b(1 − Sr )] (7) eters α, n and m (Romero & Vaunat, 2000). Scanning
curves are assumed linear in the θw : s plane:
Thus, b controls the rate of change in pc caused by
variations in Sr . θ̇w = −ks ṡ (9)
Hardening has an irreversible component depen-
dent on the development of plastic volumetric strains,
related to the evolution of pc sat , and a reversible in which the constitutive parameter ks is the slope of
component related to changes in Sr . the scanning curves.
The model requires a hydraulic constitutive rela- Since different values of θw can correspond to the
tionship describing the water storage mechanism, as same value of s, as shown in Figure 1, the hardening
shown in Figure 1. The retention curve θw = θw (s) parameter p c in Equation (7) results smaller along the
obtained upon an imbibition process differs from that main drying curve than along the main wetting curve
obtained upon drying (hysteresis). Equilibrium at a for the same values of suction and porosity.
given suction may be obtained with different θw . The The physical meaning of the assumptions above
two main curves are linked by scanning curves that rests on the fact that lower degree of saturation implies
can be linear or not. a higher number of contact zones between the pore flu-
The issue of the hydraulic component of constitu- ids (menisci) so that the bonding effect exerted by the
tive models was first addressed by Wheeler (1996) menisci is higher along a wetting path than along a
and by Dangla et al. (1997). Probably, the first drying path (Tamagnini, 2004).
full attempt to couple hydraulic behaviour with a
mechanical model for unsaturated soils was proposed
by Vaunat et al. (2000). More recently, Wheeler 2.2 Modelling of experimental results
et al. (2003) presented an elastoplastic constitutive Figure 2 reports, in the θw : s plane, the 26 experimen-
model that also fully couples hydraulic hysteresis with tal points relative to the end of the equalization stages
mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils. A compre- for all triaxial and resonant column tests together with
hensive review of constitutive models for unsaturated the adopted water retention relationship. The average
soils, including those based on Bishop’s stress, was suction of the tested soil after compaction is about
presented by Gens et al. (2006). 140 kPa (Vassallo et al., 2007a).
In this study the equation proposed by Van Therefore, equalization at suction 200 and 400 kPa
Genuchten (1980): is a drying process while equalization at lower suc-
m tion is a wetting process. Table 3 summarises the
1 parameters chosen for the water retention curve.
θw = θw sat (8)
1 + (αs)n All the available experimental data from compres-
sion stages were analysed to obtain the parameters of
is used, where θw is the volumetric water content, Equations (5) and (6), reported in Table 4.
θw sat is the volumetric water content under saturated
conditions and s is matric suction.
400 drying
scanning curve
wetting
s
300
s (kPa)
main drying
100
scanning curve main wetting
main wetting 0
30 35 40 45
w w (%)
Figure 1. Constitutive relationships describing water Figure 2. Experimental results of equalization stages versus
storage mechanism. the adopted water retention relationship.
611
The performance of the model was verified for tests 3 which is smaller than that at point 1. During the
mp07RC and mp05RC, whose results are described in subsequent wetting at s = 200 kPa (path 3-4) the mate-
detail by Vassallo et al. (2007a). rial swells. Then, in the final stage of compression, the
Figure 3a reports a comparison between model pre- material seems to reach a normally consolidated state
dictions and experimental results for test mp07RC. As at p ∼
= 490 kPa.
reported in Table 2, this test consisted of a compression Model predictions are also reported in Figures 3b
at constant suction s = 400 kPa, up to p ∼ = 510 kPa and 3c in θw : s and p : (1 − Sr ) planes. An over-
(path 0-1), followed by several wetting-drying stages consolidated state is predicted at point 0 (beginning of
to s = 100–400–200 kPa (path 1-2-3-4) and finally by compression). Points 0 and 1 lie on the main drying
compression to p ∼= 710 kPa (path 4-5). Experimental curve (Fig. 3b) as the imposed suction (400 kPa) is
data for drying and wetting stages show only two data greater than the after compaction suction. Compres-
points at the beginning and at the end of each stage. sion stage 0-1 does not affect the predicted value of θw
Since suction was applied immediately at the boundary (Fig. 3b). On the other hand, there is a change in Sr ,
of the specimen, then waiting for the achievement of and thus in variables (1 − Sr ) and p , due to the change
equilibrium, only the initial and final specific volumes in porosity (Fig. 3c). For this stage, the prediction in
can be attributed to the imposed net stress and suction. the p : v plane is satisfying.
Differently, a complete v : p curve was obtained for The model also predicts well soil behaviour for the
each stage by modelling. wetting stage 1-2 from s = 400 kPa to s = 100 kPa,
During the first wetting stage at s = 100 kPa (path that lies completely in the elastic domain, and for the
1-2) the material swells. During the following drying drying stage 2-3 from s = 100 kPa to s = 400 kPa,
at s = 400 kPa (path 2-3) there is a small accumula- that represents an elasto-plastic path. In the first case
tion of irreversible deformations due to the increase the state path follows first a scanning curve and then
in suction, as shown by the specific volume at point reaches the main wetting curve; in the second case,
the model predicts that the state path returns to the
Table 3. Parameters describing soil water retention curve. same value of θw of points 0-1. Furthermore, the model
predicts some (slight) hardening in the p : (1 − Sr )
α(kPa−1 ) n m θw sat (%) ks (kPa−1 ) plane due to the different changes which both p and
p c experience along paths 1-2 and 2-3 (Fig. 3c).
Drying 0.11 1.07 0.07 44 0.00256 The subsequent wetting 3-4 to s = 200 kPa only
Wetting 0.07 1.10 0.09 44 0.00256 induces elastic strains, in good agreement with exper-
imental data. The final compression stage is also well
predicted by the model.
Table 4. Parameters describing soil compressibility and the Figure 4a compares experimental results to model
evolution of the yield surface produced by changes in Sr . predictions for test mp05RC. This test included a com-
pression at constant suction s = 200 kPa, up to
λ κ b N (Sr = 1) p − ua = 200 kPa (path 0-1), then several drying-
wetting stages s = 400–100–400–100–200 kPa (path
0.06 0.018 7 2.015 1-2-3-4-5-6) (see Table 2).
0 0
main
1.76 300 1
3
s.c. 0.2 4
d
2 5
.
s (kPa)
1 2
1-S r
1.74 4
v
3 4-5
s.c. 5
0.1 3-4
ma
5 Y.L. 0
1.70
100 1000 30 35 40 10 100 1000
p'=p–ua+Sr(ua–uw) (kPa) w (%) p' (kPa)
Figure 3. Test mp07RC. Experimental data versus predictions in p : v plane (a); predictions in θw : s plane (b) and p : (1−Sr )
plane (c).
612
(a) (b) (c)
main
1.74 300
0.2 0 2
1
d.
s.c. 4
1-S r
s (kPa)
1 6 3
1.72 6
v
0-1 5
3mod 5 s.c. 0.1
6 4-5-6
2-3
ma
1.70 5mod 3 42 100
in
mod 3-5 1
w.
6mod 24 Y.L. 0
mod
1.68
100 1000 30 35 40 10 100 1000
p'=p– ua+Sr(ua–uw) (kPa) w(%) p' (kPa)
Figure 4. Test mp05RC. Experimental data versus predictions in p : v plane (a); predictions in θw : s plane (b) and p : (1−Sr )
plane (c).
The first drying at s = 400 kPa (path 1-2) induces the test. More appropriately the model predicts a slight
irreversible deformations due to the increase in suction accumulation of shrinkage. However predictions are
above its maximum past value (Vassallo et al. 2007a- substantially in good agreement with measurements
b). The irreversibility of previous volume changes from point 2 to point 6.
is shown by the much smaller absolute value of the Points 0 and 1 in Figure 4b lie on a scanning curve
variation of v observed during the first wetting at because the imposed suction, s = 200 kPa, is just
s = 100 kPa (path 2-3). As expected, this wetting path slightly higher than the after compaction suction. Sim-
induces swelling. The subsequent drying and wetting ilarly to test mp07RC, which was analyzed above,
stages cause volume changes comparable to those of compression 0-1 does not influence the value of θw
wetting 2-3 and smaller than those of drying 1-2. The while it changes porosity and, thus, variables p and
material always swells along wetting paths and shrinks (1 − Sr ), as shown in Figure 4c. During the first dry-
along drying paths. Substantially, all the experimental ing 1-2, the main drying curve is reached and the yield
points, from 2 on, are very close to a single line in the locus is significantly shifted rightwards. This confirms
p : v plane. that path 1-2 is elasto-plastic. During the wetting 2-3
Figures 4b and 4c show model predictions in the a scanning curve is followed until the main wetting
θw : s and p : (1 − Sr ) planes. The model predicts an curve is reached; an elastic path is predicted in the
overconsolidated state at the beginning of compres- plane p : (1 − Sr ). The same value of θw as at point
sion. Similarly to test mp07RC, the results of the first 2 is reached after the second drying path 3-4. The
compression stage are well predicted. The model also model predicts a slight hardening, i.e., a slight further
predicts an irreversible reduction of v, quite close to shift rightwards of the yield locus, linked to the dif-
the measured one, during the subsequent drying 1-2 ferent changes which both p and p c experience along
to s = 400 kPa. For the model, the path 2-3 from paths 2-3 and 3-4 (Fig. 4c). The yield locus remains
s = 400 kPa to s = 100 kPa is elastic. The sec- unvaried during the final wetting-drying stages 4-5-6.
ond drying 3-4 to s = 400 kPa is elasto-plastic like
the first one, although predicted shrinkage is much
2.3 Interpretation of stiffness measurements
smaller than for path 1-2. Irreversible strains along
cycle 2-3-4 are due to the different changes which p Vassallo et al. (2007a-b) used the framework of the
and pc experience along path 2-3 and 3-4 (Fig. 4c), Barcelona Basic Model to interpret the measurements
linked to the shape of the water retention relation- of initial shear stiffness G0 along both compression
ship in the θw : s plane (Fig. 4b). The closed cycle and wetting-drying paths. It was concluded that there
in this plane does not correspond to a closed cycle is a significant influence of suction on stiffness, which
in the Sr : s plane, which is relevant for model pre- generally increases as (ua − uw ) increases. Never-
dictions. The second wetting 4-5 and the final drying theless, changes of suction may cause significant
5-6 are elastic. It is worth noting that the measured accumulation of irreversible changes of specific vol-
value of v in point 2 is slightly smaller than that of ume, accompanied by a further increase of G0 relative
point 4, i.e., the material accumulates a small swelling to a general stress state (p − ua ), (ua − uw ). In other
during a drying-wetting cycle. This cannot be easily words, there can be a significant effect of the stress
explained from a physical point of view and could be history, expressed in terms of (p − ua ) and (ua − uw ),
due to incomplete equalization during some stages of on the initial stiffness.
613
(a) (b) (c)
250 mp05RC 0.3 0.3
mp07RC
05-2 0
200 1
0.2 0 P1 0.2
G0 (MPa)
2
2
1-Sr
150 07-2 05-1 07-1
2
07-0 0.1 0.1
05-P 1
100 P
05-0 1-2
Y.L. 0 Y.L. 0
50
200 300 400 500 10 100 1000 10 100 1000
p' (kPa) p' (kPa) p' (kPa)
Figure 5. Measured initial stiffness G0 versus p for tests mp05RC and mp07RC (a); predictions in the p : (1 − Sr ) plane for
tests mp05RC (b) and mp07RC (c).
As highlighted by Casini et al. (2007), an alterna- Vassallo et al. (2007a) within the framework of a
tive approach is using Equation (1) and referring G0 Bishop Stress Model (BSM).
measured values to corresponding p values. This way, Casini et al. (2007) had already confirmed that the
the effects of partial saturation on the initial shear stiff- BSM can interpret the progressive shift of normal con-
ness result similar to those ascribable to the structure solidation lines as the degree of saturation decreases
of a natural soil compared to the same soil reconsti- and, more in general, the influence that Sr has on
tuted (Rampello et al. 1994). In fact, as far as data compressibility.
collected during isotropic compression are concerned, Herein, a step forward was taken in modelling, by
moving from complete saturation to partial saturation accounting for the hysteresis of the water retention
induces a translation of experimental G0 : p curves. curve and for its effects on soil behaviour. This deter-
Figure 5a reports for tests mp05RC and mp07RC mines a hysteresis in the internal variable describing
stiffness versus p , measured during the first compres- isotropic hardening (Tamagnini, 2004) and can jus-
sion stage and the subsequent first wetting or drying tify the occurrence of irreversible deformations such
stage. Compression stage data belong to a narrow as those induced by drying-wetting cycles.
range centred on the dashed line plotted in the same The predictions of the chosen model are in good
figure. This proves that the stiffness of the unsaturated qualitative and quantitative agreement with the exper-
soil can be fundamentally interpreted by a single curve imental data in terms of specific volume changes
in the p : G0 plane. On the other hand, the stiffness plotted versus Bishop mean effective stress p . The
measured after a drying or a wetting stage results sig- representation of test paths and of yield loci in the
nificantly higher than the values on the dashed curve. plane p : (1 − Sr ) also seems quite useful to inter-
Comparison can be made between points 05-2 and pret the effects of stress state and stress history on the
07-1, characterized by the same (p−ua ) and (ua −uw ), initial shear stiffness G0 .
and 05-P and 07-2, characterized by the same p . This
suggests that there is also an effect of stress history in
REFERENCES
terms of Bishop’s stress.
Figures 5b and 5c report model predictions in the ASTM 2005. D0698-00 AE01 Test method for laboratory
plane p : (1 − Sr ) for the same tests. Point 2 of test compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort
mp05RC and point 1 of test mp07RC belong to dif- (12, 400 ft · lbf /ft3 (600 kN · m/m3 )), ASTM Book of
ferent yield loci and have different (1 − Sr ) and p . Standards, vol. 04.08, Philadelphia, USA.
The yield locus is more expanded for test mp05RC. Casini F., Vassallo R., Mancuso C. & Desideri A. 2007.
As a consequence of different history, point P of test Interpretation of the behaviour of compacted soils using
mp05RC is on the current yield locus while point 2 of Cam-Clay extended to unsaturated conditions. Proceed-
test mp07RC is inside the yield locus. All this could ings of the Second International Conference Mechanics
justify the differences in measured stiffness. of Unsaturated Soils, Weimar (Germany), 29–36.
Dangla O.L., Malinsky L. & Coussy O. 1997. Plasticity and
imbibition-drainage curves of unsaturated soils: a uni-
fied approach. 6th International Conference on numerical
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data from the comprehensive experimental study by 137–147.
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Roscoe K.H. & Burland J.B. 1968. On the Generalized Stress- unsaturated soils. Géotechnique, 53, 41–54.
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Cambridge University Press, 535–609.
615
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
C. Jommi
Department of Structural Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
E. Romero
Department of Geoengineering and Geoscience, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
ABSTRACT: The pattern of volumetric strains of unsaturated compacted soils along drying and wetting cycles
have received considerable attention in the last years due to its practical implications during the service life of
earth structures and backfills. Much attention has been devoted to the amount of collapse upon wetting as a
function of suction and stress level. Oedometer test data are presented here to quantify the amount of collapse
and shrinkage strains in wetting-drying-wetting cycles. Besides, results of an isotropic wetting test show that
collapse is in general accompanied by distortional strains as a result of the initial anisotropy created during
compaction. An elastic plastic model, in which the evolution of the soil structure is described by means of a
mixed isotropic-rotational hardening, is presented. Coupling between hydraulic and mechanical behaviour is
provided by a hysteretic retention curve. Comparison between model simulations and experimental data show
that the model is able to reproduce correctly the whole irreversible strain path upon both wetting and drying.
617
is proposed, which exploits the hysteretic retention a generalisation of the hardening rules, by inserting a
characteristics of compacted soils to describe both irre- suitable dependence of the hardening parameters on
versible collapse upon wetting and irreversible shrink- suction or on degree of saturation.
age upon drying in a unified framework. A unique To keep the model as simple as possible, Modi-
mixed isotropic-rotational hardening law describes the fied Cam Clay with associated plastic potential is
evolution of the soil fabric along generalised stress adopted herein as a reference for the saturated state.
paths, allowing for irreversible shrinkage, irreversible The formulation for unsaturated conditions is a rather
collapse and anisotropy evolution to be taken into simple extension of the works by Jommi (2000) and
account at the same time. Tamagnini (2004).
Relevant experimental results, coming from a wide To complete the description of the soil behaviour a
investigation performed on compacted Boom clay model for the retention curve is mandatory. Consistent
(Romero, 1999) are presented and simulated numer- advantages in modelling the deformational behaviour
ically by means of the proposed model. Oedometer of unsaturated soils are provided if hysteresis in the
tests are exploited to analyse volumetric strains as a soil water retention mechanism is taken into account,
function of the stress level. A wetting-drying-wetting as previously discussed by Tamagnini (2004). To the
test under constant isotropic external load is then pre- latter aim, the hysteretic retention model proposed by
sented to highlight changes in the direction of plastic Romero & Vaunat (2000) is introduced in the cou-
strain increments occurring along the hydraulic path. pled hydro-mechanical model, and formulated as an
The latter test clearly shows the distortional effects additional constitutive law.
caused by the initial anisotropic fabric and the evo-
lution of fabric anisotropy, and allows a complete
description of the general deformational response of 2.2 Mechanical model equations
the compacted soil. Starting from Modified Cam Clay, a rotation of
the axis of the yield surface and plastic potential
can be introduced to allow for the description of
2 CONSTITUTIVE FORMULATION an anisotropic response, following the proposal by
Dafalias (1986):
2.1 Theoretical basis 2
f = q − Mα p̂ + M 2 − Mα2 p̂ p̂ − p̂0 = 0 (1)
Referring to axisymmetric test conditions, a full
description of the soil state may be accomplished
by adopting triaxial stress and strain variables. Total where M describes critical state obliquity, which is
stress state will be described by total mean stress, assumed to be independent of suction.
p = (σa + 2σr )/3, deviator stress, q = (σa − σr ), The internal variables p̂0 , describing the current
and suction, s = (ua − uw ), where ua and uw are preconsolidation pressure, and Mα , representing the
the air and the water pressures, respectively. As for inclination of the current rotated yield surface with
the strain variables, volumetric strain, εv = εa + 2εr , respect to the p̂ axis, govern the isotropic and rota-
and shear strain, εs = 2(εa − εr )/3, will be adopted. tional hardening, respectively. The evolution of the two
Subscripts a and r refer to axial and radial compo- variables is ruled by both plastic strains and degree of
nents, respectively. The amount of pore water will be saturation.
described by both gravimetric water content, w, and The preconsolidation pressure in unsaturated condi-
degree of saturation, Sr . The average stress acting on tions, p̂0 , is defined as the sum of the preconsolidation
the soil skeleton (‘‘skeleton stress’’ in the following) pressure in saturated conditions, p∗0 , depending on
is adopted in the development of the constitutive for- volumetric plastic strains, plus a term depending on
mulation. With reference to axisymmetric conditions, degree of saturation,
mean skeleton stress, p̂ = [(p−ua )+Sr s] and deviator
stress, q, describe the constitutive stress state. p̂0 = p∗0 {1 + b1 [exp [b2 (1 − Sr )] − 1]} (2)
The modelling criteria suggested by Jommi & di
Prisco (1994) are followed. Given an elastic plas- governed by parameters b1 and b2 . For p∗0 , the classical
tic model conceived for soils in saturated conditions, critical state evolution law is adopted:
its extension to unsaturated conditions may be sim-
ply conceived as follows. By substituting the skeleton (1 + e) p∗0 p
dp∗0 = dεv (3)
stress for effective stress in the original constitutive λ−κ
equations, increase in the average stress acting on the
soil skeleton due to suction may be taken into account. where λ and κ are the elastic-plastic and elastic loga-
Besides, the ‘‘bonding’’ effect provided on the soil rithmic volumetric compliances, e is the void ratio and
p
macrostructure by water menisci may be translated in dεv the volumetric plastic strain increment.
618
Following Dafalias (1986), rotational hardening is Table 1. Parameters adopted in the simulation of compacted
assumed to be governed by the current angle between Boom clay.
the obliquity, η̂ = q/p̂, and the inclination Mα of the
yield surface: Mechanical parameter
. . κ 0.014
dMα = c . dεvp . η̂ − ξ Mα (4) G (MPa) 40
λ 0.125
M 0.87
where c governs the rate of evolution of Mα , while ξ ξ 1.484
controls the target value of Mα for a given obliquity, b1 0.11
hence dMα = 0 for ξ = η̂/Mα . b2 8.2
A constant shear modulus, G, completes the c 136
description of a classical hypoelastic behaviour.
The model is defined in terms of eight material Hydraulic parameter Wetting Drying Scanning
parameters. Four of them, M , λ, κ and G, describe
a (MPa) 300 400 –
the behaviour of the isotropic soil under saturated
α (MPa−1 ) 19.3 1.4 –
conditions, and may be calibrated on the basis of n 1.12 0.95 –
conventional laboratory tests performed on saturated m 0.20 0.41 –
samples. In principle, parameter c, ruling the veloc- l (MPa−1 ) – – 0.02
ity of rotational hardening, can be determined with
reference to saturated samples too. Due to lack of
information, in the present case, c was calibrated on
the basis of the triaxial data on the unsaturated soil 1000
presented in the following. Parameter ξ can be cali- wetting: experimental data
drying: experimental data
brated from compaction data, assuming that at the end 100 drying: model
of compaction the direction of plastic strain increment wetting: model
Suction, s (MPa)
619
equation may be interpreted as a reversible-perfectly -4
irreversible constitutive law, with no hardening. -2
2
3 MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
4
The experimental data refer to Boom clay from Mol 6 net vertical stress 0.085 MPa
(Belgium). The moderately swelling clay (20%–30% 8
experimental
numerical with rotational hardening
kaolinite, 20%–30% illite and 10%–20% smectite) has numerical isotropic
a liquid limit of wL = 56%, a plastic limit of wP = 10
Suction, s (MPa)
The samples were prepared by static oedometer
compaction, on the dry side of optimum, at con- -4
net vertical stress 0.3 MPa
stant water content w = 15% to a dry density ρd = -2 experimental
1.40 Mg/m3 . Initial void ratio, e0 = 0.93, and degree numerical with rotational hardening
4 OEDOMETER TESTS 8
10
In Figure 2 the experimental data of the oedometer 12
tests performed at constant net vertical stress, ranging 0.02 0.05 0.2 0.5 2
0.01 0.1 1
from 0.085 MPa and 1.2 MPa are presented together Suction, s (MPa)
with the numerical results. Numerical simulations run
with the mixed isotropic-rotational hardening model Figure 2. Oedometer tests: experimental data and numeri-
presented herein are compared with the prediction of a cal simulations.
620
conventional isotropic hardening model (Jommi 2000, rotational model) evolves differently in wetting and
Tamagnini 2004). drying paths, hence allowing for irreversible strains to
The influence of stress level on the volumetric strain be correctly predicted in both cases. This model fea-
experienced by the soil in the first wetting path, as well ture was highlighted by Tamagnini (2004). Here, its
as in the following drying and wetting paths, may be quantitative reliability is verified against data spanning
clearly appreciated by comparison of the experimental over a wide stress range.
data presented in the figures. During the first wet-
ting stages, the competing deformational mechanisms,
unloading of the aggregates (possibly accompanied by 5 ISOTROPIC TRIAXIAL TEST
swelling of the aggregates themselves) and collapse of
the macrostructure, may result in a net increase or a The advantages provided by the possibility of repro-
net decrease of volume, as a function of the applied ducing an anisotropic response by means of rotational
vertical net stress. hardening can be appreciated much better with ref-
In any case, the volumetric strain experienced dur- erence to the experimental data presented in the fol-
ing the whole first wetting stage is almost irreversible, lowing. Figures 3–4 show the whole strain path expe-
as the data for the following drying stage clearly show. rienced by the initially anisotropic sample, reloaded
In the first drying path, the soil experiences again to the isotropic pressure, p = 0.6 MPa, and then
a considerable irreversible volume reduction. At low subjected to a hydraulic cycle.
stress levels shrinkage can be comparable to, or even Figure 3 shows the axial and the radial strain data.
higher than, the amount of collapse previously due In Figure 4, the evolution of volumetric and distor-
to wetting. The ratio between the amount of collapse tional strains with suction are shown, to highlight the
during first wetting and shrinkage during first dry- influence of the initial anisotropic fabric and its evo-
ing increases with the stress level, as expected. The lution on the overall deformational response of the
last wetting path induces a moderate elastic swelling, soil sample. Along the first wetting stage, distortional
and further drying-wetting cycles, not shown here, are strain, due to anisotropy, accompanies the plastic vol-
almost completely reversible (Romero 1999). ume collapse. Accumulated plastic strains eventually
Comparison between experimental data and numer- erase initial anisotropy. Starting from a suction value
ical simulations show that the constitutive model with of 0.2 MPa, in the last wetting stages and in the follow-
rotational hardening is able to capture all the relevant ing drying-wetting cycle the behaviour of the sample
features of the experimental behaviour in the hydraulic is isotropic.
cycle. The numerical simulations run with a simpler As in the previous oedometer tests, the following
isotropic model are worse for low stress levels, while drying path induces a small, but irreversible, volume
for the higher stress levels they are very similar to the reduction. Distortional strains are negligible in the
previous ones. The differences at the lower stress lev- drying-wetting cycle, and the deformational response
els are mostly due to a wider elastic domain predicted is fully isotropic.
by the isotropic model with respect to the anisotropic The numerical simulations of the triaxial test data,
one. If the isotropic model is adopted, for a net verti- presented in Figure 3, show that the axial strain evo-
cal stress of 0.0085 MPa the whole first wetting path lution is well predicted by both models. Rotational
lies inside the elastic domain, which overestimates the hardening does not seem to influence this strain com-
overall swelling. In any case, the volumetric strains ponent to a large extent. Differences are observed in
predicted by the two models at the end of each whole
hydraulic cycle do not differ much, which is consis-
0.0 numerical with rotational hardening
tent with the dependence of the hardening function on numerical isotropic
1.0
volumetric plastic strains only. In fact, some literature experimental
(%)
1992). 3.0
It is worth noting that, in the elastic plastic models in 0.0
which hardening is ruled by suction, two distinct yield 1.0
functions, usually termed loading-collapse (LC) and
(%)
2.0
suction increase (SI) yield functions, must be intro-
r
3.0
duced in order to describe irreversible collapse upon
first wetting and irreversible shrinkage upon first dry- 4.0
0.01
0.02 0.05
0.1
0.2 0.5
1
2
ing. On the contrary, if the hardening laws are ruled by Suction, s (MPa)
degree of saturation (Eqs. 2,4), and hysteresis is explic-
itly taken into account, the preconsolidation pressure Figure 3. Isotropic test (0.6 MPa): axial and radial strain
(and the direction of the yield surface axis for the evolution: experimental data and numerical simulations.
621
numerical with rotational hardening
numerical isotropic
Rotational hardening, describing the evolution of
-0.6 experimental the anisotropic fabric of a compacted soil along
-0.4 its mechanical and hydraulic history, could be eas-
(%)
25
20 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
15 0.02 0.05 0.2 0.5 2
0.01 0.1 1
Suction, s (MPa) The financial support of the Spanish Ministry of
Science (CGL2005-03677/BTE: Advances in Unsat-
Figure 4. Isotropic test (0.6 MPa): distortional strain, volu- urated Soil Mechanics: Behaviour under Generalised
metric strain, and water content evolution: experimental data Stress States) is gratefully acknowledged.
and numerical simulations.
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623
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Y.J. Cui
Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, France
ABSTRACT: A new anisotropic elasto-plastic constitutive model for unsaturated soils (ABBM) has been
developed, by combining features of the conventional Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) for unsaturated soils and
the anisotropic S-CLAY1 model for saturated soils. In addition, the possibility of a non-linear variation of
cohesion intercept with suction is introduced for both the BBM and the ABBM. Simulations with the ABBM
and the BBM have been compared with experimental data from tests on compacted Jossigny silt reported by
Cui & Delage (1996). The ABBM is able to provide a much better match than the BBM to the observed shape
and size of the yield surface produced by one-dimensional compaction. In addition, the ABBM is able to provide
improved predictions of yield stresses and volumetric strains during constant suction shearing, particularly if
a non-linear variation of cohesion intercept with suction is incorporated. The current version of the ABBM
can, however, sometimes result in unrealistic predictions of immediate post-yield softening, and further work is
required to refine and fully validate the model.
Many soils display anisotropy of mechanical behaviour, The new anisotropic elasto-plastic model for unsatu-
as a consequence of anisotropy of the soil fabric rated soils (ABBM) is presented here for the simplified
(e.g. Graham et al. 1983, Cui & Delage 1996). stress space of the triaxial test, in terms of mean net
This anisotropy of fabric may be initiated during stress p, deviator stress q and suction s. Generaliza-
formation of the soil (e.g. deposition of natural tion of the model to three-dimensional stress states,
soils or placement and compaction of fills), but including the possibility of rotation of principal stress
it can be altered subsequently by plastic strain- directions, can be achieved by following the same logic
ing, which can produce re-arrangement of the as presented by Wheeler et al. (2003) for the saturated
fabric. model S-CLAY 1.
Many anisotropic elasto-plastic constitutive mod- Modelling of elastic anisotropy that can change
els for saturated soils have been published in the with plastic straining would be extremely complex
literature. One of these anisotropic saturated mod- (see Wheeler et al. 2003). In the interest of simplic-
els is S-CLAY 1, presented by Wheeler et al. (2003), ity, therefore, the ABBM (like S-CLAY 1) assumes
which has a rotational hardening law (describing the isotropic elastic behaviour. The elastic increments of
development of anisotropy during plastic straining) volumetric strain and deviatoric strain are given by the
that has now been extensively validated by experi- same expressions as in the BBM.
mental programmes on several soft saturated clays.
Little, however, has been published on development 2.1 Yield surface
of anisotropic elasto-plastic constitutive models for
unsaturated soils. Constant suction cross-sections of the ABBM yield
This paper presents a new anisotropic unsat- surface take the form of geometrically sheared ellipses
urated elasto-plastic constitutive model (ABBM), in the q: pf plane:
in which the modelling of anisotropy from S-
CLAY1 is used to enhance the conventional 3
(q − αp)2 = (M2 − α 2 ) p + f (s) ( pm (s) − p)
Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) of Alonso et al. 2
(1990). (1)
625
where M is the saturated critical state stress ratio. The 2.2 Flow rule and hardening laws
parameters α and pm (s) define the inclination and size
The ABBM employs an associated flow rule, which
respectively of the yield curve (see Fig. 1), with the
can be expressed as:
magnitude of α representing a measure of the current
degree of plastic anisotropy. The value of α can change p
during plastic straining (as anisotropy changes), but it dεs 2 (ηα − α)
p = (3)
is assumed that cross-sections of the yield surface at dεv M2 − ηα2
different suctions all have the same inclination α (see
Fig. 1). This assumption appears reasonably consistent where ηα is the gradient of the line in the q: p plot
with the experimental yield curves presented by Cui & from the vertical tangent point A (see Figure 1) to the
Delage (1996). current stress point:
The yield curve for a given suction s has vertical
tangents at two points, A and B, both falling on a line !
q + α · 3 2 f (s)
of gradient α through the origin, with point A hav- ηα = ! (4)
ing a coordinate p = −3f (s)/2 and point B having p + 3 2 f (s)
a coordinate p = pm (s) (see Fig. 1). f (s) is a func-
tion of suction (see later) which has a value of zero at Equation 3 reverts to the flow rule of the S-CLAY 1
s = 0. The yield curve for s = 0 corresponds to the model for the case s = 0. Wheeler et al. (2003)
S-CLAY1 anisotropic model for saturated soils. With showed that, for saturated soils, an associated flow
α = 0 (isotropic behaviour) and a linear variation of rule combined with the inclined S-CLAY 1 yield curve
f (s) with suction, Equation 1 gives the BBM yield gives a reasonable match to observed patterns of
curve expression. A single value of M can be used for behaviour, in contrast to the isotropic Modified Cam
the entire yield curve, or alternatively a lower triaxial Clay model, where a non-associated flow rule gen-
extension value of M can be used for the section of erally gives improved predictions. Similarly, Alonso
yield curve below the vertical tangent points A and et al. (1990) suggested the use of a non-associated
B (a possibility introduced in S-CLAY 1 by Wheeler flow rule in the isotropic BBM.
et al. 2003). The ABBM incorporates two hardening laws. The
The size of the yield curve pm (s) is assumed to first hardening law takes a similar form to the BBM
vary with suction according to the LC yield curve hardening law and relates the change of size of the
expression of the BBM: yield surface to the plastic volumetric strain:
626
that the ABBM (like S-CLAY1) predicts a unique Table 1. BBM and ABBM parameter values for compacted
critical state value of yield curve inclination αcs : Jossigny silt.
627
stress induced during compaction. For the ABBM
simulations, the value of horizontal net stress was
estimated by assuming that the value of ηα during
one-dimensional compaction (at a suction of 200 kPa)
was the same as the saturated normally consolidated
K0 value of stress ratio η (calculated by assuming
K0 = 1 − sinφ = (6 − 2M )/(6 + M )). For the BBM
simulations an equivalent assumption was made. This
resulted in slightly different sets of estimated p and
q values during compaction for the different simula-
tions, depending on the model used and on the assumed
value of α in the ABBM simulations (see below).
Knowing the values of p and q applied during com-
paction, it was possible to fit the ABBM yield curve
expression of Equation 1 through the compaction
stress point and hence calculate a value of yield curve
size pm (s) at a suction of 200 kPa. To do this, a value
had to be assumed for the yield curve inclination α
induced by the one-dimensional compaction process.
Wheeler et al. (2003) presented a method for calcu-
lating the value of αK0 , produced by K0 consolidation
of a saturated clay under normally consolidated con-
ditions. This procedure has now been well validated
for a range of soft saturated clays, but it is unlikely to
be valid for one-dimensional compaction under unsat-
urated conditions, because the ABBM predicts that
the resulting value of α would also be affected by
any change of suction occurring during the applica-
tion of compaction load. Different values of α were
tried, in order to examine the fit with the experimen- Figure 2. Comparison of yield surface model predictions
tal yield curve data. The value that was selected as with experimental yield points: (a) BBM; (b) ABBM with
giving the best match (α = 0.75) is much higher α = 0.75.
than the value of saturated αK0 = 0.42 calculated
according to the method proposed by Wheeler et al.
(2003).
Having calculated the value of pm (s) at a suction with suction) for the case α = 0.75. This provides
of 200 kPa, it was then possible to use the LC yield a significantly better match to the experimental yield
curve expression of Equation 2 to calculate the sizes points than the BBM model, although yield stresses
of yield curves at different values of suction and hence still appear to be over-predicted by the ABBM.
the complete form of the yield surface. An equivalent The experimental yield points measured during
procedure was used with the BBM. isotropic loading were probably the most reliable.
Figure 2a shows the predicted BBM yield curves Figure 3 therefore examines the ability of the two
(assuming a conventional linear variation of cohesion models to match these isotropic yield points. The
intercept with suction) for the four experimental values BBM (curve (a)) grossly overpredicts the yield points
of suction. Also shown are the corresponding exper- observed during isotropic loading (see also Fig. 2a).
imental yield points, as reported by Cui & Delage The ABBM with α = 0.75 (curve (c)) predicts sub-
(1996). The experimental yield points were taken from stantially lower isotropic yield stresses (the effect is
isotropic loading, constant η and conventional shear less marked with α = αK0 = 0.42, see curve (b)).
tests. Interpretation of yield points from experimen- Even with α = 0.75, however, the ABBM still over-
tal data generally involves significant subjectivity, and predicts the experimentally observed isotropic yield
therefore all experimental yield data should be viewed stresses (see also Fig. 2b). The final curve in Figure 3
with a degree of caution. It is, however, clear from (curve (d)) shows the ABBM prediction with α = 0.75
Figure 2a that, as expected, the isotropic BBM is but with a lower value of critical state stress ratio
unable to provide a good match to the experimentally Me = 0.9 assumed in triaxial extension. This lower
observed yield curves. value Me has been used in the yield curve expres-
Figure 2b shows the predicted ABBM yield curves sion for the part of the yield curves below the vertical
(assuming a non-linear variation of cohesion intercept tangent points A and B (see Fig. 1), as suggested by
628
Figure 3. Comparison of model predictions with exper-
imental yield points measured during isotropic loading;
dashed lines linear cohesion intercept, solid lines non-linear
intercept.
629
simulations, in terms of both the yield stress and the
final magnitude of the change of v during shearing.
Again, however, the form of immediate post-yield
behaviour predicted by the ABBM is unrealistic, as
a consequence of the initial softening described in the
previous paragraph.
Figure 6 shows plots of volumetric strain against
shear strain for the two example shear tests. The
best match to the experimental results is produced
by the ABBM with a non-linear variation of cohesion
intercept with suction.
4 CONCLUSIONS
630
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Cui, Y.-J., Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic behaviour
of an unsaturated compacted silt. Géotechnique 46(2):
The support of the European Commission via ‘Marie- 291–311.
Curie’ Research Training Network contract number Gan, J.K.M., Fredlund, D.G., Rahardjo, H. 1988. Determi-
MRTN-CT-2004-506861 is gratefully acknowledged. nation of the shear strength parameters of an unsaturated
soil using the direct shear test. Can. Geotech. J. 25(3):
500–510.
Graham, J., Noonan, M.L. and Lew, K.V. 1983. Yield states
REFERENCES and stress-strain relations in natural plastic clay. Can.
Geotech. J. 20: 502–516.
Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive Wheeler, S.J., Näätänen, A., Karstunen, M., Lojander, M.
model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique 40(3): 2003. An anisotropic elastoplastic model for soft clays.
405–430. Can. Geotech. J. 40: 403–418.
631
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
F. Collin
Université de Liège (FNRS, Department ARGENCO), Belgium
G. Priol
Arcadis, Paris, France
ABSTRACT: During the six years long Pasachalk project devoted to the mechanical behaviour of high porosity
chalks from North Sea oilfields, the constitutive model Pasachalk (Collin et al., 2002) was proposed based on
the Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) (Alonso et al., 1990). The approach was based on the similarities found
between the oil-water interactions (oil and water being the non wetting and wetting fluid respectively) in oil
reservoir chalk and the air-water interactions in unsaturated soils. This approach appeared to be relevant to
interpret the subsidence of the seafloor during waterflooding operations for enhanced oil recovery that has been
observed in North Sea oilfields (e.g. Ekofisk oilfield). Another important component of subsidence was then
related to the creep behaviour of the multiphase chalk (De Gennaro et al., 2003). A modified Pasachalk model
was proposed to account for time effects using the framework of Perzyna’s viscoplasticity (1964) but without
considering suction effects. Based on available experimental results (Priol et al., 2007), a modified version of
the viscoplastic Pasachalk model including suction effects is proposed in this paper.
633
2 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF CREEP settlement and αcr for the time dependent settlement.
IN CHALK The evolution of αcr is directly related to the creep
behaviour of chalk (Fig. 2). One can observe that
Priol (2005) and Priol et al. (2007) reported results the amount of creep is both stress and suction depen-
of oedometer compression tests carried out on Lixhe dent, the higher the wettability of chalk, the larger the
chalk (an outcrop chalk from Belgium) saturated with amount of creep.
oil, with water, partially saturated and dry (Fig. 1). By
analyzing the evolution of the creep curves obtained
during multiple step loading tests, it was suggested 3 MODEL FORMULATION
to consider the following rheological law to fit the
experimental data: Perzyna’s viscoplastic approach (Perzyna, 1964) has
been adopted because it is based on a framework
e
= βi t −αcr (1) similar to that of elastoplasticity, facilitating fur-
eoi ther time-dependent developments of the elastoplastic
Pasachalk model. Various viscoplastic models have
where e is the void ratio, eoi the initial void ratio, t the been formulated adopting the Bjerrum’s notion of
time, βi a coefficient accounting for the instantaneous equivalent (or reference) time (e.g. Bjerrum, 1967;
Borja & Kavazanjian, 1985; Hickman & Gutierrez,
2007). Other models have used the concept of the Non
1
Stationary Flow Surface (NSFS) theory (e.g. Nova,
1982; Liingaard et al., 2004). A recent review of the
literature is given by Liingaard et al., (2004). The
Pasachalk model (Collin et al., 2002) is a cap model
NORMALISED VOID RATIO e/eo
0.9
with a yield surface composed of three components:
(i) Cam-Clay pore collapse model
The Cam-Clay yield surface is adopted at low stress
inclinations, with the following expression:
0.8
3c(s)
f1 ≡ IIσ̂2 + m2 Iσ + (Iσ − 3p0 ) = 0 (2)
DRY SAMPLE
tan φC
OIL SATURATED SAMPLE
s = 200 kPa
WATER SATURATED SAMPLE where Iσ and II σ are the first and second stress invari-
0.7 ants, c is the cohesion, φC is the friction angle in
100 1000 10000 100000 compression path, p0 is the apparent pre-consolidation
VERTICAL STRESS (kPa) pressure that defines the size of the yield surface and
m is a coefficient taking into account the effect of the
Figure 1. Oedometer compression tests on Lixhe chalk at Lode angle β. The coefficient m is defined by:
various saturation states (Priol et al., 2007).
m = a (1 + b sin 3β)n (3)
0.02
WATER SATURATED S
B S = 200 kPa where parameters a, b and n must verify some
0.016
WATER SATURATED OIL SATURATED SAM convexity conditions (Van Eekelen, 1980).
sDRY SAMPLE
= 200 kPa Assuming associated plastic flow, the apparent pre-
0.012 consolidation pressure p0 is related to the volumetric
Water infiltration plastic strain dεvp following the kinematic equation:
0.008
A OIL SATURATED 1+e
dp0 = p0 dεvp (4)
0.004
λ−κ
DRY
where λ is the compression coefficient and κ is the
0
0 10000 20000 30000
elastic coefficient.
VERTICAL STRESS (kPa) Expression (4) allows both hardening or softening
behaviour to be accounted for according to the sign
Figure 2. Influence of stress level and suction on the creep of the volumetric plastic strain. However the soften-
coefficient αcr (Priol et al., 2007). ing zone will not be considered here. It can also be
634
noted that the irreversible volumetric strain includes time-dependent. The following relationship is taken
the coupled effect of mechanical and suction changes. [Alonso et al., 1990]:
(ii) Internal friction model κs ṡ
In order to formulate a friction model based on a Mohr- ε̇ijs,e = δij = heij ṡ (9)
Coulomb type failure criterion with a smoothed plastic (1 + e) (s + pat )
surface, Van Eekelen’s (1980) formulation has been
adopted. It is based on a modification of Drucker- The stress increment can thus be expressed as follows:
Prager’s failure cone by introducing a dependence on
Lode’s angle β, leading to the following expression of σ̇ = C e (s) (ε̇ − ε̇ s,e − ε̇ m,vp ) (10)
the failure criterion:
Since only the irreversible behaviour is time-
3c(s) dependent, the elastic moduli of the Pasachalk model
f2 ≡ IIσ̂ − m Iσ + =0 (5)
tan φC can be kept. The values of the moduli defining Hooke’s
law are recalled in Table 1. The elastic parameters
An associated plasticity is considered also for the are suction dependent. The following linear expres-
friction mechanism. sions (Pasachalk 2, 2004) have been chosen for the
volumetric and shear moduli as a function of suction:
(iii) Suction effect on yield surface (BBM model)
Several phenomena are typical of unsaturated soils:
K(s) = K(0) + ks · s (11)
– The yield stress p0 and the material stiffness
increase with suction. In BBM this is described by G(s) = G(0) + gs · s (12)
the LC curve, the formulation of which has been
adapted for chalk as follows: where K(0) and G(0) are the elastic moduli for a nul
s suction (water saturated condition), ks and gs are equal
p0 (s) = p0 (0) + p0 (6) to 38 and 66.7 respectively to model the increase of
s + s∗ stiffness with the suction.
where p0 (0) is the yield stress for s = 0, p0 is The irreversible strain may be described as normal
the variation of p0 between water and oil saturated to some potential g:
sample and s∗ is a parameter controlling the shape
∂g
of the LC curve. ε̇m,vp = γ φ(f ) (13)
– Cohesion increases with suction. This is modelled ∂σ
using Eq. (7).
This formulation is similar to the elastoplastic one,
c(s) = c(0) + k s (7) but it is not based on the consistency condition. The
amount of strain rate is described with respect to a ref-
where k is a material constant, c (0) is the cohesion erence surface f , similar to the yield surface. Then,
at water saturated state. Note that in chalk, experi- one may define two irreversible mechanisms, one
ments showed that the friction angle is independent dedicated to the pore collapse mechanism named fc ,
of the saturating fluid. the second one to friction failure named fd .
The reference surfacefc has the same equation as f1
Mechanical elastoviscoplastic model in the Pasachalk model. The reference surface actu-
Viscous effects in chalk may be observed in tri- ally represents the elastoplastic yield surface defined
axial tests performed at various stress rates and/or based on a hypothetical experiment with an infinitely
involving creep stages (Pasachalk2, 2004). The time- low strain rate. The function fc may help to define the
dependent behaviour of chalk is introduced here overstress, as a measure of the amount of the stress
based on the elastoviscoplastic approach proposed state going outside the reference surface.
by Perzyna (1964). Hence, strains are divided into
reversible and irreversible parts (related mechanical Table 1. Elastic parameters (Collin et al., 2002).
and suction loading):
m,vp s,p
Water Oil
ε̇ij = ε̇ijm,e + ε̇ijs,e + ε̇ij + ε̇ij (8)
K [MPa] 612 726
It has been observed that suction variations do not G [MPa] 500 700
E [MPa] 1180 1590
evolve permanent strains. Moreover, it is assumed ν [−] 0.18 0.14
that reversible strains related to suction are not
635
Concerning the pore collapse mechanism, the creep Table 3. Viscous parameters of the model.
potential is based on the following equations:
Water Oil
αc
pd0 vp
φc (fc ) = vp − 1 (14) Pre-consolidation p0 [MPa] 2 5
p0 Parameter αc 5 5
Parameter ω 5.1 10−9 5.1 10−9
and (Shao et al., 1993): Parameter ι 0,0 0,0
ι
Iσ
γ =ω (15)
pa
MPa et s∗ = 0.2 MPa. It is important to notice that the
where the viscous parameters are: γ , the fluidity same value of the compressibility index λ has been
parameter, ω, pa and ι, the parameters defining the used for the definition of the hardening law of the
influence of stress on the fluidity parameter and αc , viscoplastic model.
the exponent of the visco-plastic strain relation (14).
The parameters defining the yield surface of the
elastoplastic model for a stress rate of 10−3 MPa/s 4 ASSESSMENT OF THE VISCOUS
are given in the Table 2. The viscous parameters con- PARAMETERS
cern mainly the pore collapse mechanism because the
failure criterion is assumed to be time-independent. One of the major shortcomings associated with
Hence, only the viscous parameters γ (fluidity param- Perzyna’s approach is the definition of the viscous
eter), the reference surface fc and the exponent αc of parameters and of the reference surfaces, which are
visco-plastic strain relation have to be determined. usually found by a trial and error process and not
As shear failure is assumed to be time indepen- directly experimentally determined. In order to link
dent, the reference surface fc related to pore col- more directly the parameters to experimental mea-
lapse only depends on the apparent viscoplastic pre- surement the results of CRS (Constant Rate of Strain)
vp
consolidation pressure p0 . Experiments have shown oedometer compression tests at different strain rates
that the pre-consolidation pressure depended directly and suction (water or oil saturated, 200 kPa suction
on the stress-rate. This relation is not defined directly and dry samples) are first analysed (Priol, 2005; Priol
in the model: the effect of rate dependence comes as a et al., 2007).
result of the chosen visco-plastic formulation. It was observed that for a given suction the yield
vp
The p0 value and the other viscous parameters have limit (i.e. apparent pre-consolidation pressure) is a
been determined by trial and error process in order function of the imposed strain rate, as already shown
to fit isotropic compression tests on saturated chalk in clays by Leroueil et al. (1985). The following rela-
(oil and water), with loading rate ranging between tionship coupling the yield limit and the strain rate
5 × 10−5 and 10−2 MPa/s (Pasachalk 2, 2004). Within proposed by Leroueil appeared to fit reasonably data
the assumed loading rate range the final values of all obtained on Lixhe chalk:
parameters are given in Table 3. Note that, in agree-
ment with the notion of overstress, it is not necessary to 1
chose different values of viscous parameters (α, ω, ι) log10 (σp ) = A + log10 (ε̇1 ) (16)
m
for oil or water saturated samples, as the influence
of suction is taken into account through the apparent where σp is the yield limit, ε̇1 is the strain rate and A
pre-consolidation pressure. and m two material parameters. Table 4 summarizes
For intermediate degrees of saturation, the LC curve the values of A and m obtained for Lixhe chalk. Equa-
adopted is similar to that used in the elastoplastic tion (16) describes a linear relationship between yield
vp vp
model, using Eq. (6) with p0 = 3 MPa, p0 (0) = 2 limit and strain rate in a log10 (σp ) : log10 (ε̇1 ) plot. It
is worth noting that values of m depends now also on
Table 2. Yield surface parameters of the elastoplastic suction (Tab. 4). In other words the slope of the lin-
model. ear relationship (16) increases when suction decreases.
This is a new further coupling which extends the orig-
Water Oil inal Leroueil’s relationship. Equation (16) gives the
opportunity to define the size of the reference sur-
Friction angle φ [◦ ] 22 22 face defined as the elastoplastic yield surface based
Cohesion c [MPa] 1.5 2.0 on a hypothetical experiment with an infinitely low
Pre-consolidation p0 [MPa] 10 21
Compressibility index λ 0.195 0.195
strain rate. Considering an extremely low strain rate
(10–13 s−1 ), the yield stress of the reference surface
636
Table 4. Material parameters of Leroueil’s law. 0.020
0.018
A m 0.016
0.014
Water 4,462 9,25 0.012
s = 200 kPa 4,516 10,9
αcr [-]
Water
0.010
Oil 4,451 16,66 0.008
Oil
Dry 4,499 22,2 Suction
0.006
Dry
0.004
0.002
3.5
0.000
3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Normalized stress [-]
2.5
Figure 4. Influence of ‘‘normalized’’ stress level and suc-
Suction [MPa]
Experimental data
2 tion on the creep coefficient αcr (Priol et al. 2007).
LC curve
1.5
0 Water
0 1 2 3 4 5
pvp
0
[MPa] vp
Pre-consolidation p0 [MPa] at s = 0 MPa 1,143
vp
Figure 3. LC curve of the reference surface. Parameter p0 [MPa] 4
Parameter s∗ [MPa] 0.5
Parameter αc 5
Parameter ω 5,1 10−9
for the different suction conditions could be defined,
together with the LC curve of the viscous reference
surface (Fig. 3).
Viscous parameters should now to be linked to the
βi and αcr parameters of equation (1). Figure 2 shows viscous model is not possible for any values of the
a first discrepancy between the evolution of αcr and material parameters.
the viscous parameters of the model. Indeed Figure 2 It was thus decided to keep the first estimation of
does not show a unique relation between αcr and the the two viscous parameters for the modelling of the
stress state for the different saturation conditions. On multi-stage loading tests.
the other hand, it is not necessary to chose different
values of viscous parameters for oil or water saturated
samples. The influence of suction is only taken into 5 NUMERICAL MODELLING
account through the LC curve.
The apparent contradiction can be explained by Some experimental results obtained by Priol (2005) by
inspecting Figure 2. One can observe that the creep running creep oedometer tests under different suction
parameter αcr remains very low up to a threshold conditions (water saturated, oil saturated and suction
that depends on the saturation conditions. Above the equal to 200 kPa) are reported in Figure 5 in terms
threshold, parameters follow a more or less linear rela- of strain versus time curves. One can clearly see in
tionship with slopes also depending on the saturation the figure the various loading steps and the creep
conditions. However, if the stress value is normalized deformations under different applied stresses.
with the apparent pre-consolidation pressure of each With the single set of parameters and the pro-
test as presented in Figure 4, the observed behaviour posed visco-plastic model, the three tests have been
becomes reasonably independent of the saturation modelled. Figures 6–8 show satisfactory agreement
conditions. between experimental data and numerical predictions.
It would be interesting to find a direct relationship It should be emphasised that, besides creep tests,
between the αcr and βi parameters of equation (1) the collapse experiment can also be modelled by
and the ω and αc parameters of the viscous model the proposed constitutive law. Indeed, during water-
(Equation 13). Unfortunately, it was not possible to flooding, the suction is decreasing as well as the
find such a relationship analytically. The main rea- pre-consolidation pressure following the LC curve.
son is that equation (1) defines the total creep strain This means that the overstress is growing during water-
and the viscous strain rate is modelled through equa- flooding, leading to an increase of the viscous creep
tion (13). Moreover, the analytical integration of the deformation.
637
0.14 0.02
0.018
0.12
0.016
0.1 0.014
0.012
0.08
Strain [-]
Strain [-]
Water 0.01
0.06 Oil 0.008 Step 6
Suction
0.006 Modelling (6)
0.04
Step 7
0.004 Modelling (7)
0.02 Step 8
0.002
Modelling (8)
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 0.0E+00 2.0E+05 4.0E+05 6.0E+05 8.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.2E+06 1.4E+06
Time [hour] Time [s]
Figure 5. Multiple stage loading tests for different satura- Figure 8. Numerical modeling of creep phase for unsatu-
tion conditions (Priol, 2005). rated chalk samples (s = 200 kPa).
0.025
Step 13 Some experimental results of multiple stage loading
0.02
Modelling (13) tests carried out on Lixhe chalk under different suc-
Step 12
tion conditions showed that the results obtained under
0.015 Modelling (12)
various suctions could be summarized into a single
0.01
normalized curve.
0.005
The relevant viscous parameters of the model were
0
0.0E+00 1.0E+06 2.0E+06 3.0E+06 4.0E+06 5.0E+06 6.0E+06 7.0E+06 8.0E+06 9.0E+06 1.0E+07 determined based on these experimental results, with-
Time [s]
out using a trial and error method. This has only been
possible for the definition of the viscous reference
Figure 6. Numerical modeling of creep phase for water
saturated chalk samples.
surface. We did not succeed to find an analytical rela-
tionship between the parameters of the viscous model
and the constitutive law.
By using one single set of parameters, different
0.04
creep experiments under various suction conditions
0.035 were simulated, with a satisfactory agreement between
0.03 experimental data and numerical predictions.
0.025
Strain [-]
Step 7
0.02 Modelling (7)
0.015
Step 8
Modelling (8)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Step 10
0.01
Modelling (10)
The authors thank the FNRS for its financial support
0.005
during the stay of the first author in CERMES.
0
0.0E+00 1.0E+06 2.0E+06 3.0E+06 4.0E+06 5.0E+06 6.0E+0
Time [s]
638
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by oil and water: experiment and modelling. J. Num. and failure of Granular Materials, Delft 1982: 287–295.
Analytical Meth. In Geomechanics, 26, 897–924. Pasachalk2. 2004. Mechanical Behaviour of PArtially and
De Gennaro V., Delage P., Cui Y.C., Schroeder Ch. & Collin F. Multiphase SAturated CHALKs Fluid-skeleton Interac-
2003. Time-dependent behaviour of oil reservoir chalk: tion : Main Factor of Chalk Oil Reservoirs Compaction
a multiphase approach. Soils and Foundations, 43 (4), and Related Subsidence, Part 2, Publishable Final report,
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11–18. 2007. Experimental investigation on the time dependent
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three-dimensional rate-dependent constitutive model for rated Soil Mechanics, Proc. Physics 112, Springer, T.
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639
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with the unsaturated aggregated state of soils, a commonly occurring state
in natural and engineered materials. These soils are characterized by a double porosity fabric and exhibit
a strong interaction between the fabric and inter-particle bonding in their structure. A new baseline for a
hardening elasto-plastic constitutive model for these materials is proposed which incorporates the combined
effects of soil structure (fabric and inter-particle bonding) and partial saturation. It uses a generalized effec-
tive stress and the critical state concept in unsaturated soils. Based on multi-scale experimental evidences, a
state parameter is introduced to quantify the soil structure. An expression of apparent preconsolidation pres-
sure is presented with respect to the combined effects of soil structure and partial saturation that describes
the extension of the yield limit in unsaturated aggregated soil compared with the corresponding saturated
reconstituted soil.
641
1.2 Modelling approach 2 FEATURES OF BEHAVIOUR
In aggregated soils, there is a strong interaction
An extensive oedometric testing programme has been
between the soil structure components, namely, soil
carried out by the authors to evaluate the mechanical
fabric and inter-particle bonding. The macropores are
behaviour of aggregated silts at different saturation
retained by an aggregated structure and the openness of
conditions. The main features of this behaviour are
fabric depends on the size and strength of aggregated
outlined here.
particle assemblages which are formed as a result of
Figure 1 shows the oedometric compression of an
inter-particle bonding.
aggregated silt sample (average aggregate size of about
The aim of this paper is to propose a baseline
2 mm) and a sample of the corresponding reconsti-
for a constitutive model capable of describing the
tuted soil of the same mineralogy, both tested under
behaviour of aggregated soils over a wide range of sat-
the constant matric suction of 1500 kPa. The aggre-
uration conditions with explicit consideration of soil
gated sample was initially in a normal consolidation
structure evolution. Based on multi-scale experimen-
state. However, an initial stiff behaviour followed by
tal evidences, the model is expected to unify the effects
yielding was observed in the oedometric compression
of inter-particle bonding, fabric and partial saturation
of this sample. The yield limit is here referred to as
in a single framework.
apparent preconsolidation stress, which is a function
The model is based on the framework of strain hard-
not only of stress state and stress history but also of
ening elasto-plasticity. For the constitutive stresses the
soil structure.
model adopts the matric suction, s, and a generalized
At a given value of applied stress, a sample of aggre-
effective stress which is the Bishop’s effective stress
gated soil has a higher void ratio than reconstituted soil
(Bishop 1959) with the Bishop’s parameter being equal
and the compression curve of aggregated soil is located
to the degree of saturation, Sr .
to the right side of the reconstituted compression curve
Accordingly, the relation between the so-called gen-
at the same suction.
eral effective stress tensor, σ , and the total stress
The compression curves of aggregated and recon-
tensor, σ , reads:
stituted soils at the same suction tend to converge at
σ = (σ − pa I) + Sr sI (1) higher values of applied effective stress. The main
effect of suction in reconstituted samples was found to
where pa is the air pressure and I is the second order be the increase of effective apparent preconsolidation
identity tensor. stress with suction. In structured samples, however,
Although the representation of stress paths in this a combined effect of suction and soil structure was
stress framework is rather complex, the transition from observed. In these samples, similar to reconstituted
the saturated to the unsaturated state is smooth and samples, a higher matric suction results in higher val-
straightforward. ues of effective apparent preconsolidation stress. This
The critical state concept for unsaturated soils has is linked to the capillary effects. In addition to this
been evaluated by different authors (Alonso et al.1990,
among others). Khalili et al. 2004 successfully investi-
gated the uniqueness of the critical state line (CSL) in
the q−p plane (deviatoric stress versus mean effective
pressure) for unsaturated soils with different suctions.
They used the Bishop’s effective stress with a particu-
lar expression for the Bishop’s parameter. Uniqueness
of the CSL in terms of generalized effective stress
has been further evaluated by Nuth & Laloui (2007b).
These authors reported the unification of the CSL in
the stress space of q−p for unsaturated soils regardless
of the suction level.
Adopting the generalized effective stress as the con-
stitutive stress, the general incremental stress-strain
constitutive relation reads:
dσ = Dep : dε (2)
642
structure and its degradation requires an internal
parameter capable of representing the state of the
material in relation to its initial intact condition.
Accordingly, a state parameter called degree of soil
structure is here introduced as the ratio of the cur-
rent macro void ratio, to its initial value at intact state.
On the basis of the pore-scale experimental observa-
tions, the evolution of the degree of soil structure has
been found to be reasonably reproduced by a decreas-
ing exponential function of plastic strain (Koliji et al.
2007):
R = exp(−ωεD ) (3)
Figure 2. 3D neutron tomography volume of an aggregated
silt sample (sample size 35 mm in height & 80 mm in where R is the degree of soil structure, εD is a com-
diameter). bination of volumetric and deviatoric plastic strains,
and ω is the parameter controlling the rate of structure
effect, the horizontal separation between the compres- degradation.
sion curve of structured soils and normal consolidation The expression of the degree of soil structure given
line of reconstituted soil in the oedometric compres- by Equation 3 provides an experimentally based rela-
sion space was found to increase with suction. This tion which establishes a link between the pore-scale
evidence shows that suction has a hardening effect on structure of the soil and the macroscopic behaviour of
the inter-particle bonding in the soil structure. the material.
In addition to the macro scale experiments, the
behaviour of the material and the soil structure at
the pore-scale has been evaluated using a combina- 3.2 ACMEG-2S constitutive framework
tion of different methods. Results of mercury intrusion The constitutive model ACMEG-2S, (Advanced Con-
porosimetry showed that unsaturated aggregated sam- stitutive Model for Environmental Geomechanics,
ples initially exhibit a multi-modal PSD with at least extension for unsaturated structured soils) is an elasto-
two dominant pore radii corresponding to micro- and plastic model based on the critical state concept. It uses
macropores. At the same condition, a corresponding non-linear elasticity and two plastic mechanisms: one
reconstituted soil exhibits a uni-modal PSD with the isotropic and one deviatoric.
dominant pore radius coinciding with the micropores The plastic mechanisms are coupled through the
in structured samples. volumetric plastic strain. The model adopts an
During a wetting or mechanical loading, however, isotropic plastic strain hardening with the volumetric
aggregated samples undergo structure degradation and plastic strain being the hardening parameter. The flow
they end up with a structure identical to that of rule is associated for isotropic mechanism and could
reconstituted soil. be associated or non-associated for the deviatoric
On the other hand, the advanced method of neu- mechanism.
tron tomography was employed for a 3-dimensional The limit of elasticity and the onset of plastic defor-
evaluation of soil structure modifications during the mations in each mechanism are determined by the
oedometric testing (Fig. 2). Results of these tests yield criterion corresponding to that mechanism:
showed that changes in macroporosity are associated
mainly with plastic strain. This important experimen- fiso = p − pc riso = 0 (4)
tal finding has a major impact on the modelling of this
phenomenon. p d
fdev = q − Mp 1 − b ln rdev = 0 (5)
pc
3 CONSTITUTIVE FRAMEWORK
In these equations, riso and rdev are degrees of mobi-
lization of the isotropic and deviatoric plastic mech-
3.1 Degree of soil structure
anisms and are hyperbolic functions of the plastic
At a given state for an aggregated soil, the macro volumetric strain provoked by the isotropic mechanism
void ratio (ratio of macropore volume over the solid and of the plastic deviatoric strain respectively. M , b
volume) could represent the actual state of the soil and d are material parameters directly inherited from
structure with respect to its initial state and a fully the saturated reconstituted soil and pc is the apparent
reconstituted state. However, quantification of soil effective preconsolidation pressure. The elastic region
643
apparent preconsolidation pressure due to primary
suction effects:
⎧
⎨ 1; if 0 < s < s1e
ψs = 1 + γs log(s/se1 ); if s1e ≤ s < sref (8)
⎩
1 + γs log (s/se ); if s ≥ sref
Figure 3. Yield surfaces and elastic region in ACMEG-2S log (sref /se1 )
model. γs = γ (9)
log (sref /se ) s
644
combined effects of partial saturation and soil struc-
ture, have been reviewed on the basis of multi-scale
experimental evidences.
The constitutive framework, ACMEG-2S, based on
the critical state concept was presented within the
framework of strain hardening elasto-plasticity.
The model adopts the generalized effective stress
to describe the material behaviour in different con-
ditions of saturation. A new state parameter called
degree of soil structure is introduced to quantify
the soil structure and its evolution. This param-
eter establishes the pore-scale information of the
soil to the macroscopic response in terms of plastic
strains.
The apparent preconsolidation pressure, as the main
parameter controlling the yield limit, was formulated
Figure 4. Influence of suction on the soil structure with respect to the combined effects of partial sat-
parameter. uration and soil structure. The proposed modelling
approach provides a logical unification of the effects
of inter-particle bonding, fabric and partial saturation
in a single framework.
REFERENCES
645
Leroueil, S. and Barbosa, A. 2000. Combined effect of fab- Roscoe, K.H. and Schofield, A.N. 1963. Mechanical
ric, bonding and partial saturation on yielding of soils. In behaviour of an idealised wet clay. In European Con-
Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils: 527–532. ference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Lloret, A., Villar, M.V., Sanchez, M., Gens, A., Pintado, X. Vol.1: 47–54.
and Alonso, E.E. 2003. Mechanical behaviour of heav- Rouainia, M. and Wood, D.M. 2000. A kinematic hardening
ily compacted bentonite under high suction changes. constitutive model for natural clays with loss of structure.
Géotechnique 53(1): 27–40. Géotechnique 50(2): 153–164.
Nuth, M. and Laloui, L. 2007a. Implications of a generalized Sanchez, M., Gens, A., Guimarães, L.N. and Olivella,
effective stress on the constitutive modelling of unsatu- S. 2005. A double structure generalized plasticity
rated soils. In T. Schanz (ed.), Theoretical and Numerical model for expansive materials. International Journal for
Unsaturated Soil Mechanics: 75–82. Springer. Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 29:
Nuth, M. and Laloui, L. 2007b. New insight into the unified 751–787.
hydro-mechanical constitutive modelling of unsaturated Sridharan, A., Altaschaeffl, A.G. and Diamon, S. 1971. Pore-
soils. In Z. Yin, J. Yuan & A.C.F. Chiu (eds), The 3rd size distribution studies. Journal of the Soil Mechanics
Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils: 109–126. China: and Foundation Division ASCE 97: 771–787.
Science Press.
Romero, E., Gens, A. and Lloret, A. 1999. Water perme-
ability, water retention and microstructure of unsaturated
compacted Boom clay. Engineering Geology 54(1–2):
117–127.
646
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
H.Y. Chai
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Wuhan, China
ABSTRACT: High speed railway from Northern France has encountered several stability problems in zones
where loessic soils are present. Important sinkholes have been observed and were mainly due to the collapse
susceptibility of the encountered loess when submitted to the cyclic loadings imposed by the passage of the
high speed trains. This collapse susceptibility seems to be related to the degradation of the cemented bonds
and to either the collapse under wetting at constant applied load or liquefaction depending on the natural water
content of the soil. In this paper, a constitutive model is developed to gain insight into cyclic behaviour of theses
soils. This model is an extension of a model previously proposed by the authors for modelling degradation of
bonds and liquefaction potential of natural cemented soils under saturated states. The platform model, from
which the extension is carried out, is based from one hand on the bounding surface plasticity theory for the
description of the cyclic response of the soil and is inspired on the other hand from the work of Vaunat & Gens
(2003) concerning bond degradation modelling. Influence of non-saturation effects is introduced following an
approach similar to that of the Barcelona Basic Model (Alonso et al. 1990). The developed model is thus capable
to describe the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated bonded soils under cyclic loading.
1 INTRODUCTION
647
may induce collapse due to wetting if the soil is stresses in the triaxial stress space. The indices m
non-saturated, this phenomenon being well known in and b respectively refer to the matrix and to the bond
unsaturated soil mechanics. material.
Of course, observed collapses along the high speed Strains of the bonds εvb and εqb are defined over the
railway may originate from bond degradation, wetting bond phase (volume Vb ) and their apparent expressions
and more probably from couplings between these two (i.e. defined over total volume Vt ) are the follow-
phenomena. For instance, bond degradation will facil- ing, after having defined the bond concentration β =
itate collapse under wetting or wetting could reduce Vb /Vt :
the strength of bonds. Furthermore, a collapse under
wetting may be followed by a liquefaction of the soil βεvb ; βεqb (2)
if cyclic loadings are subsequently applied to wetting.
Due to the complexity of possible phenomena and Similarly, apparent strains of the matrix which are
couplings between them, this paper aims at presenting defined over voids Vv and solid matrix Vm volumes
a constitutive model in order to assess the collapsibility write as follows:
of loess under cyclic and environmental loadings, from
the point of view of unsaturated soil mechanics. (1 − β)εvm ; (1 − β)εqm (3)
After a concise description of the platform model,
its extension to unsaturated states is presented. The
A relation between total strain and strains in the
paper ends with simulations of laboratory tests in order
matrix and bond phases can then be derived:
to demonstrate the capabilities of the proposed model.
dεv = (1 − β)dεvm + βdεvb
2 CONSTITUTIVE MODEL dεq = (1 − β)dεqm + βdεqb (4)
The proposed model consists in the extension of a Elastic relations with respect to the different strains
model developed for saturated loess under cyclic load- previously introduced are assumed as follows:
ing (Chai 2005, Chai et al. 2007). This platform model
is based on the theory of bounding surface plasticity dpm dq
(Dafalias 1986) to simulate cyclic behaviour of loess. e
dεvm = ; e
dεqm = (5)
To account for the possibility of damage of the soil Km 3Gm
structure, modelling of bond degradation follows the dpb dqb
work of Vaunat & Gens (2003).
e
dεvb = ; e
dεqb = (6)
Kb 3Gb
The extension to unsaturated states of the platform
model is dealt with by following the framework intro- where Km , Gm are the elastic moduli of the matrix and
duced in the Barcelona Basic Model from Alonso et al. Kb , Gb are those related to the bonding phase under
(1990). Net stress (excess of total stress over gas pres- current state of degradation.
sure, pg ) and matric suction (s = pg − pw where Using Equations (4), (5) and (6) together with (1)
pw stand for water pressure) are used as independent provides total elastic strain increments:
stress state variables and yield limit is assumed to
be dependent of suction in order to simulate collapse
dp Kb
under wetting according to the loading-collapse (LC) dεve = (1 − β) + β − (1 − β) e
dεvb
equivalence principle. Km Km
Before going deeper in the unsaturated damage dq Gb
model for loessic soils, the bases of the saturated ver- dεqe = (1 − β) + β − (1 − β) e
dεqb (7)
3Gm Gm
sion from which it is extended are recalled. Interested
readers may find further details in (Chai 2005, Chai
Since pb and qb are unknown, elastic strain incre-
et al. 2007).
ments of bonds remain to be computed. Following
Vaunat & Gens (2003), the ratios of elastic strains of
e e
2.1 Cementation effects bonds dεvb , dεqb to total elastic strains dεve , dεqe are
A partition of the total effective stress between matrix assumed constant before damage and depending on
and bond contributions is assumed as follows: this latter afterwards:
pm = p − pb ; qm = q − qb (1)
e
dεvb /dεve = χ0 ; e
dεqb /dεqe = χ1 (8)
where p and q are respectively the total (appar- where χ0 and χ1 are positive scalars lower than 1. For
ent and saturated) effective isotropic and deviatoric simplicity, it will be assumed that χ0 = χ1 .
648
2.2 Description of damage of bonds The yield function and plastic potential are inspir-
ited from (Pastor et al. 1985). After modifications to
Following basic elastic damage theory, it is sup-
account for interparticle bonding and its damage, they
posed that bonds are submitted to elastic strains only.
both read as follows:
Beyond a certain level of energy elastically stored, a
degradation of their mechanical properties is assumed. αf
1 p̄
A damage scalar variable D varying from 0 to 1 F(σ , p0 ) = q̄ − Mf p̄ 1 + 1−
can classically be introduced (Lemaître & Chaboche, αf p̄0
1985). However, as previously done by Carol et al.
(2001), a rescaled counterpart L (varying from 0 and 1 p̄ αg
G(σ , pg ) = q̄ − Mg p̄ 1 + 1−
infinity) of the damage variable D is preferred in what αg p̄0g
follows. It is defined by: (15)
1
L = ln (9) where σ = ( p , q)T and Mf , αf , Mg , αg are parameters
1−D to determine and p̄0g is related to the size of the plastic
potential. As in (Pastor et al. 1985), the bounding and
Expressions (8) can then be rewritten to account for yield surfaces are assumed to coincide.
the damage state of bonds: On the bounding surface, the plastic strain incre-
ment is defined by the following flow rule:
e
dεvb /dεve = χ0 e<L0 −L> ; e
dεqb /dεqe = χ1 e<L0 −L>
(10) ngL/U (nT · dσ )
dε p = (dεvp , dεqp )T = cs (16)
HL/U
where L0 is associated to the energy level at which
degradation effectively starts and <x> represents the
positive part of x. with ngL/U and n the normal tensors to respectively the
The evolution of L is assumed to depend on both plastic potential surface during loading or unloading
cs
volumetric and shear strains as follows: and the bounding surface and HL/U , the plastic mod-
1 1 ulus during loading or unloading. This latter can be
. . computed using the consistency condition:
L(ε) = kv ξv + kq ξq ; ξv = |dεv |; ξq = .dεq .
T T
(11) ∂F ∂F ∂p0 ∂F
· dσ + · dε p + dL = 0
∂σ ∂p0 ∂εp ∂L
where kv and kq are materials constants to be deter- (17)
mined.
Inside the domain delimited by the bounding surface,
2.3 Constitutive model for the matrix the following mapping rule, inspired by the works pre-
sented in (Zienkiewicz et al. 1985, Pastor et al. 1985),
A model based on bounding surface plasticity the- is used to link the hardening modulus of the current
ory (Dafalias, 1986) has been rimentally simulate stress point HL/U to that of the conjugate stress point
observed accumulation of irreversible strains even if cs
HL/U :
the loading cycles are small compared to the yield limit
estimated from monotonous tests. γ0
HL/U δ0
Bonding effects are introduced in the plastic poten- = (18)
tial and the yield function by defining the following
cs
HL/U δ
changes of variable:
where γ0 is a material parameter. Following the theory
p̄ = p + χpbc ; q̄ = q + χqbc (12) of bounding surface plasticity, HL/U is then used to
classically compute the plastic strain increment inside
where pbc and qbc are material constants to be deter- the elastic domain.
mined and: Figure 2 presents schematic representation of this
mapping rule.
χ = χ0 e<L0 −L> (13)
2.4 Extension to unsaturated states
The hardening parameter pc is also modified in the
following way: The extension to unsaturated states is implemented fol-
lowing the framework of the Barcelona Basic model
p̄0 = (1 + χ)p0 (14) (BBM) from Alonso et al. (1990).
649
The energy-linked threshold L0 can be assumed to
be dependent on the suction value.
Concerning the modification of the yield surface,
it is directly inspired from the Barcelona Basic Model
(Alonso et al. 1990) so that:
F(σ, p0 , L, s)
αf
1 p̄
= q̄ − Mf (p̄ + ps ) 1 + 1− (24)
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the mapping rule αf p̄0
used to link plastic moduli at actual and conjugate stress
points.
with
The main part of the saturated model presented here p̄ = p + eL0 −L pbc ; q̄ = q + eL0 −L qbc (25)
before remains valid. The effective stress p only has to
be replaced by the net stress. The other modifications p̄s = k0 s; p̄0 = (1 + χ)p0 (26)
that are required to define the unsaturated model are χ = χ00 exp(L0 _L) (27)
now presented.
By analogy to the mechanical behaviour, total elas- The so-called LC curve is defined by:
tic strains associated to suction variations are given by:
λ(0)−κ
p0 p∗0 λ(s)−κ
1−β β = (28)
dεvse = s
+ s ds (19) pc pc
Km Kb
λ(s) = λ(0) ((1 − r) exp(−bs) + r) (29)
where Kms and Kbs are the bulk moduli associated to
suction variations of, respectively, the matrix and the where p∗0 corresponds to the saturated yield limit
bonds. introduced in Equations (14) and (15).
Interparticle bonding being constituted of clay and The plastic potential is chosen as:
calcite, it will be assumed further on that the air entry
value of the bond material is larger than usual val- G(σ , p0 , L, s)
ues of suction to which the soil is submitted. Since αg
1 p̄
in that case the bonding material remains saturated, = q̄ − Mg (p̄ + ps ) 1 + 1− (30)
Terzaghi’s effective stress remains valid. With this αg p̄0
assumption, the following simplification can be added
to the previous equation: and the plastic strain increment formally given in the
saturated case by (16) and (18) remains the same.
The hardening law is given by:
Kbs = Kb (20)
dp∗0 1+e ∂ξ
After some derivations, it can be shown that the ∗ = dεvp + β0 β1 e−β0 ξ p dεqp (31)
p0 λ(0) − κ ∂εq
variations of the stress in the bond are given by:
The consistency condition now takes into account
dpb = Kb0 χ00 eL0 −L suction changes and writes as follows:
" #
× dεve − εpe (−1)n kv dεv + (−1)m kq dεq T T
∂F ∂F ∂p∗0 ∂F
· dσ + ∗ · dε p + dL
(21) ∂σ ∂p0 ∂εp ∂L
L0 −L ∂F
dqb = Gb0 χ11 e + ds = 0 (32)
" ∂s
#
× dεqe − εqe (−1)n kv dεv + (−1)m kq dεq The suction increase yield locus (SI) introduced in
(22) BBM that is:
SI (s, s0 ) = s − s0 (33)
and, in the matrix, by:
is not considered in this study due to a lack of exper-
dpm = dp − dpb ; dqm = dq − dqb (23) imental data justifying its existence. In other words,
650
the suction value s0 which corresponds to the high- 900
est value at which the soil as ever been submitted is 800
assumed to be larger than usual values encountered in 700
800
imposing a given number of shear stress cycles after
600
an isotropic consolidation stage.
400 The results are presented in Figure 5. The influence
200 of a suction increase is characterised by the reduction
of axial strain at the end of a given cycle. Concern-
0
0.30 0.39 0.45 0.48 0.55 0.68 0.73
ing the modelling of damage, it appears that the first
Degree of saturation
cycles (for both suction values) present higher stiff-
ness, higher yield limits and larger irreversible strains
Figure 3. Experimental and simulated water retention than the last cycles. This observation can be explained
curves of loess from Northern France (experimental data easily by considering that the first cycles involve a
from (Karam 2006); simulated data using van Genuchten’s lowly damaged material which tends to increasingly
and Brooks & Corey’s models). degrade during the loading process.
651
Table 1. Material parameters of bonds. REFERENCES
χ00 = χ11 β kα = kβ Kb (kPa) νb pbc (kPa) Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. & Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique 40(3):
0.35 0.35 2.0 5000 0.25 10 405–430.
Brooks, R. & Corey, A. 1964. Hydraulic properties of porous
media, Colorado State University Hydrology Paper 3:
27 pp.
Table 2. Material parameters of matrix. Carol, I., Rizzi, E. & Willam, K. 2001. On the formula-
tion of anisotropic elastic degradation. I. Theory based
λ1 κ ν Mg Mf αg αf β0 β1 γ on a pseudo-logarithmic damage tensor rate. International
Journal of Solids and Structures 38(4): 491–518.
0.17 0.012 0.25 1.35 0.58 0.45 0.45 4.3 0.23 1.4 Chai, H.Y. 2005. Modelling of the Mechanical Behaviour
of Loessic soils under cyclic loadings. Research report.
ENPC.
Chai, H.Y., Pereira, J.M., Cui, Y.J. & Karam, J.P. 2007.
Modelling loess behaviour under cyclic loadings using
Table 3. Material parameters of unsaturated extension and a damage model. International Journal for Numerical and
water retention curve (van Genuchten’s model). Analytical Methods in Geomechanics (submitted).
Dafalias, Y.H. 1986. Bounding surface plasticity: I. Math-
r b pr (kPa) k κs n m B ematical foundation and hypoplasticity. Journal of Engi-
neering Mechanics (ASCE) 112(9): 966–987.
0.75 0.01 25 0.02 0.01 0.5 1 5 × 10−5 van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. Closed-form equation for predict-
ing the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils, Soil
Science Society of America Journal 44(5): 892–898.
Karam, J.P. 2006. Étude de la rhéologie des loess du Nord
de la France. Application à l’évaluation de leur risque de
3.3 Material parameters liquéfaction. PhD Thesis, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et
The materials parameters used in the simulations are Chaussées, Paris, France.
Pastor, M., Zienkiewicz, O. & Chan, A.H.C. 1990. General-
summarized in the Tables 1–3.
ized plasticity and the modelling of soil behaviour. Inter-
Mechanical parameters (of bonding material and national Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in
matrix, see Tables 1–2) were determined by curve Geomechanics 14(3): 151–190.
fitting from experimental data in (Chai 2005). Pastor, M., Zienkiewicz, O.C. & Leung, K.H. 1985. Simple
Unsaturated parameters were estimated from exper- model for transient soil loading in earthquake analysis. II.
imental results on similar soils and van Genuchten’s Non-associative models for sands. International Journal
parameters were determined by curve fitting (see for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics
Figure 3 and Table 3). 9: 477–498.
Ta, A.N. 2006. Prise en compte de la non-saturation dans
un modèle élastoplastique avec endommagement. MSc
Thesis, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris,
4 CONCLUSIONS France.
Vaunat, J. & Gens, A. 2003. Bond degradation and irre-
A model that aims at assessing the collapsibility of versible strains in soft argillaceous rock. In Proc. of the
loessic soils encountered along the high speed railway 12th Panamerican Conference on Soil Mechanics and
in Northern France has been presented. Theses soils Geotechnical Engineering: 479–484.
are submitted to cyclic mechanical loadings and to Zienkiewicz, O.C., Leung, K.H. & Pastor, M. 1985. Simple
environmental loadings which may lead to important model for transient soil loading in earthquake analysis. I.
collapse deformations. Basic model and its application. International Journal for
This model is able to simulate the effects of degra- Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 9:
453–476.
dation of bonds and non-saturation on the behaviour
of natural cemented soils. Preliminary results have
been presented and show the good capabilities of the
model.
652
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Analysis of macroscopic desiccation shrinkage experiments indicates that most of the shrinkage
occurs during drying while soil is still 100% wet. When air starts penetrating the soil, shrinkage practically
ceases, while the water content is still above 20%. The remaining drying process occurs with a much-reduced
shrinkage. In this context we look at the data of pore space evolution during saturated phase of drying as obtained
via porosimetry. The observed behavior is modeled at a microscale using Poiseuille flow in capillary vessels
with deformable walls driven by evaporation flux at the external boundary. A macroscopic model using Biot and
Darcy theories for the continuum were recently presented by the authors.
1 INTRODUCTION
653
2 PORE SPACE EVOLUTION Cuisinier & Laloui (2004) and Koliji et al. (2006)
during suction induced desaturation process. Interest-
2.1 Pore size distribution ingly, it has been known for sometime that in bi-modal
porosity soils, the SP remain virtually unchanged dur-
Pore size distribution was obtained for Bioley
ing consolidation process, whereas all volume changes
clayey silt filled with water using Mercury Intrusion
are accommodated by LP (Delage & Lefebre 1984).
Porosimetry. The measurements were conducted at
In reference to the desiccation process such evolution
three stages of unconstrained desiccation: at the value
of the pore space implies that only the water volume
of the water content of 33.1%, 24.8% and at 0.8%.
contained in the LP is subject to evacuation during the
These instants correspond to the initial state, near
saturated phase, and only that water volume produces
the shrinkage limit, and after the completion of the
the observed shrinkage.
process. Figure 2 visualizes the volume fraction for
each instant. The evolution of the pore space can be
summarized as follows: (1) the initial pore size is visi-
bly bi-modal, with Large Pores (LP), ranging between 3 MICROSCOPIC MODEL OF PORE SPACE
0.6 μm and 3 μm occupying initially 17% of the vol- EVOLUTION
umes of the medium, and Small Pores (SP), ranging
between 0.09 μm and 0.6 μm occupying initially 21% 3.1 Formulation
of the volume of the medium. There are also minor vol- The above observations will be framed into a model of
umes of peripheral size pores outside of the range of an evolving microscopic structure, based on the fol-
MIP, including those of clayey fraction (see Peron 2008 lowing specific postulates. It is recognized that the
for details). (2) At near shrinkage limit the LP take less pore system of soil is made of sectors of straight tubes
than 5% of the volume of the medium, whereas the SP of two initial sizes: small (ST) and large (LT), with
amount to 29%. Finally at near the completion of dry- their internal diameters coinciding with the average
ing, the LP take less than 0.5% of the volume of the values of the pore modes, identified in the preceding
medium, whereas the SP still amount to 27%. Section as 0.5 μm and 1 μm. The total initial vol-
umes of the pores are set as equal to the initial value of
2.2 Assessment of the pore space evolution the pore space of the corresponding modal volumes.
during drying The external radii of the tubes are not connected to any
physical currently used characteristics of soils, except
This result is very significant, as it indicates that dur- that the total volume of the solids of all the tubes must
ing the entire process the Small Pores do not decrease be representative of the total volume of the solids.
significantly, neither in size nor in total volume they Hence its value is determined as 2.5 μm. The grain
occupy. To the contrary, at near shrinkage limit, they size distribution data could provide some help, but not
probably include the volume of former LP. The LP without a more extensive study.
themselves practically all close during the saturated To begin with we consider a representative elemen-
phase of drying and disappear at completion of the tary volume (REV) in a form of a single cylindrical
process. Similar results were recently obtained by deformable tube around a single cylindrical Large Pore
located centrally and a series of parallel cylindrical
Small Pores, all filled with water, and connected at
their extremities to the atmosphere with which they
can exchange gas and fluid. The tube representation is
shown in Figure 3(a).
The solid of the tube represents a granular mate-
rial, hence deforming irreversibly. The macroscopic
654
experiments (Peron et al. 2006) indicate that drying Q is the volume-flow rate, F is the volume flux, p is
shrinkage strain is largely irreversible, while in the water pressure, μ is viscosity and a is the inner radius
unsaturated phase the deformation is reversible to the of the tube. We assume that the flow is solely attributed
state of the onset of desaturation, upon the removal to the loss of volume of the inner conduit, i.e. due to the
of suction or re-wetting. The behavior of the solid change in a, thus the volume change of an infinitesimal
material surrounding the pores will be considered as tube element per unit volume is
plastic, however it will be approximated via a linearly
elastic law during loading and considered as perfectly ∂v 2πa ∂a 2 ∂a
rigid during an unloading. The adoption of a linear = = (2)
deformation law allows one to use a principle of super- ∂t πa2 ∂t a ∂t
position and hence represent the pore system of Figure
3(a) as a superposition of effects of a LP and multi- And the mass conservation requires (in 1D)
ple SPs. Eventually, for the reasons of simplicity, SPs
will all be located centrally as well. Hence, the prob- ∂v ∂F
lem is reduced to that of a single tube with a single =− (3)
∂t ∂x
cylindrical pore.
The tube is considered as symmetric along and
Thus substituting the flux into Equation 3, an
around its axis, loaded with a negative pore fluid pres-
approximate Poiseuille’s equation for the collapsing
sure at the ends. It is assumed that a tube is completely
tube is obtained
filled with water during the considered phase (satu-
rated). Water undergoes a viscous (Poiseuille) flow, i.e.
an incompressible Newtonian fluid through a cylindri- 16μ ∂a ∂ 2 p 2 ∂a ∂p
= + (4)
cal tube. For the external boundary conditions for the a3 ∂t ∂x2 a ∂x ∂x
fluid one can envision either a known (negative) water
pressure history, or an imposed flux, resulting from the It should be pointed out that a similar equation can
evaporation flux. The removal of water from the tube also be obtained from Equation 1 by replacing the
implies that its volume is compensated by the defor- volume flow rate with the total volume loss of tube.
mation of the tube. The time evolution of the negative
pressure applied is reconstructed from the experiment 1
x
∂a (x, t)
(Peron et al. 2005, 2006) and shown in Figure 4. At Q=− 2πa · dx (5)
the axis of the symmetry at the tube half-length the 0 ∂t
no-flow condition is imposed.
Water transport in the tube is a viscous non- In reality the tube radius a varies with x because
frictional (Poiseuille) flow with the externally applied of the elastic deformation in response to the vari-
negative pressure, which is evaporation-driven. able (negative) pressure. A classical tube expan-
sion/compression solution provides such a relation-
∂p 8μ 8μ ship. To further simplify the mathematical solution
= − 4Q = − 2 F (1) Fung (1984) expresses the change in radius as a
∂x πa a function of the inner pressure by ignoring the radial
strain
a0 p(x) −1
a(x) = a0 1 − (6)
Eh
655
Substituting Equation 6 into the original
Equation 4 produces a partial differential equation for
pore pressure p.
2 pa
∂ 2p 2a0 ∂p 16μ 1 − Eh0 ∂p
+ pa0 =
∂x2 Eh 1 − Eh
∂x a0 Eh ∂t
(7)
3.2 Results
The solutions are obtained numerically for large and
small pores separately. The numerical value of the
deformability modulus E = 50 KPa, and water vis-
cosity chosen the same for the analyses of the LP and
the SPs. The length of the tubes is 15 cm, taken as the
length of the macroscopic experiments (see Peron et al.
2005). Both types of pores are subjected to the same
external negative pressure evolution, as resulting from
the same flux of water vapor (see Hu et al. 2007). The
most significant difference between the two types of
pores is in the amount of closure of the inner cavity: in
5 hours needed for reaching the shrinkage limit, the SP
closes over 0.08 μm from the original 0.5 μm at the
external boundary, whereas the LP closure amounts Figure 5(b). Evolution of radii in SP at x = L, x = L/2,
to 0.33 μm from 1 μm. This reflects correctly the and x = L/4.
porosimetry observation that the Large Pores convert
into 0.6 μm (or nearly Small Pore types) in that period
of time.
The evolution of radii for selected cross sections
of the tube proceeds similarly, but with a small but
marked delay, as seen in Figures 5(a) and (b).
The profiles of the opening along the axis for each
pore type are shown in Figure 6.
The results also indicate a different efficiency of
SPs and LPs in transport of water toward the evapo-
rating boundary. Figure 7 shows water flux evolution
at the boundary for both types of pore relative to their
cross section surface area. A single LP provides more
than twice of water than a SP after 5 hours.
Notably, as the areas of the individual tubes Figure 6. Radius profile for small and large pore after
decrease in a significantly different manner, the vol- 5 hours of drying.
ume flow rates per single tube yield a different picture
(Fig. 8). Indeed, because of a large reduction of the
cross section area of the large pore tube, it appears Hence, the outflow from the system stabilizes and
that the latter reaches a maximum of the water output then gradually decreases, driven by the tube constric-
at about two hours from the onset of the process of tion. Whether this remains within the range of validity
drying. It may be expected that the small tubes reach of the presented model remains an open question. The
a similar maximum at a later moment. cumulative volume loss via single LP and SP from
656
Figure 7. Water flux evolution at the external boundary for
individual LP and SP.
657
cross sections of the tube the negative pressure evolves Delage, P. & Lefebre, G., 1984, Study of the structure of
similarly, but with a marked delay, as visible in the sensitive Champlain Clay and of its evolution during
Figure 12. In fact the pressure evolution mimics that consolidation, Canadian Geotechnical J., 21 (1): 21–35.
of the radius of the pore as may be expected from the Fung, Y.C. 1984. Biodynamics: Circulation. New York:
form of Equation 6. Springer.
Hu, L.B., Peron, H., Hueckel, T. & Laloui, L. 2006. Numeri-
cal and phenomenological study of desiccation of soil. In
N. Lu, L.R. Hoyos and L. Reddi (eds.), ASCE Geotech-
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS nical Special Publication: Advances in Unsaturated Soil,
Seepage, and Environmental Geotechnics, 166–177.
The presented highly idealized microscopic model and Hu, L.B., Peron, H., Hueckel, T. & Laloui, L. 2007. Dry-
numerical simulations of the drying process in its sat- ing shrinkage of deformable porous media: mechanisms
uration phase indicate a series of characteristics that induced by the fluid removal. In H.W. Olson (ed.), ASCE
agree qualitatively with the experimental findings. Geotechnical Special Publication 157: Geo-Denver 2007,
The centerpiece of the model is transport of water New Peaks in Geotechnics. 10 pages, CD-ROM.
Kodikara, J., Barbour, S.L. & Fredlund, D.G. 1999. ‘‘Changes
toward the perimeter of the drying body producing in clay structure and behaviour due to wetting and dry-
the collapsing of the vessels. The model is largely ing.’’ Proceedings of the eighth Australia New Zealand
based on the evolution of the pore system, idealized Conference on Geomechanics, Hobart, 1: 179–185.
as bimodal. In particular, a significant reduction in Koliji, A., Laloui, L. Cuisinier, O. & Vulliet, L. 2006, Suc-
diameter of large pores is seen, compared to that of tion Induced Effects on the Fabric of a Structured Soil,
smaller mode pores that is attributed to the difference Transport in Porous Media 64: 261–278.
in their deformability due to size difference. Trans- Konrad, J.M. & Ayad, R. 1997. An idealized framework
port of water is characterized by an initial phase (two for the analysis of cohesive soils undergoing desiccation.
hours) when the discharge increases via large pores Canadian Geotechnical Journal 34: 477–488.
Miller, C.J., Mi H. & Yesiller, N. 1998. Experimental analy-
to stabilize at start to gently decrease after about four sis of desiccation crack propagation in clay liners. Journal
hours. An open question remains whether the afore- of the American Water Resources Association 34 (3):
mentioned decrease remains within the range of the 677–686.
model validity. Peron, H. 2008. Ph. D. Thesis, Ecole Polytechnique Fed-
Several simplifications and assumptions require eral de Lausanne, ENAC, Lausanne, Switzerland, in
further investigations, to start with the deforma- preparation.
tion modulus of the medium that comprises (only) Peron, H., Laloui, L. & Hueckel, T. 2005. An experimen-
smaller pores. An obvious limit of the validity of the tal Evidence in Desiccation Cracking in Sandy Silt, in
model is the air entry moment. However, a micro- Tarantino, Romero and Cui (eds.), Advanced Experimen-
tal Unsaturated Soil Mechanics, Proceeding of Confer-
scopic criterion for this occurrence is still a point of ence, Trento, Italy, April 2005, Taylor and Francis Group,
discussion. London, 475–480.
Peron, H., Laloui, L., Hueckel, T. & Hu, L.B. 2006. Exper-
imental study of desiccation of soil. In G.A. Miller, C.E.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Zapata, S.L. Houston and D.G. Fredlund (eds.), ASCE
Geotechnical Special Publication 147: Unsaturated Soils
This work is funded by a cooperation between the 2006, 1073–1084.
Swiss National Science Foundation, grant 200020- Peron, H., Hu, L.B., Hueckel, T. & Laloui, L. 2007. The
109661 and the US National Science Foundation, influence of the pore fluid on desiccation of a deformable
porous material. In T. Schanz (ed.), Springer Proceedings
grant # 0324543. in Physics, Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics,
413–420.
REFERENCES
658
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D. Mašín
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
N. Khalili
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a recently developed constitutive model for unsaturated soils, based on
the theory of hypoplasticity and the effective stress principle. The mathematical formulation of the model is
outlined and the required state variables and parameters are described. The model is, among other features
of unsaturated soil behaviour, capable of predicting collapse upon wetting, a phenomenon that could not be
modelled with earlier hypoplastic models. Predictions of wetting-induced collapse agree well with experimental
data on statically compacted Pearl clay.
where T̊ is the objective rate of Cauchy stress tensor, Stress variables without any superscript (T) denote the
D is Euler stretching tensor, L and N are two constitu- effective stress, Tnet is the net stress defined as Tnet =
tive tensors and fs and fd are two scalar factors (named Ttot − 1ua and s = ua − uw is the matric suction. Ttot
barotropy and pyknotropy factors respectively) that is the total stress, ua is the pore air pressure and uw is
incorporate the influence of mean stress and void ratio. the pore water pressure.
The model by Mašín (2005) is characterised by a low A simple formulation for the effective stress ten-
number of parameters and a simple calibration proce- sor T based on Eq. (2), which is sufficient for
dure. This advantageous property of the basic model many practical applications, has been put forward by
is naturally shared also by its extension for unsaturated Khalili and Khabbaz (1998) and further evaluated by
soils. Khalili et al. (2004). On the basis of an extensive
659
evaluation of experimental data they proposed the is controlled by the isotropic virgin compression line
following empirical formulation for χ: with the formulation according to Butterfield (1979)
& p
1 for s ≥ se ln(1 + e) = N (s) − λ∗ (s) ln (5)
χ= s γ e (3) pr
for s < se
s
where e is the void ratio, which is considered as a
where se is the suction value separating saturated state variable, and pr = 1 kPa is a reference stress.
from unsaturated states. It is equal to the air entry Quantities N (s) and λ∗ (s) define the position and the
value for drying processes and the air expulsion value slope of the isotropic virgin compression line in the
for wetting processes. γ is a material parameter, and it ln(p/pr ) vs. ln(1 + e) plane for given suction s.
has been shown that for a broad range of different soils For the evaluation of model predictions through this
it is sufficient to assign γ = 0.55 (Khalili and Khabbaz paper, we assume for ln(s/se ) > 0 (unsaturated state)
1998). For suctions lower than se the effective stress the following simple logarithmic dependency of N (s)
parameter χ is equal to 1, i.e. the soil is saturated and λ∗ (s) on s:
and Eq. (2) reduces to the Terzaghi effective stress
definition. s
Time differentiation of Eq. (2), with the use of (3) N (s) = N + n ln (6)
se
and taking into account rigid body rotations, imply
the following formulation of the objective rate of the s
λ∗ (s) = λ∗ + l ln (7)
effective stress se
net
T̊ = T̊ + 1(1 − γ )χ ṡ (4) where the quantities n and l represent two additional
soil parameters. For ln(s/se ) < 0 (saturated state)
In addition to the effective stress tensor T, suction N (s) = N and λ∗ (s) = λ∗ . It is, however, empha-
s is considered as a state variable that quantifies the sized that the general formulation of the model can
stiffening effect of the water menisci. accommodate any other more complex relationships
between N (s), λ∗ (s) and s.
Mašín (2007) demonstrated that incorporation of
3 HYPOPLASTIC MODEL variable virgin compressibility and the intercept N (s)
FOR UNSATURATED SOILS into the hypoplastic model requires a modification of
both barotropy and pyknotropy factors fs and fd in
In this section, the hypoplastic model for unsaturated (1), which are now calculated in terms of N (s) and
soils proposed recently by Mašín and Khalili (2007) λ∗ (s). The respective expressions are given in Mašín
will be presented. The basic aim of the derivations and Khalili (2007).
in this section is to demonstrate a conceptual way
to incorporate the behaviour of unsaturated soils into 3.2 Incorporation of wetting-induced collapse
hypoplasticity. The particular formulation adopted is at normally consolidated states
very simple, but it may be readily modified by using
the general rules outlined in this section. When an unsaturated soil with an initially open struc-
ture is subjected to a decreasing suction, the reduction
in the normal forces acting at the inter-particle con-
3.1 Model for constant suction tacts may result in a situation in which the structure,
The overall mechanical response of a soil element is for the given effective stress T and void ratio e, is no
controlled by the effective stress tensor. Suction influ- longer stable, and thus it collapses. This phenomenon,
ences the effective stress and, in addition, it increases referred to as a wetting-induced collapse, cannot be
normal forces at interparticle contacts and thus acts as modelled with the model for structured clays Mašín
a quantity that increases the overall stability of the soil 2007), as T̊ = 0 implies D = 0 (see Eq. (1)), i.e. no
structure. In terms of the critical state soil mechan- deformation of the soil skeleton can be predicted for
ics, it increases the size of the state boundary surface variable suction with constant effective stress.
(SBS), in a similar manner to bonding between soil In the context of the critical state soil mechanics,
particles in saturated cemented materials. State bound- all admissible states of a soil element are bounded
ary surface is defined as a boundary of all possible by the SBS. As the hypoplastic model from Sec. 3.1
states of a soil element in the stress vs. void ratio space. predicts constant void ratio sections through the SBS
The incorporation of structure into hypoplastic of the same shape (see Mašín and Herle (2005)), it
model has been discussed in detail by Mašín (2007). In is advantageous to study collapse due to wetting in
this context, the size of the SBS for unsaturated soils the stress space normalised by the size of the SBS
660
for current e. This size is quantified by the Hvorslev 1
m=1
equivalent pressure pe , implied by Eq. (5). m=2
Mašín and Khalili (2007) have shown, that normali- 0.8
m=5
m=10
sation with respect to pe allows us to derive the follow- m=100
ing expression that ensures consistency of the model
0.6
predictions with the SBS of suction-dependent size:
fu
0.4
T̊ = fs (L : D + fd ND) + H (8)
0.2
where H is a new term given by
T ∂pe 0
H= ṡ (9) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
pe ∂s p/pSBS
From the expression for the Hvorslev equivalent pres- Figure 1. The influence of the parameter m on the value of
sure pe follows suction hardening pyknotropy factor fu .
T ∂N (s) ∂λ(s) pe
H= − ln ṡ (10) The following expression for the factor fu satisfying
λ(s) ∂s ∂s pr
these requirements is proposed:
m
3.3 Model for any state of overconsolidation p
fu = (13)
The model from Sec. 3.2 may be used for constant pSBS
value of suction (ṡ = 0) and for wetting at normally
consolidated states (states at the SBS). The following where pSBS is the effective mean stress at the
assumptions are utilised to extend Eq. (8) for arbitrary SBS corresponding to the current stress state T/ tr T
(physically admissible, i.e. inside the SBS) states and and current void ratio e and m is a model parame-
arbitrary loading conditions: ter controlling the influence of overconsolidation on
the wetting-induced collapse. Eq. (13) is demonstrated
1. As suction controls stability of inter-particle con-
graphically in Fig. 1. Clearly, value of the parameter
tacts, increasing suction under constant effective
m controlls dependency between collapse of structure
stress imposes no deformation of soil skeleton.
and distance of the current state from the SBS. Note
2. The more open the soil structure, the larger the
that basic elasto-plastic models based on suction hard-
inter-particle contact shear forces and therefore the
ening concept imply m → ∞ (collapse at the yield
greater the number of inter-particle contact slips
surface only).
under wetting at constant effective stress.
It may be shown from the definition of the
To reflect these two assumptions, the rate formulation pyknotropy factor fd of the basic hypoplastic model
of the model is written as and using rules derived by Mašín and Herle
(2005) that
T̊ = fs (L : D + fd ND) + fu H (11) m/α
fu = fd fs A−1 : N (14)
with
where the fourth-order tensor A is given by
T ∂N (s) ∂λ(s) pe
H= − ln ṡ (12)
λ(s) ∂s ∂s pr 1
A = fs L − T⊗1 (15)
λ∗ (s)
where the operator x denotes positive part of any
scalar function x and fu is a new pyknotropy factor
controlling tendency of the soil structure to collapse 4 WETTING-INDUCED STRAIN RATE
upon wetting.
The factor fu must be equal to unity for states at the Wetting of normally consolidated soil at anisotropic
SBS (in that case the structure is as open as possible stress state causes in addition to volumetric collapse
and collapse is controlled by H only) and fu → 0 development of shear strains (Sun et al. 2004, 2007).
for OCR → ∞ (no wetting-induced inter-particle Eq. (8) allows us to derive an expression for the
slippage occurs in highly overconsolidated soil). direction of stretching implied by wetting at constant
661
0.05
experiment
0.6
m=1
0.04 m=2
0.4 m=5
m=10
0.03 m=100
0.2
q/p*e, dεs
εv [-]
0 0.02
– 0.2 0.01
– 0.4
0
– 0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 –0.01
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
p/p*e, dεv
s [kPa]
Figure 2. Direction of strain rate tensor induced by wetting Figure 3. s vs.
v relationship for wetting of slightly
at constant effective stress for Pearl clay parameters. overconsolidated soil at constant net stress.
29◦ λ∗ κ∗
0.82
ϕc 0.05 0.005 N 1.003 r 0.5
0.8
n 0.164 l 0.024 m2 se [kPa] -15
ln (1+e)
0.78
0.76
0.74
effective stress for states at the SBS (see Mašín and 0.72
Khalili (2007)). 0.7
0.68 NCLs
−1
=− A :N
D (16)
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
A−1 : N ln (p/pref)
0.86
where the fourth-order tensor A is given by Eq. (15).
0.84
Eq. (16) implies purely deviatoric strain rate at the
critical state and purely volumetric strain rate at the 0.82
662
0.06 3
pnet=20 kPa
0.05 pnet=49 kPa
pnet=98 kPa
net
p =196 kPa 2.5
0.04 net
p =392 kPa
pnet=588 kPa
0.03
R [-]
εv [-]
2
calib. m
0.02
0.01 1.5
R=1.5
0 R=2
R=2.5
1
– 0.01 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
εa [-]
– s [kPa]
3
0.06
pnet=20 kPa
0.05 pnet=49 kPa
pnet=98 kPa
pnet=196 kPa 2.5
0.04 pnet=392 kPa
pnet=588 kPa
0.03 R [-] 2
εv [-]
calib. m
0.02
0.01 1.5
R=1.5
0 R=2
R=2.5
1
– 0.01 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 εa [-]
– s [kPa]
663
3 radial net stresses. At this stage, suction was decreased
to zero under constant net stress, and finally the shear
test continued under constant mean net stress and s =
2.5 0 kPa to failure. The specimens had approximately
equal initial void ratios (initial apparent OCRs) and
they were wetted at different values of the ratio R (1.5,
R [-]
2
2 and 2.5).
Figure 6 shows the results of the three constant net
1.5 mean stress shear tests in the axial strain vs. princi-
R=1.5 pal net stress ratio plane. The corresponding radial
R=2 strains are in Fig. 7. Correct predictions of the constant
R=2.5
1 suction parts of the tests demonstrate the predictive
–0.07 –0.06 –0.05 –0.04 –0.03 –0.02 –0.01 0 0.01
capabilities of the basic hypoplastic model, which
εr [-]
predicts the non-linear soil behaviour with gradual
3 decrease of the shear stiffness. In the wetting parts of
the tests, the model predicts significant increase of the
collapse axial strains and of the negative radial strains
2.5
at higher ratios R. The good quantitative agreement
for both
a and
r demonstrates adequate modelling of
the wetting-induced collapse strain rate direction. The
R [-]
2
analytical expression for this direction has been (for
constant effective stress) derived in Sec. 4, see Fig. 2
1.5 for Pearl clay parameters.
R=1.5
R=2
R=2.5
1
–0.07 –0.06 –0.05 –0.04 –0.03 –0.02 –0.01 0 0.01 6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
εr [-]
A recently developed constitutive model for unsatu-
Figure 7. Constant net mean stress shear tests and constant rated soils is presented in the paper. The model is
R wetting tests by Sun et al. (2007) plotted in
a vs.
r plane based on the theory of hypoplasticity, it is thus capable
(top) and predictions by the proposed model (bottom). of predicting pre- and post-peak non-linear deforma-
tion behaviour of unsaturated soils, and the variation
of the soil stiffness with loading direction—important
factor fu . The experiments show the lowest collapsible aspects absent from many of the current constitu-
strains for the wetting at the highest net mean stress tive models proposed for the behaviour of unsaturated
(588 kPa). Correct predictions of the final value of the soils.
volumetric strains after collapse are achieved thanks to A specific feature of unsaturated soil behaviour—
the converging normal compression lines of the satu- collapse of the structure induced by wetting—can
rated and unsaturated soils (Fig. 4), i.e. thanks to l > 0 be predicted thanks to the factors H and fu , novel
(Eq. (6)). The predicted shape of the wetting path in to hypoplasticity. Predictions of the wetting-induced
the s vs.
v plane is controlled by the factor fu (for the collapse, presented in this paper, agree well with
initially apparently overconsolidated specimens) and experimentally observed behaviour.
by the interpolation function for the quantities N (s)
and λ∗ (s) (Eq. (6)). Good agreement between experi-
mental data and model predictions also for wetting at ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
higher net mean stresses (where the factor fu takes a
constant value equal to 1) suggests that the logarith- The first author acknowledges the financial support
mic interpolation adopted is suitable to represent the by the research grants GAAV IAA200710605, GACR
actual soil behaviour. 103/07/0678 and MSM0021620855.
The second set of experimental data allows us to
investigate the influence of the stress anisotropy on the
wetting-induced collapse behaviour. The specimens REFERENCES
were, after isotropic compression at constant suction
s = −147 kPa to mean net stress pnet = 196 kPa, Bishop, A.W. (1959). The principle of effective stress.
subjected to constant suction and constant net mean Teknisk Ukeblad 106(39), 859–863.
stress shear tests up to a target principal net stress ratio Butterfield, R. (1979). A natural compression law for soils.
R = Tanet /Trnet , where Tanet and Trnet are the axial and Géotechnique 29(4), 469–480.
664
Khalili, N., F. Geiser, and G.E. Blight (2004). Effec- Mašín, D. and I. Herle (2005). State boundary surface of a
tive stress in unsaturated soils: Review with new evi- hypoplastic model for clays. Computers and Geotechnics
dence. International Journal of Geomechanics 4(2), 115– 32(6), 400–410.
126. Mašín, D. and N. Khalili (2007). A hypoplastic model
Khalili, N. and M.H. Khabbaz (1998). A unique relation- for mechanical response of unsaturated soils. Interna-
ship for χ for the determination of the shear strength of tional Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in
unsaturated soils. Géotechnique 48(2), 1–7. Geomechanics (submitted).
Mašín, D. (2005). A hypoplastic constitutive model for Sun, D.A., H. Matsuoka, and Y.F. Xu (2004). Collapse
clays. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical behaviour of compacted clays in suction-controlled tri-
Methods in Geomechanics 29(4), 311–336. axial tests. Geotechnical Testing Journal 27(4), 362–370.
Mašín, D. (2007). A hypoplastic constitutive model for Sun, D.A., D. Sheng, and Y.F. Xu (2007). Collapse behaviour
clays with meta-stable structure. Canadian Geotechnical of unsaturated compacted soil with different initial densi-
Journal 44(3), 363–375. ties. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 44(6), 673–686.
665
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
M. Sanchez
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT: The aim of this work is to extend an existent double structure model for expansive clays (Sanchez
et al., 2005) to include the thermal effects in the analysis. Experimental results obtained in the context of the
NF-PRO project have been used to extend the constitutive law. A fundamental characteristic of the double
structure framework is the explicit distinction of two actual structural levels existent within the material: the
macrostructural level, which accounts for the larger scale structure of the material and the microstructural
level, associated with the active clay responsible for the swelling behaviour. In addition, the model considers
the interaction between the two structural levels. In this paper the dependence of the swelling behaviour on
temperature has been directly included in the constitutive law that describes the microstructural behaviour. This
is the natural way to consider the thermal effects in expansive clays, as their swelling behaviour is controlled
mainly by the clay minerals (microstructure).
667
Rock
Compacted
bentonite
Nuclear
waste Container
668
Figure 3. Distributions of incremental pore volume
obtained using MIP technique (Lloret et al., 2003)
and schematic representation of the two structural levels
considered.
669
and temperature. A basic point of the model is that 3.3 Interaction between macro and micro
the size of the yield surface increases with matric suc- structure
tion. The trace of the yield function on the isotropic
In expansive soils there are other mechanisms in addi-
p-s plane is called the LC (Loading-Collapse) yield
tion to the ones included in the BBM which induce
curve, because it represents the locus of activation of
plastic strains. This irreversible behaviour is ascribed
irreversible deformations due to loading increments
to the interaction between the macro and micro struc-
or collapse. The position of the LC curve is given by
tures (Gens & Alonso 1992). It is assumed that the
the pre-consolidation yield stress of the saturated state,
microstructural mechanical behaviour is not affected
p∗o (hardening variable), according to:
by the macrostructure but the opposite is not true.
• (1 + e) • p An assumption of the model is that the irreversible
p∗0 = p∗0 ε (2) deformations of the macrostructure are proportional
(λ(0) − κ) v to the microstructural strains according to interaction
• functions f . The plastic macrostructural strains are
p
where e is the void index, εv is the volumetric plastic evaluated by the following expression:
strain, κ is the elastic compression index for changes
• •
in p and λ(0) is the stiffness parameter for changes in p p •
for virgin states of the soil in saturated conditions. In εvp = εvLC + f εv1 (5)
additions, the model is able to describe the reduction
p
of the size of the yield surface and the strength of the where εvLC is the plastic strains induced by the yielding
material with the increase of temperature, according of the macrostructure (BBM).
to the model suggested in Gens (1995). The Appendix In fact the coupling is given by p∗o , hardening vari-
contains the main model equations. able of the macrostructure (Figure 4a), which depends
on the total plastic volumetric strain (Equation 2).
In this way it is considered that the microstructural
3.2 Microstructural model
processes can affect the global arrangements of aggre-
The microstructure is the seat of the basic physico- gates. More details can be found in Sánchez et al.
chemical phenomena occurring at clay particle level. (2005).
The strains arising from microstructural phenom-
ena are considered elastic and volumetric (Gens &
Alonso, 1992). The microstructural effective stress is 4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SWELLING
defined as:
The swelling pressure results for the two dry den-
p̂ = p + χs (3) sities tested are plotted in Figure 5. Deformations
induced in the experimental device due to thermal
It is assumed that the total suction is equal to the effects have been calibrated and deducted from the
matric suction (s), because the effect of the osmotic informed results. The dispersion of data can be mostly
suction is not considered in this work. χ is a con- attributed to the variations in dry density (whose aver-
stant. It is also assumed hydraulic equilibrium between age values were in fact 1.58 and 1.49 Mg/m3 ). This
the water potentials of both structural levels. A more is caused by the small displacement allowed by the
general formulation with non-equilibrium between
water potentials is presented in Sanchez (2004). The
increment of microstructural strains is expressed as:
Error bars obtained from values of Dry density (Mg/m3)
Swelling pressure (MPa)
670
equipment, as the swelling pressure value is very 100.0
ΔT (°C) τ : 0.12
sensitive to small density changes. The error bars 0 20 40 60
shown in the figure were obtained from values mea-
(p+s) (MPa)
10.0
sured in tests performed at laboratory temperature
(Lloret et al., 2003). A decrease of swelling pressure
as a function of temperature is observed. This would 1.0
be in accordance with the results obtained in soaking
under load tests, which predict a decrease in swelling 0.1
capacity with temperature (Villar & Gómez-Espina, 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
2006). The extrapolation towards higher tempera- K1 (MPa)
tures would indicate that swelling pressures higher
than 1 MPa would be developed even for tempera- Figure 6. Changes in micro-structural stiffness with
tures of 100◦ C. Lingnau et al. (1996) also observed a temperature.
reduction in swelling pressure with temperature for a
sand/bentonite mixture, although it did not show any
loss in the self-healing capability of the material, even
for temperatures of up to 100◦ C.
In order to represent more closely the behaviour of where T is the temperature difference, that is the
expansive clays it is important to consider the influ- actual temperature minus Tref , a reference tempera-
ence of temperature on swelling. With this aim the ture (i.e. 20◦ C), and τ is a new parameter that may be
model presented in Section 3 has been extended to obtained from experiments. In this analysis τ has been
include thermal effects. In the constitutive law pre- obtained by back-analysing the experiments.
sented above, the large swelling of the material is Figure 6 shows how the change of temperature
modelled (mainly), through the microstructural law affects the microstructural bulk modulus according to
(Section 3.2). This has a strong physical sense because the suggested law. An increase in the microstructural
the expansive behaviour of soils is due to the wet- stiffness with temperature is predicted with this law.
ting of the active clay minerals, which constitute This means lower expansion when tests are conducted
the microstructure of expansive clays. So, the aim at higher temperature.
here is to include at this level the change in the In order to check the capabilities of the extended
swelling capacity of expansive clays due to thermal constitutive law a series of analysis has been carried
effects. out in order to describe the dependence of swelling on
The mechanical behaviour at microstructural temperature observed experimentally.
level is represented by a non-lineal elastic model, Swelling pressure tests at constant temperature have
because it is assumed that the expansion is con- been modelled (Figure 5). The initial suction has been
trolled by physico-chemical effects occurring at determined from the retention curve.
clay particle level (microstructure) that are basically No major effects of temperature on retention
reversible. behaviour of FEBEX bentonite have been observed,
In this law (Equation 4) the expansion of the mate- at least for the range of temperature analysed herein
rial depends on the microstructural effective stress (FEBEX, 2006).
(Equation 3) through a microstructural bulk modulus The rest of initial and boundary conditions have
(K1 ). A first attempt to model the thermal effect is to been adopted to reproduce closely the conditions
include a dependence of K1 on temperature. observed during the test (Villar & Gómez-Espina,
The expression used to validate the expansive model 2006). As has been already mentioned, for the
with data of FEBEX bentonite (Lloret et al., 2003) is FEBEX bentonite, the main parameters of the con-
presented as follows: stitutive law were previously obtained during the
validation of the constitutive law (Lloret et al., 2003).
e−αm p̂ In this work, the only parameters adjusted are the
K1 = (6) ones related to the new microstructural law. The main
βm
model parameters used in the analysis are presented
where αm and βm are model parameters. The exten- in Table 1. In this model, the dependence of swelling
sion suggested here is to include a dependence of on initial density is taken into account in a consis-
the parameter βm on temperature. The following tent way through the parameter p∗0 (Gens & Alonso,
expression is proposed: 1992).
As can be observed from Figure 5, the model is able
βm to reproduce quite well the dependence of swelling
βm = T
(7) pressure on temperature for the two dry densities
τ Tref
e analysed.
671
Table 1. Mechanical constitutive law parameters.
Interactions functions
fC = 1 + 0.9 tan h (20 (pr /po ) − 0.25) fS = 0.8 − 1.1 tan h (20 (pr /po ) − 0.25)
(∗1 ) dry density 1.6 (Mg/m3 ) p∗o = 7.0 (MPa) e macro = 0.228
(∗1 ) dry density 1.5 (Mg/m3 ) p∗o = 4.5 (MPa) e macro = 0.340
672
suction and temperature is given by: where pc is a reference stress, α1 and α3 are model
parameters. λ(s) is the compressibility parameter for
ps = ks e−ρT (A2) changes in net mean stress for virgin states of the soil;
which depends on suction according to:
where k and ρ are model parameters. The dependence
of p0 on suction is given by: λ(s) = λ(0) [r + (1 − r) exp (−ζ s)] (A4)
λλ(0)−κ
−κ
p∗0T (s)
where r is a parameter which defines the minimum
p0 = pc ; soil compressibility. ζ is a parameter that controls
pc
the rate of decrease of soil compressibility with
p∗0T = p∗0 + 2(α1 T + α3 T | T | ) (A3) suction.
673
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Y. Wang
Institute for Materials Research, School of Computing, Science and Engineering,
University of Salford, Manchester, UK
G. Wu
Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
S.M. Grove
Advanced Composites Manufacture Centre, School of Engineering, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
M.G. Anderson
School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
ABSTRACT: The water retention characteristic or Water Retention Curve (WRC) is an important constitutive
feature of soils. Previous experiments have indicated that specific surface area has effects on the WRC. It has
also been observed that a linear relationship generally exists between the air-water interface area and the pore
saturation in unsaturated soils. However it seems that no study on their internal linkage with the WRC has
been reported yet. This paper tries to explain the water retention curve according to the physical and chemical
behaviours of the phases involved in unsaturated soils. Using the capillary, interfacial surface theories and
averaging theorem, a deterministic formula which represents the water retention characteristic is derived. This
formula demonstrates the internal linkage of the WRC to the specific surface area of porosities. It shows
agreement with experimental observations. Based on this formula, a fitting model is proposed for the WRC
of soils. Finally, this model is tested to fit the WRCs of a wide range of soils, and compared with other main
models.
675
and Hassanizadeh 1998). This paper, however, still meniscus. In another word, it could be said that, under
only discusses the WRC under static conditions. equilibrium, the position of the meniscus just balances
Previous experiments have shown that unsaturated the pressure difference between the water and vapour
soils present a linear relationship between air-water phases. It is this mechanism that decides the WRCs of
interfacial area and the pore saturation. Petersen et al. soils.
(1996) found that water retention characteristic was It has been suggested that the chemical potential
significantly connected with the specific surface area change caused by surface adsorption can be evaluated
of the soil (Bachmann & van der Ploeg 2002). This using Kelvin’s equation (Tuller et al. 1999):
paper tries to investigate the internal relations between
the WRCs and these observations. A traditional BCC P
model is employed to represent capillary pore geom- uf = RT ln (2)
P0
etry, meanwhile interfacial surface theory is used to
describe the individual behaviour of the coexisting where uf is the molar chemical potential change of
water and vapour phases in unsaturated porous media. the adsorbed fluid on the substrate surface; R is the gas
Finally volume averaging analysis generates a determi- constant; T is temperature; and P/P0 is the relative
nate formula for water retention characteristic. Based pressure of the equilibrium vapour surrounding the
on the formula, a simplified WRC model is proposed. adsorbed fluid.
The model is tested on different soils and compared According to the mechanical equilibrium, the abso-
with other models. lute pressure of the adsorbed fluid equals to its sur-
rounding vapour pressure plus the chemical potential
change due to adsorption, i.e.:
2 THEORY
uf uf
In unsaturated soils, the curved meniscus is only a Pfad = + P0 exp (3)
small part of the water-vapour interface. Because, at Vf RT
the start of a wetting or the end of a draining pro-
cess, a thin uniform water film which coats the whole where Vf is the molar volume of the fluid;
pore surface has been formed, the water-vapour inter- Logically, Eq. (3) is applicable to both water
facial area should decrease with water content once and vapour phases in unsaturated soils. When the
the meniscus is formed, and becomes zero at full atmospheric pressure is set as reference, the indivi-
saturation (Costanza-Robinson & Brusseau 2002). dual absolute pressures of the two phases can be
Modern interfacial science suggests that surface expressed as:
forces modify the properties and chemical potential of
the interfacial region relative to their free bulk phase uw uw
Pw = + P0 exp (4a)
values (Tuller et al. 1999). Due to their surface interac- Vw RT
tions with the solid phase, the water and vapour phases
in unsaturated soils have their individual pressures. uv uv
Pv = + P0 exp (4b)
Under equilibrium, the pressure difference of the two Vv RT
phases is balanced by the capillary pressure due to the
meniscus, which follows the Young-Laplace equation where the subscript w and v indicate the water and
(Dullien 1991): vapour phases, respectively.
Substituting Eq. (4) into (1) yields:
2σws 2σvs
Pc = Pw − Pv = − (1)
r r uw uw uv uv
Pc = + P0 exp − − P0 exp
Vw RT Vv RT
where Pc is the capillary pressure; Pw and Pv are the
(5)
absolute pressures of the water and vapour phases,
respectively; σws is the interfacial tension between
water and solid phases; σvs is the interfacial ten- Eq. (5) describes the phase equilibrium at micro-
sion due to the molecular interaction between vapour scopic pore scale. Using volume averaging theorem
and solid phases via a thin intervening water film the macroscopic average of Pc is defined as:
(Iwamatsu & Horii 1996); r is the local pore size at 1
1
the position of meniscus. Pc = Pc dV
Eq. (1) could be understood to mean that the pres- Vpore Vpore
676
1
1 uv uv to the bulk volume of the porous material), the molar
− + P0 exp dV chemical potential changes of the water and vapour
Vpore Vpore Vv RT
1 phases in unsaturated soils can be related to the spe-
1 uw uw cific surface areas of the two distinctive parts which are
= + P0 exp dV
Vpore Vwater Vw RT occupied by the water and vapour phases, respectively,
1 i.e.:
1 uv uv
− + P0 exp dV (6)
Vpore Vvapour Vv RT
w Vw s̄ws + Aw Vw s̄ws + Aw Vw s̄ws
uw = Am 3 e 2 s
(10a)
where Vpore represents the total pore volume with an
uv = Am 3
v Vv s̄vs + Aev Vv s̄vs
2
+ Asv Vv s̄vs (10b)
representative elementary volume (REV) of porous
media; Vwater is water volume; Vvapour is vapour volume.
Because the discussion is under the assumption of where the subscript w and v indicate the water and
static/equilibrium states, when the local Pw and Pv are vapour phases, respectively; A is constant; V is molar
either constant (an intrinsic phase average) at any place volume; s̄ws is the specific surface area of the water-
where they occupy, respectively, or zero otherwise, filled part of porosity, and s̄vs is the specific surface
Eq. (6) can be further developed as: area of the vapour filled part of porosity, they are
defined as:
1
S uw uw
Pc = + P0 exp ds Sws
0 Vw RT s̄ws = (11a)
1 1−S Vbulk S
uv uv
− + P0 exp d(1 − s) (7) s̄vs =
Svs
(11b)
0 Vv RT Vbulk (1 − S)
where S is water saturation, uw and uv are the
intrinsic average molar chemical potential changes of where Sws is the water-solid interfacial area; Svs is the
the water and vapour phases due to the adsorption vapour-solid interfacial area; Vbulk is the bulk volume
effect of pore surfaces, which is defined as: of the porous material.
Because a thin water film intervenes between all
1 of the vapour-solid interfaces, it can be approximated
1
uw =
Vpore
uw dV (8a) that Svs ∼
= Svw by ignoring the extremely small cross
Vwater
1 section of the throats which connect pores, where Svw
1 is the vapour-water interfacial area. Published exper-
uv = uv dV (8b)
Vpore Vvapour iments (Karkare & Fort 1996, Kim & Rao 1997,
Costanza-Robinson & Brusseau 2002) and modelling
According to Iwamatsu and Horii (1996) and Tuller works (Cary 1994, Bradford & 1997, Nordhaug et al.
et al. (1999), the molar chemical potential of an 2003) have generally demonstrated a linear relation-
adsorbed fluid is related to the fluid thickness h ship between vapour-water interfacial area and water
on the substrate surface, and consists of several saturation degree in unsaturated soils, i.e.:
components, i.e.:
Svs ∼ Svw
uf (h) = Vf m (h) + e (h) + s (h) + a (h) (9) = = s̄(1 − S) (12)
Vbulk Vbulk
where m (h) originates from van der Waals molecular where s̄ is the specific surface area of the bulk porous
interaction which is proportional to 1/h3 ; e (h) is the material, which is defined as:
electrostatic component proportional to 1/h2 ; s (h) is
the structural component proportional to 1/h; a (h) is Svs + Sws
a component due to non-uniform concentrations in the s̄ = (13)
Vbulk
film which will be ignored in the following discussion.
Using a BCC geometric model, the thickness h of
the adsorbed fluid could be understood as the radius Substituting Eq. (12) into (13) yields:
of the representing capillary. Under the rule of the
same in pore surface area, the BCC model could be Sws
= s̄S (14)
further equivalent to a single capillary with a Vbulk
‘hydraulic radius’ which is defined as the ratio of the
pore volume to the pore surface area (Dullien 1991). Substituting Eqs. (12) and (13) into (11) yields that
Because ‘hydraulic radius’ is inversely proportional to s̄ws = s̄vs = s̄. So Eq. (10) represents two constants
‘specific surface area’ (the ratio of pore surface area which depend on the specific surface area of a porosity.
677
As a result, Eq. (8) can be rewritten as: Se = (S − Sr )/(Ss − Sr ) due to inaccessible pore spaces,
where Sr is the remaining saturation and Ss is the sat-
uw = uw0 + uw S (15a) urated saturation. All of the constants, φ0 , φ1 , φ2 , Pw0 ,
Pv0 , αw and αv , are related to the specific surface area of
uv = uv0 + uv (1 − S) (15b) the porous material. However, Eq. (17) is not conve-
nient in practice. There are too many parameters and
where uw0 and uv0 are initial chemical potential they are related to each other. To overcome this disad-
changes due to the formation of an initial water molec- vantage, we propose to use the following model to fit
ular film on pore surfaces before water and vapour WRCs (a detailed discussion on the reason to choose
phases start to accumulate within pore spaces. such form will be discussed elsewhere (Wang et al.
Substituting Eq. (15) into (7), then the integral 2008)):
produces:
⎡ Pc = φ0 + P0 exp(αSe ) − exp(β(1 − Se )) (18)
⎢ uw uw 2
0
Pc = ⎣ S+ S where φ0 , P0 , α and β are four redefined fitting param-
Vw 2Vw
eters. In the following, Eq. (18) will be compared with
⎤ other models to fit the measurements of the WRCs of
P0 exp
uw
0
a wide range of soils.
RT uw S ⎥
+ uw
exp −1 ⎦
RT
RT
⎡ 3 EXAMPLES
⎢ u uv
0
− ⎣ v (1 − S) + (1 − S)2 Figure 1 shows the fitting results for five soil sam-
Vv 2Vv
ples and the comparison with van Genuchten model.
⎤ The fitting parameters are listed in Table 1. As we
P0 exp
uv0
RT uv (1 − S) ⎥ can see, good fitting results have been obtained by
+ uv
exp −1 ⎦ both models, but a further improvement at the two
RT
RT
ends can be observed in the case of Beit Netofa Clay
when using the proposed model. An inflection point
(16)
is seen in most cases, except for Beit Netofa Clay.
If the measurements of Beit Netofa Clay are care-
If we set: fully studied, it can be noticed that its WRC is not
0 2 continuous but presents an irregular concave shape in
uw uw
Pw0 = P0 exp ; the middle of the curve. This is similar to an experi-
RT RT
mental result of dual-porosity soils (Kohne & Gerke
02 2002). That means two differently scaled pore systems
uv uv
Pv0 = P0 exp ; could co-exist in the Beit Netofa Clay at the same
RT RT
time, for example, the clay sample could have frac-
tures (a structured porosity) within it. According to the
uv0 uv
φ0 = − − + Pv0 − Pw0 ; dual-porosity theory, the two different porosities have
Vv 2Vv
different ‘specific surface area’, and as a result the
uw0 uv0 uv two different porosities have their individual WRCs
φ1 = + + ; which could be fitted using Eq. (16), respectively.
Vw Vv Vv
A detailed study on the application on the multi-
uw uv uw uv porosity problems is underway.
φ2 = − ; αw = ; αv = , Figure 2 shows a comparison with a fractal model
2Vw 2Vv RT RT
which is in a power-law form. It can be seen that the
Eq. (16) can be written as: proposed model presents a much better result, particu-
larly relating to the shape of the WRC. It demonstrates
Pc = φ0 + φ1 S + φ2 S 2 + Pw0 exp(αw S) an inflection point which is in agreement with the
experimental measurements.
− Pv0 exp(αv (1 − S)) (17) Figure 3 shows a comparison with two lognormal
PSD models which assume a linear and nonlinear rela-
Theoretically, Eq. (17) represents the water reten- tion between PSD and VSD, respectively. It can be seen
tion characteristic of porous media. The saturation that the proposed model is even better than the origi-
S need to be replaced using the effective saturation nal nonlinear model in the two cases, in particular on
678
Table 1. Fitting Parameters for the Soil Sample in Fig. 1.
φ0 (cm) P0 (cm) α β Sr Ss
Hygiene
Sandstone −127.8 0.2289 5.07 5.715 0.15 0.25
Touchet
Silt Loam −209.8 0.2342 6.227 6.745 0.18 0.47
Silt Loam −255.5 2.048 4.728 7.223 0.131 0.396
Beit Netofa
Clay −5.375e-5 1489 0.13 5.342 0.0 0.446
Guelph
Loam
(drying) −98.69 3.673 3.166 5.726 0.218 0.52
679
volume averaging theorem, generates a determinis-
tic formula for the water retention characteristic of
unsaturated porous media. This formula demonstrates
the internal linkage between the WRCs and the ‘spe-
cific surface area’. Based on this formula, a simplified
fitting model has been proposed for the WRCs. Com-
pared with other main models, it has been shown that
this model is more accurate, particularly at the side of
low saturation or high pressure head.
REFERENCES
680
Kohne, J.M. & Gerke, H.H. 2002. Estimating the hydraulic Tuller, M. Or, D. & Dudley L.M. 1999. Adsorption and
functions of dual-permeability models from bulk soil data. capillary condensation in porous media: Liquid retention
Water Resources Research 38: 26.1–26.11. and interfacial configuration in angular pores. Water
Nordhaug, H.F. Celia, M. & Dahle, H.K. 2003. A pore Resources Research 35(7): 1949–1964.
network model for calculation of interfacial velocities. van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A close-form equation for pre-
Advances in Water Resources 26: 1061–1074. dicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
Petersen, L.W. Moldrup, P. Jacobsen, O.H. & Rolston, D.E. Soil Science Soc. Am. J. 44: 892–898.
1996. Relations between specific surface area and soil Wang, Y. Grove, S.M. & Anderson, M.G. 2008. A physical-
physical and chemical properties. Soil Science 161: 9–12. chemical model for the static water retention character-
Tuli, A. Kosugi, K. & Hopmans, J.W. 2001. Simultaneous istic of unsaturated porous media, Advances in Water
scaling of soil water retention and unsaturated hydraulic Resources (in press).
conductivity functions assuming lognormal pore-size dis- Xu, Y.F. & Dong, P. 2004. Fractal approach to hydraulic prop-
tribution. Advances in Water Resources 24: 677–688. erties in unsaturated porous media. Chaos Solutions &
Tuller, M. & Or, D. 2002. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity Fractals 19: 327–337.
of structured porous media: A review of liquid configu-
ration-based models. Vadose Zone Journal 1: 14–37.
681
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Considering an unsaturated soil with pure water, the suction can be expressed with respect
to three independent variables: water content, void ratio, and temperature. From the expression of the total
differential of the suction, we propose a constitutive relation which links variations of suction, water content,
void ratio, and temperature. This relation allows the analysis of several particular cases. At constant temperature,
this relation could be represented by a characteristic surface in the parameter space (water content, suction, void
ratio). This surface, which reflects the hydro-mechanical couplings in soils, can be considered as a generalization
of the classical Soil Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC). At constant suction, the constitutive relation allows
to predict the water content variations due to temperature changes. Thus, from a SWCC obtained at a given
temperature, the model can predict this curve for other temperatures. This model has been successfully tested
by the authors on experiments performed on two different materials.
683
2.1 Suction differential with respect to θ , T , e the lack of information available in literature on this
parameter, it is assumed that the contact angle is only
The suction differential with respect to the set of
a function of the temperature. This leads to:
variables θ , T , e can be written:
∂φ dφ
∂s ∂s ∂s = (8)
ds = dθ + dT + de (1) ∂T θ,e dT
∂θ T ,e ∂T θ ,e ∂e θ ,T
The last term of equation (6) is the variation of the
In addition, the water volume fraction can be written mean pore radius due to the temperature. The water
as a function of the density of the solid phase ρs , the volume fraction and the void ratio remaining constant,
density of the liquid phase ρe , the water content w, and this term is equal to zero.
the void ratio: Finally, equation (6) is reduced to:
ρs w
θ= (2) ∂s s dσs dφ
ρe (1 + e) = − s tan φ (9)
∂T θ,e σs dT dT
By introducing the volumetric thermal expansion coef-
ficient of water βe = − ρ1e dρe By introducing equations (3), (4) and (9) in equa-
dT and of the solid phase
tion (1), the final form of the suction differential is
βs = − ρ1s dρ
dT , the infinitesimal variation of θ
s
could be obtained:
written :
∂s
ρs ρs w ds = dw
dθ = dw + (βe − βs )dT ∂w T ,e
ρe (1 + e) ρe (1 + e)
ρs w ∂s s dσs dφ
− de (3) + w(βe −βs )+ −s tan φ dT
ρe (1 + e)2 ∂w T ,e σs dT dT
Equation (2) also allows to write: ∂s ∂s w
+ − de (10)
∂e θ,T ∂w T ,e (1 + e)
∂s ρe (1 + e) ∂s
= (4)
∂θ T ,e ρs ∂w T ,e
2.2 Suction differential with respect to w, T , e
In pendular and funicular domains, water is in a cap- and with respect to Sr , T , e
illary state, it is so justified to use Jurin’s law. This In the same way, the suction differential could be
law expresses the suction s as a function of the surface expressed with respect to the set of variables w, T , e:
tension of water σs , the mean pore radius r, and the
contact angle φ.
∂s
ds = dw
2σs cos φ ∂w T ,e
s= (5)
r s dσs dφ s ∂r
+ − s tan φ − dT
Equation 5 allows to write : σs dT dT r ∂T w,e
∂s
∂s s ∂σs ∂φ + de (11)
= − s tan φ ∂e w,T
∂T θ ,e σs ∂T θ ,e ∂T θ ,e
s ∂r and with respect to the set of variables Sr , T , e. The
− (6) final form obtained is always written with the same
r ∂T θ ,e
set of variables than equations (10) and (11):
The surface tension of pure water depends mainly on
∂s
the temperature. Thus, it comes: ds = dw
∂w T ,e
∂σs dσs
= (7) s dσs dφ s ∂r
∂T θ ,e dT + − s tan φ − dT
σs dT dT r ∂T w,e
The contact angle depends mainly on surface rough-
∂s ∂s w
ness of solid phase, temperature, and meaning evo- + − de (12)
lution of the hydric state (wetting or drying). Given ∂e Sr ,T ∂w T ,e e
684
2.3 Parallel between the three developments angle variation at constant water content and
void ratio.
One can introduce in the three final equations obtained
from each of the three previous developments the 3.
notations below:
∂s w ∂s
∂s ∂s Fe = − Fw =
Fw = ; FT = ; ∂e
θ,T (1 + e) ∂e T ,w
∂w T ,e ∂T w,e
∂s w
∂s = − Fw (18)
Fe = (13) ∂e Sr ,T e
∂e T ,w
Fe is the function associated with the suction vari-
The identification between these three equations ation due to the void ratio variation at constant
(equations (10),(11), and (12)) leads to make explicit temperature and water content.
the state functions Fw , FT , and Fe .
The sets of variables which involves the water
1. content w is certainly the most appropriate for a com-
parison with experimental results. It is in connection
∂s with the easy determination of w which requires only
Fw = (14)
∂w T ,e mass measurements, in opposition to water volume
fraction θ and degree of saturation Sr which require
Fw is a function associated with the suction varia- volume measurements. Nevertheless,
∂r one can note the
∂s
tion due to the water content variation at constant difficulty to access the terms ∂T w,e
and ∂e θ,T
.
temperature and void ratio. For an undeformable Consequently to these two reasons, the following
media, this term is the inverse of the SWCC slope. final form will be retained for the suction differential
This function is negative because an increase of expression:
water content induces a decrease of suction.
2. ds = Fw dw
s dσs dφ
s dσs dφ + Fw w(βe − βs ) + − s tan φ dT
FT = Fw w(βe − βs ) + − s tan φ (15) σs dT dT
σs dT dT
+ Fe de (19)
s dσs dφ s ∂r
FT = − s tan φ − (16) Equation (19) defines an expression of the thermo-
σs dT dT r ∂T w,e
dynamic state evolution which links suction, water
content, temperature, and void ratio variations in the
One can deduce from equations (15) and (16),
general case. This expression will be used in the
a relation which links the volumetric thermal
following in different particular cases.
expansion coefficients of water and solid phase
to meniscus radius as well as its variation with
temperature. 2.4 Analysis of elementary cases
Relation (19) can be used in the analysis of some
s ∂r elementary cases. This analysis, which allows the con-
− = Fw w(βe − βs ) (17)
r ∂T w,e sistency of the proposed expression to be confirm, is
based on the negative or positive sign of the three func-
From the equation (15), one can also define three tions Fw , FT and Fe . Accounting for the SWCC shape,
functions: the function Fw is negative. The derivative of the sur-
face tension with respect to temperature is negative,
− FT β = Fw w (βe − βs ) : which is the function and therefore the function FT is negative. To determine
associated with the suction variation due to the the variation of the function Fe , in a first approxima-
thermal expansion of liquid and solid phases at tion, one can consider a physical model composed by
constant water content and void ratio, two grains linked by a water meniscus. This function is
− FT σ = σss dσ s
dT : which is the function associ- determined at constant water content and temperature.
ated with the suction variation due to surface The meniscus water volume is constant. If the grains
tension variation at constant water content and are pulled aside to increase the void ratio, the menis-
void ratio, cus hollow increases leading a decrease of the radius
− FT φ = −s tan φ dφ
dT : which is the function asso- of curvature, and using the Jurin’s law, an increase of
ciated with the suction variation due to contact suction. Function Fe appears to be positive. Of course
685
a variation of void ratio induces in the soil more com- function could be represented by a surface in the space
plex phenomena but the characteristic surface that will defined by the three variables.
be presented later confirms the results obtains with this This surface which gives the retention capacity of
simple physical model. the soil for any void ratio value could be named the Soil
Six cases where two of the four variables s, T , w, Water Characteristic Surface (SWCS). This surface
and e remain constant are presented here: has been established on a clayey silty sand in the case
of monotonic drying hydric paths. This soil is classi-
– Case 1, e and T constant: in this case, equation fied as SC-CL according to the USCS. The liquid and
(19) comes ds = Fw dw. Allowing that the function plastic limits are respectively 25% and 14.5%. Sand,
Fw is negative, a water content increase leads to silt, and clay fraction are 72%, 18%, and 10% respec-
a suction decrease. This is a classical result on the tively. The clay fraction consists mainly of smectite,
variations of water content and suction in the case of chlorite, and phyllite.
SWCC. Triplets (s, w, e) have been measured all along five
– Case 2, w and T constant: in this case, it comes ds = drying paths corresponding to five initial void ratios.
Fe de. The function Fe is positive, and therefore void Each of these paths leads to 16 or 18 measurements
ratio increase leads to a suction increase. This result (s, w, e). Each measurement itself is the average of
is also consistent because a void ratio increase at the measurements done on three samples. Thus, the
constant water content leads to a decrease of the whole measurements are related to a total of 150 sam-
degree of saturation Sr = Gs we and consequently a ples. These experimental results can be fitted to an
suction increase. analytical form of the characteristic surface which can
– Case 3, e and w constant: in this case, it comes be written (Salager et al. 2007):
ds = FT dT . The function FT being negative, a
temperature increase leads to a suction decrease.
This means that the temperature and suction vary if w ≤ e/Gs ⇒ f = w − a · e − b · (1 − a · Gs ) = 0
in opposite directions if the other variables are held e
constant. if w ≥ e/Gs ⇒ f = w − =0 (21)
Gs
– Case 4, s and T constant: in this case, it comes
Fw dw + Fe de = 0. The function Fw being negative
and Fe positive, it is possible to infer that the void where a and b are characteristic functions of the soil
ratio and the water content vary in the same direction which depend on suction (a = a(s) and b = b(s)).
if the other variables remain constant. It means that These functions could be modeled by means of rela-
a void ratio increase should be concomitant with a tions derived from the following expression (Fredlund
water content increase and vice versa. and Xing 1994):
– Case 5, e and s constant: in this case, it comes ⎞
⎛
Fw dw + FT dT = 0. The functions being negative, ln 1 + ssr x(0)
it is possible to infer that a temperature increase x(s) = ⎝1 − ⎠ n m
should be concomitant with a water content decrease 106
ln 1 + sr ln exp(1) + ss
if the other variables remain constant. i
This equation shows, that at a temperature T0 , there Figure 2 represents the function Fw with respect to
exists a function f which links the variations of suction, suction and void ratio; Figure 3 represents the function
water content, and void ratio: f (s, w, e) = 0. This Fe with respect to suction and water content.
686
To extract an equation of thermo-hydric evolution
from the equation 19, one can consider, in the case
of hydric loading path, a specified suction (s = cst,
ds = 0). During a thermo-hydric process, the void
ratio varies with suction and temperature. But it is
already established that temperature has only a neg-
ligible effect on void ratio, compared to the suction
effect (Francois et al 2007). In this case, specifying a
suction implies specifying the void ratio too. In this
condition, equation (19) could be reduced to a relation
between water content and temperature variations.
FT
dw = − dT (25)
Fw
Figure 1. Characteristic surface of the clayey silty sand.
In addition, there are few literature results concern-
ing contact angle but it is known that, in natural soil,
this angle and its variation versus temperature are
very limited (Bachmann et al. 2000). Thus, it will
not be taken into account. Futhermore, the volumet-
ric thermal expansion coefficient of the solid phase is
supposed to be negligible, compared with volumetric
thermal expansion coefficient of water. It comes a sim-
plified expression of the function FT and the explicit
expression of the equation of thermo-hydric evolution
could be written:
s dσs
Figure 2. Fw evolution versus suction for different void dw = − wβe + dT (26)
ratios.
Fw σs dT
687
5 CONCLUSIONS
688
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
J. Zhou
Geotechnical Engineering Institute, Civil Engineering Department, Zhejiang University, China
ABSTRACT: In order to study the influence of applied pressure on the Soil Water Characteristic Curve
(SWCC), samples with different initial void ratio/density were tested in a triaxial apparatus for unsaturated soil.
This paper focuses on the influence of pressure on SWCC and hydraulic hysteresis by analyzing the data reported
in the literature. Results show that the higher the pressure, the higher the saturation and the air-entry value. The
size of hysteresis loop becomes smaller with the applied pressure, which indicates that the effect of hydraulic
hysteresis on soil behavior gets smaller. Based on the study, the SWCC under different applied pressure can
be easily modeled since the same mathematical expression can be used due to little change in the shape. The
findings described in this paper can also be used as a proof of coupled effect of pressure and suction.
689
Figure 3. Soil-water characteristics for specimens com-
pacted at optimum water content (Vanapalli, Fredlund &
Pufahl, 1999).
690
Figure 6. Results of bentonite/kaolin (Sharma, 1998).
691
Figure 8. Illustration of SWCC changing with different
Figure 7. SWCC changing with applied pressure (only m applied pressure.
changing with pressure).
change, as illustrated in Fig. 8. With the increase of
the m parameter, or m and a parameters to the pres- applied pressures, a) the size of the hysteresis loop
sure, while keeping the remnant unchanged, since m becomes smaller; b) the slope of SWCC becomes flat-
is related to the asymmetry of the curve and a shifts ter; c) the degree of saturation gets higher. Results
the curve towards the higher or lower suction regions here clearly demonstrate that the coupled movement
of the plot, but does not affect the curve shape. of SWCC and the volumetric stain, shown in Fig. 4,
If only considering the m parameter changing with need to be modified.
pressure, the following modification can be used: The shape of SWCC is not strongly influenced by
the applied pressure, so the same mathematical expres-
m = m[(1 − r) exp(−βp) + r] (1) sion can be applied after modifying the parameters.
This provides a convenient way for modeling. A sim-
where m is the original parameter in van Genuchten’s ple expression of relating m parameter with applied
model and m is the modified parameter. r and β pressure by using van Genuchten’s model is presented.
are best-fitting parameters for a certain soil. p is More tests on different soils and with large stress
the applied pressure. Assuming m = 1, n = 1.5, range are necessary. Further numerical analyses to
a = 0.00013, r = 0.26 and β = 0.0164 and only verify the conclusions are also needed. Conclusions
considering modified parameter m changing with obtained in this paper are not only useful for mathemat-
pressure, results in Fig. 7 show that the influence of ical modeling of SWCC under different pressure, but
pressure is significant at lower values and becomes also helpful for the validation of coupled effect of suc-
smaller at higher values. At lower pressure values tion and applied pressure when dealing with hydraulic
the gradient of the change in degree of saturation hysteresis in constitutive modeling.
is significant, while it reduces with the increase of
pressure. The air-entry value is increased with pres-
sure. This is consistent with what was observed for ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
non-expansive soils. As for expansive soil, different
modifications may be preferred since the soil behaves Financial support from China Scholarship Council
in a different way. In modeling hydraulic hystere- through Grant No.22833012 and from Chinese Edu-
sis, parameters in two sets (one for drying curve and cation Ministry for overseas scholars is gratefully
another for wetting curve) both need to be modified. acknowledged. The author also acknowledges the New
Following the same concept, other models can also be Star Project of Zhejiang University for its support, as
modified. well as the support and help from the host Imperial
College, London, and in particular Prof. David M.
Potts & Dr. Lidija Zdravkovic.
5 CONCLUSIONS
692
Fredlund, D.G. & Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil Mechanics for Sillers, W.S., Fredlund, D.G. & Zakerzadeh, N. 2001,
Unsaturated Soils. New York: Wiley. Mathematical attributes of some soil-water characteristic
Fredlund, D.G. & Xing, A. 1994. Equations for the soil-water curve models. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering
characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 31: 19: 243–283.
521–532. Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E. & Clifton, A.W.
Gardner, W. 1956. Mathematics of isothermal water condi- 1996. Model for the prediction of shear strength with
tion in unsaturated Soils. Highway research board special respect to soil suction. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
report 40 international symposium on physico-chemical 33: 379–392.
phenomenon in soils: 78–87. Washington D.C. Vanapalli, S.K., Pufahl, D.E. & Fredlund, D.G. 1998. The
Jotisankasa, A. 2005. Collapse behaviour of a compacted meaning and relevance of residual water content to unsat-
silty clay. PhD thesis, Imperial college, London. urated soils. Proceedings of 51st Canadian Geotechnical
Kawai, K., Karube, D. & Kato, S. 2000. The model of Conference: 101–108, Edmonton, AB.
water retention curve considering effects of void ratio. Vanapalli, S.K., Pufahl, D.E. & Fredlund, D.G. 1999. The
In: Rahardjo, H., Toll, D.G. & Leong, E.C. (Eds.), Unsat- influence of soil structure and stress history on the soil-
urated Soils for Asia: 329–334. Rotterdam: Balkema. water characteristic of a compacted till. Geotechnique
McKee, C. & Bumb, A. 1987. Flow-testing coalbed methane 49 (2): 143–159.
production wells in the presence of water and gas. SPE van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A closed form equation predict-
Formation Evaluation 10: 599–608. ing the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil
Mualem, Y. 1976. A new model for predicting the Science Society of America Journal 44: 892–898.
hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media. Wheeler, S.J., Sharama, R.J. & Buisson, M.S.R. 2003. Cou-
Water Resources Research 12: 593–622. pling of hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behavior in
Ng, C.W.W. & Pang, Y.W. 2000. Influence of stress state unsaturated soils. Geotechnique 53(1): 41–54.
on soil-water characteristics and slope stability. Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
126 (2): 157–166.
693
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
C. Arson
CERMES, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, France
B. Gatmiri
University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
CERMES, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, France
ABSTRACT: This paper deals with the modelling of the massif neighbouring a nuclear waste repository before
waste disposal. The main features of micromechanical and phenomenological damage modelling are reviewed.
Flow computation tools provided by fracture network representations are also presented. A mixed damage model
is developed for unsaturated porous media in isothermal conditions. It is formulated in independent state variables
(net stress and suction), in order to be implemented in -Stock finite element software.
695
However, damage remains an abstract notion, Some conditions on the form of the internal power
represented by its influence on behaviour laws. density may be set before assuming the expression of
That is why in some models, damage is also given the free energy. By doing so, it is possible to change the
a physical meaning, generally related to fracturing. global form of the Principle of Virtual Power, which
Cracks of close orientations are often gathered in influences the formulation of the balance equations.
‘‘families’’ (Swoboda & Yang, 1999, Shao et al., Moreover, the model of the material structure may
2005a). Supposing for example that the material is be affected by the introduction of gradient variables
fractured in three principal directions, ni , the damage in the expression of the internal power. For exam-
variable can be written as a diagonal tensor whose ple, Frémond (Frémond & Nedjar, 1996) enriched the
eigenvalues di represent crack densities: structure of the medium by introducing the gradient of
damage in the expression of the internal power of the
3 system. The gradient of damage plays the same role
= di ni ⊗ ni (4) as the gradient of macrodeformations in the theory of
i=1 Germain (Germain, 1973). Its introduction requires
the definition of higher-order terms in the application
Adopting the definition 4 implies that damage can of the Principle of Virtual Power. Other researchers
be quantified by three fictive homogenized fractures followed the same reasoning, like Pires-Domingues
characterized by a normal vector ni and a relative (Pires-Domingues et al., 1998), who studied non-
volume di . linear elastic brittle materials, and Nedjar (Nedjar,
2001), who coupled the damage model of Frémond to
2.2 Phenomenological frames an elastoplastic theory. Zhao and his co-workers (Zhao
et al., 2005) based their model of coupled plasticity
Energy considerations are particularly suited to model and damage on a second gradient theory, including
dissipative phenomena such as damage and plasticity. the gradient of deformations in the internal power and
Thermodynamic potentials are given specific forms. the gradient of the hardening variable in the expression
The resolution of the problem of maximum dissipa- of the free energy.
tion makes it possible to deduce the behaviour, flowing
and hardening/softening laws. The model is thus auto-
matically thermodynamically consistent. Moreover,
the manipulation of huge quantities of microscopic 3 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF AN INTACT
parameters is avoided, which accelerates numerical POROUS MEDIUM
computations. In many models, the expression of
the free energy is chosen depending on the expected Many flow theories are based on the van Genuchten-
behaviour law (Svedberg & Runesson, 1997; Homand- Mualem model (van Genuchten, 1980). Originally,
Etienne et al., 1998; Menzel & Steinmann, 2001; the purpose of this model was to give a framework
Shao et al., 2005a,b). Formulations starting from the to determine the hydraulic retention and conductivity
Principle of Virtual Power (Frémond & Nedjar, 1995; properties of an unsaturated medium of heterogeneous
Pires-Domingues et al., 1998; Nedjar, 2001; Zhao porosity. Van Genuchten thus considered that a sin-
et al., 2005) can encompass an enrichment of the mate- gle porous network drove the flow. In multimodal or
rial’s structure, implying the definition of higher-order multi-continua models, each porous system is charac-
stresses and specific boundary conditions. terized by a set of hydraulic relations, which may be
In phenomenological damage models, dissipation chosen similar to van Genuchten’s. But to represent
variables νi (x) are generally assumed to have the the global hydraulic behaviour of the Representa-
dimension of strains. In this case, it is possible to tive Volume Element (RVE), an equivalent medium
define stress-like variables conjugated to νi (x) through has to be defined. The equivalent hydraulic proper-
the free energy. The evolution laws of the dissipation ties of the RVE are deduced from a homogenisation
variables νi (x) are then deduced from the deriva- technique.
tion of a given dissipation potential, relatively to the Using the van Genuchten-Mualem model to study
stress-like conjugates of the νi (x). Alternatively, yield a fractured porous medium amounts to considering
functions (fd ) have to be defined. If flow rules are that cracks and matrix pores are all connected and
non-associated, additional damage potentials have to form a unique network, of space-variable pore size.
be expressed. The damage multiplier increment (λ̇d ) is Moreover, a Bell-type relation is assumed between
computed by means of the consistency equation. The the adimensional water content (h) and pressure
complementary conditions of Kuhn-Tucker have also head h:
to be met:
−m
λ̇d ≥ 0, fd ≤ 0, λ̇d fd = 0 (5) (h) = 1 + (αh)n (6)
696
in which the adimensional water content is defined as: Shao et al., 2005b). But the given formulas gener-
ally involve mechanical parameters only. In fact, the
θw (h) − θwr computed permeability reduces to the intrinsic com-
(h) = (7)
θws − θwr ponent of absolute permeability. It is possible to define
the absolute permeability of an unsaturated damaged
θwr and θws are the residual and saturated water con- medium as the product of a damaged intrinsic per-
tents respectively. α is the pore size for which pore meability with a van Genuchten-Mualem type relative
density is maximal. The α parameter thus gives an idea permeability (van Genuchten 1980):
of the more frequent pore size characterizing the mate-
rial. m and n control the distribution extent towards K abs (ε, , ) = k rel ()k int (ε, ) (11)
a fine or coarse medium. Resorting to Mualem’s
integral formula, the relative water permeability is
defined as: The relative permeability k rel () is only related to
⎡3 ⎤2 interstitial fluids, and does not depend on damage.
(h) 1
dx The intrinsic permeability k int (ε, ) characterizes the
kR ((h)) = [(h)]1/2 ⎣ 3 1 ⎦
0 h(x)
(8) damaged solid part of the medium, and takes irre-
1
0 h(x) dx versible fracturing and path orientation into account.
In -Stock, the strain dependency reduces to a porosity
The integration scheme imposes that: (n) dependency. For an undamaged unsaturated mate-
rial subjected to isothermal conditions, the intrinsic
1 permeability is defined as:
m =1− , 0<m <1 (9)
n
k int (n, = 0) = k0 · 10αk ·e Id (12)
Taking the inverse of relation 6 leads to:
" m #2 k0 is a reference permeability and αk is a material
kR ((h)) = [(h)]1/2 1 − 1 − [(h)]1/m parameter. e is the void ratio, defined by a state surface
(10) depending on stress and suction (Gatmiri & Delage,
1995).
To extend the model to a damaged unsaturated
4 HYDROMECHANICAL COUPLINGS material, it is proposed to split the intrinsic perme-
IN A FRACTURED POROUS MEDIUM ability as follows:
Continuum Damage Mechanics describes the degraded k int n, = k1 nrev , + k2 nfrac , (13)
mechanical behaviour of the rock mass. Flow net-
work theories predict water transfers, considering only
hydraulic parameters. The main issue in modelling nrev represents the reversible evolution of volumetric
the EDZ is thus to combine hydromechanical and deformations, including crack closing. As the dam-
damage concepts in a single theory. A fully thermo- age model induces a dependency between strains and
hydro-mechanical coupled model for unsaturated soils damage, the reversible component of the intrinsic per-
has been implemented in the finite element software meability k1 depends not only on reversible porosity
-Stock. The integrated formulation is based on the
use of independent variables (suction and net stress) nrev , but also on damage .
and on the introduction of state surfaces for the void By analogy with the formulas adopted in -Stock, the
ratio and the saturation degree. The elasto-plastic following expression is chosen:
Barcelona model (Alonso et al., 1990) has been modi-
fied to include temperature effects (Gatmiri & Delage, k1 nrev , = k0 · 10αk ·e Id
rev
(14)
1995: Gatmiri, 1997: Gatmiri & Delage, 1997: Jenab-
Vossoughi, 2000). The aim of the following section
is to propose a fully coupled hydromechanical dam- erev is the void ratio deduced from the computation of
age model, which would conform to the formulation reversible deformations.
adopted in -Stock. nfrac refers to the porosity generated by fracturing.
Damage is defined by means of a formula similar
to expression 4. It is thus assumed that three main
4.1 Introducing damage in hydraulic properties
families of cracks damage the RVE chosen to study
Some damage models introduce a damage dependency the massif. Following the reasoning of Shao and his
in the expression of permeability (Yang et al., 2007, co-workers (Shao et al., 2005b), it is supposed that
697
cracks are penny-shaped planes of radius rk , of open- effects in the constitutive stress relation. Capillarity
ing ek and of normal direction nk , in which the effects on deformation are neglected. Damage growth
interstitial liquid flows in the direction parallel to the is still synonymous with fracturing increase. Defect
plane. Applying the Navier-Stokes formulas to com- initiation or crack aperture generates a rise of pore
pute the celerity of the flow in the fracture network size at the scale of the global network of the equiva-
frac
(vw ) provides: lent medium. Bigger pores induce smaller capillarity
effects, and consequently, a weaker rigidity (Gatmiri,
1997). Conversely, suction is work-conjugated to
w =
vfrac
the quantity nSw (Houlsby, 1997), which originates
1 π
3 hydraulic effects in the mechanical behaviour. That
− · · rk · ek · δ − nk ⊗ nk
2 3
· ∇pw is why a formulation based on net stress and suc-
12μw a3
k=1 tion might be more satisfying from a conceptual point
(15) of view. To the authors’ knowledge, formulations
based on net stress and suction for damage models of
μw is the dynamic viscosity of the interstitial liquid, a unsaturated media do not exist in the current literature.
is the characteristic dimension of the RVE, and pw Lu and his co-workers (Lu et al., 2006) proposed
is the interstitial liquid pressure. Like in the other splitting total stresses σa into a relatively damaged part
behaviour models programmed in -Stock, the liquid
σd and a relatively intact part σi :
transfer is assumed to be diffusive, and the Darcy law
is adopted:
σa = (1 − ω)σi + ωσd (19)
pw
vfrac = −k2 n , · ∇
frac
+z (16)
w
γw ω is a scalar (isotropic) damage variable supposed to
depend on suction s and deviatoric strains εs :
in which γw is the volumetric weight of the interstitial
liquid, and z denotes the vertical coordinate, oriented dω = L1 (εs , s) : dε + L2 (εv , s) ds (20)
positively upward. Equations 15 and 16 result in the
following expression for the irreversible component of
the intrinsic permeability: εv refers to volumetric strains. Contrary to a mere
effective stress concept, the damaged regions of
the material are still submitted to stresses, even if
k2 nfrac , these ‘‘damaged stresses’’ σd do not follow the same
3 stress/strain relations than the ‘‘undamaged stresses’’
γw π σi . The damage threshold is supposed to be reached
= · · rk · ek · δ − nk ⊗ nk
2 3
(17)
12μw a3 before the plastic threshold. Accordingly, Lu affected
k=1
a non-linear elastic behaviour law to the intact stresses
and an elasto-plastic Barcelone-like behaviour law to
4.2 Extending damage models to unsaturated
the damaged stresses:
materials
Damage modelling in unsaturated materials is fre- dσi = De : dε + Dse ds (21)
quently based on Biot’s theory. Most approaches
combine a micromechanical definition of damage dσd = Dep : dε + Dsep ds (22)
with a postulate on the expression of the free energy
F(ε, ) (Shao et al., 2005a). The constitutive relation
De and Dep are respectively the elastic and elastoplas-
has the following general expression:
tic mechanical rigidity tensors, and Dse and Dsep are
⎛ ⎞
∂F(ε, ) respectively the elastic and elastoplastic suction rigid-
dσ = d ⎝ ⎠ − b Sw dpw + (1 − Sw ) dpg · Id
∂ε ity tensors. Considering equation 19, the evolution of
total stresses would be written:
(18)
dσa = (1 − ω)dσi + ωdσd + σr dω (23)
b is Biot’s hydromechanical coupling parameter, pg
is the gas pressure, and Sw denotes the liquid saturation
degree. Adopting such a representation of stress makes in which the stress difference σr = σd − σi rep-
it possible to uncouple poromechanical and damage resents the transition between relatively intact and
698
relatively broken states. The increment of total stress The reversible strains associated with suction εrev
s
are
is determined by combining equations 23, 21, 22 and calculated by an energy method. The free energy of
20. Supposing that strain and suction change con- the skeleton contained in the RVE is split:
sistently during loading in the relatively intact and ⎧
relatively damaged regions, it is possible to simplify ⎪
⎪ F ε, s, = Fed ε , + Fpe εrev , s,
the constitutive relation into a general expression of ⎪
⎨ M
the type: dε = dεrev + dεd (28)
⎪
⎪ M M
⎪
⎩ dεrev = dεrev + dεrev
dσa = Dedmg : dε + Dsdmg ds (24) M S
Fed ε , is related to the degraded mechanical
Dedmg and Dsdmg denote the elastoplasticity damage M
behaviour of the material, and Fpe εrev , s, corre-
rigidity tensors associated with strain and suction
respectively. The model of Lu and his co-workers sponds to the poroelastic aspect
of themodel. A partial
(Lu et al., 2006) can easily be extended to anisotropic Legendre transform of Fpe εrev , s, gives:
damage. However, the approach is merely microme-
chanical and thermodynamic requirements are not ⎛
considered. Fpe εrev , s, + Gpe σ , s, = σ : εrev
In -Stock, the behaviour laws of unsaturated ⎜
⎜
media are formulated in net stress σ = σ − pg · Id ⎜ ∂Fpe εrev , s,
⎜
and suction s = pg − pw . Corresponding to the chosen ⎜ σ =
⎜ ∂εrev (29)
stress state variables, strain components are defined as ⎜
⎜
follows (Gatmiri 1997, Gatmiri & Delage 1997): ⎜ ∂Gpe σ , s,
⎜
⎝ εrev =
⎧ ∂σ
⎪
⎪ dε = dε + dε
⎪
⎨ M S
dε = D−1e : dσ
(25)
⎪
⎪
M Equation 28 shows that εrev can be deduced from
⎪
⎩ dε = D−1
s · ds
S
S εrev and εrev . εrev is known by applying the PEEE to
M M
a Cordebois-Sidoroff type damage model (equations
De is the standard stiffness tensor, and Ds is defined as 26, 3 and 27). εrev can be computed by derivation
a rigidity associated to suction. An irreversible defor- of a given poroelastic Gibbs free energy Gpe (σ , s, )
mation εd related to damage is added, and it is assumed (equation 29). Following the reasoning usually
that the reversible strains also depend on damage: adopted in the models programmed in -Stock, it is
assumed that the deformation related to suction εrev
⎧ S
⎪ dε = dεrev + dεrev + dεd is isotropic (Gatmiri, 1997, Jenab-Vossoughi, 2000).
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
M
S−1 It is expressed as:
dε = De
rev
: dσ (26)
⎪
⎪ M
−1 −1
⎪
⎪
⎩ dεrev = Ds · ds dεrev = βs s, · Id · ds (30)
S S
Assuming the existence of a damage yield function The rigidity associated to suction Ds () is thus repre-
fd , the irreversible strain increment dεd is computed sented by a scalar modulus βs (s, ). Only the knowl-
by means of an associative flow rule. The damaged edge of the volumetric part (εrev
S )v of the deformations
rigidity tensor De () is determined by applying the related to suction is needed to complete the behaviour
PEEE (equation 3). The classical Cordebois-Sidoroff laws:
damaged stress operator M() is adopted:
1
dεrev = · d εrev
S v · Id
−1/2 −1/2 S 3
σ̂ = M : σ = Id − · σ · Id − 1
= · d εrev v − d εrev
M v · Id (31)
(27) 3
699
d εrev
M v can be deduced from ε . The resulting
rev
start from a postulate about the expression of the free
M
expression is of the following type (Gatmiri 1997): energy of the medium.
Saturation variations around galleries hugely influ-
−1 ence the Excavation Damaged Zone. That is why
d εrev
M v = K σ , dp (32) damage has to be included in hydraulic transfer models
and mechanical damage theories have to be extended
in which K(σ , ) is the degraded compressive to unsaturated porous media.
Most of the hydro-mechanical models of damage
modulus and p is the mean net stress. The are based on a Biot’s representation of stresses, defined
requirements on the poroelastic Gibbs free energy for saturated soils. This theoretical frame cannot rep-
Gpe (σ , s, ) reduce to a relation of the form: resent the effect of damage on suction rigidity, as is
done in the -Stock software. A fully coupled formu-
⎛ ⎞ lation based on net stress and suction state variables
∂G pe
p , s,
⎜ ⎟ may give a more complete description of damage in
d εrev v = d ⎝ ⎠ (33) the EDZ. That is why, in the continuity of the works
∂p
of Gatmiri’s research team, a model based on an addi-
tive breakdown of strains is proposed, to extend the
By analogy with the model presented by Jenab (Jenab- behaviour laws existing for intact unsaturated soils to
Vossoughi 2000), the following formula is proposed: fractured unsaturated porous media. Water transfers
are also made dependent on damage by a double split
1 of permeability. The intrinsic permeability, represent-
∂Gpe p , s, −1
ing the solid contribution, is written as the sum of a
= K σ , dp
∂p reversible component and an irreversible component,
both related to damage. The main difficulty of such an
ks ŝ + patm
+ · ln (34) approach lies in the evaluation of suction rigidity, the
1 + e0 ŝg + patm definition of which remains rather abstract.
700
Hansen & Schreyer. 1994. A thermodynamically consistent Shao, Ata & Ozanam. 2005a. Study of desaturation and
framework for theories of elastoplasticity coupled with resaturation in brittle rock with anisotropic damage.
damage. Int. J. Solids Structures, 31, 3, 359–389. Engineering Geology, 81, 341–352.
Homand-Etienne, Hoxha & Shao. 1998. A continuum dam- Shao, Zhou & Chau. 2005b. Coupling between anisotropic
age constitutive law for brittle rocks. Computers and damage and permeability variation in brittle rocks. Inter-
Geotechnics, 22, 2, 135–151. national Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in
Houlsby. 1997. The work input to an unsaturated granular Geomechanics, 29, 1231–1247.
material. Technical Note. Géotechnique, 47, 1, 193–196. Svedberg & Runesson. 1997. A thermodynamically consis-
Jenab-Vossoughi. 2000. Etude numérique de la modélisation tent theory of gradient-regularized plasticity coupled to
thermo-élasto-plastique des sols non saturés. PhD disser- damage. Int. J. of Plasticity, 13, 6–7, 669–696.
tation, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris. (in Swoboda & Yang. 1999. An energy-based damage model of
French). geomaterials. II. Deduction of damage evolution laws. Int.
Lu, Chen, Fang, Guo & Zhou. 2006. Structural damage J. Solids and Struct., 36, 1735–1755.
model of unsaturated expansive soil and its application van Genuchten. 1980. A closed-form equation for predict-
in multi-field couple analysis on expansive soil slope. ing the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil
Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (English edition), Science Society of America Journal, 44, 892–898.
27, 7, 891–900. Yang, Liu, Zhu, Elsworth, Tham & Tang. 2007. A cou-
Menzel & Steinmann. 2001. A theoretical and computational pled flow-stress-damage model for groundwater outbursts
framework for anisotropic continuum damage mechan- from an underlying aquifer into mining excavations. Int.
ics at large strains. International Journal of Solids and J. Rock Mech. And Min. Sci., 44, 87–97.
Structures, 38, 9505–9523. Zhao, Sheng & Zhou. 2005. Shear banding analysis of geo-
Nedjar. 2001. Elastoplastic-damage modeling including materials by strain gradient enhanced damage model. Int.
the gradient of damage: formulation and computational J. Solids and Struct., 42, 5335–5355.
aspects. Int. J. Solids and Struct., 38, 5421–5451.
Pires-Domingues, Costa-Mattos & Rochinha. 1998. Mod-
elling of nonlinear damage on elastic brittle materials.
Mechanics Research Communications, 25, 2, 147–153
701
Numerical modelling
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Yield surfaces for unsaturated soils are inevitably non-convex if the size of the yield surface has
to increase with increasing suction. An expanding yield surface with increasing suction is crucial for modelling
the volume collapse due to wetting. The non-convexity always exists at the transition between saturated and
unsaturated states, irrespective of the stress variables used in the model. Some recent models for unsaturated
soils also possess a stress path dependent hardening law. The non-convexity and stress-path dependency of the
constitutive model make the implementation into finite element codes very challenging. This paper discusses
aspects of stress integration schemes for non-convex and stress-path dependent models for unsaturated soils.
s s
s
Elastic zone
B C
Elastic zone
p0 p yB pyC
unsaturated p yC
p
ssa
p′
45°
saturated
p
A 45° D
(a) net stress (b) effective stress
Figure 1. Non-Convexity of unsaturated soil models (p̄: net Figure 2. Stress path dependency of the model by Sheng
mean stress; p : effective mean stress; s: suction). et al. (2006), Ssa : saturation suction.
705
The non-convexity and stress-path dependent
hardening laws of unsaturated soil models present dif-
ficulties in the implementation of these soil models
into finite element codes, particularly regarding the
stress integration.
tr
where the stress is either the net stress or effective σα = σcurrent + ασ tr and sα = scurrent + αs
stress (depending on the model), De is the fourth order (3)
elastic stiffness tensor and W e is a second order tensor
defined according to a specific law for unsaturated
soils; for example, the equations presented in Sheng in which σcurrent and scurrent are the current stress and
et al. (2003, 2004, 2006) may be adopted. For models suction states. Note that in equation (2) the internal
of saturated soils, the term W e s depends on the stress variables zk are kept constant during the solution for
variables used. If the effective stress is used, the term the intersection. These variables only change during
W e s becomes zero and can be disregarded. On the hardening/softening when a portion of the trial stress-
other hand, if the net stress is used, the term W e s suction path is located outside the yield surface.
becomes −I uw , where I is the second order identity The technique proposed here follows the Kronecker-
tensor and uw the pore water pressure. Picard (KP) formula for the determination of the
706
number of roots of a nonlinear equation (Kavvadias it does not constrain the solution to lie within speci-
et al., 1999). This formula, given by fied bounds. Therefore, more advanced methods can
be used here. For example, the Pegasus method used
b in Sloan et al. (2001) is very robust and competitively
−γ fα (x)hα (x) − g(x)2 fast. The method by Brent (1971) provides another
N = dx
π fα (x)2 + γ 2 gα (x)2 attractive alternative here. The Brent method does not
a use any derivative, does not require initial guesses and
1 γ ([fα (a)gα (b) − fα (b)gα (a)]) guarantees the convergence as long as the values of
+ arctan the function are computable within a given region con-
π fα (a)fα (b) + γ 2 gα (a)gα (b)
taining a root. This characteristic of the Brent method
(4) is due to the combination of the bisection method,
the secant method and inverse quadratic interpolation.
requires that fα (α) must be continuously or piecewise Therefore, it has the reliability of the bisection method
differentiable to the second order for values of α from and the efficiency of the less reliable secant method or
a to b. In equation (4), gα and hα represent the first inverse quadratic interpolation.
and second derivatives of the function fα with respect The evaluation of the integral in equation (4) with
to α, respectively, and γ is a small positive constant the KP formula is generally not trivial and so a numeri-
which does not affect the results computed with the cal integration or quadrature technique has to be used.
KP formula (Kavvadias et al., 1999). The first and For example, the Gauss-Legendre method (Forsythe
second derivative of fα with respect to α can be directly et al., 1990) can be used here. In addition, for highly
determined as follows: non-linear yield functions, an adaptive integration
scheme may also have to be used. In the numerical
∂fα ∂fα dσα ∂fα dsα examples presented in this paper, the adaptive inte-
gα (α) = = : + gration scheme explained in Piessens et al. (1983),
∂α ∂σα dα ∂sα dα
implemented in the QAGS routines, is used. These
∂f ∂f routines which are based on the QUADPACK library,
= : σ tr
+ s (5)
∂σ α ∂s α
available at www. netlib. org, can efficiently per-
form the numerical integration even for functions with
singularities.
∂ 2 fα ∂ 2 f
hα (α) = = σ tr
: : σ tr
∂σ ∂σ α
3 STRESS PATH DEPENDENCY
∂α 2
∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f The discussion in this section is limited to the SFG
+ 2σ tr : s + s2 (6)
∂σ ∂s α ∂s2 α model by Sheng et al. (2006). In this model, the yield
function is written as
The number of roots estimated according to equa- f = q2 − M 2 (p̄ − p0 (s))(py (s, z0 , z1 ) − p̄) = 0 (7)
tion (4) is used to divide the interval of α into subinter-
vals until each subinterval contains at most one root. where q is the deviatoric stress, M is the slope of the
First, N is computed for the interval [a, b]. If N is critical state line, z0 and z1 are internal variables and
larger than one, the interval [a, b] is divided into two p0 and py are yield stresses given as follows:
equal subintervals, [a, (a + b)/2] and [(a + b)/2, b].
The number of roots for each subinterval is then com-
k(s) if s > ssa
puted and any subinterval that contains more than one p0 (s) =
root is further divided into two equal sub- subintervals. −s otherwise
This process continues until each subinterval contains z0
z0 − s + [s + k(s)] if s > ssa
at most one root. As shown by Kavvadias et al. (1999), py (s, z0 , z1 ) = z1
the usage of equal-size intervals (equiprobable parts) z0 − s otherwise
is not much worse than an algorithm which would (8)
consider the statistical distribution of the roots inside
[a, b], such as the algorithm presented in Kavvadias where
et al. (1999).
Once the roots are bracket, the solution of each 1+s
k(s) = −ssa − (1 + ssa ) ln (9)
root can be found by using existing numerical meth- 1 + ssa
ods such as the Newton-Raphson method. It should
be noted that the Newton-Raphson method, although Internal variable z0 corresponds to the size of the yield
fast, may not converge in some circumstances because surface for saturated conditions. The other internal
707
variable z1 is an auxiliary measure to the solution The stress-strain relationship may be derived from the
(integration) of the SFG model, and may be interpreted above equations (Sheng et al. 2006), leading to:
as a control on the shape of the yield surface. When it
is smaller than z0 , the yield surface may be non-convex ∂f
˙ e:
σ̇ = De : ε̇ − D + W e ṡ (14)
and the collapse due to wetting can be simulated. ∂σ
The evolution for z0 defines the hardening of the
model. An isotropic hardening similar to the one used and
by the Cam Clay model (Schofield & Wroth, 1967) is
adopted. The evolution of z1 is determined according ˙ k
żk = H (k = 0 or 1) (15)
to the stress-path, which is an interesting feature of
SFG model, which leads to a stress path dependent where
hardening law.
For elastoplastic behaviour, the suction-stress
∂f ∂f ∂f
path can be measured according to the following ∂σ : De : ε̇ + ∂σ : We + ∂s ṡ
˙ =
(16)
expression: ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
∂σ : De : ∂σ − ∂z0 H0 − ∂z1 H1
| d p̄ | and
β = arctan (10)
ds
z0 ∂f ∂f ∂f
H0 = + + ,
The evolution for z0 is given by λ−κ ∂σ11 ∂σ22 ∂σ33
H1 = cpath H0 (17)
z0 p
ż0 = ε̇ (11)
λ−κ v De and W e can be found in Sheng et al. (2006).
Equations (14) and (15) are used in the stress-update
The rate of change of the internal variable z1 is given algorithm. For the implementation in a FEM code, the
as a function of the rate of change of z0 : following equation is required as well:
where cpath is a parameter reflecting the path- where Dep and W ep are tangent modulus and are also
dependent hardening law. The basic requirements for presented in Sheng et al. (2006).
the hardening law (11) are:
• if s > ssa 4 SIMULATIONS
◦ if p̄˙ > 0 and ṡ = 0, the auxiliary internal variable We first demonstrate the numerical solutions of the
z1 must stay unchanged intersection and the stress updates for specific stress-
◦ otherwise, suction paths. Figures 4 and 5 show two examples
if ṡ > 0 and p̄˙ = 0, z1 must change at the where the initial stress/suction state is inside the yield
same rate as z0 surface and an intersection must be determined. In
else, z1 changes at a rate proportional to z0 these two cases, only the first intersections are needed.
that z1 /z0 stays constant The second intersection actually never happens due to
hardening (inside the updated yield surface) and hence
• otherwise, is irrelevant. The final yield surfaces are tangent to
the stress paths. The material properties are listed in
◦ the ratio z1 /z0 stays constant
Table 1. It may be concluded that the algorithm per-
In this way the behaviour of both normally consoli- forms very well in finding the appropriate intersection
dated and compacted materials can be captured by the points.
system of equations. Any expression for cpath satis- Four different stress/suction paths are studied here,
fying these requirements can be adopted. Here, we to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algo-
introduce the following expression: rithms in tackling the stress path dependency and the
non-convexity problems. These paths are denoted as
ABB CD, ABCD, ADCD and AFD and are shown in
z1 β
cpath = (1 − sin β) 1 − 1 − (13) Figure 6–9, respectively. The material parameters are
z0 π given in Table 1.
708
100 150 200 250 300
B′
100
B C
80
suction [kPa]
60
50
s
40
A D
0
0 50 100 150 200
p [kPa]
1.70
20
1.65
0
1.60
v
0 20 40 60 80 100
p B
B′
A
FEM
1.60 1.65
v
B B′
1.55
C
1.50
D
0 1 2 3 4 5
ln(p) [kPa]
709
1000
1000
800 B C C
200
A D
0
A D
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
p [kPa] p [kPa]
3.0
3.0
A A
2.5
2.5
v
v
2.0
2.0
B
C
1.5
1.5
D D C
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000
suction [kPa]
suction [kPa]
3.0
A
3.0
FEM A
FEM
2.5
2.5
v
v
2.0
2.0
B
C
1.5
D
1.5
D
C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ln(p) [kPa] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ln(p) [kPa]
The test AFD is useful to check the behaviour the non-convexity problems in the unsaturated soil
predicted by the SFG model, considering the path models.
dependent hardening introduced here. In this case, the
intermediate values calculated with equation (13) are
used, since this test is set for combined increments of 5 CONCLUSIONS
mean net stress and suction.
Figures 6–9 present the results of the simula- A simple method to account for the stress-path depen-
tions. In each figure, three plots are presented: the dency during the stress update of an unsaturated soil
suction/mean net stress path and the corresponding model has been introduced. The method is based on the
yield surface evolution; the specific volume—suc- incorporation of a trial stress/suction increment into a
tion relationship; and the specific volume—net mean second order explicit scheme. The non-convexity of
stress relationship. From these figures, it is possi- the yield surface has also been considered by means
ble to conclude that the methods proposed here can of an explicit stress integration algorithm. This algo-
reasonably deal with the stress-path dependency and rithm uses a recursive scheme to find all intersections
710
REFERENCES
1000
F
Journal, 14:422–425.
400 600
A
Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, London, 1968.
Sheng, D., Fredlund, D.G. & Gens, A. (2006), A new mod-
elling approach for unsaturated soils using independent
2.5
pp. 405–413).
Sheng, D., Sloan, S.W., Gens, A. & Smith, D.W. (2003),
F Finite element formulation and algorithms for unsaturated
1.5
F
1.5
D
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ln(p) [kPa]
that may arise during the stress update. The key step is
the computation of the number of roots, which is done
with the aid of the Kronecker-Picard formula. The only
requirement for this method is that the yield function
must be piecewise differentiable to the second order
along the stress/suction secant path.
711
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Recent developments in the field of constitutive modelling of partially saturated soils have
shown the relevancy of the following two constitutive assumptions: (i) the use of an averaged stress similar
to the so-called Bishop stress as an alternative stress component and (ii) the introduction of a hardening rule
enabling the effect of changes in the degree of water saturation on the plastic yield function to be accounted for.
This paper deals with the numerical integration of a constitutive model for partially saturated soils based on an
extension of the Modified Cam Clay model for saturated soils (Tamagnini 2004). The proposed elastic-plastic
stress-strain-saturation relationship is obtained following the two above mentioned constitutive assumptions.
The rate constitutive equation is integrated adopting a return mapping scheme similar to that developed for
saturated material, but modifying the elastic predictor stage. In particular, the dimension of the trial elastic
domain is modified by the changes in the degree of saturation, independently of the state of stress existing at
the beginning of the integration step. This mathematical feature follows from the hypothesis that the hardening
variable which defines the initial size of the plastic yield function and its evolution during plastic loading is a
function of the saturation degree. The derivation of the consistent tangent operators is then presented and some
numerical applications discussed.
713
The hardening law is formulated according to the with the decrease of Sr . In order to define the plas-
proposal of Jommi & di Prisco (1994) and it includes tic part of the constitutive model the plastic flow is
the degree of saturation as a hidden variable. This vari- introduced as:
able is used to model the bonding exerted by capillary
forces and it will be shown that this assumption can
p ∂f
overcome the limitation of a single ‘‘effective’’ stress dεij = dλ (5)
approach in modelling the collapse upon wetting. The ∂σij
Cam-clay ellipse is used to describe soil behaviour dur-
ing deviator stress paths and in the sake of simplicity
an associative flow rule is adopted. in which λ is the plastic multiplier and it can be
The constitutive equation of the model is defined obtained by the consistency:
in the space of the following stress tensor:
1 ∂f ∂f ∂f
σij = σij − ua δij + Sr (ua − uw )δij (1) dλ = dp + dq − pc bdSr (6)
H ∂p ∂q ∂pc
This stress variable is similar to the Bishop’s stress ∂f vpc ∂f
H =−
(Bishop, 1959) that was defined experimentally and in ∂pc λ − k ∂p
which Sr is replaced by χ that is a function of the sat-
uration degree. In equation (1) ua and uw are the pore
air and water pressures, respectively. Their difference Starting from the expression:
is termed suction, s; σij is the total stress tensor. In the
following, the mean effective stress p and the deviator
vpc ⎛ ⎞
dpc = dε p − pc bdSr (4) ∂f ∂f
∂σab ⊗
e e
λ−κ v Dijab ∂σcd Dcdkl
dσij = ⎝Dijkl
e
− ∂f
⎠ dεkl
e ∂f
H+ ∂σij Dijkl ∂σkl
the first term is the classic isotropic strain hardening
rule in which λ and k are the elatoplastic and elastic e
Dijkl ∂f
volumetric stiffness and it is defined for the saturated + dSr (9)
Hs−1 H + ∂f
De ∂f ∂σkl
case; the second one introduces the effects of cap- ∂σij ijkl ∂σkl
illarity bonding, b is a constitutive parameter and it
controls the sensitivity of the solid matrix to the effects
of the intergranular forces exerted by interfaces. It has Note that in equation (9) the second right hand side
to be noticed that the increase of the yield surface term in which the saturation degree rate appears has
dimension can occur even if the current Bishop stress the role of a stress rate. It means that soil behaviour is
is not on the yield surface and this kind of hardening controlled by the changes in the Bishop stress, which
can be reversed during suction cycles. The mechanical depends on the saturation degree, but also by the
effects of wetting-drying cycles have been discussed changes in the capillary forces. In other words, the
by Tamagnini (2004) and they are not treated in this rate of Sr in (9) describes the variation in the content
paper. Equation (4) states that capillarity hardening of interfaces within the representative volume and this
is an exponential function of the saturation degree is consistent with the hypothesis of the phase energy
(Tamagnini, 2000), and it increases monotonically separation proposed by Coussy (2003).
714
Equation (9) can be rewritten in the following form: From the discrete Khun-Tucker condition results:
⎧
⎪ pk
From this expression it is clear that the stress rate ⎪
⎪ σijkn+1 = σijtriial − Dijkl
e
εkl
exerted by the interfaces, σij∗ , is added to the ⎪
⎨
n+1 n
pk
averaged macroscopic fluids pressures introduced in
⎪ pkcn+1 = ptrial
cn exp(−θn εkl )
(13)
equation (1). The role of dσ ∗ in (10) will be discussed ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ k
based on the results of some numerical simulation that fn+1 = f (pkl n+1 ; qn+1 ; pcn+1 )
k k
715
the derivatives of the invariants and the preconsolida- with:
tion pressure are:
c8 = c3 c6 + c5 c9 = c3 c7 + c4 (23)
∂pkn+1 ∂λkn+1
= −K n (2pkn+1 − pkcn+1 ) For the deviatoric stress component:
∂Srkn+1 ∂Srkk+1
2∂pkn+1 ∂pkcn+1 ∂qn+1
k
∂λkn+1 k
6μqn+1
+λn+1
k
− k (17) = c10 c10 = −
∂Srkn+1 ∂Sr n+1 ∂Srkn+1 ∂Srkk+1 M 2 + 6μλkn+1
(24)
∂pkcn+1 ∂λkn+1 The derivative of the plastic multiplier with respect
= pkcn+1 θn (2pkn+1 − pkcn+1 )
∂Srkn+1 ∂Srkk+1 to the saturation degree can be obtained from the
consistency condition:
2∂pkn+1 ∂pkcn+1
+ λkn+1 − k − bpkcn+1 ∂fn+1
k k
2qn+1 ∂λkn+1
∂Srkn+1 ∂Sr n+1 = c + (2pkn+1 − pkcn+1 )
10
∂Srkn+1 M2 ∂Srkn+1
∂qn+1
k
6μn ∂λkn+1 k ∂qn+1
k
=− 2 q + λn+1 k
k
∂λkn+1 ∂λkn+1
∂Srkn+1 M ∂Srkk+1 n+1 ∂Srn+1 × c 6 + c7 − pn+1 c8 + c9
k
=0
∂Srkn+1 ∂Srkn+1
(18)
(25)
Equations (17) and (18) can be written as:
The plastic multiplier results:
∂pkn+1 ∂pk ∂λkn+1
= c1 c3 n+1 + (c2 c4 + c2 ) + c1 c5 ∂λkn+1
∂Srn+1 f k ∂Srn+1
k nSrkk+1 c11 =
(19) ∂Srkn+1
(2pn+1 − pkcn+1 )c6 + pn+1 c8
with: = −
2qn+1
c + (2pn+1 − pcn+1 )c7 − pn+1 c9
Kn λnk+1 Kn (2pnk+1 − pkcn+1 ) M 2 10
c1 = c2 = −
(1 + 2Kn λkn+1 ) (1 + 2Kn λkn+1 ) (26)
2pkcn+1 θn λnk+1 Substituting (20), (22), (24) and (26) in (16) the
c3 =
(1 + θn pcn+1 λkn+1 ) consistent tangent matrix can be obtained:
pkcn+1 θn (2pkn+1 − pkcn+1 ) 2
c4 = (20) Csrk n+1 = (c6 + c7 c11 )1 + c10 n Aksn+1 (27)
(1 + θn pcn+1 λkn+1 ) 3
−bpkcn+1
c5 =
(1 + θn pcn+1 λkn+1 ) 4 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
∂pkn+1 ∂λkn+1
= c7 + c6 In order to verify the proposed numerical integration
∂Srkn+1 ∂Srkk+1 of the model two numerical tests have been produced.
Both are intended to check the hydro-mechanical cou-
and: pling between the water retention properties of the
c1 c5 (c1 c4 + c2 ) materials and the mechanical equations.
c6 = c7 = (21) The first numerical test consisted in the simulation
(1 − c1 c3 ) (1 − c1 c3 ) of an isotropic wetting process under isochoric (con-
The derivative of the preconsolidation pressure can be stant volume) condition (referred to the solid matter)
defined as: and constant applied mean net stress. The isochoric
boundary condition is the same as the experimen-
∂pkcn+1 ∂λkn+1 tal results of Romero (1999) reported in Figure 1.
= c9 + c8 (22) However, it must be noted that the assumption of con-
∂Srkn+1 ∂Srkk+1 stant net mean stress during isochoric conditions is
716
the saturation degree, that is the driving force for the
numerical tests. The correspondent suction value is
obtained directly from equation (26) as:
dσ ∗ − sn dSr
dsn+1 = (29)
Srn
10000
1000
100
suction
dσij = sdSr + Sr ds = tr
⎛ ⎞
1000
e
⎜ Dijkl ∂f ⎟
×⎜
⎝ ⎟ dSr = dσ ∗
∂f ∂σkl ⎠
Hs−1 H + De ∂f
∂σij ijkl ∂σkl
0
(28) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sr
The term dσ ∗ is then computed numerically dur-
ing the simulation, starting from the increment dSr in Figure 3. Different WRC at different applied mean stress.
717
1000
suction (KPa)
100
10
100
q (KPa) 200
300
718
greater, and for a fixed value of Sr the increase in the Coussy O. 1995. Mechanics of Porous Continua, Ed.
mean net stress implies an increase of the interfaces J. Wiley & Sons.
energy. Many other authors have studied the effects Coussy O. 2003, Poro-mechanics, Ed. J. Wiley & Sons
of the void ratio in the water retention properties; in Houlsby G.T. 1997. The work input to an unsaturated granular
this paper the effects of the total or net stress are dis- material, Géotechnique 47(1), 193–196.
Jommi C. and di Prisco C. 1994. A simple theoretical
cussed. The evolution of the mean Bishop stress of approach for modelling the mechanical behaviour of
the test reported in Figure 1 is reported in Figure 4, unsaturated granular soils (in Italian), Conf. Il ruolo dei
(Romero, 1999) with the parameter χ = Sr . Figures fluidi nei problemi di ingegneria geotecnica, Mondovi,
5–6 report the back analysis of the experimental data 1994, pp.167–188.
at high density packing with γd equal to 16.7 kN/m3 . Lewis R.W. and Schrefler B.A. 1998. The finite element
In Figure 6 the evolution of the mean Bishop stress method in the static and dynamic deformation and con-
and the deviator stress are reported, the simulation solidation of porous media, J. Wiley & Sons.
starts from the suction value of 400 kPa when the Ng C.W.W. and Pang Y.W. 2000. Influence of stress state on
collapse at constant mean applied stress takes place. soil-water characteristics and slope stability, J. Geotech
Geo-env. Eng, ASCE, 126(6) 1252–1264.
The obtained parameters are: k = 0.065; λ = 0.12; Romero E.M. 1999. Characterization and thermo-hydro-
M = 1.0; ν = 0.25, b = 4.283. The initial values mechanical behaviour of unsaturated Boom clay, PhD
of the state variables are: Sr = 0.8; s = 400 kPa the Thesis, UPC, Barcelona.
resulting initial Bishop stress tensor components are Roscoe, K.H. and Burland, J.B. 1968. On the genera-
σ = (920; 1070; 1070; 0; 0; 0) kPa. Figure 5 reports lized stress-strain behaviour of wet clay, Eng. Plast.,
the obtained WRC. Heyman, J. Lechie, F.A.A. Cambridge Press, Cambridge,
pp. 535–609.
Tamagnini R. 2000. Unsaturated soil modeling and FE
implementation, MSc Thesis, (in Italian), Rome.
REFERENCES Tamagnini R. 2003. The influence of hydraulic hystere-
sis in unsaturated soils FE analyses, Int. Conf.: From
Bishop A.W. 1959. The principle of effective stress, Teknisk Experiment Evid. Towards Num. Mod. of Unsat Soils,
Ukeblad, 106(39); 859–863. September 18th–19th, 2003, Weimar, Germany.
Borja R.I. and Lee S.R. 1990, Cam-Clay plasticity, Part I: Tamagnini R. 2004. An extended Cam-clay model for unsatu-
Implicit integration of elasto-plastic constitutive relations, rated soils with hydraulic hysteresis, Geotechnique 54(3),
Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng., 78 49–72. 223–228.
719
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
L.R. Hoyos
The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, USA
P. Arduino
The University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
ABSTRACT: This paper introduces an implicit integration algorithm that has been implemented to simulate
stress-strain response of unsaturated soils under suction-controlled multiaxial stress paths that are not achievable
in a conventional cylindrical apparatus. The algorithm supports numerical analyses in a deviatoric stress plane
(π-plane) by using a mixed control constitutive driver, in conjunction with a Generalized Cam-Clay model, within
a constant-suction scheme, also incorporating the influence of a third stress invariant or Lode-angle θ. The classic
Willam-Warnke surface, along with the generalized Barcelona model, is used for simulation of soil behavior in
three-invariant stress space p-q-θ (mean stress-deviator stress-Lode angle). A thorough parametric investigation
of the numerical algorithm has been undertaken for suction states ranging from 50 to 200 kPa using constitutive
model parameters that were previously devised experimentally for compacted silty sand. Numerical predictions
are presented in terms of deviatoric stress versus principal strain response as well as strength envelopes in octa-
hedral plane. The developed algorithm will prove to have a wide application potential in geotechnical boundary-
value problems involving unsaturated soil deposits or geotechnical infrastructure made of compacted soil.
scheme.
The well-known Willam-Warnke (1975) ellipti-
Figure 1. Unsaturated soil systems subject to multiaxial cal surface was then used for simulation of unsat-
stress states. urated soil response in three-invariant stress space
721
(p:q:θ). Numerical predictions are presented in terms parameter controlling the rate of increase of slope λ(s)
of deviator stress versus principal strain responses for with suction; r = 0.21, parameter defining maximum
different net octahedral stress levels and suction states, stiffness; pc = 0.036 MPa, reference stress for which
as well as in the form of failure surfaces on the π-plane. the LC locus becomes a straight line; G = 8.8 MPa,
shear modulus; M = 0.982, slope of critical state line;
k = 1.324, parameter controlling increase in cohesion
2 MODEL PARAMETERS with suction; and, po (0) = 0.041 MPa, yield stress for
the saturated case. Model parameters were obtained
Alonso et al. (1990) postulated a critical state based from a previously accomplished series of constant-
framework (Barcelona model) involving four state suction isotropic and axisymmetric loading tests on
variables: net mean stress, p = (1/3)(σ1 + 2σ3 ) − ua , silty sand (Hoyos and Macari 2001).
deviator stress, q = (σ1 − σ3 ), suction, s = (ua − uw ),
and specific volume, v = (1 + e). The model rigor-
ously respects the well-established framework of the 3 IMPLICIT INTEGRATION SCHEME
Modified Cam-Clay model, featuring elastic strains
when the soil state lies inside a state boundary sur- In this work, the computational implicit integration
face, and plastic strains when this surface is reached. driver is developed as a Backward Euler return rule
Elasto-plastic behaviour occurs as the soil state tra- based scheme for integrating the constitutive relations
verses the (p:q:s) boundary surface shown in Figure 2, postulated by the Barcelona model. The solution of
causing an expansion or contraction of such surface. the unsaturated problem can be devised as the projec-
A detailed description of the model yield loci, flow tion (via Closest-Point-Projection-Method) of a trial
rules, hardening laws, and elasto-plastic strain defini- stress state (σ , s) onto an updated yield surface n+1 F,
tions is given by Alonso et al. (1990) and Macari et al. as depicted schematically in Figure 3. In this figure,
(2003). σ = net stress tensor, s = matric suction, po = yield
The best-fit values of Barcelona model parameters stress, and so = maximum past suction. Validation of
used for numerical predictions presented in this work the algorithm for the θ = 0◦ case, that is, axisym-
can be summarized as follows: λ(0) = 0.22, slope of metric case, is presented by Macari et al. (2003).
normal compression line in (v:p) plane for saturated A mixed-control driver was implemented as a user-
case; k = 0.011, elastic swell index corresponding to model operator.
a change of p; ks = 0.0096, elastic swell index corre- The updated surface n+1 Fi is expressed in terms of
sponding to a change of suction; β = 17.9 (MPa)−1 , three stress invariants, that is, p, q, and Lode-angle θ.
q With the help of the Lode-angle θ, yield functions
CSL (s )
d p
q ( n , ns ) ( n+1 , n+1 s )
p
d p
s=0 s
p
ps p o (0) p o (s ) n n+1
F ( , s , po , so ) = 0
F ( , s , po , so ) = 0
s o
(LC)
Figure 3. Implicit CPPM-based integration scheme.
s = so SI
LC
s c = 1.0 c = 0.7 c = 0.53
k
1 Elastic region (0) k
⎧ p o (s ) ⎫ ⎧ p o ( 0 ) ⎫ (s) k
⎨ c ⎬=⎨ c ⎬
⎩ p ⎭ ⎩ p ⎭
s=0 p 2(1 c2 ) cos( / 3) (1 2c) 4(1 c2 ) cos2 ( / 3 ) + 5c 2 4c
g( , c) =
ps pc p o (0 ) p o (s ) 4(1 c2 ) cos2 ( / 3) + (1 2c)2
Figure 2. Barcelona model framework in (p:q:s) space. Figure 4. Willam-Warnke surface in octahedral plane.
722
defined in 2-D space can be expanded into 3-D space values s = 50, 100, and 200 kPa. Likewise, Figures 8
via a function g (θ, c) in which parameter ‘‘c’’ controls and 9 show predicted deviator stress versus principal
the shape of yield surface in (p:q:θ) space, represent- strain response from TC tests for the same variables.
ing the ratio of yield stresses in extension to those in In general, predictions capture the compressive (+) or
compression, as shown in Figure 4.
In this work, a function g (θ, c) originally proposed
by Willam and Warnke (1975) for characterization 0.50
0.00
-0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10
4 PREDICTIONS OF SOIL RESPONSE Principal strain : cm/cm
σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 0.40
σoct = − ua (1)
Deviator stress, q : MPa
3 s = 100 kPa
1
0.30
q = √ (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ1 − σ3 )2 (2)
2 s = 50 kPa
0.20
0.000
σ2 – σ3
TC (b = 0, θ = 0o) b=
SS (b = 0.5, θ = 30 )
o σ1 – σ3 s = 200 kPa
0.005
TE (b = 1, θ = 60o) s = 100 kPa
θ
σoct = 50, 100, or 200 kPa
s = 50 kPa
0.010
A s = 50, 100, or 200 kPa
0.015
0.00 0.05 0.10
Major principal strain : cm/cm
(σ2 – ua) (σ3 – ua)
Figure 7. Simulated response from TC test at σoct =
Figure 5. Simulated suction-controlled testing schemes. 200 kPa.
723
0.50 4.2 Strength loci in deviatoric plane
As previously mentioned, the Willam-Warnke ellipti-
0.40 cal surface defined in Figure 4, along with the gener-
Deviator stress, q : MPa
0.20
s = 100 kPa 0.50
0.10
s = 50 kPa 0.40
s = 200 kPa
0.000
0.20
s = 50 kPa
0.005 s = 200 kPa
s = 100 kPa 0.10
0.010
s = 50 kPa
0.00
0.015 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10
0.00 0.05 0.10 Principal strain : cm/cm
Major principal strain : cm/cm
Volumetric strain : cm/cm
0.000
s = 200 kPa
Figure 8. Simulated response from TE test at σoct = 50 kPa.
0.005
s = 100 kPa
s = 50 kPa
0.010
0.015
expansive (−) nature of the principal strains depending 0.00 0.05
Major principal strain : cm/cm
0.10
724
( 1
– ua)
o
=0
50.0
(a)
37.5
o
= 30
25.0
o
= 60
00.0
( 2
– ua) ( 3
– ua)
(b)
( 1 – ua)
o
=0
o
50.0
= 30
37.5
(c)
o
= 60
25.0
s = 200 kPa
s = 100 kPa
s = 50 kPa
12.5
00.0
( 2 – ua) ( 3 – ua)
725
Figures10–12 show the predicted strength loci of extension, can be considered reasonably appropriate
unsaturated silty sand in the π-plane along with pre- in predicting unsaturated soil response in the three-
dictions of the Willam-Warnke failure criteria for all invariant stress space.
TC, TE, and SS tests simulated at σoct = 50, 100, and The predicted response of unsaturated silty sand
200 kPa for the various matric suctions, s = 50, 100, underscores the potential of the developed CPPM-
and 200 kPa. based implicit algorithm for numerical analyses
From these figures, it can be readily observed, in of geotechnical boundary-value problems involving
all cases, the significant influence that matric suc- unsaturated soil deposits that are subject to simulta-
tion exerts on the size and position of the shear neous, three-dimensional stress gradients defined by
strength envelopes, with a considerable expansion of the net stress tensor (σij − ua δij ) and the matric suc-
the envelopes for s = 200 kPa. tion tensor (ua − uw )δij . The implicit algorithm also
supports analyses with varying matric suction states.
Currently, a comprehensive series of multiaxial,
5 SIMULATING WETTING-DRIVEN FAILURE suction-controlled tests on cubical specimens of silty
sand are being conducted by the first author for further
Simulations presented in the previous section corre- refinement and fine-tuning of the developed algo-
spond to constant-suction stress-strain responses that rithm. To this end, a novel true triaxial (cubical) device
can be experimentally validated via axis-translation has been implemented.
technique. However, the implicit algorithm also sup-
ports analyses with varying matric suction.
Figure 13(a) shows a simulated stress path illustrat- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ing the possibility of failure of a stressed unsaturated
soil when suction is considerably reduced due to a The true triaxial device has been implemented under
wetting front. This type of failures is significant in U.S. National Science Foundation Award # 0216545.
partially saturated soil slopes subjected to wetting due This research support is gratefully acknowledged.
to infiltration from rainfalls (Alonso et al. 1990).
Suction was first increased (drying) to a value of
200 kPa at constant net mean stress of 150 kPa. The REFERENCES
net mean stress was then increased at constant suction
to a value of 250 kPa. Alonso, E.E., Gens, A. and Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
A deviatoric stress was then applied at constant suc- model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique, 40(3),
405–430.
tion and constant net mean stress from 0 to 250 kPa, Hoyos, L.R. and Macari, E.J. 2001. Development of a
following a TC stress path. At this point, suction was stress/suction-controlled true triaxial testing device for
finally steadily reduced until failure was achieved. unsaturated soils. Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM,
The effect of final wetting stage on soil deforma- 24(1), pp. 5–13.
tion is illustrated in Figures 13(b)–(d). Soil failure, Macari, E.J., Hoyos, L.R. and Arduino, P. 2003. Constitutive
so simulated, takes place at almost full saturation modeling of unsaturated soil behavior under axisymmet-
condition (s → 0). ric stress states using a stress/suction-controlled cubi-
cal test cell. International Journal of Plasticity, 19(10),
1481–1515.
Manzari, M.T. and Dafalias, Y.F. 1997. A critical state two-
6 CONCLUDING REMARKS surface plasticity model for sands. Géotechnique, 47(2),
255–272.
Numerical predictions with the refined implicit inte- Willam, K.J. and Warnke, E.P. 1975. Constitutive model
gration algorithm summarized in this work are able to for the triaxial behavior of concrete. Proceedings of the
capture the compressive (+) or expansive (−) nature International Association for Bridge and Structural Engi-
of the principal strain response of silty sand, depending neering (IABSE), Bergamo, Italy, May 1974, Paper III-1,
on the nature of the simulated stress path. 19, 1–30.
Adoption of the Willam-Warnke function g (θ, c),
with a constant strength ratio ‘‘c’’ in compression and
726
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D. Gallipoli
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT: One of the sources of discrepancy between laboratory observations and the predicted behaviour
of unsaturated soil (by many existing constitutive models) is the sharp transition between the elastic and elasto-
plastic regimes exhibited by the latter but not the former. Such a transition is present in, for example, the
Barcelona Basic Model. This paper suggests that by using the water retention curve and a multi-cell approach
it is possible to overcome this limitation. The proposed enhancement may be incorporated relatively easily into
many existing elasto-plastic models for unsaturated soils without addition of any new constitutive variables. The
introduction of the algorithm presented here can improve the predictions in pre-yield states. In this paper the
multi-cell approach has been implemented into the Barcelona Basic Model (BBM). The algorithm is described
in detail using an illustrative stress path that involves hydrostatic compression, drying and wetting. The paper
closes with a comparison of the modified model with the original BBM.
The Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) proposed by The main idea of the proposed constitutive model
Alonso et al. (1990) is perhaps the most widely used stems from an examination of the microstructure and
nonlinear continuum constitutive model for unsatu- water retention in unsaturated soils. Most constitutive
rated soils. Despite its attractiveness this model has models (with the exception of models using a double
several shortcomings. For example, the model pre- structure framework, such as developed by Gens &
dicts an abrupt transition from elastic to elasto-plastic Alonso, 1992) ignore important aspects of micro-
behaviour in a similar fashion to the Modified Cam scopic soil fabric and thus assume a homogeneous
Clay (MCC) model. In the light of laboratory evi- medium, simply extending the continuum constitutive
dence, such a response simplifies the behaviour of frameworks developed for fully saturated soils. How-
unsaturated soil substantially. To rectify this issue, the ever, fine grained unsaturated soil can have a much
commonly employed solution is to create a constitutive more complex fabric at microscopic level than satu-
model within a multi- or bounding surface plasticity rated soil. The clay platelets combine together creating
framework (e.g. Russell & Khalili, 2005). Unfor- larger clusters commonly referred to as aggregates
tunately, such an approach leads to (i) an increase (this fact has been pointed out already by Alonso et al.,
in number of constants required by the model and 1987). The pores between the aggregates (macropores)
(ii) additional numerical complexity. Therefore multi- are larger than within the aggregates (micropores)
or bounding surface plasticity models require greater which leads to a double porosity structure. Such a
experience to calibrate when compared with conven- structure can be seen in environmental scanning elec-
tional elasto-plastic models. tron microscopy (ESEM) images and is confirmed by
The proposed modifications to the BBM allow for mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) tests (see e.g.
a smoother modelling of the transition between the Monroy, 2005).
elastic and elasto-plastic regimes. The modified model The non-homogeneous microstructure of unsatu-
uses only the BBM constants with the additional infor- rated soil is also indirectly confirmed by the water
mation given by the water retention curve. Also, the retention curve. This curve describes the relationship
numerical algorithms required remain mostly the same between the suction and the water content for a given
as for the original BBM. The calibration process of the soil. The amount of water retained under a given suc-
modified model is, however, more involved, but this tion is related to pore size distribution of the soil
is not a serious limitation. according to the Young-Laplace equation. Therefore,
727
the water retention curve can be used to calculate the of suction acting is equal to the latest value of suction
radius of the largest pores filled with water at a given experienced in that cell. Then, for every cell a separate
suction. As the water content of soil is known, the vol- instance of the constitutive model is run. During the
ume of pores with a smaller radius than this can also analysis each cell experiences the same mean stress,
be estimated. but has a separate hardening parameter value and suc-
Such an estimation of pore sizes in unsaturated soil tion. After the computations, the deformations are
via the water retention curve is helpful but imperfect, averaged. During implementation, the number of cells,
as drying/wetting of the soil leads to changes in its n, must be chosen to arrive at a balance between
structure. The soil structure (skeleton) may change computational efficiency and realism.
irreversibly as the wet portion of soil is drawn together
or undergoes swelling due to variation of suction. So,
while the water retention curve can be used to esti- 4 IMPLEMENTATION OF MULTI-CELL
mate the pore size distribution, the outcome will not FRAMEWORK FOR BBM
be entirely representative for the soil given the non-
uniqueness of the relationship between suction and The multi-cell concept based on the use of the water
water content caused by both irreversible strains and retention curve as described above has been imple-
hydraulic hysteresis. This dependence of water reten- mented in the BBM.
tion behaviour on the soil deformation history has It is convenient to assume that in the initial state the
indeed been observed during experiments and par- material is saturated, so that the initial value of suction
tially incorporated in recent models for water retention in all cells is set equal to zero. The other assump-
behaviour (Gallipoli et al., 2003). tion made at the beginning of the simulation is that the
hardening parameter p∗0 (BBM preconsolidation stress
for saturated conditions) in all cells is identical. Once
3 USING WATER RETENTION CURVE suction is applied, the values of current preconsoli-
TO ENHANCE THE CONSTITUTIVE MODEL dation pressure p0 in each cell are dependent on the
value of hardening parameter p∗0 and the most recently
Despite the shortcomings mentioned above, the water experienced suction s
retention curve carries useful information about the
microstructural behaviour of unsaturated soil. It is λ(0)−κ
p∗0 λ(s)−κ
thus appropriate to use this information in constitutive p0 = p0 ( p∗0 , s) = pc (1)
modelling. Here, to keep the modification as simple pc
as possible, it is assumed that a unique water reten-
tion curve, independent from the deformation and where pc is the value of the reference stress and λ(s)
wetting/drying history of soil, exists. is the slope of the virgin compression line at suction s.
Such a water retention curve can be expressed as a This slope is calculated as:
direct relationship between suction and degree of sat- !
uration. Given this relationship, it is straightforward λ(s) = λ(0) (1 − r)e−βs + r (2)
to determine what percentage of soil has experienced
a maximum given value of suction—it is the corre- where λ(0)is the slope of the virgin compression line
sponding value of degree of saturation Sr read from for the fully saturated soil, r and β are BBM con-
the water retention curve. It follows that at a given stants. In every cell a separate instance of the BBM is
value of suction, the average mean stress acting on the used and, subsequently, the values from all cells are
soil skeleton is equal to the sum of the external stress p averaged.
and the current suction multiplied by the correspond-
ing degree of saturation sSr . This follows from the
stress definition given by Houlsby (1997). 5 EXAMPLE
Such an average stress does not account, however,
for the history of soil, i. e. it does not take into account In this section an illustrative example is given. To keep
that the parts of soil which are currently dry, previously the example as simple as possible it was decided to
experienced suction. An assumption has been made use 5 cells (n = 5). The water retention curve is
here that the dried part of soil behaves ‘as though’ the given in Figure 2. Initially (Fig. 1, point A) the soil
suction value that it has recently experienced is still is fully saturated, with a mean net stress p of 10 kPa
acting. which is also the value used for the reference pressure
The soil then may be thought of as being composed pc in BBM. The soil is normally consolidated, so the
of a large number of internal cells. In Sr percent of hardening parameter p∗0 is equal to 10 kPa. The other
cells the suction is equal to the current suction s. It is BBM parameters used were: elastic stiffness param-
assumed that in each of the remaining cells the amount eter for changes in net mean stress κ = 0.02, elastic
728
stiffness parameter for changes in suction κs = 0.05, p∗,i
ν1i = N (0) − λ(0) ln 0
, i = 1..5 (3)
atmospherics pressure patm = 100 kPa, stiffness pc
parameter for changes in net mean stress for virgin
states of the soil (with suction s = 0) λ(0) = 0.2, The average specific volume is
parameter defining the maximum increase of soil stiff-
ness with suction β = 0.01 1/kPa and parameter
1" i
n
defining the maximum soil stiffness r = 0.75. The ini- ν 1 + ν12 + ν13 + ν14 + ν15
ν1 = ν1 = 1 = 2.139
tial specific volume at the reference pressure pc is set n i=1 5
to 2.6. The initial soil state is given in Table 1.
(4)
The stress path and corresponding values of the spe-
cific volume of soil are summarised in Figure 1. First,
the soil is isotropic loaded until p = 100 kPa (Fig. 1, where n is the number of cells used.
path A-B). The state of soil after such loading is given The soil is then dried until suction reaches 200 kPa
in Table 2. (Fig 1, B–C). The values of suction corresponding to
At this stage (Fig. 1, point B) the values of spe- Sr equal to 0.9, 0.7, 0.5 and 0.47 are 30 kPa, 100 kPa,
cific volume for each cell ν1i in Table 2 are equal and 180 kPa and 200 kPa respectively (see Fig. 2). The
calculated as cells are dried in a sequence, assuming that the cell
is dry when it is less then half full. This fully arbi-
trary assumption leads to drying the cells once the
degree of saturation reaches 0.9, 0.7, 0.5, 0.3 which
correspond to 30 kPa, 100 kPa, 180 kPa and 460 kPa
suction respectively (see Fig. 2). As at final suction
200 kPa the corresponding degree of saturation is
0.47 > 0.3, so the cells 4 & 5 remain wet. The evo-
lution of cell suction is given by Table 3, where s(Sr )
denotes suction corresponding to the value of degree
of saturation as given by the water retention curve
(Figs 2 & 3).
The soil state after drying is summarized in Table 4.
The specific volume for each cell ν2i and preconsoli-
dation pressure pi0 in Table 4 are calculated using:
si + patm
ν2i = ν1i − κs ln , i = 1..5 (5)
patm
Cell (i) 1 2 3 4 5
Cell (i) 1 2 3 4 5
729
1 " i ν21 + ν22 + ν23 + ν24 + ν25
n
Table 3. Evolution of suction during drying.
ν2 = ν = = 2.097 (7)
n i=1 2 5
Suction Value [kPa]
λ(s i )−κ
pi0 λ(0)−κ
p∗,i
0 =p c
, i = 1..5 (8)
pc
730
p0 si + patm Table 9. Evolution of hardening during loading.
ν3i = N (0) − λ(si ) ln c
− κs ln , i = 1..5
p patm
(9) Loading
Cell (i) 1 2 3 4 5
The average specific volume is:
p < p∗,1
0 e e e e e
1" i
n
ν 1 + ν32 + ν33 + ν34 + ν35 p∗,1 <p< p∗,2
ν3 = ν3 = 3 = 1.911 0 0 ep e e e e
n i=1 5
p∗,2
0 <p< p∗,3
0 ep ep e e e
(10) p∗,3 <p< p∗,4 ep ep ep e e
0 0
In the next stage, the soil is unloaded until it reaches p> p∗,4
0 = p∗,5
0 ep ep ep ep ep
the mean stress of 100 kPa (Fig. 1, D-E). The specific
e—elastic; ep—elasto-plastic.
volume for each cell is then:
p Table 10. Soil state at p = 500 kPa (final, Fig. 1, point G).
ν4i = ν3i − κ ln , i = 1..5 (11)
p0
Cell (i) 1 2 3 4 5
The average specific volume is calculated similarly as
Hard. par. p∗0 [kPa] 500 500 500 500 500
before (see e.g. 4). Suction [kPa] 0 0 0 0 0
At this stage the sample is wetted until fully satu- Specific volume ν6i 1.818 1.818 1.818 1.818 1.818
rated (Fig 1, E–F). The evolution of suction during Precons. pres. p0 [kPa] 500 500 500 500 500
wetting is given in Table 7 and the soil state after
wetting is identified in Table 8. After saturation, the
hardening parameters are unchanged and the value of
preconsolidation pressure in each cell is equal to the
value of hardening parameter in this cell.
The specific volume in Table 8 is calculated as
p + patm
ν5i = ν4i + κs ln , i = 1..5 (12)
patm
Loading
Cell (i) 1 2 3 4 5
Table 8. Soil state after wetting (s = 0 kPa) (Fig. 1, point F). The average specific volume is the mean of the
specific volumes of calculated in each cell (see eq. 4).
Cell (i) 1 2 3 4 5 Finally, the soil is loaded until the mean net stress p
reaches a value of 500 kPa (Fig. 1, F–G). The loading
Hard. par. p∗,i
0 [kPa] 377.3 253.6 202.6 195.4 195.4 is initially elastic, but as the mean stress increases, so
Suction [kPa] 0 0 0 0 0
the cells yield. The evolution of hardening during this
Specific volume ν5i 1.900 1.972 2.012 2.019 2.019
Precons. pres. pi0 [kPa] 377.3 253.6 202.6 195.4 195.4
loading is given in Table 9, and the final soil state is
given in Table 10.
731
Figure 5. Influence of number of cells used in simula- Figure 6. Comparison of the modified BBM with the
tion—enlarged detail from Figure 4. Comparison between original formulation.
simulations using 2, 3, 5, 10 and 100 cells.
The value of specific volume for each cell is then shrinking and swelling behaviour are different, and
calculated as in (3) and the average specific volume as the slope of the unsaturated compression line λ(s) is
in (3). Note that the plastic behaviour will start gradu- steeper in the case of the modified model, the amount
ally, with some yielding of the material before reaching of collapse predicted by the original model is larger.
the virgin compression line. This gradual transition Finally, it is evident that the modified model pre-
will be better approximated when more cells are used. dicts a smoother transition between the elastic and
The influence of the number of cells used is illustrated elasto-plastic regions. This smooth transition occurs
in Figures 4 and 5. also in the case of loading a fully saturated soil when
it has previously been in an unsaturated state and was
loaded beyond the yield point (of any of cells).
6 COMPARISON WITH THE ORIGINAL BBM
732
number of tests than those required for the BBM. This Training Network, contract: MRTN-CT-2004-506861.
is certainly an advantage over a model that would The authors would like to also thank the reviewer for
introduce a bounding surface plasticity framework into valuable comments and insights.
the BBM.
The amount of computer resources required is
higher than for the BBM. However, on current REFERENCES
machines, it is entirely feasible to perform 2D Finite
Element simulations with more than 105 elements Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive
using the enhanced model. Given that the speed (and model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique 40(3):
memory) of computers continues to increase, it is very 405–430.
likely that in few years 3D analyses will be almost as Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., Josa, A., Hight, D.W. 1987. Special
problems soils. General Reports. In proceedings of the 9th
quick as current 2D simulations. European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
It is worth adding that the algorithm complexity Engineering. Dublin. 3: 1087–1146.
of this enhanced model is not significantly increased Gallipoli, D., Wheeler, S.J., Karstunen, M. 2003. Mod-
compared with the original BBM, as much of the code elling the variation of degree of saturation in a deformable
used for each of the cells is the same. unsaturated soil. Géotechnique 53(1): 105–112.
The proposed modified model is in the process of Gens, A., Alonso, E.E. 1992. A framework for the behaviour
being validated against a wide range of experimental of unsaturated expansive clays. Can. Getech. J. 29:
data. Only then can the improvements in prediction 1013–1032.
of unsaturated soil behaviour given by the modified Houlsby, G.T. 1997. The work input to an unsaturated
granular material. Géotechnique 47(1): 193–196.
model can be truly assessed. Monroy, R. 2005. The influence of load and suction changes
on the volumetric behaviour of compacted London Clay.
PhD thesis. Imperial College, London.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Russell, A.R., Khalili, N. 2005. A unified bounding surface
plasticity model for unsaturated soils. Int. J. Numer. Anal.
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding by the Meth. Geomech. 30: 181–212.
European Commission through the MUSE Research
733
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
T. Kodaka
Department of Civil Engineering, Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan
H. Suzuki
Osaka Gas, Osaka, Japan
ABSTRACT: It is known that air can be trapped in some parts of embankments during heavy rain or overflow.
In this case, air pressure, as well as water pressure, may change under partially drained conditions. However, most
laboratory test programs have been conducted under constant air pressure conditions. In this paper, a numerical
model for unsaturated soils based on the mixture theory and an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model is presented.
The collapse behavior, due to a decrease in suction, is expressed by the shrinkage of the overconsolidation
boundary surface, the static yield surface, and the viscoplastic potential surface. The theory used in the analysis
is a generalization of Biot’s two-phase mixture theory for saturated soil. A soil-water-air coupled finite element
method is developed in the present study using the governing equations for multiphase soil based on the nonlinear
finite deformation theory. Three-dimensional numerical analyses at constant water and constant air content are
conducted and the applicability of the proposed method is confirmed. The performance of the model is examined
with reference to triaxial compression tests preformed on unsaturated soil at constant water and air content.
735
not reflect the evolution of pore water pressure and It is assumed that the strain rate tensor consists of
pore air pressure separately. For this reason, a van the elastic stretching tensor Dije and the viscoplastic
Genuchten type of equation is employed as the con- vp
stretching tensor Dij as
stitutive equation between degree of saturation and
suction. Based on this, an air-water-soil three-phase vp
coupled model has been proposed (Oka et al. 2006; Dij = Dije + Dij (3)
Feng et al. 2006) and used for two-dimensional numer-
ical simulations under plane strain conditions. In the The elastic stretching tensor is given by a general-
present study, this research is extended by employing ized Hooke type law, namely,
a three-dimensional multiphase finite element method
incorporating an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive equa-
tion to simulate the triaxial behavior of unsaturated 1 κ σ̇m
Dije = Ṡij + δij (4)
cylindrical specimens. 2G 3 (1 + e) σm
Pi
degradation proposed by Kimoto & Oka (2005) has × 1 + SI exp −Sd − 1 (7)
Pc
been extended to unsaturated soils using the skele-
ton stress and including suction effects. The collapse
vp
behavior of unsaturated soils is macroscopic evidence where εkk is the viscoplastic volumetric strain, P c is
of the structural instability of the soil skeleton and it is the present suction value, Pic is a reference suction,
totally independent of the chosen stress variables (Oka SI denotes the increase of yield stress when suction
1988; Jommi 2000). In the present model, the collapse increases from zero to the reference value Pic . Sd con-
behavior is described by the shrinkage of the overcon- trols the rate of increasing or decreasing of σmb with
solidated boundary surface, the static yield surface, suction and σma is a strain-softening parameter used
and the viscoplastic surface due to the decrease in to describe degradation caused by structural changes,
suction. namely
736
σma = σmaf + (σmai − σmaf ) exp (−βz) (8) 2.3 Viscoplastic potential function
The viscoplastic potential function is given by
t #
vp vp
z= żdt with ż = ε̇ij ε̇ij (9)
∗ σm
0 fp = η̄(0) + M̃ ∗ ln
=0 (14)
σmp
in which σmai and σmaf are the initial and the final
values of σma while β controls the rate of degrada- where σmp denotes the mean skeleton stress at the inter-
vp
tion with viscoplastic strain, and ε̇ij is the viscoplastic section of the viscoplastic potential function surface
strain rate. and the σm axis.
σm ∂fp
fy = η∗(0) + M̃ ∗ ln (s)
=0 (10) vp
Dij = γ 1 (fy )
(15)
σmy ∂σij
737
The viscoplastic deviatoric and volumetric strain rates 3 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
are obtained as follows:
Based on the Theory of Porous Media (TPM), an air-
∗ ∗
σ ηij − ηij(0) water-soil coupled finite element model has been used
= C1 σm exp m η̄(0)
∗
+ M̃ ∗ ln m
vp
ėij for a numerical investigation of the triaxial compres-
σmb η̄∗
sion behavior of unsaturated silty clay under constant
(19) water and constant air conditions. Based on the finite
σ deformation theory, a three-dimensional soil-water-
∗
= C2 σm exp m η̄(0) + M̃ ∗ ln m
vp
ε̇kk air coupled finite element code has been developed
σmb
(Kimoto et al. 2007). Figure 2(a) shows a twenty-
∗ ∗ ∗
ηmn (ηmn − ηmn(0) ) node isoparametric element with a reduced Gaussian
× M̃ ∗ − (20) (2 × 2 × 2) integration for the soil skeleton and an
η̄∗
eight-node isoparametric element with a full (2×2×2)
integration for pore water and pore air. Figure 2(b)
In case of isotropic consolidation, the suction effect shows the finite element mesh together with the
on the over consolidation boundary surface, fb static boundary conditions. All boundaries are assumed to
yield function, fy and viscoplastic potential function, fp
be impermeable and the horizontal deformation is
are illustrated in the σm − Sij Sij space in Figure 1. For constrained at both top and bottom boundaries.
this overstress type viscoplastic model, the viscoplas- The main material parameters and the initial con-
tic strain rate depends on the current stress state and ditions used in the analysis are listed in Table 1. Soil
the static hardening parameters given by Equation 13. parameters are obtained by triaxial compression tests
The collapse behavior is due to the viscoplastic strains (Suzuki 2006).
caused by shrinkage of the static yield surface due to The numerical examples presented in this paper
a decrease of suction. exhibit typical behavior of unsaturated soil under
undrained conditions for water and air, such as changes
in volumetric strain, shear strength, and pore air pres-
2.5 Soil-water characteristic curve sure. Predictions of the variation in suction were
The soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) is defined compared against the experimental results. Figure 3
as the relationship between the degree of saturation illustrates the stress paths of samples with different
and suction. The SWCC is a measure of the water- levels of initial suction. A good agreement can be
holding capacity of the soil when subjected to changes observed. By introducing the suction effect into the
of suction. In this model, the van Genuchten (1980) model, the model can reflect the fact that strength of
type of equation is adopted as
$ %−m
s = (smax − smin ) (1 + (αP C )n + smin (21)
where smin and smax are the minimum and the max-
imum degree of saturation, α and n are material
parameters and m = 1 − 1/n.
10cm
Z
Y
X
2.5cm
× Gauss point
Displacement Fixed
Pore fluid pressure Horizontally fixed
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Static yield and overconsolidation boundary Figure 2. (a) Isoparametric elements and (b) Finite element
surfaces. mesh and boundary conditions.
738
Table 1. Material parameters and initial condition. 500
739
A van Genuchten type soil water characteristic curve is
0 employed as the constitutive equation linking suction
and degree of saturation.
Volumetric strain (%)
30
soils: 38–46; Butterworths, London.
Bolzon, G., Schrefler, B. & Zienkiewicz, O.C. 1996.
20 c Elastoplastic soil constitutive laws generalized to partially
P =30kPa
c saturated states. Geotechnique 46(2):279–289.
P =50kPa
10 c Cui, Y.J. & Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic
P =30kPa(exp) behaviour of an unsaturated compacted silt. Geotechnique
c
P =50kPa(exp) 46(2):291–311.
0 Ehlers, W., Graf, T. & Ammann, M. 2004. Deformation and
0 4 8 12 16 localization analysis of partially saturated soil. Compt.
Axial strain (%) Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 193:2885–2910.
Feng, H., Kimoto, S., Oka, F., Kodaka, T. & Suzuki, H.
Figure 6. Changes in suction with axial strain. 2006. Three-dimensional multiphase analysis of elasto-
viscoplastic unsaturated soil. Proc. 19th KKCNN Symp.
on Civil Engg.:449–452.
c
P =50kPa Fredlund, D.G. & Morgenstern, N.R. 1977. Stress state vari-
360 ables for unsaturated soils. J. Geotech. Engng Div. Am.
Deviator stress (kPa)
G
P Soc. Civ. Engr. 103, GT5:313–321.
Gallipoli, D., Gens, A., Sharama, R. & Vaunat, J. 2003. An
320 elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the
w
P effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical
280 behaviour. Geotechnique 53(1):123–135.
Jommi, C. 2000. Remarks on the constitutive modeling of
240 unsaturated soils. In Tarantino, A. & Manvuso, C. (eds),
Experimental Evidence and Theoretical Approaches in
Unsaturated Soils: 139–153. Balkema.
200 Kim, Y., Kimoto, S., Oka, F. & Kodaka, T. 2005. Numerical
simulation of the triaxial compression behaviour of unsat-
0 5 10 15 20 25 urated silt using an elasto-viscoplastic model. Proc. 11th
Mean skeleton stress (kPa) IACMAG 1:361–367. Torino, Italy, 19–24 June 2005.
Kimoto, S. & Oka, F. 2005. An elasto-viscoplastic model
Figure 7. Pore pressure vs. axial strain. for clay considering destructuralization and consolida-
tion analysis of unstable behavior, Soils and Foundations
45(2):29–42.
the average skeleton stress from the viewpoint of Kimoto, S., Oka, F. & Higo, Y. 2004. Strain localiza-
the mixture theory, and the suction effect is intro- tion analysis of elasto-viscoplastic soil considering struc-
duced in the hardening and softening of the yield tural degradation. Compt. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg.
surface and the over-consolidation boundary surface. 193:2845–2866.
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Kimoto, S., Oka, F., Fushita, T. & Fujiwaki, M. 2007. Perzyna, P. 1963. The constitutive equation for work hard-
A chemo-thermo-mechanically coupled numerical sim- ening and rate sensitive plastic materials, Proc. of
ulation of the subsurface ground deformations due to Vibrational Problems, Warsaw, 4(3):74–85.
methane hydrate dissociation, Computers and Geotech- Sheng, D., Sloan, W., Gens, A. & Smith, D.W. 2003. Finite
nics, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 216–228. element formulation and algorithms for unsaturated soils
Kogho, Y., Nakano, M. & Miyazaki, T. 1993a. Theoretical Part I: Theory. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech
aspects of constitutive elastoplastic model for unsaturated 27:745–765.
soils. Soils and Foundations 33(4):49–63. Suzuki, H., Kodaka, H. & Oka, F. 2006. Mechanical Prop-
Kogho, Y., Nakano, M. & Miyazaki, T. 1993b. Verification of erties of Unsaturated Silt under Unexhausted and pore air
the generalized elastoplastic model for unsaturated soils. pressure controlled condition. Proc. 41st Annual Meeting
Soils and Foundations 33(4):64–73. of JGS: 323–324, Kagoshima (in Japanese).
Loret, B. & Khalili, N. 2000. A three phase model for Thomas, H.R. & He, Y. 1998. Modeling the behaviour of
unsaturated soils. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech. unsaturated soil using an elastoplastic constitutive model.
24(11):893–927. Geotechnique 48(5):589–603.
Loret, B. & Khalili, N. 2002. An effective stress elastic- Van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A Close-form Equation for Pre-
plastic model for unsaturated porous media. Mechanics dicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils.
of materials 34: 97–116. Soil Science Society of America Journal 44: 892–898.
Oka, F., Kodaka, T., Kimoto, S., Kim, Y. & Yamasaki, N. Wheeler, S.J. & Karube, D. 1996. State of the art report-
2006. An elasto-viscoplastic model and multiphase cou- constitutive modeling. 1st Int. Conf. on Unsaturated soils,
pled FE analysis for unsaturated soil. Unsaturated Soils Paris 3: 1323–1356.
2006(2):2039–2050; Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Unsat. Soils, Wheeler, S.J. & Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic crit-
Carefree Arizona, 2–6 April 2006. ASCE. ical state framework for unsaturated soil. Geotechnique
Oka, F. 1988. The validity of the effective stress concept 45(1):35–53.
in soil mechanics. In M. Satake & J.T. Jenkins (eds), Yamamura, K. 1971. Soil engineering research of river
Micromechanics of Granular Materials:207–214. Elsevier embankment. Doctoral thesis, Kyoto University, Japan;
Science Publisher B.V.: Amsterdam. (in Japanese).
Oka, F. 1982. Elasto-viscoplastic constitutive equation
for overconsolidated clay. In Zurich, Dungar, R.,
Pande, G.N. & Studer, J.A. (eds), Numerical Models in
Geomechanics; Proc. 1st Int. Symp.:147–156, Balkema.
741
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: A micro-mechanical analysis is used to investigate the impact of inter-particle water bridges
on the stress condition of unsaturated pendular-state granular soils. The discrete element method was used to
idealize the soil skeleton. Bridge suction forces were used to model the effects of pendular water bridges, which
develop at interparticle contacts. Computational simulations were employed along with analytical derivations
to propose an expression providing the suction and effective stresses within unsaturated pendular-state granular
soils. Suction stress was found to be a direct function of porosity, water content, and water bridge coordination
number and fabric tensor. The outcome of the conducted simulations provided a valuable insight into the stress
condition of unsaturated pendular-state granular soils.
743
normal interparticle contact forces are related by a slip
Coulomb relationship (Itasca 2003).
Bridge forces develop when pendular water bridges
form between particles. This force includes suction,
fs , and viscous, fν , components. The viscous compo-
nent arises when the involved two particles move with
respect to each other leading to a water flow in the
bridge. This component is only significant when the
pore liquid viscosity is high or particles are approach-
ing each other at high relative velocities (Adams &
Perchard 1985). This study focused on static soil con-
ditions and the viscous component of the bridge force
was not considered.
The suction component of the bridge force accounts
Figure 2. Explicit (solid lines) and implicit (discrete points)
for the reduced hydrostatic pressure, P, within the functions of the variation of the normalized suction force
water bridge and the force caused by the water surface component fs∗ between two particles as a function of the
tension, Ts , at the water-air-particle interface. For a normalized interparticle separation distance δ (for equal
pendular state and small particles (diameters less than size particle, ρ = Rp2 /Rp1 = 1, different size particle,
about 1 mm), the effects of gravity on water bridges ρ = Rp2 /Rp1 > 1, and the limiting case of a particle and
are negligible. The bridge force is then given by (Hotta a wall, ρ = Rp2 /Rp1 ∼∞).
et al. 1974):
& '
fs = π R22 P + 2πTs R2 n̂ (3) by others, e.g., Weigert & Ripperger 1999) was devel-
oped by the authors using regression and optimization
where n̂ is unit vector connecting the centers of the techniques. This explicit relationship is appropriate
particles and P is the reduced hydrostatic pressure for discrete element implementations. Details of the
(or better known in soil mechanics as matric suction) computation of fs as a function of water content
given by the Laplace-Young equation (e.g., Lu & Likos and particle separation distance are given by Medina
2004): (2007). Figure 2 shows the normalized suction force
fs∗ = fs /(2πTs Rp1 ) as a function of normalized inter-
1 1 particle separation distance δ = d/Rp1 for monosize
P = Ts − (4) particles, different size particles and a particle and
R1 R2
a wall.
in which R1 and R2 are radii of the principal cur-
vature of the pendular bridge. Assuming a toroidal
approximation of the liquid bridge (Fisher 1926), 3 EFFECTIVE STRESS TENSOR
R1 and R2 may be related geometrically to the vol- OF UNSATURATED PENDULAR-STATE
ume of the bridge (Fig. 1). This procedure gives an GRANULAR SOILS
implicit relationship between the suction force and
the water bridge geometrical parameters. An alterna- The principle of effective stress is a fundamental well-
tive explicit relationship (similar to those published established concept in the mechanics of fully saturated
soils. Numerous efforts have been made to extend
this concept to unsaturated soil since the late 1950s.
A well known expression for the effective stresses for
an unsaturated soil is given by (Bishop, 1959):
744
active area of research, and experimental investiga-
tions have been carried out by researchers to explore
the validity as well as the limitations of this concept
(e.g., Jennings & Burland 1962; Khalili et al. 2004).
Strictly speaking, stress is a continuum characteris-
tic which does not apply to an assemblage of discrete
particles in a granular soil. Averaging procedures may
be used to evaluate stress fields consistent with particle
contact forces (Cundall & Strack, 1983). For unsatu-
rated pendular-state granular soils, the water bridges
exert attractive forces that push the particles against
each other leading to an increase in interparticle con-
tact forces. Averaging of these forces gives a tensile
suction tensor such as: Figure 3. Variation of f (, ρavg ) as a function of the
normalized average bridge volume (Medina, 2007).
σ = σ net − s (6)
745
Table 1. Numerical data for random packing of particles. was found to depend on water bridge fabric tensor
Fb , matric suction P and a newly defined pendular
Particles effective stress parameter χ. This parameter is a direct
Diameter (mm) 0.55–0.85 0.085–0.85 0.85 function of porosity, water content, and water bridge
ρavg 1.00 1.16 2.09 coordination number.
Porosity, n (%) 43 42 41
bn 4.55 4.78 4.90
Fluid REFERENCES
Water content (%) 0.5–4 0.5–4 0.25–0.75
F11 0.315 0.318 0.315 Adams, M.J. & Perchard, A. 1985. The cohesive forces
F22 0.320 0.319 0.320 between particles with interstitial liquid. In IChemE
F33 0.365 0.363 0.365 Symposium Series (91):147–160.
Cundall, P.A. & Strack, O.D.L. 1979. A discrete numer-
Computation parameters ical model for granular assemblies. Géotechnique
Time step for DEM 1.0 × 10−7 s 29(1):47–65.
Cundall, P.A. & Strack, O.D.L. 1983. Modeling of micro-
scopic mechanisms in granular material. In J.T. Jenkins &
M. Satake (eds.), Mechanics of Granular Materials, New
Models and Constitutive Relations; Proc. US-Japan sem-
inar on new models and constitutive relations in the
mechanics of granular materials, Ithaca, New York, 23–27
August, 1983: 137–149. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,
Amsterdam.
Fisher, R.A. 1926. On the capillary forces in an ideal soil;
corrections of formulae given by W.B. Haines. Journal of
Agricultural Science 16:492–505.
Itasca. 2003. Particle Flow Code, PFC3D, release 3.0. Itasca
Consulting Group, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Jennings, J.E. & Burland, J.B. 1962. Limitations to the use of
effective stresses in partly saturated soils. Géotechnique
12(2):125–144.
Khalili, N., Geiser, F. & Blight, G.E. 2004. Effective
stress in unsaturated soils: Review with new evidence.
Figure 5. Soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) for cubic International Journal of Geomechanics 4(2):115–126.
and hexagonal periodic packing of spherical particles. Li, X.S. 2003. Effective stress in unsaturated soil: a
microstructural analysis. Géotechnique 53(2):273–277.
Lian, G., Adams, M.J. & Thornton, C. 1998. Discrete particle
of moisture content. The relationship between matric simulation of agglomerate impact coalescence. Chemical
suction and moisture content is generally expressed Engineering Science 53:3381–3391.
by the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC). This Lu, N. & Likos, W. 2004. Unsaturated soil mechanics. John
curve was evaluated for numerical simulations of cubic Wiley and Sons, Inc.
and hexagonal periodic packing of spherical particles, Medina, C. 2007. A micro-mechanical study of the response
as displayed in Figure 5. This figure also shows a good of unsaturated pendular state granular soils. Ph. D. Thesis,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA.
agreement between the results of conducted simula- Mindlin, R. & Deresiewicz, H. 1953. Elastic spheres in
tions in comparison and the SWCC theoretical curve contact under varying oblique forces. Journal of Applied
proposed by Reinson et al. (2005). Mechanics, ASME 20:327–344.
Newitt, D.M. & Conway-Jones, J.M. 1958. A contribution to
the theory and practice of granulation. Transactions of the
Institution of Chemical Engineers 36:422–442.
4 CONCLUSIONS Reinson, J.R., Fredlund, D.G. & Wilson, G.W. 2005. Unsatu-
rated flow in coarse porous media. Canadian Geotechnical
A discrete element model and numerical simula- Journal 42:252–262.
tions were used to investigate the impact of pendular Weigert, T. & Ripperger, S. 1999. Calculation of the liquid
water bridges on the stress condition of unsaturated bridge volume and bulk saturation from the half-filling
soils. These simulations were employed along with angle. Particle and Particle Systems Characterization
analytical derivations to develop an expression pro- 16:238–242.
viding the suction and effective stresses within unsat-
urated pendular-state granular soils. The suction stress
746
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
1 INTRODUCTION qw
water pump
747
There is a further aspect which may contribute to 3 BASICS OF NUMERICAL INVESTIGATIONS
misinterpretation of unsaturated hydraulic conductiv-
ity data, and which is usually not accounted for: The 3.1 General concept
non-uniform distribution of matric suction in the soil
The purpose of the numerical investigations is to sim-
specimens.
ulate a series of unsaturated steady state tests for
two reference soils. For the reference soils, a set of
parameters describing the matric suction function and
2 NON-UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION OF MATRIC
hydraulic conductivity function is assumed. The pres-
SUCTION AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
sure change due to the imposed flow rates obtained
from the numerical simulation is used to compute
Different magnitudes of pore water pressures are
the hydraulic conductivity with Darcy’s law given
applied behind the base and the top HEA disk of the
in (1). The derived conductivity is then referred to
permeameter. This results in a (necessary) matric suc-
the arithmetic average matric suction. This procedure
tion gradient across the soil specimen. All the recent
corresponds to the commonly adopted approach for
permeameter developments (see previous references)
the steady-state method.
left the idea of measuring pore water pressures inside
In a second step, the ‘‘true’’ unsaturated conductiv-
the sample. The distribution of matric suction in the
ity for the assigned ‘‘average’’ suction value is com-
soil specimen is therefore unknown.
puted solely with a hydraulic conductivity function.
However, the derived hydraulic conductivity from a
Finally, the conductivities obtained from the numerical
permeameter test has to be referred to a certain suction
simulation (= permeameter approach) are compared
value. This ‘‘average’’ suction is usually computed as
with those computed directly with the hydraulic con-
the arithmetic average of the suction at the base and
ductivity function (= true value). Thus, the data
the top of the soil sample.
interpretation error caused by the arithmetic average
It has long been recognized that the obtained
suction-approach becomes obvious.
hydraulic conductivity from the permeameter does
not necessarily correspond to the ‘‘average’’ matric
suction (e.g. Benson & Gribb 1997). To reduce the
problem of the non-uniform distribution of matric 3.2 Software
suction, Benson & Gribb (1997) suggest applying For the numerical investigations the multi-phase fluid
suction gradients as small as possible while main- and heat flow simulator TOUGH2 (Transport of
taining measurable flow rates. Lu et al. (2006) state Unsaturated Groundwater and Heat; Pruess et al.
that the problem may be greatly reduced in future by 1999) is employed. The use of a multi-phase flow
reducing the magnitude of the imposed flow rates of code allows taking explicitly into account the air flow
constant-flow permeameters. to the simulated permeameter tests. Possible influ-
Improvements of the experimental systems will ences of the air phase to the test results are therefore
certainly allow applying lower flow rates and measur- incorporated.
ing lower head differences and vice versa. But apart TOUGH2 sets up identical mass and energy balance
from a technical point of view further considerations equations for all phases (e.g. water or air). Depending
have to be taken into account. Firstly, low flow rates on the thermodynamic state (pressure, temperature,
respectively low suction gradients result in low flow saturation), the thermophysical parameters (relative
velocities. Times to reach steady-state increase rapidly permeability, capillary pressures) are then assigned to
and for silty and clayey soils they are fast beyond the mass balance equation for each flow phase. The
practical limits. With adherent long testing times, the mass balance equations set up by TOUGH2 have the
problems of water leakage and air diffusion turn more following structure:
and more severe. Secondly, below a certain threshold
gradient the water may show non-Newton properties.
∂
Small countercurrents along the pore walls may occur. M κ dVn = FK • ndn + qκ dVn (2)
This phenomenon may result in flow not obeying the ∂t
Vn n Vn
Darcy law or no flow at all before the threshold gradi-
ent is exceeded. For clay soils the threshold gradient
may even exceed 30 (Bear 1988). where Vn = an arbitrary sub-domain, bounded by
Due to the latter considerations we are convinced the closed surface n ; M = mass or energy per vol-
that the non-uniform distribution of matric suction will ume, κ = labeling the different mass components;
always affect steady-state unsaturated conductivity F = mass or heat flux; q = sinks and sources; and
testing, even with improved experimental equipment. n = normal vector on the surface element n .
It is therefore important to investigate these effects in The introduction of the intrinsic permeability k
detail. allows a multiphase formulation of Darcy’s law for
748
Table 1. Numerical modeling parameters.
Neumann-BC; qw = const.
ksat θs θr,w α n
0.7 cm
N-BC;
q=0
HAE disk
Material m/s – – m−1 –
Dirichlet-BC;
9.5 · 10−9
pa = const.
Beit Netofa Cl. 0.45 0.0 0.15 1.17
3.0 cm
soil specimen HEA disk 1 8.6 · 10−8 0.40 0.2 0.1 100
HEA disk 2 8.6 · 10−6 0.40 0.2 0.2 100
N-BC;
0.7 cm
q=0
HAE disk Two different soil types are chosen to carry out the
Dirichlet-BC; pw = const. numerical simulations. The first one, Esperance Sand,
is poorly graded, medium-fine sand, characterized by
r = 3.5 cm Lu et al. (2006). For the second soil, Beit Netofa
Clay, results were presented by van Genuchten (1980).
Figure 2. Numerical model of permeameter. For both soils the matric suction function and the
hydraulic conductivity function are described by the
van Genuchten model (1980) respectively the van
computation of the phase fluxes F β : Genuchten-Mualem model (1976, 1980). Table 1
contains the assigned parameters.
krβ ρβ & ' Two different HEA disks are modelled, depending
Fβ = ρβ uβ = −k ∇Pβ − ρβ g (3)
μβ on whether a high or a low suction value is applied.
An n-value of 100 and α-values of 0.1 respectively 0.2
where uβ = Darcy velocity (volume flux), krβ = ensure full water saturation in the disks, independent
relative permeability; μβ = viscosity with respect to of the applied suction.
phase β and Pβ = fluid pressure in phase β (Pruess
et al. 1999).
4 RESULTS OF NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
3.3 Permeameter model In this section, the results of four simulation series are
The experimental system is assumed as characterized presented. Six different flow rates at different matric
in Figure 1, but with flow in horizontal direction. A suction values were simulated for both Esperance Sand
diameter of 7 cm and a height of 3 cm for the soil and Beit Netofa Clay. Very low flow rates in the
specimen are chosen. The HAE-disks have a thickness order of 1 · 10−7 cm3 /s were also assigned to show
of 7 mm. Flow is induced via application of a constant convergence of the numerical model. The results are
flow rate at the top of the model. Below the base HAE summarized in tables presented below. The key infor-
disk the water pressure is kept constant. Matric suction mation, the error caused by referring the obtained
is applied by distributing an elevated air pressure via unsaturated conductivity of the permeameter test to
a filter paper around the perimeter of the soil column. the linear average suction, is given in the last col-
The cross section of the numerical model and assigned umn of the tables. Additionally, figures indicate the
boundary conditions are shown in Figure 2. A rather simulated distributions of matric suction for hydraulic
fine meshed axis-symmetric model, with 72 element conductivities in the soil specimens.
rows in axial and 10 element rows in radial direction,
is used. 4.1 Esperance sand
A Neumann-boundary condition with a constant
flux according to the injected water volume is assigned Table 2 contains the simulation results for an applied
at the top HAE disk. Neumann boundary conditions suction of 5 kPa at the base HAE disk. The maximum
with zero flux are also assigned to the lower and upper data interpretation error is 32.5% for the flow rate of
lateral wall of the permeameter. The filter paper strip 5 × 10−3 cm3 /s. The resulting gradients for the four
in between is simulated with a Dirichlet-boundary con- lower flow rates are very low and not recommendable
dition at constant air pressure. The water reservoir at for practical applications.
constant pressure below the base HAE disk is also Figure 3 shows the distribution of matric suction
represented by a Dirichlet-boundary condition, but in the soil sample for the first four flow rates. It can
here a constant water pressure is assigned. be seen that for the two highest applied flow rates the
749
Table 2. Simulation results for 5 kPa matric suction applied at base-HAE-disk.
savg = arithmetic average of matric suction; p = pressure difference due to induced flow; grad = gradient; kperm =
conductivity computed due to p; and ktrue = ‘‘true’’ permeability for savg .
30 30
height [mm]
15 15
10 10
5 5
0
0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
matric suction [kPa]
matric suction [kPa]
Figure 3. Distribution of matric suction for Esperance Sand Figure 4. Distribution of matric suction for Esperance Sand
for 5 kPa matric suction applied at base-HAE-disk. for 20 kPa matric suction applied at base-HAE-disk.
distribution is rather non-linear, thus explaining the table 3. Evidently, referring the obtained conductivity
high deviations between permeameter permeability values to the arithmetic average suction is highly
kperm and true permability ktrue . erroneous for the first three flow rates. Figure 5
Table 3 contains simulation results for a suction additionally depicts the wide range of hydraulic con-
of 20 kPa applied at the base disk. The induced ductivity across the soil specimen.
flow rates are even lower than before but conductivity
computation errors are as high as 102%. The first
4.2 Beit netofa clay
flow rate, where the conductivity error with 3.8% is
an acceptable range, is 1 × 10−5 cm3 /s. In contrast, Table 4 shows the simulation results for an applied suc-
the according gradient of 3.75 is already rather low. tion of 20 kPa at the base HAE disk. The maximum
Figure 4 shows the strong non-linearity of matric flow rate is 2 × 10−4 cm3 /s. Higher flow rates cause
suction distribution for the simulation series given in full water saturation of the top end of the specimen.
750
Table 4. Simulation results for 20 kPa matric suction applied at base-HAE-disk.
30
30
q = 2*10-4 cm³/s
q = 1*10-3 cm³/s 25 q = 1*10-4 cm³/s
25
q = 5*10-4 cm³/s
q = 5*10-5 cm³/s
q = 1*10-4 cm³/s 20 q = 1*10-5 cm³/s
20 -5
q = 1*10 cm³/s
height [mm]
height [mm]
15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
0.0E+00 5.0E-09 1.0E-08 1.5E-08 2.0E-08 2.5E-08
matric suction [kPa]
hydraulic conductivity [m/s]
751
30 8.0E-09
q = 2*10-4 cm³/s
25 q = 1*10-4 cm³/s
q = 5*10-5 cm³/s 6.0E-09
20 q = 1*10-5 cm³/s
height [mm]
v*h [m²/s]
15 4.0E-09
k( l)
10 1
2.0E-09
5
l
0 0.0E+00
0.0 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 0.25 0.75 1.25 1.75
matric suction [kPa] suction head l[m]
Figure 7. Distribution of matric suction for Beit Nefota Clay Figure 9. Determination of ‘‘correct’’ hydraulic con-
for 70 kPa matric suction applied at base-HAE-disk. ductivity.
30
q = 2*10-4 cm³/s
Table 6. Data interpretation errors for different approaches.
25 q = 1*10-4 cm³/s
q = 5*10-5 cm³/s
equation 5,6 S & T
20 q = 1*10-5 cm³/s
arithmetic suction (1968)
Soil &
height [mm]
Figure 8. Distribution of hydraulic conductivities for E.Sa. = Esperance Sand; BNC. = Beit Netofa Clay;
Beit Netofa Clay for 70 kPa matric suction applied at savg,lin = arithmetic average suction; savg(5) = reference
base-HAE-disk. suction computed with (5) and (6); error = conductivity
interpretation error.
5 IMPROVEMENT OF HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY DATA Suppose that the suction head φb at the base of the
soil column is maintained constant, the left side of
The results of the numerical simulations indicate that equation (4) gives the hydraulic conductivity for dif-
referring the derived permeameter conductivities to ferent values of φt . This curve can be obtained by
an arithmetic average suction is likely to be highly performing various experiments with different flow
erroneous. This holds especially true for flow rates rates at the same applied matric suction at the base of
producing reasonably high gradients over low testing the soil sample. The hydraulic conductivity for a cer-
times. Smiles & Towner (1968) presented a simple tain φt -value is given by the slope of this curve, see
but effective way to obtain the ‘‘correct’’ hydraulic Figure 9. The curve in the diagram corresponds to the
conductivities. Integrating the Darcy-equation over the numerical simulations with Esperance Sand at 20 kPa
length of the soil sample, and subsequent differentia- matric suction. Results of improved unsaturated per-
tion leads to the following formulation (for details see meability values obtained with the Smiles & Towner
Smiles & Towner 1968): method (1968) are given in Table 6.
Obviously, the more experiments that are car-
∂v ried out, the higher the accuracy of the obtained
l· = −k(φt ) (4)
∂φt hydraulic conductivities. Therefore, the Smiles &
Towner method is primary of interest for soils with
where l = height of the soil sample; φt = suction head relatively high unsaturated conductivity values.
at the top of the soil column; and k(φb ) = hydraulic Considering the suction distributions in Figures 3
conductivity at a suction of φt . and 4 compared to Figures 6 and 7, it becomes clear
752
that the true average suction is always lower than the suction causes high errors in the determination of
linear mean suction. This does not necessarily imply unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. The method of
that the true average suction corresponds to the per- Smiles & Towner (1968) was checked for its ability
meability obtained with the permeameter. However, to correct unsaturated conductivity data from steady-
a more appropriate average matric suction obviously state tests. Considerable increase of the accuracy
has to be lower than the linear mean suction. of the data was gained. However, this method is
In addition to the presented results, further simula- experimentally tedious.
tions for soils with n-values up to 2.5 were conducted. Additionally, a new formula to compute an imp-
These simulations proved that a slight correction of roved reference suction was presented. This simple
the arithmetic average suction leads to a significantly formula shows a very good performance particularly
more appropriate reference suction sref : for higher flow rates. It is therefore suggested to use
expression (6) in future to assign appropriate matric
1& ' 1 & ' sb suction values to hydraulic conductivity data obtained
sref = s b + st − sb − st if sb − st ≤ with the steady-state method.
2 8 2
(5)
753
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
A.A. Javadi
Computational Geomechanics Group, School of Engineering, Computer Science and Mathematics,
University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
A.S.I. Elkassas
Ove Arup and Partners, Cardiff, Wales
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the implementation of a constitutive model for coupling of hydraulic hys-
teresis and mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils in a fully coupled hydro-mechanical finite element model.
The constitutive model considers the effects of plastic changes of degree of saturation on stress-strain behaviour
and the influence of plastic volumetric strains on the water retention behaviour. The mathematical framework and
the numerical implementation of the model are presented and discussed. The model is validated by application
to standard experiments on unsaturated soils involving various combinations of loading-unloading and drying-
wetting tests. The model can be used to study various aspects of the behaviour of unsaturated soils under drying
and wetting as well as loading and unloading paths. The merits and limitations of the model are highlighted.
755
and Elkassas, 2004; Elkassas, 2006). The model Clu = (Sl ρl − Sa ρv ) m H T
− −
includes full coupling between hydraulic (air and water
flow), thermal and mechanical (stress and strain) fields ρSl
in unsaturated porous media. In the model, unsatu- Cal = −nρda (Ha − 1) + n(Sa + Ha Sl )
ds
rated soil is treated as a multiphase medium in which
Rv dh dψ
the voids in the deformable solid are filled partly with ρ◦
liquid water and partly with gas phase (ideal mixture Rda dψ ds
of air and water vapour). The model consists of four ∂Sl
main equations including two mass balance equations Caa = nρda (Ha − 1) + n(Sa + Ha Sl )
ds
for the liquid and air phases, conservation of energy for
temperature and a stress equilibrium equation for the 1 Rv dh dψ
− ρ◦
solid skeleton. In the mass balance equation for the Rda T Rda dψ ds
air phase, both diffusional and advectional transport
mechanisms are considered. The balance equation for Cau = ρda (Sa + Ha Sl ) m H T
− −
the water phase includes both liquid water and water
vapour. Cul = H D As
− − −
In what follows, a brief description of the govern-
ing equations, the constitutive model for hydraulic Cua = −H D As − H m
− − − − −
hysteresis and its incorporation in the FE model are
presented and discussed. Cuu = H D H T
− − −
ρl Kl ∂h ∂ψ
3 GOVERNING EQUATIONS Kll = + Datms vv n ρ◦
γl ∂ψ ds
Ignoring the temperature terms (the thermal effects are ∂h ∂ψ
Kla = ρv Ka − Datms vv n ρ◦
outside the scope of this paper) the governing differ- ∂ψ ds
ential equations of the model, expressed in terms of
ρda Ha
three state variables, i.e., air pressure, ua , water pres- Kal = Kl
sure, uw and displacement vector of the solid matrix, γl
u may be written as (Elkassas, 2006): Kaa = ρda Ka
−
Moisture flow equation:
−ks
As = m
∂u − v (s + patms )
∂ul ∂ua −
Cll + Cla + Clu = ∇ [Kll ∇ul ]
∂t ∂t ∂t
where n is porosity, ρl and γl are density and unit
+ ∇ [Kla ∇ua ] + ρ∇ (Kl ∇z) (1)
weight of liquid respectively, ρv is density of water
Air flow equation: vapour, Sl is degree of saturation of pore fluid, Sa
is degree of saturation of pore air, s is suction, ρ◦
∂u is density of saturated soil water vapour, h is rela-
∂ul ∂ua − tive humidity, ψ is capillary potential, m = {1, 1, 0},
Cal + Caa + Cau = ∇ [Kal ∇ul ] −
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂/∂x 0 ∂/∂y
+ ∇ [Kaa ∇ua ] + ρda Ha ∇ (Kl ∇z) (2) H= 0 ∂/∂y ∂/∂y
, Datms is molecular dif-
−
fusitivity of vapour through air, vv is mass flow factor
Deformation equation: for the vapour flow, Kl is unsaturated hydraulic con-
ductivity to water, Ka is unsaturated conductivity to
[Cul dul ] + [Cua dua ] + [Cuu duu ] air, Rv is specific gas constant for water vapour, Rda
− HDdεpp − HDdεsp db = 0 (3) is specific gas constant for dry air, Ha is Henry’s vol-
p p
umetric coefficient of solubility, dεp and dεs are the
In the above equations, the coefficients C and K are plastic volumetric strains due to changes in stress and
defined as: suction respectively, b is the body force, D is elasticity
−
∂Sl ∂h dψ matrix, z is the elevation, v is the specific volume and
Cll = −n (ρl − ρv ) − nSa ρ◦ patms is the atmospheric pressure.
∂s ∂ψ ds The above equations define the complete for-
∂Sl ∂h dψ mulation of the coupled transient hydro-mechanical
Cla = n (ρl − ρv ) + nSa ρ◦ behaviour of unsaturated soils. Simultaneous solution
∂s ∂ψ ds
756
of these equations, after consideration of appropriate 4.1 Stress and strain variables
constitutive relationships and boundary and initial
The first stress variable used in this framework is
conditions, provides the values of state variables at
defined as:
various points and times in the soil medium.
σij∗ = σij − [Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ] δij (5)
4 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS where σij is the total stress tensor and the stress tensor
σij∗ is usually termed Bishop’s stress. It is similar to
Modelling the hysteresis in the soil-water character- the Bishop’s effective stress (equation 4) where the
istic curve (SWCC) represents a major challenge in weighting factor is replaced with Sr (Bolzon et al.
modelling the behaviour of unsaturated soils. The hys- 1996). In addition to σij∗ , the modified suction s∗ = ns
teresis in the relation between suction s = ua − uw (Houlsby, 1997) is used as the second stress variable
and the degree of saturation Sr is an important fac- to account for the effect of the meniscus water. In this
tor in the mechanical response of unsaturated soils. way, the porosity nis incorporated with the stress state
It is generally accepted that suction plays an impor- variables rather than with the strains. The model uses
tant role in understanding the mechanical behaviour the following stress state variables:
of unsaturated soils and therefore, it has been used as
a fundamental stress state variable in many constitutive p∗ = p − Sr uw − (1 − Sr )ua (mean Bishop stress),
models. Many of the existing constitutive models such ∗
s = ns (modified suction) and
as those proposed by Alonso et al. (1990), Wheeler and
Sivakumar (1995), Cui and Delage (1996) and others, q (deviator stress in the case of anisotropic loading).
use suction together with net mean stresses (the dif-
ference between total mean stress and air pressure) to The advantage of using these stress variables is that
describe the stress state in an unsaturated soil. One of it gives more power of modelling the behaviour of soils
the major factors which is strongly related to suction as s∗ includes porosity n and p∗ includes the degree of
is the degree of saturation. saturation. Another advantage of using Bishop’s stress
In general, it has been considered insufficient to is that it retrieves to the saturated effective stress when
describe the behaviour of unsaturated soils based on the soil changes to saturated conditions even if the
suction and net mean stress only. Incorporating the suction is not zero.
effects of the degree of saturation on the stress-strain For the complete theoretical formulation of the hys-
response of unsaturated soils has become one of the teresis constitutive model the reader is referred to
major modifications to the classical constitutive mod- Wheeler et al. (2003).
els (Gallipoli, et al. 2003). In recent years, many
researchers have proposed different sets of stress state
variables incorporating the effect of the degree of sat- 5 IMPLEMENTATION IN THE FE MODEL
uration. For example Bolzon, et al. (1996), Lloret and
Khallili (2000) and Karube and Kawai (2001) used a The constitutive model described above has been
stress state variable as: implemented in a fully coupled hydro-mechanical
finite element model, developed by the authors for
σ = σt − δ (ua − χs) (4) simulating the behaviour of unsaturated soils. The
constitutive model includes coupling of the effects
where σ is the average effective stress, σt is the total of hydraulic hysteresis and mechanical behaviour of
stress, s is the matrix suction, δ is the Kronecker delta unsaturated soils. In the finite element model, the
and χ is a soil parameter. Bolzon et al. (1996) assumed changes in suction can be applied either by chang-
that χ can be considered as the degree of saturation Sr ing the pore air pressure while keeping the pore water
with a value ranging from 1.0 corresponding to satu- pressure constant, by changing the pore water pres-
rated conditions to zero at dry conditions. Although sure while keeping the pore air pressure constant or by
these models have incorporated Sr in the stress state changing both air and water pressures. The shape func-
variable σ , they are not able to explain two observed tions are assumed to be the same for the deformation
behaviours of unsaturated soils including the large analysis and the hydraulic analysis. The plastic strain
plastic volumetric strains that occur during wetting is a non-linear function of the stress level, suction
from a high value of suction, which cannot be recov- and hardening parameters, and thus can be evaluated
ered during subsequent drying and wetting of the soil, only by an iterative procedure. The solution using a
and the difference in behaviour during isotropic load- finite element method is based on spatial discretisa-
ing at constant suction between samples subjected tion of the domain into small elements and temporal
to cycles of wetting and drying and other samples discretisation of the solution with a time-stepping
(Wheeler et al. 2003). procedure.
757
6 DISCRETISATION IN TIME between successive time steps and is considered to
have been achieved when
The governing equations of the model, expressed in
n+1
φ − φ n
terms of the three state variables, may be written in a − −
< Tolerance (10)
general compact form as (Elkassas, 2006):
A maximum number is set for iterations to achieve
C(φ)φ + K(φ)φ + f (φ) = 0 (6) convergence. If the maximum number of iterations is
reached before the solution is converged, the time step
t is halved and the equations are solved with the new
where φ T = {u, ul , ua } is the vector of unknown time step. If the convergence is quick, the time step is
state variables, K(φ) and C(φ) are assembled stiff- doubled to provide a quicker solution to the equations
ness matrix and capacitance matrix respectively and in the following steps.
f (φ) is the assembled load vector.
The final forms of the governing equations can be
written in a matrix form as: 7 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
− − − u Cuu Cul Cua In this example the behaviour of compacted kaolin
⎝ − Kll Kla ⎠ ⎝ ul ⎠ + ⎝ Clu Cll Cla ⎠ is studied under isotropic loading and unloading fol-
− Kal Kaa ua Cau Cal Caa lowed by wetting and drying and then re-loading
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ under constant suction. The experiment starts with an
∂u/∂t fu isotropic loading from A (see Fig. 1) at net mean stress
× ⎝ ∂ul /∂t ⎠ = ⎝ fl ⎠ (7) of p − ua = 10 kPa to C at net mean stress p − ua =
∂ua /∂t fa 50 kPa followed by unloading from C to D, back to net
mean stress of p − ua = 10 kPa at a constant suction
of s = 200 kPa. The loading continues with a wetting
A time discretisation of equation (7) is applied by and drying cycle DEF, performed at D with suction
the application of a fully implicit mid-interval back- decreasing to 120 kPa and then increasing back to
ward difference algorithm (Thomas and Rees 1990). 200 kPa followed by reloading (under the constant suc-
The general form of a two level difference scheme is: tion s = 200 kPa) to J at net mean stress = 1200 kPa.
The soil parameters are summarised in Table 1.
The developed finite element model has been used
A φ n
(1 − θ ) φ n+1
+θφ n
+B φ n to simulate the behaviour of the soil under the above
− − − − − − stress paths. Figure 1 shows the results of the FE anal-
ysis. As shown in the figure, during loading path AB,
× φ n+1
φ
− /t + C φ n = 0
n
(8) the Bishop stress p∗ increases as a result of increasing
− − − −
net mean stress which causes a reduction in the poros-
ity and consequently causes a slight reduction in the
⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞ modified suction s∗ = ns. During the loading path AB
− − − Cuu Cul Cua and due to the reduction in s∗ , the soil yields on the
where A = ⎝ − Kll Kla ⎠, B = ⎝ Clu Cll Cla ⎠ , SD line causing a slight increase in the degree of satu-
− −
− Kal Kaa Cau Cal Caa ration as shown in the Figure. At point B the LC line is
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ reached and significant reduction in specific volume
fu u
C = ⎝ fl ⎠ and φ = ⎝ ul ⎠ .
−
fa ua Table 1. The parameters used in the example.
Parameter Value
(φ n ) is the level at which the matrices A, B and C are
− − − −
λ 0.15
to be evaluated, and it is given by the equation: κ 0.02
λs 0.12
(φ n ) = θ (φ n+1 ) + (1 − θ ) φ n (9) κs 0.02
− − −
k1 0.7
k2 0.8
where θ defines the required time interval such that p∗◦ 140
θ ∈ (0,1) and θ = 0, 0.5, 1 represent backward SD 109.1
difference, central difference and forward difference SI 1091.1
schemes, respectively. The convergence is checked
758
120 and plastic changes in the degree of saturation Sr . The
A B soil reaches the saturated conditions at I and from I to J
Modified suction s*(kpa)
110
F C
100 D the soil is on the isotropic normal compression line.
G
H These results are in close agreement, both qualitatively
90
(a) and quantitatively, with the results of the constitutive
80 model simulations presented by Wheeler et al. (2003).
I
70
J It is shown that the developed finite element model,
incorporating this constitutive model, can be applied
60
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
to boundary value problems involving stress paths with
Mean bishop stress p* (kpa) various combinations of cycles of loading, unloading,
wetting and drying.
2.3
A B
2.2
D, C 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
2.1 (b)
Specific volume v
F H
2 G
1.9
This paper has presented the incorporation of an
elasto-plastic constitutive model for coupling of
1.8
hydraulic hysteresis and stress-strain behaviour in
1.7
I unsaturated soils, into a fully coupled transient hydro-
1.6 J
mechanical finite element model. The constitutive
1.5
10 100 1000 10000
model considers the effects of plastic changes of
Mean net stress (p-ua)
degree of saturation on stress-strain behaviour and the
influence of plastic volumetric strains on the water
retention behaviour. The basic concepts and mathe-
1 matical formulation of the constitutive model and its
I J implementation in the finite element model were pre-
Degree of saturation Sr
0.9
sented. The governing partial differential equations of
0.8 F G unsaturated soils, including the mass balance equa-
H
0.7 D C
tion for water, mass balance equation for air and the
stress equilibrium equation for the solid skeleton, were
A B (c)
0.6 solved simultaneously after incorporation of the con-
0.5 stitutive relationships and appropriate boundary and
10 100 1000 10000 initial conditions. The model was validated by appli-
Mean net stress (p-ua) cation to an example from literature. The application
of the model to study various aspects of the behaviour
Figure 1. Results of the FE analysis. of unsaturated soils under cycles of loading-unloading
and wetting-drying was presented and discussed. It
appears that the constitutive model for hydraulic hys-
starts to occur as plastic volumetric strains accumu- teresis provides a relatively simple and efficient way
late up to point C. The yielding on the LC line causes of coupling the hydraulic and mechanical behaviour
a subsequent upward movement of the SD and SI yield of unsaturated soils. It was shown that the developed
curves which leads to plastic changes in Sr from B to finite element model incorporating the above con-
C (Fig. 1c). During the wetting and drying cycle DEF stitutive model is able to predict various aspects of
the stress path remains inside the LC line, and as a behaviour of unsaturated soils subjected to different
result, no collapse or yielding occurs on the LC line. combinations of loading, unloading, wetting, drying
On the wetting path DE, due to the yielding occurring paths.
on the SD line, only the plastic changes in the Sr start It should be noted that the constitutive model of
to accumulate with a coupled inward movement of the Wheeler et al. (2003) in the current form, has been
LC line. As a result, for the final isotropic loading specifically developed for isotropic stress states and
from F to J the soil yields on point G at a p∗ value less therefore, the developed finite element model is only
than the maximum previous applied load experienced applicable to isotropic loading conditions.
by the soil. From G to H yielding occurs only on the
LC line which causes coupled upward movements of
the SD lines; no plastic changes occur in Sr and only REFERENCES
plastic volumetric changes are predicted due to yield-
ing on LC. From H to I, yielding occurs on both LC Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive model
and SD lines causing both plastic volumetric changes for partly saturated soils. Geotechnique, 40(3): 405–430.
759
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imental behaviour of highly expansive double-structure elling of the Behaviour of Unsaturated Soils. Proceedings
clay. Proc. 1st Int. Conf. Unsaturated Soils, Paris, 1: of the 6th World Congress on Computational Mechanics
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Bolzon, G., Schrefler, B.A., Zienkiewicz, O.C. 1996. Karube, D., Kawai, K. 2001. The role of pore water in the
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Cui, J.J., Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic behaviour trary wetting/drying paths. Computers and Geotechnics,
of an unsaturated compacted silt. Geotechnique, 46(3): 32: 133–137.
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Elkassas, A.S.I. 2006. Numerical modelling of unsaturated plastic model for unsaturated porous media. Mechanics
soil behaviour. PhD thesis, University of Exeter, UK. of Materials, 34: 97–116.
Estabragh, A.R. 1998. Yielding and critical state of unsat- Sharma, R.S. 1998. Mechanical behaviour of unsaturated
urated silty soils. PhD thesis, University of Bradford, highly expansive clays. DPhil Thesis, Univ. of Oxford,
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760
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
Claudia Cherubini
Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy
ABSTRACT: The presence of subterranean holes creates a capillary barrier in an unsaturated environment.
This phenomenon has been referred to as ‘‘Drift Shadow’’ and indicates a region that is sheltered from the
downward percolating water. If the lateral hydraulic conductivity is insufficient to divert the water, fully saturated
conditions are reached locally, and seepage occurs as the capillary barrier fails. Natural heterogeneities in
hydrological properties can reduce the probability of seepage only if the flux is largely diverted around the drift.
Previous numerical studies have been performed investigating various aspects of capillary barrier performance in
engineered or naturally layered systems. Many authors examined the impact of heterogeneity on the distribution
and rate of water seepage across a capillary barrier and into a drift, but the seepage exclusion problem has not
been formally analyzed for fractured formations, in which the physical processes governing seepage in porous
media also represent key factors. This paper analyzes the effect that a fracture network can have on the drift
shadow. In a fractured environment, the effectiveness of the capillary barrier is determined by the capability of
individual fractures to hold water by capillary forces and by the permeability and connectivity of the fracture
network, which allow water to be diverted around the drift. The orientation of any individual fracture in relation
to the opening, the discreteness and the anisotropy of the fracture network are all geometric factors affecting
seepage, because they have a relevant influence on the hydraulic properties in the immediate vicinity of the
drift wall.
761
Table 1. Sandstone properties.
762
Figure 5. Different configurations of drift shadow.
Figure 3. Drift shadow with infiltration rate equal to
10−4 m/s (a) no fracture (b, c, d) with a single fracture in
different positions. Table 2. Fractures properties.
763
presence of fractures characterized by significant aper-
tures, fracture flow appears to be insignificant as
compared to matrix flow in unsaturated conditions.
On the contrary, when fractures are characterized by
very small apertures, they behave like voids, that is to
say they are always more conductive than the matrix.
REFERENCES
764
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D. Gallipoli
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT: Determination of material parameters for unsaturated soils from laboratory or field tests can
be difficult due to the large number of parameters required for many constitutive models. With increasing
computing power readily available, parameter search using modern optimisation procedures is now feasible. In
this study the identification of hydraulic parameters from the back analysis of a transient infiltration problem is
illustrated. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is utilized in the search for the optimal set of parameter values.
Two approaches are described: one where a limited set of the parameters is sought and the second where the
whole set is sought. For the latter it is shown that a multi-step range contracting method is appropriate and leads
to a computationally economic solution.
765
dimension. The domain of the objective function is The maximum ‘‘velocity’’ Vmax is set relative to the
limited to the interval X ∈ [Xmin , Xmax ] where Xmin = upper and lower limit of the search interval:
[x1 min , . . ., xmin ]T and Xmax = [x1 max , . . ., xr max ]T are
the lower and upper limits of the interval. Vmax = s (Xmax − Xmin ) (4)
PSO is a population-based bio-inspired optimiza-
tion method making use of ‘‘swarm’’ intelligence. where the factor s is equal in this study to 0.3. The
It is based on social-psychological principles and learning coefficients c1 and c2 are both set to 2 (this
provides insights into social behaviour (Kennedy & gives good results for most problems) and a swarm of
Eberhart 1995). In a PSO system, particles ‘‘fly’’ in the 50 particles is used.
r-dimensional search space. The value of the objec-
tive function corresponding to the current position of
a given particle is used to define a measure of that 3 UNSATURATED TRANSIENT
particle’s ‘‘fitness’’. The goal for particles is to fly INFILTRATION
to the best position (i.e. the global minima). During
the flight, each particle adjusts its position according 3.1 Mathematical description of infiltration process
to the memory of its own best position and the best
The movement of water in unsaturated soils is gov-
position of neighbouring particles. In doing so, each
erned by Richards’ equation. The ‘‘θ-based’’ one-
particle goes trough an iterative process where the cur-
dimensional form of this equation is written as
rent position Xki is updated to the new position Xk+1 i (Celia & Bouloutas, 1990):
based on the current ‘‘velocity’’ Vk+1 as:
i
∂θ ∂ ∂θ ∂K(θ)
= D(θ) + (5)
Xik+1 = Xik + Vik+1 (1) ∂t ∂z ∂z ∂z
where k, k + 1 are the iteration numbers and i is the where K(θ) is the hydraulic conductivity (m/s), θ is the
particle number. The particle’s velocity is also updated volumetric water content, D(θ) is the unsaturated dif-
in each iteration as: fusivity (m2 /s), t is time (s), z is the vertical coordinate
& ' & ' (m) measured positive upwards.
Vik+1 = wk Vik + c1 r1 Pi − Xik + c2 r2 Pg − Xik The initial and boundary conditions for the one-
(2) dimensional infiltration problem are:
where Pi is the best position achieved so far by the par- h(z, 0) = h0 0<z<L (6)
ticle, Pg is the best position achieved by neighbouring h(0, t) = ht t>0 (7)
particles, r1 and r2 are two random factors in the [0,1]
interval which generate diversity of the swarm, wk is h(L, t) = hb or q(L, t) = q0 t>0 (8)
the inertia weight and c1 and c2 are constants weight-
ing the ‘‘cognitive’’ and a ‘‘social’’ component of the where h is the pressure head (m), hb and ht are
search method respectively. the constant pressure head at the bottom and top of
the soil column respectively, h0 is the hydraulic head
at the initial time, q0 is the flux at the top and L is the
2.1 Choice of algorithmic parameters in PSO height of the soil column.
The selection of suitable parameters is crucial for the
performance of the PSO algorithm. The most impor- 3.2 Numerical simulation of infiltration test
tant parameter is the inertia weight wi , which was
introduced by Shi & Eberhart (1998b) to control the To solve Richards’ equation numerically, the modi-
particles momentum. A large inertia weight favours fied Picard scheme is adopted here (Celia et al. 1990).
global search while a small one favours local search. This is based on a Taylor expansion of the time
A linear decrease of inertia weight during iteration was derivative that maintains perfect mass conservation.
proposed by Shi & Eberhart (1998a) as: The temporal discretisation uses the backward Euler
approximation,
wk = (wmax − wmin ) (MaxIter − k)/MaxIter + wmax
766
.
Equation 10 is rewritten in the following equivalent /" "
/ m n
& ' & '!2 & ' & '!2
form: F =0 w1 h∗i tj − hj tj + w2 Q∗ tj − Q tj
j=1 i=1
(14)
θ ∂ ∂ θ n − θ n+1,m
− Dn+1,m (θ ) =
t ∂z ∂z t ∗
where Q (tj ), Q(tj ) are the observed and computed
cumulative water content change for the whole domain
∂ ∂ ∂K n+1,m at time tj · h∗i (tj ) and hi (tj ) are the observed and com-
+ Dn+1,m θ n+1,m + (11) puted pressure head at point i and time tj . n is the
∂z ∂z ∂z
number of points where measurements of hydraulic
head are taken andm is the number of times when mea-
where the incremental change in water content is surements of water content change and hydraulic head
θ = θ n+1,m+1 − θ n+1,m . Discretization in space by are taken over a given period. w1 and w2 are weighting
the finite difference method leads to: factors making the magnitude of the two parts of the
same order. In this study, w1 and w2 are set to 1.0 and
n+1,m
1 Dj+1 Dn+1,m n+1,m
Dj−1 10.0 respectively.
+ /2 + j−1/2 θj − /2 θ
j−1
t z 2 z 2 z 2
3.4 Seamless integration of PSO and unsaturated
n+1,m
Dj+1 n+1,m
Dj+1 flow simulator
− / 2
θj+1 = /2 θ n+1,m
z 2 z 2 j+1 In PSO, for each particle one unsaturated flow calcu-
n+1,m n+1,m n+1,m lation using different parameters in each iteration is
Dj−1 θjn Kj+1 − Kj−1 carried out. So some variables in the code are continu-
+ /2 θ n+1,m + + /2 /2
z 2 j−1 t z ously changed by particles using different parameters.
n+1,m These variables should be maintained properly in order
1 Dj+1 Dn+1,m to obtain the correct results. Some of them should
− + /2 + j−1/2 θjn+1,m (12)
t z 2 z 2 be reinitialized, and some should reset to 0, so as to
provide the correct start values for the next computa-
tion. To achieve this, in this implementation the finite
where z is the spatial distance between nodes and difference calculation is integrated directly with the
j is the node number. Incorporation of the boundary PSO. For the former only the mesh, initial conditions
conditions yields a tri-diagonal system of equations: and the boundary conditions remain the same for the
⎡ ⎤⎡ θ1m+1
⎤ ⎡
d1m+1
⎤
bm c1m 0 0 ··· 0 0 0
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1
⎢ am bm c1m ··· θ2m+1 d2m+1
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 0 0 0
⎢ 2 2
⎢ 0 am bm c1m ··· 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ θ3m+1 ⎥ ⎢ d3m+1 ⎥
⎢ 3 3 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 am bm ··· 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ θ4m+1 ⎥ ⎢ d4m+1 ⎥
⎢ 4 4
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ⎥⎢ .. ⎥=⎢ .. ⎥ (13)
⎢ ··· ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
. . . . . . . . .
⎢
⎢ 0 0 0 0 · · · bm cNm −2 0 ⎥⎢ θNm+1 ⎥ ⎢ dNm+1 ⎥
⎢ N −2 ⎥⎢ −2 ⎥ ⎢ −2 ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 0 · · · am
N −1 bmN −1 cNm −1 ⎦⎢
⎣ θNm+1
⎥ ⎢
⎦ ⎣ dNm+1
⎥
⎦
−1 −1
0 0 0 0 ··· 0 am bm dNm+1
N N θNm+1
767
Step 2: evaluate particle fitness Table 1. Typical Mualem-van Genuchten parameters
for i = 1 to number of particles (Schaap et al., 1998; Budiman, 2002).
set Xi as parameters in finite difference code
re-initialize finite difference simulator θr θs α n Ks
perform finite difference simulation
Texture − − m−1 − m/s
extract data and calculate objective function
end Clay 0.098 0.459 2.55 1.26 3.44e-7
Step 3: update positions and local and global best C Loam 0.079 0.442 2.74 1.44 5.78e-7
for i = 1 to number of particles Loam 0.061 0.399 2.05 1.50 4.28e-7
update particle velocity using Equation 2 L Sand 0.049 0.39 4.48 1.80 2.81e-6
update particle position using Equation 1 Sand 0.053 0.375 3.79 3.30 2.83e-6
update local best and global best S Clay 0.117 0.385 4.86 1.21 5.03e-7
end S C Loam 0.063 0.384 3.77 1.35 8.03e-7
S Loam 0.039 0.387 3.83 1.47 1.79e-6
Step 4: check the termination conditions
Silt 0.05 0.489 0.73 1.71 3.86e-7
Si Clay 0.111 0.481 2.60 1.34 3.67e-7
Si C Loam 0.09 0.482 1.25 1.55 2.58e-7
4 CONSTITUTIVE MODELS Si Loam 0.065 0.439 0.74 1.70 2.03e-7
768
range of values whereas, for the second search, smaller personal computer with 3.20 GHz Xeon CPU, 3.00
ranges are set for n and α. The process goes on with GB RAM, and MS WindowsXP.
progressively smaller ranges for n, α, θr , θs , and Ks . It is Case 1: Ks and θ s are known
expected that, for each search, the final value of objec- In this case, it is assumed that the saturated water
tive function shall be smaller than in the previous one. conductivity Ks and the saturated water content θs
are known beforehand (and equal to the values given
in section 5.1). This is realistic because both these
5.1 Forward analysis of infiltration problem parameters can be accurately measured by means of
The above optimisation procedure is tested against a relatively simple tests on saturated samples. The goal
numerical simulation (named a ‘‘forward’’ analysis) of is therefore to estimate the remaining three parameters
one-dimensional water infiltration in a 1 m high unsat- α, n, and θr . It only takes 380 iterations to achieve the
urated soil column subjected to an uniform initial water values of α = 3.35 m−1 , n = 2 and θr = 0. 101999
pressure head of −10 m. The objective is to determine with a corresponding value of the objective function
if and how quickly the optimization procedure returns F = 6.660e-6. The details of this search are presented
the same parameter values used in the forward anal- in Table 3 and Figures 3–6.
ysis. These values are α = 3.35 m−1 , n = 2, Ks = Case 2: no parameters are known
9.22e-5 m/s, θs = 0.368 and θr = 0.102 and corre- This case, where no one of the five hydraulic
spond to a site in New Mexico described in Celia et al. parameter values is initially known, proved to be very
(1990). During infiltration the water pressure at the top challenging. The reason for the difficulties could be
of the column is set to −0.75 m while the bottom pres- due to the multi-modal properties of the objective func-
sure is maintained at −10 m. The time increment is set tion. The optimal parameter values were found by
to 36 s and 100 elements are used for the spatial dis- gradually contracting the search ranges as shown in
cretization of the column. Transient profiles of water the upper part of Table 4 where the ranges of parame-
content and pressure are shown in Figures 1 and 2. ter values used for subsequent searches are provided.
The lower part of Table 4 shows the parameter values
identified at iteration i during each search together
5.2 Back analysis and parameter identification with the corresponding value of the objective function.
Two optimizations are carried out: one in which some In the first run, parameter values were sought over rel-
selected parameters are initially known and one in atively wide ranges and the optimal values for n and α
which no parameter is known at the beginning of the were equal to 2.00 and 3.30 respectively. In the second
search. All optimisations were carried out using a run, the ranges of variation for these two parameters
were contracted to [1.8, 2.1] and [2.0, 4.0] respectively
and this helped to locate θr close to its optimal value.
-11.0 -9.0 -7.0 -5.0 -3.0 -1.0 This process goes on until a satisfactory small value of
1 the objective function is achieved. For each search, the
t = 1 hr
calculation is terminated by users when the results are
0.8 t = 2 hr
acceptable. In the last (fourth) run, n is set to 2.0 and
t = 3 hr
depth(m)
0.6
t = 4 hr 10 2.401e-1 3.335 1.985 0.09286
0.4 t = 5 hr
50 2.883e-2 3.345 1.994 0.09933
100 4.176e-3 3.348 2.001 0.10179
t = 6 hr
0.2 150 3.162e-3 3.349 2.001 0.10233
250 5.374e-4 3.35028 2.000 0.10202
0
350 3.108e-5 3.34999 2.000 0.101997
380 6.660e-6 3.350 2.000 0.101999
Figure 2. Water content profile.
769
1.0 2.4
2.3
0.0
2.2
-1.0
2.1
-2.0 2.0
log(F)
n
-3.0 1.9
1.8
-4.0
1.7
-5.0
1.6
-6.0 1.5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
iteration iteration
Figure 3. Objective function vs. iteration for case 1. Figure 5. Value of parameter n vs. iteration for case 1.
8.0 0.14
0.13
7.0
0.12
6.0
residual water content
0.11
5.0 0.10
0.09
4.0 0.08
3.0 0.07
0.06
2.0
0.05
1.0 0.04
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
iteration iteration
Figure 4. Value of parameter α vs. iteration for case 1. Figure 6. Value of parameter θ r vs. iteration for case 1.
Table 4. Estimated values at different iteration number. (correct parameters are α = 3.35, n = 2, Ks = 9.22e-5, θs = 0.368,
θr = 0.102).
770
Table 5. Values α, n, θr and F at different iterations in case 2 REFERENCES
(4th search, correct parameters are α = 3.35, n = 2, Ks =
9.22e-5, θs = 0.368, θr = 0.102). Budiman, M. 2002. Efficient Methods for Predicting Soil
Hydraulic Properties, Ph. D. Thesis, Department of Agri-
Iteration F α θr Ks θs cultural Chemistry and Soil Science, The University of
Sydney: 19–20.
1 1.329 3.31 0.110 8.32e-5 0.374 Carsel, R.F. & Parrish, R.S. 1988. Developing joint proba-
100 1.00e-2 3.33 0.102 9.17e-5 0.372 bility distributions of soil water retention characteristics.
500 7.00e-4 3.35 0.102 9.26e-5 0.369 Water Resour. Res. 24: 755–769.
1000 4.66e-4 3.35 0.102 9.27e-5 0.369 Eching, S.O. & Hopmans, J.W. 1993. Optimization of
1500 2.36e-2 3.35 0.102 9.26e-5 0.369 hydraulic functions from transient outflow and soil water
2000 1.93e-4 3.35 0.102 9.25e-5 0.369 pressure data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 57: 1167–1175.
2500 1.21e-4 3.35 0.102 9.24e-5 0.369 Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice
3000 9.70e-5 3.35 0.102 9.24e-5 0.368 Hall, New Jersey.
Kennedy, J. & Eberhart, R. 1995. Particle swarm optimiza-
tion, Proc. of the IEEE Int. Conf. on Neural Networks,
0.5 Piscataway, NJ, pp. 1942–1948.
0.0
Kool, J.B. 1985a Parker, J.C. & Van Genuchten M.T.
-0.5
Determining soil hydraulic properties from one-step
outflow experiments by parameter estimation: I the-
-1.0
ory and numerical studies. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49:
-1.5
1348–1354.
log(F)
-2.0
Mous, S.L.J. 1993. Identification of the movement of water
-2.5
in unsaturated soils: the problem of identifiability of the
-3.0 model. Journal of Hydrology 143: 153–167.
-3.5 Mualem, Y. 1976. A new model for predicting the hydraulic
-4.0 conductivity of unsaturated porous media, Water Resour.
-4.5 Res. 12: 513–522.
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Mualem, Y. 1976. A new model predicting the hydraulic
iteration conductivity of unsaturated porous media. Water Resour.
Res. 12: 513–522.
Figure 7. Objective function vs. iteration for case 2 (fourth Nutzmann, G. Thiele, Maciejewski M.S. & Joswig, K. 1998.
search). Inverse modeling techniques for determining hydraulics
properties of coarse-textured porous media by transient
outflow methods. Advances in Water Resources, 22(2):
6 CONCLUSIONS 273–284.
Schaap, M.G., Leij, F.L. & van Genuchten, M.T. 1998. Neu-
Automated optimisation procedures appear to be useful ral network analysis for hierarchical prediction of soil
in determining geotechnical properties from laboratory hydraulic properties. Soil Science Society of America
or field experiments. In this study, an example of Journal 62: 847–855.
parameteridentificationfortheMualem-vanGenuchten Shi, Y. & Eberhart, R.C. 1998a. Parameter selection in parti-
cle swarm optimization. Proceedings of the 1998 Annual
water retention and permeability model is presented Conference on Evolutionary Computation. 591–600.
using an optimisation procedure for a one-dimensional Springer-Verlag, New York.
infiltration problem. It is shown that, if one seeks all Shi, Y. & Eberhart, R.C. 1998b A Modified Particle
parameters at once, the optimal parameter values may Swarm Optimizer, IEEE International Conference on
not be found easily. Alternatively, if certain parameters Evolutionary Computation, Anchorage, Alaska, May
are excluded from the search (such as those which can 4–9.
be easily determined through alternative tests), then Simunek J. van Genuchten M.T. Gribb, M.M. & Hop-
the search efficiency is much improved. In addition a mans, J.W. 1998. Parameter estimation of unsaturated soil
multi-stageapproach, whererangesofparametervalues hydraulic properties from transient flow processes. Soil &
Tillage Research, 47(1): 27–36.
are adjusted and the optimisation procedure restarted, Tyner, J.S. & Brown, G.O. 2004. Improvements to estimating
shows considerable promise. The procedures outlined unsaturated soil properties from horizontal infiltration.
in this paper are clearly applicable to a wide range of Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 68:
geotechnical problems and the authors are currently Van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A closed form equation for pre-
engaged in research on parameter identification from dicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
pressuremeter data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44: 892–898.
771
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
P.G. Smith
Geotechnical Consulting Group, London, UK
D.M. Potts
Imperial College, London, UK
T.I. Addenbrooke
Formerly Imperial College, London, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper describes a precipitation boundary condition for use in numerical analysis of unsat-
urated soils that enables the simulation of rainfall on a ground surface (i.e. precipitation). A novel application
of the boundary condition to simulate the ground water recharge that occurs at the base of the computational
domain when modelling a partially saturated slope is also described.
773
modelled an unsaturated soil slope, but modelled the
rainfall as a specified infiltration rate on the boundary
surface, and allowed compressive pore water pressures
to develop (i.e. ponding). However, such results are
clearly nonsensical where the soil surface is steeply
sloping.
Fredlund and Barbour (1992) presented an example
analysis that followed a similar approach; the speci-
fied infiltration rate was equal to the average annual
precipitation for the area of the slope being modelled,
though on part of the slope, infiltration was reduced
to 10% of this value, to reflect slope protection and
steepness of the slope.
Chapuis et al. (2001) recognized that simply speci-
fying an infiltration rate could generate unrealistically
high pore water pressures, and suggested adding a
surface layer of (high permeability) gravel into the
analysis model, to mimic more open surface material
and to more readily allow lateral flow, to prevent this
problem.
Ng et al. (2001) state the difficulty in determining
the actual infiltration pattern, and in their analysis,
modelled the infiltration/run-off ratio by taking 60%
of the actual rainfall as infiltration, this being the sta-
tistical value typical for Hong Kong, the location of Figure 1. Precipitation boundary condition.
the slope modelled. This ratio of 60% precipitation as
infiltration, 40% as run off, for Hong Kong is repeated Alternatively if at the start of the increment the
in Ng and Pang (2000). pore water pressure at the surface boundary equals
Tsaparas et al. (2002) adopted an approach whereby or exceeds (that is, is more compressive than) the
the surface pore water pressure at any particular THV, then the boundary condition is set to be that of
boundary node was set to 0 kPa if, after any step of a prescribed pore water pressure with a value equal to
the analysis, the surface pore water pressure became the THV.
compressive. This prevents unrealistically high pore This implies that throughout the increment the pore
pressures at the surface, so gives a more realistic water pressure will be maintained at the THV and
boundary condition, but can still result in unrealistic that this will be achieved by applying an inflow of
pore water pressure distributions below the surface, water that is some proportion of the specified infil-
depending on the size of the time step used in the tration rate. Any ‘excess’ proportion of the specified
analysis, as demonstrated below. infiltration is disregarded.
To accurately model the infiltration process there- If on subsequent increments of the analysis the spec-
fore requires some method by which the division of ified infiltration rate is reduced after the boundary has
rainfall into infiltration and run-off is automatically been set to a constant pore pressure boundary, then it
and continuously calculated, and which can accurately may switch back to being an infiltration boundary if the
determine the correct infiltration rate at all bound- new maximum inflow rate is insufficient to maintain
ary surface nodes of the analysis. This has been the THV pressure.
done through the implementation of a precipitation In applying the precipitation condition, the spec-
boundary condition. ified infiltration rate is normally taken as the actual
The operation of the precipitation boundary condi- rainfall for the site under investigation. If allowance
tion is illustrated in Figure 1. The boundary condition is required for canopy intercept, this must be done
requires that an infiltration rate (i.e. the rainfall inten- by inputting a reduced rainfall rate. However, no
sity at the ground surface) be specified, along with allowance needs to be made for run off: the bound-
some maximum threshold value (THV) of the pore ary condition automatically determines the portion of
water pressure at the surface boundary. If at the start the specified inflow that enters the mesh and treats the
of an increment (stage) of an analysis, the pore water remainder as run-off, based on the THV chosen. The
pressure at the surface boundary is below (that is, is proportion of the infiltration that becomes run-off is
more tensile than) the THV, then an infiltration (spec- not, however, explicitly modelled. Rather, it is simply
ified flow) boundary, using the specified infiltration discounted from the analysis, since this flow occurs
rate, is used. outside of the analysis mesh.
774
Typically for slope analysis, the THV would be
set to 0 kPa. Thus the soil could develop an all-
compressive (‘fully saturated’) pore water pressure
profile, but a compressive pore water pressure greater
than zero could not build up at the ground surface.
Non-zero THVs may also be specified: Compressive
pore water pressures greater than zero may be speci-
fied for the THV, to allow surface ponding to occur.
The maximum depth of ponding that can be achieved
will thus be determined by the value of the THV spec-
ified. Alternatively, a tensile THV may be specified,
which prevents total loss of suction at the ground
surface.
As stated above, boundary pore water pressures are
adjusted back to the THV if at the start of an incre-
ment the pressure exceeds the THV as a result of the
previous increment’s infiltration. This could occur if
during the previous increment infiltration conditions
(i.e. prescribed nodal flows) had been active. Where
inflows are relatively small and the increment time step
is short, the amount by which the pore water pressures
exceed the THV is likely to be small, thus the method
of operation is reasonable. Figure 2. Precipitation boundary condition with large
However, problems can be encountered if the infil- timestep and inflow rate.
tration rate is high (relative to the soils permeability)
and/or the time step is large. In such cases very high
compressive pore water pressures can be generated
at the slope surface on the last increment in which
the inflow boundary condition is active. This is illus-
trated in Figure 2. ‘Increment 0’ represents some
pre-existing pore water pressure distribution at the
beginning of an analysis. Precipitation is then applied
from increment 1, and the precipitation inflow rate
is high relative to the permeability of the soil, while
the time step of the increment is relatively long. As
the THV = 0 kPa at the beginning of increment 1 an
inflow boundary condition (prescribed flow) is acti-
vated. The pore water pressure distribution at the end
of increment 1 is as shown in Figure 2 and can be
seen to give values in excess of the THV at the ground
surface. At the beginning of increment 2 this over-
shot is detected and the boundary condition at the
ground surface is switched to a prescribed pore pres-
sure. While this has the effect of reducing the pore
water pressure on the ground surface to equal the THV
at the end of increment 2, the shallow sub-surface pore
water pressure distribution is in error. The increment
2 pore water pressure distribution shown is obviously
unrealistic given that the surface pore water pressure
should not be able to exceed 0 kPa. Clearly it is desir-
able to modify the boundary condition to limit the Figure 3. The tolerance zone for the precipitation boundary
amount by which the THV can be exceeded before the condition.
condition switches from inflow (prescribed nodal
flow) to a constant prescribed pore water pressure. Applying such a procedure requires the specifica-
This can be achieved by subdividing any increment tion of a tolerance around the precipitation threshold
in which a serious overshoot occurs into a series of value (THV) (for a THV of 0 kPa, the tolerance should
smaller sub-increments. be of the order of ±0.1 kPa), see Figure 3. Should the
775
boundary pore water pressure remain more tensile then surrounding the THV, then it can be accepted as being
the THV and lie outside the tolerance, the boundary equal to the THV, and the boundary condition changed
condition remains an infiltration condition for the next to a pore water pressure condition for the next incre-
increment (sub increment). ment (or sub increment), with the pressure being set
If the boundary pore water pressure becomes more exactly equal to the THV.
compressive, such that it lies within the tolerance zone However, if the calculated pore water pressure on
the boundary at the end of an increment (sub incre-
ment) is more compressive than the THV and lies
outside of the tolerance specified, then the incre-
ment is rejected. Instead, a smaller sub-increment
size is automatically calculated, and the increment
(sub increment) repeated to calculate the pore water
pressure changes over the shorter period of time
compatible with the new sub-increment size. The new
sub-increment size is calculated as a proportion of the
failed increment. This proportion can be determined
by comparing the difference between the boundary
pore water pressure at the start of the increment and
the THV to the change of the pore water pressure at
the boundary calculated over the failed sub-increment.
From this and assuming a linear variation of pore
water pressure over the failed increment, the new sub-
increment size is determined as a proportion of the
old one, see Figure 4. Since non-linear behaviour is
being modelled, this linear method rarely gives a suf-
ficiently accurate result immediately. That is, at the
end of the new sub-increment under or overshoot can
occur. If undershoot is experienced (i.e. the bound-
ary pore water pressure remains more tensile then
Figure 4. Determination of sub-increment size during the THV and lies outside the tolerance) then the sub-
application of the precipitation boundary condition. increment can be accepted and the analysis moves on
776
to the next sub-increment still with an inflow condi- compressive pore water at the base of the mesh. This
tion applied at the boundary. However if overshoot can be set to be consistent with the maximum height of
is experienced (i.e. the boundary pore water pressure the phreatic surface above the base (assuming a hydro-
is more compressive than the THV and lies outside of static profile), during ‘normal’ conditions. The effect
the tolerance) then the process is repeated and the sub- of this is illustrated in Figure 6.
increment size recalculated with the new data and the Hydraulic boundary conditions for the sides of the
analysis for the sub-increment repeated. This process mesh may be set as specified flow or specified pore
continues until the boundary pore water pressure is water pressure boundaries. However, since the aim
approximately equal to (within the specified tolerance) is to allow the phreatic surface freedom to move, it
the THV at the end of a sub-increment. At this point is clearly preferable to set no-flow side boundaries,
the boundary condition is changed and what remains which will provide no restraint on the response of
of the full increment is applied, with a pore water pres- the phreatic surface, while also avoiding the impo-
sure boundary condition. This is often completed in a sition of potentially unrealistic inflows across these
single sub-increment, but if the soil behaviour is highly boundaries.
nonlinear may be broken into several sub-increments. During dry periods, the slope will tend to dry out
This procedure is illustrated schematically in Figure 5, as water drains down and out of it under gravity, but
where for simplicity, each sub-increment is shown as continuous recharge from the greater part of the soil
being half the size of the preceding one. mass that is not explicitly modelled will maintain a
deep phreatic surface.
Wetter periods will tend to raise the phreatic surface,
3 MODELLING RECHARGE as the precipitation rate begins to match the drainage,
and may do so sufficiently to switch the base boundary
As noted above the precipitation boundary condition conditions to a fixed pore water pressure condition.
enables a flow rate to be specified to a boundary Under extreme rainfall, transient perched water tables
unless and until the pore water pressure on that or non-hydrostatic pore water pressure profiles are free
boundary becomes more compressive and reaches a to develop.
user-prescribed value. This capability can be used to Hence use of the precipitation boundary condition
model processes other than precipitation. as a recharge condition on the base of the analysis mesh
One issue that needs to be addressed in slope sta- enables a variable pressure boundary condition to be
bility problems is the presence of groundwater, and maintained, which is relatively sensible and realistic,
specifically, how to model the phreatic surface. While and does not restrict the pore water pressure response
it may be appropriate to place an impermeable bound- to precipitation events.
ary along the base of a slope mesh in some situations,
this is not generally the case. Additionally, the head
and foot of an analysis mesh will rarely if ever be
impermeable boundaries. It is therefore generally the
case that some degree of flow needs to be permitted
through these boundaries.
While a fixed pore pressure boundary would enable
flow through the boundaries to develop freely, such
boundaries place artificial restraints on the pore
water pressure response to other stimuli, such as
precipitation. The alternative, of a specified flow
boundary condition, leaves the pore water pressure
free to vary, but can instead result in an unrealis-
tic build up of pore water pressure, since accurately
determining the flow rate is difficult, especially since it
may well vary throughout the duration of the analysis.
The precipitation boundary condition provides an
alternative to these options, by providing a form of
‘recharge’ into the analysis when the boundary condi-
tion is specified along the base of the analysis mesh.
The inflow rate, instead of being based on rainfall data,
is set equal to the fully saturated permeability of the
soil, specifically, the permeability of the soil underly-
ing the mesh, and therefore outside the analysis. The Figure 6. Precipitation boundary condition used to simulate
THV may be set to give the maximum permissible recharge.
777
4 CONCLUSIONS approach for saturated/unsaturated soils. Chapter 1 in
Geomechanics and water engineering in environmental
A precipitation boundary condition for numerical management, ed R.N. Chowdhury, Balkema.
analysis of either fully saturated or partially saturated Ng, C.W.W. and Shi, Q. 1998. A numerical investigation
soil has been presented and an outline of its implemen- of the stability of unsaturated soil slopes subject to tran-
sient seepage. Computers and Geotechnics, vol 22, No 1,
tation into a finite element program described. This pp 1–28.
involves the specification of both an infiltration rate Ng, C.W.W. and Pang, Y.W. 2000. Influence of stress-state
and a maximum threshold value of pore water pressure on soil—water characteristics and slope stability. Jour-
(or head) for the same surface boundary. The deci- nal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
sion process for deciding which of these two boundary vol 126, No 2, Feb 2000 ASCE.
conditions to impose in an increment (stage) of an Ng, C.W.W., Wang, B. and Tung, Y.K. 2001. Three
analysis is discussed. This is likely to involve split- dimensional numerical investigations of groundwater
ting of the increment of the analysis into a series of responses in an unsaturated slope subject to various rain-
sub-increments. An algorithm to automatically select fall patterns. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, vol 38,
pp 1049–1062.
the size of these sub-increments is described. Ng, C.W.W., Zhan, L.T., Bao, C.G., Fredlund, D.G. and
The novel application of the boundary condition to Gong, B.W. 2003. Performance of an unsaturated expan-
simulate the ground water recharge that occurs at the sive soil slope subjected to artificial rainfall infiltration.
base of the computational domain when modelling a Geotechnique 53, No 2, pp 143–157.
partially saturated slope is discussed. Rubin, J. and Steinhardt, R. 1963. Soil water relations dur-
ing rain infiltration: 1 Theory. Soil Science Society of
America Proceedings, vol 27, pp 246–251.
REFERENCES Smith, P.G. 2003. Numerical analysis of infiltration into par-
tially saturated soil slopes. PhD thesis, Imperial College
of Science, Technology & Medicine, London.
Chapui, R.P., Chenaf, D., Bussiere, B., Aubertin, M. and
Tsaparas, I., Rahardjo, H, Toll, D.G. and Leong, E.C. 2002.
Crespo, R. 2001. A user’s approach to assess numeri-
Controlling parameters for rainfall—induced landslides.
cal codes for saturated & unsaturated seepage conditions.
Computers and Geotechnics, vol 29, pp 1–27.
Canadian geotechnical journal, vol 38, pp 1113–1126.
Fredlund, D.G. and Barbour, S.L. 1992. Integrated seep-
age modelling and slope stability analysis: A generalised
778
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: A new hydraulic boundary condition modelling the hydraulic transfers between porous medium
and ambient atmosphere occurring during gallery excavations is described. It combines two modes of water
exchanges in partial saturation: seepage and evaporation flows. Numerical simulations of a gallery excavation in
dilatant geomaterial are carried out in isothermal conditions. The results show the influence of hydric boundary
condition on the convergence of the gallery and the importance of the determination of vapour transfer coefficient
between atmosphere and porous medium.
779
is higher than the air pressure in the gallery. Seepage vapour exchange flux, which can occur near tunnel
flow S can be expressed as follows: surface:
f
S = β · (pw − patm )2
f gal
if pw ≥ pw and pw ≥ patm
f
q=S +E (5)
f gal f
S=0 if pw < pw or pw < patm
Because of permanent air ventilation of the galleries
(1) in the tunnel, we can consider that air relative humidity
and volumetric mass in the tunnel are constant. Evap-
f gal
with pw and pw the water pressures respectively in the oration and seepage flows evolve thus according to the
formation and in the gallery, patm the atmospheric pres- f
value of water pressure pw at the gallery wall (Fig. 1).
sure and β a seepage transfer coefficient. This transfer Initially, if:
coefficient should be as high as possible (penalty
condition) in order to respect the seepage condition. • rock mass humidity is higher than air gallery
f gal
Vapour exchanges occur when a difference between humidity ( pw ≥ patm > pw ).
relative humidities of air gallery and rock mass exists. Vapour exchanges take place from the geological
Vapour inflows or outflows are physically possible. formation to the gallery. Evaporation flow remains
Several formulations of these fluxes can be found in constant as long as rock mass is totally saturated
the literature. Each of them is using a mass transfer f
coefficient which can be expressed as a function of (pw > patm ). When soil surface water pressure is lower
the degree of saturation, the porosity or the air wind- than atmospheric pressure, the geological formation
speed in the gallery [Dracos, 1980; Anagnostou, 1995; is desaturated and vapour exchanges decrease until
Zhongxhuan et al., 2004]. To obtain the evaporation the equilibrium between porous medium and ambient
flow, this mass transfer coefficient can be multiplied atmosphere is obtained. Seepage flow exists only if
by the difference of relative humidity [Anagnostou, pore pressure at the gallery wall is higher than gallery
1995], vapour pressure [Zhongxhuan et al., 2004] or pore pressure.
vapour potential [Kowalski, 1997] between air gallery • rock mass humidity is lower than air gallery
and the geological formation. As proposed by Ben f f gal
humidity ( pw < patm and pw < pw ).
Nasrallah & Pere [1998], we choose to express vapour
exchanges as the difference of volumetric vapour mass Evaporation flows take place from the tunnel atmo-
between the tunnel atmosphere and rock mass: sphere into the formation in order to re-saturate the
rock mass. The saturation increases progressively to
reach the gallery relative humidity level. On the other
E = α · (ρνf − ρνgal ) (2) hand, no seepage flow occurs, because only gaseous
f gal
exchanges exist.
with ρν and ρν volumetric mass respectively in the In order to solve numerically in finite element code
formation and in the gallery and α a vapour transfer the field equations using this new boundary condition,
coefficient. a linear auxiliary problem can be defined following
The volumetric vapour mass is given by the follow- the ideas of Borja & Alarcon [1995] and the field
ing thermodynamic relationship: of unknowns is obtained through a Newton-Raphson
scheme. The linear auxiliary problem is discretized
ρν = h · ρν,0 (3)
780
using the finite element methodology [Zienkiewicz & 3.2 Hydraulic properties
Taylor, 2000]. Large strain isoparametric coupled
The mass flow mti is defined as follows:
finite elements and a specific element for the boundary
condition have been introduced in the finite element
code Lagamine [Collin, 2003] for the modelling. κkr,w
t
∂pt
mti = −ρwt + ρwt gi (6)
μ ∂xit
3 NUMERICAL MODELLING
OF AN EXCAVATION where κ is the intrinsic permeability, kr,w t
is water
relative permeability and μ is the fluid viscosity.
Within the framework of nuclear waste disposals in The compressible fluid is assumed to respect the
deep geological layer, a correct numerical prediction following relationship [Lewis & Schrefler, 2000]. This
of the coupled processes occurring during disposal predicts an increase of fluid density as a function of the
excavations is needed. With the aim of studying the pore pressure, defining χw as the fluid bulk modulus:
influence of hydric boundary condition, the excava-
tion of a cylindrical gallery located in a homogeneous ρwt t
low permeability formation is simulated. The geom- ρ̇wt = ṗ (7)
χw
etry and the mechanical law used are those proposed
in the GdR-Momas benchmark exercise [Chavant &
Fernandez, 2005]. The following parameters have been used in the
A cylindrical unsupported cavity of 3 m diame- excavation gallery simulation (Table 2).
ter is located in an homogeneous low permeability The retention curve of the medium and the water
formation. The excavation process is modelled by relative permeability function are given by the follow-
decreasing the initial total stress and pore pressure ing relationships, proposed previously in the frame
towards atmospheric pressure. An initial isotropic of GdR-Momas benchmark exercises [Chavant &
stress state allows one dimensional axisymetrical mod- Fernandez, 2005]:
elling: σr = 7 MPa and pw = 5 MPa. Two steps are −0.412
considered in the simulation: first the excavation pro- p 1
c 1−0.412
cess (duration T = 1.5 Ms, around 17 days) and a Sr,w = 1+ and Sr,w = 1 if pc < 0
107
second phase during which the radial convergence of
(8)
the cavity evolves due to the water diffusion process.
The final modelling time is 300 Ms (about 9.5 years). !−1
At the external boundaries of our model, the initial kr,w = 1 + (Sr,w −2.429 − 1)1.176 (9)
conditions are assumed to be preserved in terms of
total stress and pore pressure. This supposes that the
external boundaries are far enough from the cavity. with Sr,w the water relative saturation, kr,w the water
In the modelling, they are located at a radial distance relative permeability and pc the capillary pressure
seven times the cavity radius. This distance, maybe a (pc = pg − pw ).
little short to avoid boundary influence, is imposed by
the geometry of the GdR-Momas benchmark.
Table 1. Parameters of the mechanical model.
The conditions are isotherms (T = 293◦ K) and gas
pressure is assumed constant (equal to the atmospheric E0 Young modulus 5800 MPa
pressure). υ0 Poisson ratio 0.3 –
C0 Initial cohesion 1 MPa
ϕ Friction angle 25 Degree
3.1 Mechanical constitutive law α Residual cohesion 0.01 –
p
In order to reproduce the progressive decrease of the γR Dev. Strain threshold 0.015 –
material strength, the elasto-plastic strain-softening
model (with an associated Drucker-Prager yield crite-
rion) proposed previously in the frame of GdR-Momas
benchmark exercises [Chavant & Fernandez, 2005] Table 2. Parameters of the flow model.
is used. Due to the associated plastic law, the result-
ing behaviour of the material is highly dilatant, which κ Intrinsic permeability 10−19 m2
increases the coupling effects between the mechanical ρw,0 Water density 1000 kg/m3
0 Initial porosity 0.15 –
and the flow problem. χw Bulk modulus 2000 MPa
The following simulations have been performed μ Dynamic viscosity 0.001 Pa.s
with the parameters values defined in Table 1.
781
3.3 Reference case humidity in the tunnel is usually controlled by an
‘‘air conditioning system’’ maintaining constant air
In this axisymetrical modelling, a classical flow
relative humidity. After excavation, for long term pre-
boundary condition is imposed: the pore pressures
dictions, a thermodynamical equilibrium might be
at the wall are decreased towards the atmospheric
reached between the air gallery and the geological
pressure during excavation and then remain constant
formation.
(Fig. 2). Due to the hydro-mechanical coupling (dila-
In these simulations (Case 2), a combined boundary
tancy effect), a pore pressure decrease is observed
condition with seepage and evaporation flows is thus
in the damaged zone, which implies an unphysical
used, as defined in Equation (4). A relative humidity
‘numerical’ injection of water into the formation.
of 0.96 (corresponding to a negative pore pressure of
Figure 3 presents the stress path followed in the first
−5 MPa) is imposed for the gallery atmosphere, but
finite element at the wall. The behaviour is first elastic
pore pressures at the wall are not controlled. The seep-
before the stress path reaches the initial yield surface.
age transfer coefficient β of Equation (1) is assumed
Due to softening, the cohesion is decreasing, inducing
equal to 10−7 s3 · kg−1 .
dilatancy at the same time. At the end of the modelling,
The results depend on the vapour mass transfer
the stress state tends to zero as no more deviatoric
coefficient α, defined in Equation (1). However,
stresses are allowed. The radial displacement is equal
this coefficient is difficult to determine. With a
to 1.75 cm at the end of the excavation and reaches
small vapour transfer coefficient (Case 2-1 − α =
21.2 cm after 300 Ms. The coupling effects between
10−4 m/s), only seepage flows have influence on
the water diffusion and the mechanical process are thus
flow boundary behaviour. The pore pressure profiles
important.
(Fig. 4) tend towards atmospheric pressure on the wall
and are thus similar to those from a simulation using
3.4 Influence of hydraulic boundary condition only seepage boundary condition.
Using 100 times larger mass transfer coefficient
The reference case highlights the need of a more (Case 2-2 – α = 10−2 m/s), evaporation flow becomes
detailed expression of the water exchanges between preponderant on seepage flow. Pore pressure remains
air gallery and gallery wall. Furthermore, relative negative and close to the imposed pore pressure in
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 t = 1.5 E6 s
3
Pore pressure [MPa]
t = 5.0 E6 s
Pore pressure [MPa]
2 2 t = 50 E6 s
t = 300 E6 s
1 1
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1 -1
t = 1.5 E6 s -2
-2
t = 5.0 E6 s
t = 50 E6 s -3
-3
t = 300 E6 s
-4 -4
Radial distance [m] Radial distance [m]
Figure 2. Case 1—Reference Case—Pore pressure Figure 4. Case 2-1—Pore pressure distribution.
distribution.
Second deviatoric stress invariant [MPa]
8 8
End of excavation
6 6
4 4
2 2
End of excavation
0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
First stress invariant [MPa] First stress invariant [MPa]
Figure 3. Case 1—Reference Case—Stress path curve. Figure 5. Case 2-1—Stress path curve.
782
6 1
4 -4
= 10 m/s
Pore pressure [MPa]
0.99
t = 1.5 E6 s
Figure 6. Case 2-2—Pore pressure distribution. Figure 8. Case 2—Relative humidity evolutions.
16
Initial yield surface
14
Table 3. Cavity convergence for different cases.
Second deviatoric stress invariant [MPa]
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40
First stress invariant [MPa]
the tunnel ensures an additional strength and limits the
Figure 7. Case 2-2—Stress path curve. material deformations. The stress paths followed in the
first finite element near the wall confirm these results.
Indeed, Figure 7 presents more or less the same stress
the gallery (Fig. 6). The pore pressure profiles in the states at the end of the excavation and after 300 Ms.
formation are quite similar to those obtained when a The geological formation recovers an elastic behaviour
relative humidity (corresponding to a negative pore at the end of the simulation and the high final value
pressure of −5 MPa) is imposed at the cavity wall as of the deviatoric stress is an indicator of the low plas-
boundary condition. tic deformations. The comparison with the stress path
Due to these different pore pressure distributions in Case 1 (Fig. 3) shows clearly the difference of final
relative humidity at the wall evolves according to value of the deviatoric stress and allows explaining the
the vapour transfer coefficient. Figure 8 presents the obtained convergences.
temporal evolution of relative humidity of geolog- With small vapour transfer coefficient (Case 2-1),
ical formation at the wall in different cases. With the stress path shows that the residual value of cohe-
small vapour transfer coefficient (Case 2-1 – α = sion is reached and the behaviour is still plastic at the
10−4 m/s), seepage flow is predominant and the equi- end of the simulation (Fig. 5). The final value of the
librium between the gallery atmosphere and the wall deviatoric stress is a little higher than in Case 1, so that
is not reached at the end of the simulation. In the the convergence is less important. It is also interesting
other hand, with high vapour coefficient (Case 2-2 – to note that the stress paths become purely deviatoric
α = 10−2 m/s), the equilibrium is quickly reached. In (constant mean stress) during excavation when atmo-
an intermediate situation (Case 2-3 – α = 10−3 m/s), sphere in the tunnel begins to be unsaturated, due to
seepage and evaporation flows are both influent. In a the expression of seepage flow (Eq. 1).
first time formation relative humidity increases, before In the reference case (Case 1), the EDZ extends
decreasing to stabilize finally. on 2.1 times the internal radius. With the mixed flow
These different pore pressure distributions have a condition (Case 2-1/3), the simulations predict a rather
direct influence on the convergence predicted. Table 3 narrow EDZ in comparison with the Case 1. However,
presents the results for the different cases. At the end the EDZ in Cases 2-1, 2-2 and 2-3 are quite simi-
of the excavation, the convergences are more or less lar (between 1.71 and 1.74 times the internal radius),
the same. But as far as the long-term response is which means that the mass transfer coefficient has a
concerned, the predicted displacements are rather dif- small influence on the EDZ. The intensity of the corre-
ferent. Indeed in Case 2-2, due to the high vapour sponding plastic deformations is not the same, which
transfer coefficient used, the remaining suction near involves the differences of convergence.
783
4 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS and training Framework Programme (FP6) on nuclear
energy (2002–2006).
Within the framework of nuclear waste disposals in
deep geological layer, a correct numerical prediction
of the coupled processes occurring during theses exca- REFERENCES
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and gas transfer within hygroscopic fabrics. Journal of
Computational and Applied Mathematics 163:199–210.
The authors would like to thank the FRS-FNRS and Zienkiewicz, O. & Taylor, R. 2000. The Finite
the European project TIMODAZ for their financial Element Method (5th edn). Butterworth-Heinemann:
support. TIMODAZ is co-funded by the European Stonchem, MA.
Commission (EC) as part of the sixth Euratom research
784
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
S. Hemmati
Institut Navier, CERMES/ENPC, Université Paris-Est, France
B. Gatmiri
Institut Navier, CERMES/ENPC, University of Tehran, Iran
Université Paris-Est, France
ABSTRACT: Water uptake by tree roots can change the water content of a soil in a significant manner and
cause ground settlement in unsaturated expansive soils. Ground settlement can damage light buildings supported
by shallow foundations through cracking. A root-water-uptake model is implemented in a three phase fully
coupled finite element program θ-stock (Gatmiri/CERMES). Various expressions of root water extraction term
are studied. A two dimensional root water extraction term, i.e. sink term is considered. This model takes into
account the root density distribution, potential transpiration and soil suction.
785
the ratio of the influence distance of some species to where α is a reduction function due to soil suction
their heights is presented in Table 1. ψ that can be expressed as a function of soil suction
Some examples of depth of affected zone and the or water content θ or pressure head h, β is root den-
maximum active root length density can be found in sity distribution and TP is potential transpiration. The
Biddle (1983), Fatahi (2006), etc. functions of Smax and α are described in following
paragraphs.
786
Table 2. Maximum root-water-uptake suggested by different authors.
Tp
Smax = 1D model Feddes 1978
zr
2Tp z
Smax (z) = 1− 1D linear model Prasad 1988, Hayhoe and
zr zr DeJong 1988
Tp α(h) f (z)
Smax (h, z) = 1 zr 1D model considering Li et al. 2001
0 α(h) f (z)dz water availability and root
f (z) = −β z ln β distribution in depth
1
β = 0.01 zr
π R2 β(r, z)Tp
Smax (r, z) = 1 Zm 1 Rm Axisymmetric model considering Vrugt et al. 2001
2π 0 0 rβ(r, z)dr dz root distribution density in
both horizontal and vertical
z r
β(r, z) = 1 − 1− e−A directions, and potential
zr rr transpiration distribution
A = ( pz /zr )| z ∗ − z | + ( pr /rr )| r ∗ − r |
pz , pr : empirical parameters
TP (1 + k4 (zr − z))
F(Tp ) = 1
V (t) G(β)(1 + k4 (zr − z))dV
k1 , k2 : empirical coefficients
k3 , k4 : experimental coefficients
Typical values for different soil classes are presented deformation, moisture, and heat should be also regar-
in Table 3. ded. The theory of Philip & de Vries (1957) is known as
a basic framework and a comprehensive theory of moi-
sture and heat movement in an incompressible porous
medium. In this theory, moisture and heat transfer
4 FINITE ELEMENT CODE AND GOVERNING
equations are formulated in terms of temperature (T)
EQUATIONS
and volumetric water content (θ). In this theory, in the
absence of water continuity all transfers are in vapor
4.1 Presentation of θ-stock
phase and with increasing moisture content, the liq-
Soil deformation due to water content changes is signi- uid phase transfer becomes dominant. A suction-based
ficant in expansive soils. The coupling effects among mathematical model for thermo-hydro-mechanical
787
4.2 Equations
4.2.1 Solid skeleton behavior
– Equilibrium equation:
σ − pg σ − pg pg − pw 1−m
Table 3. Average estimated plant available water for various A= a +b 1−
soils (after Evans et al. 1996). patm σc patm
(6)
Plant available water
Textural class inches of water per inch of soil
(Soil Classification) (Volumetric water content) – Thermal degree of saturation state surface:
788
– Energy conservation equation:
∂
(CT (T − T0 ) + (n − θ )ρv hfg )
∂t
− div(λ(θ )∇T ) + Cpw ρw div(U (T − T0 ))
+ Cpv ρw div(V (T − T0 )
+ Cpg ρg div(Vg (T − T0 ))
5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
789
North Carolina Cooperative Extension service, Publica-
tion Number: AG452-1.
Fatahi, B. 2006. Pers. Comm. Uni. of Wollogong. School of
civil, Mining and Enviro. Engg.
Feddes, R.A., Kowalik, P.J. & Zarandy, H. 1978. Simula-
tion of field water use and crop yield. Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
Fytius, S., Cameron, D. & Driscol, C. 2007. Observation
of root architecture and their implications for modelling
water movement in partially saturated soils, 3rd Asian
Conf. on Unsat. Soils, pp. 207–212.
Gatmiri, B. 1997. ‘‘Effect of nonlinearity in thermohydrome-
chanical coupling’’, XIV International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, September 6–12,
1997 at Hamburg.
Gatmiri, B., Delage, P. & Fry, J.J. 1997. ‘‘Numerical Aspects
Of Thermoelastoplastic Behaviour Of Saturated Soil’’,
Figure 6. Vertical displacements. NAFEMS World congress ‘97, Stuttgart, April 9–11.
Gatmiri, B., Seyedi, M., Delage, P. & Fry, J.J. 1997.
6 CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE A new suction-based mathematical model for thermohy-
gromechanical behaviour of unsaturated porous media’’,
NUMOG VI.
In this study, a mathematical model is presented
Gatmiri, B. 1997. Analysis of fully coupled behaviour
and implemented in the finite element program of unsaturated porous media under stress, suction and
θ-stock (Gatmiri, Cermes 1997). Series of differ- temperature gradient, Final report of CERMES-EDF,
ent root-water-uptakes models have been studied. France.
A sophisticated model of root-water-uptake proposed Gatmiri, B., Jenab-Vossoughi, B. & Delage, P. 1999. Valida-
by Indraratna et al (2006) is considered. This root- tion of θ-STOCK, a finite element software for the analysis
water-uptake model is programmed and integrated in of thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of engineered clay
θ-stock. Hydraulic and heat boundary conditions are barriers. Proceedings of NAFEMS WORLD CONGRESS
calculated and then applied on root zone elements. Val- 99 on Effective Engineering Analysis, Vol. 1:645–656.
Gatmiri, B. & Jenab-Vossoughi, B. 2002. Effects of heat
idation of this model with the existing examples found
convection and phase changes on heat and fluid transfer
in literature has been performed. in unsaturated porous media, Third International Confer-
ence on Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT 2002, Recife, Brasilia,
10–13 March 2002, pp. 77–82.
REFERENCES Hayhoe, H.N. & De Jong, R. 1988. Comparison of two soil
water models for soybeans. Can. Agric. Eng. 30:5–11.
Becker, P. & Castillo, A. 1990. Root architecture of shrubs Indraratna, B., Fatahi, B. & Khabbaz, H., 2006. Numer-
and saplings in the understory of a tropical moist forest in ical analysis of matric suction effects of tree roots.
lawland Panama, Biotropica, 22:242–249. Geotechnical Engineering, 159, Issue GE2, 77–90.
Bernston, G. 1994. Modelling root architecture: are there Jaska, M., Kaggwa, W., Woodburn, J. & Sinclair, R. 2002.
tradeoffs between efficiency and potential of resource Influence of large gun trees on the soil suction profile in
acquisition? New Phytologist, 127:483–493. expansive soils, Australian Geomechanics, 36:23–33.
Biddle, P.G. 2001. Patterns of drying and moisture deficit Li, K.Y., Bisvert, B.J. & De Jong, R. 2001. An exponential
in the vicinity of trees in clay soils. Géotechnique, root-water-uptake model with water stress compensation.
33:107–126. J. Hydrol., 252:189–204.
Blight, G. 2005. Desiccation of a clay by grass, bushes Lynch, J. 1995. Root architecture and plant productivity, Plant
and trees, Geotechnical and geological engineering, 23, Physiology, 109:7–13.
697–720. Nimah, M.N. & Hanks, R.J. 1973. Model for estimating soil
Bozozuk, M. 1962. Soil shrinkage damages shallow founda- water plant, and atmospheric interrelations. I. Description
tions at Ottawa, Canada, Div. of Building Research NRCC of sensivity. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 37:522–527.
Canada, Research paper 63. Philip, J.R. & de Vries, D.A. 1957. Moisture movement in
British Columbia, Ministry of Agriculture. 2002. Water porous materials under temperature gradients. Trans. Am.
Conservation Factsheet, Order No. 619.000-1. Geophys. Un., 38:222–232.
Evans, R., Cassel, D.K. & Sneed, R.E. 1996. Soil, water, and Prasad, R. 1988. A linear root-water-uptake model. J. Hydrol.
crop characteristics important to irrigation scheduling. 99:297–306.
790
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
S. Hemmati
Institut Navier, CERMES/ENPC, Université Paris-Est, France
B. Azari
Civil Engineering Department, University of Tehran, Iran
B. Gatmiri
Institut Navier, CERMES/ENPC, University of Tehran, Iran and Université Paris-Est, France
791
The total energy balance equation can be exp- pressure gradient with height above ground level,
ressed by: Dv = diffusivity for vapour in air.
The latent heat for vaporization of water is
Rn + WE = G + H + Le (1) given by:
2.2 The convective heat transfer from the water 3.1 Surface evaporation
to the air and latent heat flux for vaporization
Infiltration, I , corresponds to a natural boundary con-
The convective heat transfer from the water to the air dition. The amount of precipitation, P, runoff, Roff ,
can be expressed by: and interception, Iinte , are ‘‘known’’ inputs which can
be obtained by direct measurement at field scale. Sur-
H = ρa Ca Dta T (4) face evaporation can be expressed by many equations.
Here surface evaporation is obtained by the Penman
where ρa = density of air; Ca = specific heat of air; (1948) equation:
and Dta = heat diffusivity in air.
The latent heat flux for vaporization is:
r (Rn −G)
ρa hfg + γ Ea
Le = hfg εDv Pv (5) E= (10)
Pa r + γ
where hfg = latent heat for vaporization of water; where r = slope of the saturation vapour pressure-
Pa = atmospheric pressure; and ε = ratio of molec- temperature curve; γ = psychrometric constant; and
ular masses of water and dry air, Pv = vapour Ea = evaporation rate.
792
14 wind function obtained by Blight (1997) is used:
Saturated vapor pressure (kPa)
12
U2
10 f (u) = 0.165 0.8 + (14)
100
8
6
where U2 = the wind speed at 2 m height. The
4 wind speed at 2 m height can be obtained from the
2 wind speed Uw at the generic height Zw by using
0
the following equation:
0 10 20 30 40 50
4.87
Temperature (˚C) U2 = Uw (15)
ln(67.8Zw − 5.42)
Figure 1. Saturation vapor pressure curve.
4 MODEL DESCRIPTION
17.27T
Pvs = 0.618 exp (12)
T + 237.3
where T = temperature.
Modern study of evaporation began with Dalton
in the late eighteenth century. Dalton ‘‘theorised
that evaporation from a surface, must be a con-
sequence of the combined influence of the wind,
atmospheric moisture content, and characteristic of
the surface (Rosenberg et al., 1983). The Dalton aero-
dynamic equation for evaporation from a free water
surface is:
793
surface temperature and vapour pressure, calculated Thermal void ratio state surface:
in the preceding time step, together with the climatic
1 + e0
data, that are independent of soil condition, are used e= −1
to calculate the thermal and hydraulic loading for the exp A
Kb (1−m) exp [ce (T − T0 )]
current time step. A schematic view of this process is
794
6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS surface element:
where qw (t) is water discharge of an element at A two-dimensional model for soil-atmosphere inter-
time t. action conforms to the equations of THM formulation
Heat flux boundary condition in the correspond- integrated in θ-stock (Gatmiri, 1997a) is developed. A
ing time step is applied as an energy flux on each preliminary example is presented. In this example an
800
700
Energy flux (Wm )
600
-2
Rn
500
400 Le
300
200 G
100
H
0
-100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (day)
Figure 3. Evolutions of net radiation Rn, sensible heat H, soil heat G, and latent heat for evaporation Le.
30
25
Temperature (˚C)
20 d=0.0
15
d=0.1
10 d=0.68
d=1.16
d=0.2
d=2.12
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (day)
30000
25000
d=0.1
20000 d=0.0
Suction (Pa)
15000 d=0.2
d=0.68
10000
d=1.16
5000
0
d=2.12
-5000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (day)
795
unsaturated soil with an initial degree of saturation Blight, G.E. 1997. Interactions between the atmosphere
equal to 0.9, and initial temperature equal to 7◦ C and the Earth. (37th Rankine Lecture). Geotechnique.
is analysed. Meteorological data used in this prob- London, United Kingdom. 47(4) 715–767.
lem relates to the Rouen test embankment constructed Dodds, P.E., Meyer, W.S. & Barton, A. 2005. A review
at the LCPC experiment centre, France (Gao et al., of methods to estimate irrigated reference crop evapo-
transpiration across Australia. CRC for Irrigation Futures
2006). Energy and mass flux is calculated from Technical Report No. 04/05.
meteorological data and soil condition and is used as Gao, Y.B., Cui, Y.J. & Audiguier, M. 2006. From meteo-
boundary condition on the surface elements. Calcu- rological data to the prediction of embankment stability,
lated energy flux is presented in Figure 3. Temperature Final report. ENPC/CERMES.
and suction evolution on the soil surface and at dif- Gatmiri, B. & Jenab, B. 2002. Effects of heat convection
ferent depths are presented in Figure 4 and Figure 5 and phase changes on heat and fluid transfer in unsatu-
respectively. rated porous media. Third International Conference on
Unsaturated Soils, UNSAT 2002, Brasilia, 77–82.
Gatmiri, B., Seyedi, M., Delage, P. & Fry, J.J. 1997. A
new suction-based mathematical model for thermohy-
8 LIST OF PARAMETERS OF θ -STOCK gromechanical behaviour of unsaturated porous media,
NUMOG VI: 291–296.
σij : total stress tensor, Gatmiri, B. 1997a. Analysis of fully coupled behaviour
D: strain tensor, of unsaturated porous media under stress, suction and
e: void ratio temperature gradient. Final report of CERMES-EDF,
n: porosity France.
Gatmiri, B. 1997b. Effect of nonlinearity in thermohydrome-
δij : Kronecker symbol, chanical coupling. XIV International Conference on
pw : water pressure Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Hamburg:
pg : air pressure 1815–1818.
pv : vapour pressure Kadlec, R.H. 2005. Water temperature and evaporation in
patm : atmosphere pressure surface flow wetlands in hot arid climate. Ecological
pg − pw : suction Engineering: 1–13.
ρw , ρv , ρg : density of water, vapour and air Montieth, J.L. 1981. Evaporation and surface temperature.
θw , θv , θg : volumetric content of water, vapour and air Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. 107(451): 1–27.
U , V , Vg : flux of water, vapour and air Penman, H.L. 1948. Natural evapotranspiration from open-
water, bare soil and grass. Proc. Roy. Soc. Acad. 193:
hfg : latent heat of water 120–145.
λs , λv , λw : thermal conductivity of solid, vapour and Philip, J.R. & de Vries, D.A. 1957. Moisture movement in
water porous materials under temperature gradients, Trans. Am.
λ: Fourier homogenized diffusivity Geophys. Un. 38: 222–232.
DTV , DTW : thermal diffusivity of vapour and water Priestley, C.H.B. & Taylor, R.J. 1972. On assessment
Dθ V , Dθ W : isothermal diffusivity of vapour and water of surface heat flux and evaporation using large scale
DW : gravitational diffusivity parameters. Mon. Weath. Rev. 100: 81–92.
Cpv , Cpg , Cpw : specific heat at constant pressure Rosenberg, N.J., Blad, B.L. & Verma, S.B. 1983. Microcli-
vapour, air and water mate: The biological environment, 2nd edition. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Q: heat flux Shuttleworth, W.J. & Wallace, J.S. 1985. Evaporation from
Sparse Crops-an energy combination theory. Quart. J. Roy.
Meteorol. Soc. 111: 839–855.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Tahiri, Z.A., Anyoji, H. & Yasuda, H. 2006. Fixed and
variable light extinction coefficients for estimating plant
The authors gratefully acknowledge BRGM for finan- transpiration and soil evaporation under irrigated maize.
Agricultural Water Management 84: 186–192.
cial supporting of this research.
Walter, I.A., Allen, R.G., Elliott, R., Jensen, M.E., Itenfisu,
D., Mecham, B., Howell, T.A., Snyder, R., Brown, P.,
Eching, S., Spofford, T., Hattendorf, M., Cuenca, R.H.,
REFERENCES Wright, J.L. & Martin, D. 2000. The ASCE Standard-
ized Reference Evapotranspiration Equation. ASCE, New
ASCE 1990. Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Water York.
Requirements, ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineer- Wilson, G.W. 1990. Soil evaporative fluxes for geotech-
ing Practice No.70, American Society of Civil Engineer- nical engineering problems, PhD thesis, University of
ing. New York. Saskatchewan.
Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D. & Smith, M. 1998. Crop Wright, J.L. 1982. New evapotranspiration crop coefficients.
evapotranspiration-guidlines for computing crop water J. Irrig. Drain. Div. ASCE 108 (IR2): 57–74.
requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, No.56,
FAO, Rome.
796
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
T. Schanz
Laboratory of Soil Mechanics, Bauhaus-Universitat Weimar, Germany
M. Datcheva
Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
M. Zimmerer
VAROCON, Weimar, Germany
ABSTRACT: Bentonite based buffer materials are well recognized as an important component in engineered
barrier systems. Due to the bentonite component their main mechanical characteristic is the ability of swelling
while encountering water. Because of the complex and coupled behaviour mathematical modelling is a difficult
task and results in sophisticated constitutive models with a large number of associated parameters. These call for
advanced, unique, time to develop methodology for model identification based on less experiments combined
with numerical simulation and consequently back calculation of the model parameters. The aim of the presented
study is to investigate the ability of a direct iterative model calibration to serve as a tool for complex coupled
hydro-mechanical (HM) model parameters identification. As a result a critical discussion is presented regarding
the importance of boundary and initial conditions applicable to the experimental installation in calibration of the
constitutive functions. Application examples are given based on laboratory experiments on highly compacted
bentonite-sand mixtures.
797
2.1 Back analysis approach is assessed by a composite scaled sensitivity, CSSj
(Anderman et al. 1996; Hill 1998):
Back analysis problems may be solved in two differ-
ent ways, defined as inverse and direct approaches,
.
see (Cividini et al. 1981). The inverse back analysis /
/ 1 " N
consists in inverting the model equation with respect CSSj = 0 SS 2
(2)
to the parameters that are unknown and subject to N i=1 i, j
identification. The direct approach is based on an
iterative procedure correcting the trial values of the
unknown parameters by minimizing error functions. Low values of CSSj indicate large uncertainty in the
This way the model response data are provided by parameter estimate. For comparing CSS values the
trial forward solutions of the problem used for model following measure is used:
parameters identification. For the analysis presented
here the iterative direct approach has been chosen. CSSj
The decision is based on the fact that such approach γj = (3)
gives the opportunity to be coupled with standard and max(CSS)
well approved finite elements/differences programs
and does not require access to the source code. Addi- Comparatively small value of γj is a warning for pos-
tionally for complex and nonlinear problems direct sible evolving of poor confidence to the identified xj
approach is not only more robust but may be the only if using the observations involved in computing the
possible solution. CSS. As it has been stated in (Zhang et al. 2003),
the dimensionless sensitivity measures are required to
compare the relevance of different types of observa-
2.2 Sensitivity analysis
tions or the overall appropriateness of the observations
The aim of sensitivity analysis is to estimate the rate for the estimation of a given model parameter.
of changes in the output of a given model with respect
to changes in the model input. Such knowledge is
important for evaluating the applicability of the model 2.3 Optimization procedure
and for understanding the behaviour of the system
being modelled. Sensitivity analysis provides informa- The optimization problem in its general formulation
tion for model parameters whose values determination reads:
requires specific measurements, precision and amount
minimize f (xx )
of data. In spite of its restrictions we have chosen to
subject to constraints cj ≤ xj ≤ Cj , ∀j
perform local sensitivity analysis for accessing our
model response. In this analysis the focus is on esti- where f (xx ) is a proper measure of the disagreement
mating model sensitivity to parameter variation in the between model prediction and experimental observa-
vicinity of a sample point. This sensitivity is often tions, called hereafter objective function.
characterized by gradients or partial derivatives at the The proper choice of the parameter estimation tech-
chosen sample point. In this study the sensitivity has nique and the method for solution of the objective
been assessed using a scaled sensitivity (SS) analysis. function minimization problem are of a paramount
Let note the vector of model parameters with x and the importance for the efficiency and robustness of the
model output vector with y . The latter is called in this back analysis results. Over the past decade a number
section ‘‘observation’’. The SS analysis indicates the of optimization algorithms have been used exten-
amount of information provided by the i-th observa- sively in optimization tasks, from gradient-based algo-
tion for the estimation of j-th parameter, (Zhang et al. rithms using continuous and in most cases convex
2003). The scaled sensitivity SSi, j of the yi observation design spaces, to non-gradient probabilistic- based
to the model parameter xj is defined by: search algorithms widely applied for global and non-
convex design exploration. Representative for the
former are local search Newton—Raphson method
∂yi √
SSi, j = xj wi (1) (e.g. Levenberg & Marquart algorithm) and gradient
∂xj based derivative free method, (Davidon and Nazareth
1977). Non gradient methods are derivative free
Weighting factor wi is related to the i-th observation solution strategies such as downhill simplex method
and is evaluated based on some statistics, i.e. vari- (Nelder and Mead 1965) and global search evolution-
ance, standard deviation or coefficient of variation of ary algorithms, one of whose representatives is Particle
the error of the observations (Hill 1998). The over- Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique, (Eberhardt and
all model sensitivity to a given model parameter xj Kennedy 1995).
798
3 CONSTITUTIVE MODEL as candidates for optimization, namely: αi , κs0 , αsp ,
pref and αss .
The identification strategy has been built up taking
into account the specific features of both the constitu-
tive model and the finite elements (FE) code this model 3.2 Hydraulic phenomena
has been implemented. The material model considered The liquid flow follows the generalized Darcy’s law
here is the thermoelastoplasic (TEP) model for soils and therefore we have two constitutive functions to be
which is a part of the material models library of the FE determined and calibrated. These functions are reten-
code Code_Bright, (Code_Bright 2002). The accep- tion curve and relative permeability. The former is
tance of two stress state variables concept is basic for taken to obey the following analytical form:
the TEP model. The two stress state variables are the
net stress, computed as the excess of the total stresses ⎡ 1 ⎤−λ
over the gas pressure pg : σ = (σ σ total − pg I ) and the
matric suction s = pg − pl , where I is the unit ten- Sl − Srl ⎢ p g − pl 1−λ⎥
Se = = ⎣1 + ⎦ (7)
sor, pl is the pore liquid pressure. Here only the elastic Sls − Srl P0
part of the TEP model is presented. For the full model
description one has to refer to (Code_Bright 2002) and
for further details to (Alonso et al. 1999). where Sl is the degree of saturation; Srl and Sls are
model parameters related to the residual and maximum
saturation. The relative permeability is supposed to be
3.1 Mechanical phenomena directly related to the retention curve equation and is
The increment of the strain state variable is decom- given by:
posed to elastic (e) and plastic (p) parts: dεε = dεε e +
dεε p . Following the two stress state concept, the elastic & 'λ 2
krl = Se 1 − 1 − Se1/λ (8)
part of the strain increment is taken to be a sum of suc-
tion induced and net stress induced strain increments:
dεε e = dεε σ −e + dεε s−e . The constitutive equations for Intrinsic permeability is supposed to be isotropic, that
net stress and suction induced elastic strains read: is k11 = k22 = k33 The parameters k11 , λ, P0 , Srl are
considered as prospective for optimization.
κi (s) dp κs (p, s) ds The total number of the coupled HM model param-
dε σv −e = ; dε s−e = (4) eters is 23 with 8 for the elastic law, 10 for the plastic
1+e p v
1 + e s + 0.1 law and 5 for the constitutive functions characterizing
soil-water interaction.
The mean stress p is positive for compression and
e is the void ratio. The two constitutive functions
associated with Equation 4 are defined as: 4 NUMERICAL IMPLEMENTATION
κi0 (1 + αi s) if s ≤ −0.999αi The material used for this example of model parame-
κi (s) = (5) ters identification is a mixture of calcium—type ben-
0.001 κi0 if s > −0.999αi
tonite Calcigel and quartz sand. The material is heavily
compacted based on dry mass 50% Calcigel and 50%
κs (p, s) = κs0 κsp exp(αss s) (6) sand mixture, (Agus ans Schanz 2005). Extensive
experimental data for this material is reported in (Agus
⎧ −20 2005). The liquid used in experiments and simula-
⎪
⎪
10
⎪
⎪1 + α sp ln if p ≤ 10−20 tions presented in this section is distilled water. The
⎪
⎪ pref
⎨ −1
gas pressure is taken equal to zero because the only gas
κsp = 0 if p ≥ pref exp considered here is air and it is freely drained from the
⎪
⎪ αsp sample. Results from swelling pressure tests were used
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ p for calibration of TEP model parameters. The swelling
⎩1 + αsp ln elsewhere
pref pressure test offers valuable information related to the
behaviour of expansive soils. What makes this test
The coefficient κi0 gives the slope of the rebound exceptional is that both stress state variables, namely
part of the void ratio versus effective pressure the net mean stress and the suction, are not constant
compression-rebound test graph at saturated condi- during the test.
tion. This parameter is supposed to be easy and The reason we chose elastic constitutive functions
confidently determined directly from the experimental to be back analysed is that the swelling pressure tar-
data. Hence 5 parameters are chosen to be investigated get for optimization is less than the preconsolidation
799
pressure calibrated in (Agus 2005). Therefore we Table 1. Constraints—retention curve, permeability.
expect less influence of plastic law parameters.
Parameter Unit Min Max
800
pref 1
alphasp
alphai
alphass
kappas
k11
lambda
P0 0
k11
P0
pref
alphai
kappas0
lambda
alphass
alphasp
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
MSP mean gamma
801
4.5 Verification
To verify the parameters obtained after back analysis
αi κs0 αsp of the MSP and 1SP tests we performed a simulation
of a compression-rebound test. The test procedure and
the results of CR-3 test are reported in (Agus 2005).
Results are given in Figure 7.
αss λ
k11 5 CONCLUSIONS
802
Alonso, E.E., J. Vaunat, and A. Gens (1999). Modelling Davidon, W.C. and L. Nazareth (1977). OCOPTR—A
the mechanical behaviour of expansive clays. Engng Geol Derivative Free FORTRAN Implementation of Davidon’s
54(12), 173–183. Optimally Conditioned Method. Argonne Nat Lab—Appl
Anderman, E., M. Hill, and E. Poeter (1996). Twodimen- Math Div, Tech Memorandum No 303.
sional advective transport in ground-water flow parameter Eberhardt, R. and J. Kennedy (1995). A new optimizer using
estimation. Ground Water 34(6), 1001–1009. particle swarm theory. In Proc 6th Int Symp on Micro
Arifin, Y. and T. Schanz (2007). Modified isochoric cell for Machine and Human Science, Nagoya, Japan, pp. 39–43.
temperature controlled swelling pressure test. In T. Schanz IEEE Service Center.
(Ed.), Proc 2nd Int Conf Mech Unsat Soils, Weimar, Hill, M.C. (1998). Methods and Guidelines for Effective
Germany, pp. 229–242. Springer. Model Calibration. Denver, Colorado: U.S. Geological
Cividini, A., L. Jurina, and G. Gioda (1981). Some Survey Water–Resources Investigation Report 98–4005.
aspects of characterization problems in geomechanics. Nelder, J.A. and R. Mead (1965). A simplex method for
Int J Rock Mech Min Sci and Geomech Abstr 18(6), function minimization. Computer Journal 7, 308–313.
487–503. Zhang, Z.F., A.L. Ward, and G.W. Gee (2003). Estimating
Code_Bright (2002). USER’S GUIDE: A 3-D program Soil Hydraulic Parameters of a Field Drainage Experi-
for Thermo–Hydro–Mechanical analysis in geological ment Using Inverse Techniques. Vadose Zone Journal 2,
media. UPC, Barcelona. 201–211.
803
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The quality of the solution of moisture flow through expansive soils for the purpose of depth of
moisture influence determination for residential foundation design depends on properly described flux bound-
ary conditions including appropriate environmental factors and inclusion of the microclimate created by human
activity. In this study, both climatic and human imposed conditions typical to Phoenix, Arizona, were considered
in 1-D unsaturated flow modeling. Many years of recorded precipitation data were obtained, and common irriga-
tion practice from surveys of municipalities, together with evapotranspiration data from the regions, were used
to determine the surface flux conditions for modeling. Rigorously described surface flux boundary conditions
were used in the analyses, and simplifications to these conditions were systematically made to determine the
impact of simplified boundary conditions on the final solution. It was found that major simplifications, through
averaging of flux conditions and increased time-steps for application, result in only negligible difference in
computed matric suction compared to more detailed simulations of flux when the capacity of the soil to absorb
applied surface water is not exceeded, such as for the desert landscape conditions of this study. Otherwise, as
observed for the turf irrigation case of this study, averaging surface flux can result in significant over-estimate
of the extent and degree of wetting in the profile.
805
were performed to assure convergence and stability 1.0 1E-04
0.8 1E-06
The profile has two boundary conditions (BCs). Total 0.5 1E-09
head of−153 m was applied to the bottom bound- 0.4 1E-10
ary. This value is based on laboratory testing of field 0.3 SWCC Lab Data 1E-11
samples, illustrating a 1000 to 2000 kPa matric suc- 0.2 SWCC, Fredlund Fit 1E-12
tion range at depths of approximately 2 to 3 meters 0.1 Kunsat, Leong Fit 1E-13
for undeveloped regions in the Phoenix area. A Neu- 0.0 1E-14
mann BC was applied at the soil surface. It consists 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
of precipitation, typically applied irrigation, poten- Suction [kPa]
tial evaporation, relative humidity and temperature
parameters representative of Arizona climatic condi- Figure 1. Unsaturated soil property functions.
tions (see section 2.3 for details). The initial total head
profile of was assumed to be constant with depth and
equal to −153 m. 2.3 Input flux
Expansive soils in the Phoenix metropolitan area can
2.2 Soil properties experience a wide range of flux conditions that include
precipitation, evaporation and irrigation. Two extreme
The expansive soil properties used in this study are flux conditions typical for the Phoenix region were
given in Table 1 and Figure 1. The following required identified. They are turf landscape, where the lawn is
parameters were determined experimentally: specific irrigated every day, and desert or ‘‘xeriscape’’, where
gravity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, ksat , Soil a negligible amount of water is introduced to the soil
Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC), and saturated surface. These two fluxes were used in the one-year
volumetric water content. The SWCC experimen- long analysis requiring four flux components to be
tal data were fitted using the Fredlund and Xing described, flux onto the soil such as irrigation or pre-
(1994) equation to yield the SWCC curve fitting cipitation, potential evaporation, relative humidity and
parameters. temperature.
The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity curve was
estimated using the Leong and Rahardjo equation,
where the slope of the curve was assumed to be sim- 2.3.1 Desert landscape
ilar to other clayey soils published in literature and The potential evaporation data for the Phoenix region
available though SoilVision (Leong & Rahardjo 1997, were obtained from three internet sources 1) US
SVS 2005b). Weather Service, Arizona Department of Water
Resources, 2) NOAA, Western Regional Climate Cen-
ter, and 3) Arizona Meteorological Network (Internet
Table 1. Soil properties. source a, b & c 2006). Measured data for one year
were available from source 1 and 2, while source
Parameter 3 provided 6 years of estimated PE based on measured
Parameter name value relative humidity, RH, and temperature data, T . The
average from all three sources was used to develop PE
LL 85 flux used in the analysis, and is presented in Table 2.
PI 53 The SVFlux code utilizes the formulation developed
γd 13.4 kPa
Gs 2.80
by Wilson et al. (1994) for computation of actual evap-
P-200 86 oration, AE. The general relationship between AE and
% clay 33 PE in terms of soil surface total suction is illustrated
θsat 51.2 in Figure 2, where AE is equal to PE for soil suction
SWCC parameters (Fredlund and Xing, 1994) smaller then 3000 kPa (Wilson et al. 1995). As the soil
af 140 surface suction increases the AE decreases to a value of
bf 0.6 0, corresponding to suction value at applied RH. The
cf 0.9 6-year averages of RH and T from source 3 were fur-
hr 2000 ther used to develop RH and T program input, Table 2.
kunsat parameters (Leong and Rahardjo, 1997)
ksat 8.7e-6 m/h
The amount of water typically applied to desert
p 12 landscape or ‘‘xeriscape’’ is negligible. Therefore, the
amount of water applied to the soil surface is assumed
806
Table 2. Desert flux input. 0.0020
Precipitation
Evaporation
Prec. #Rainy #Rainy PE RH T Ave. Prec. 0.0015 Average Flux
Mo. [m/h] hours days [m/h] [%] [C] [m/h]
Flux [m/h]
0.0010
1 7.1E-04 7 6 1.2E-04 53 12 3.3E-05
2 6.2E-04 8 6 1.5E-04 49 13 3.4E-05 0.0005
3 7.2E-04 8 7 2.3E-04 45 17 3.8E-05
4 7.1E-04 5 4 3.1E-04 34 21 1.1E-05 0.0000
5 1.7E-03 1 3 4.0E-04 26 27 5.1E-06
-0.0005
6 8.0E-04 1 2 4.2E-04 25 31 1.1E-06
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
7 1.1E-03 5 8 4.3E-04 32 34 3.5E-05 Time [h]
8 1.5E-03 2 9 3.6E-04 42 32 2.8E-05
9 1.5E-03 3 5 3.1E-04 39 30 2.5E-05
10 1.2E-03 4 4 2.3E-04 50 22 2.0E-05 Figure 3. Desert landscape input.
11 8.8E-04 6 4 1.5E-04 50 15 2.4E-05
12 7.6E-04 6 5 9.8E-05 52 10 2.7E-05
2.3.2 Turf landscape
The potential evapotranspiration data, ET0 , for tall,
well watered, cool season grass were obtained from
University of Arizona for a golf course in Cave Creek,
Arizona (UA 2000). The evapotranspiration rates were
modified by a 0.6 landscape coefficient to simulate the
evapotraspirationexperiencedbywarmseasonBermuda
grass, a plant commonly used in Phoenix landscapes.
The plant evapotranspiration rate is, in part, a function
of leaf length, since ET 0 was determined for long leaf
vegetation, the correction was necessary to adequately
describe the typical site conditions (UA 2000).
Figure 2. Relationship between AE/PE to total suction for Proper irrigation of turf landscape consists of a
sand, silt and clay (after Wilson et al. 1995). yearly flux equal to the yearly evapotranspiration rate.
Therefore, the warm season Bermuda grass requires
117 cm/year (0.6 ∗ 196 cm/year) of water. The
to be from precipitation only. For the purpose of devel- grass is semi-dormant in the wintertime (November
oping a reasonable input flux, 24-year daily precipita- through February) when a reduced watering regimen
tion and 9-year hourly precipitation data obtained from is required when compared to the summer months.
National Climatic Data Center website was studied for The local recommendation on irrigation is to apply
the Phoenix area. The data revealed that the average 1.9 cm of water during every irrigation event. In gen-
rainfall in Phoenix is 20 cm/year with a standard devia- eral, the warm season grass should be provided with
tion of 7.6 cm/year. Furthermore, the rainy days within about 2.5 cm of water once a month between November
a given month occurred close together and rainy hours through February and 5 to 7.6 cm of water a week from
within a day, for the most part, occurred one after May through September when the plants are irrigated
another. The input used in this analysis consisted of a once every few days. This kind of infrequent watering
stepped function flux where a net precipitation of 20 pattern encourages the plants to develop a deep root
cm is applied per year. The precipitation was applied system and produces hardy plants (McCaleb 2005 and
on an hourly basis where the rainy days as well as City of Mesa 2005).
the rainy hours within a day were grouped together Based on information obtained from the landscape
because this grouping was consistent with typically- professionals and Phoenix area government agencies,
observed rain patterns. During each rainy day the it is estimated that the turf landscapes are often over-
precipitation was applied for the determined number watered by 2 to 5 times the above recommended
of hours and then the rain was followed by a period amount. The mismanagement of water use is mainly
of evaporation. Other than the rainy days, the flux BC attributed to homeowners’ lack of knowledge about
consisted of evaporation only for the remaining por- grass needs. Landscapes are typically irrigated every
tion of the month. Table 2 gives the applied desert day where the water is applied once or twice a day.
landscape input data, which are plotted in Figure 3. The common once a day option consists of 15–20
The simplified average flux scheme consists of the minute watering period equivalent to application of
same PE, RH and T input data and averaged precipi- 0.1 to 1.6 cm of water per irrigation event. The twice a
tation over the period of each month. The last column day watering pattern typically last 5 to 10 minutes and
of Table 2 gives the monthly averaged precipitation. corresponds to 0.04 to 0.8 cm of water per application.
807
The typical flux input scheme for the numeri- 3 MODELING RESULTS
cal models of this study for turf landscape consists
of one hour of irrigation every day followed by 23 3.1 Desert or low water use landscape
hours of evapotranspiration. There are two magnitudes
The desert or low water use landscape consisted of
of applied irrigation. The first flux has magnitude
2.3-m of PE and 0.2-m of rainfall annually. The anal-
of 0.19 cm/hour and is applied between November
ysis with hourly discretized flux, HF, produced large
through April; it is referred to as the Winter irrigation.
matric suction variations at the soil surface ranging
The second flux, also called the Summer irrigation is
from 190 000 kPa at the end of dry period in Jun
applied during the remaining portion of the year and
to 0 kPa after a precipitation event. These suction
has magnitude of 1.16 cm/hour.
swings are not present in the average flux, AF, anal-
The evapotranspiration rate increases from win-
ysis as expected. The soil surface suctions approach
ter months to the mid-summer and then it decreases
the values calculated with HF analysis except for very
towards December. The actual evapotranspiration rate
shallow depth. Just below the surface, the soil response
varies parabolicly with time, but for the purpose of
in terms of suction is similar for both types of analysis
modeling, the rate was simplified to vary on a monthly
as illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 6 (suction variation
basis. The applied flux consists of precipitation and
with depth at the end of year) further shows that the
irrigation where the precipitation data are given in
discrepancy between these two approaches exists only
Table 2, while the irrigation and PE data are provided
in the initial 0.2-m of the profile. At larger depths the
in Table 3. The turf surface flux boundary condition is
solutions are identical.
plotted in Figure 4.
The simplified average flux scheme consists of the
same PE, RH and T input data and averaged both 0
precipitation and irrigation over the period of each
Pore Water Pressure [kPa]
0.012
0
0.010 0.2
0.008
0.4
Flux [m/h]
0.006
0.004 0.6
0.002
HF
0.8
0.000
AF
1
-0.002 -100000 -80000 -60000 -40000 -20000 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 Pore Water Pressure [kPa]
Time [h]
Irrigation and Precipitation Evaporation Average Flux
Figure 6. Desert landscape. Pore water pressure variation
with depth at the end of year for hourly flux (HF) and average
Figure 4. Turf landscape surface flux input. flux (AF).
808
The net flux, as calculated by the computer program hour during the winter regimen and per one hour dur-
for 1 m2 surface area, is presented in Figure 7 for both ing the summer irrigation schedule. The analysis with
HF and AF analyses. The cumulative flux is similar hourly discretized flux, HF, produced large matric
for HF and AF runs, and approaches −0.058 m3 at suction variations at the soil surface ranging from
the end of one year. This helps explain why the results 50 000 kPa at the end of April to about 0 kPa after
obtained with both approaches produce similar results. precipitation or irrigation event as illustrated in Figure
Although runoff of water that does not infiltrate is 8. The suction fluctuations due to individual irrigation
an option utilized for the desert landscape condition or precipitation events were observed to a depth of
(i.e. well-graded/sloped soil surface), the surface flux 0.05-m from the surface. Figure 9 shows that although
conditions are such that essentially no runoff occurred the suction variation at the soil surface might be quite
for either hourly or monthly averaged flux steps. large, the immediate influence of the wetting event
does not exceed 0.05-m. Fluctuations due to monthly
averaged input occur to a depth of about 0.5-m.
3.2 Turf landscape The results obtained with monthly average flux are
very different from the results obtained with hourly
The turf landscape consists of 1.16-m of PE, 0.2-m discretized conditions (Fig. 8). For the averaged mon-
of precipitation and 2.37-m of irrigation per year. The thly flux, the surface matric suction decreases from
hourly discretized flux was applied daily per half an the initial condition to near 0 kPa, increases to about
200 kPa in April and goes back to 0 kPa after April,
where it remains essentially constant. In contrast, the
0.02
Cumulative Flux [m3]
0.01 HF AF
0 0.00
Distance from Surface [m]
-0.01
0.02
-0.02
-0.03 0.04
-0.04
-0.05 0.06
-0.06 before rainfall
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 0.08
Time [d] after rainfall
0.10
Figure 7. Desert landscape. Cumulative flux (for a 1 m2 -10000 -8000 -6000 -4000 -2000 0
surface area) for hourly flux (HF) and average flux (AF) Pore Water Pressure [kPa]
analyses.
Figure 9. Turf landscape. Pore water pressure variation
with depth before and after a rainfall event (HF).
0
Pore Water Pressure [kPa]
0
Distance from Surface [m]
-10000
2
-20000
4
-30000
6
-40000 HF
0m - HF 8
AF
0m - AF
-50000 10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0
Time [d] Pore Water Pressure [kPa]
Figure 8. Turf landscape. Pore water pressure variation Figure 10. Turf landscape. Pore water pressure variation
with time at the soil surface for hourly flux (HF) and average with depth at the end of year for hourly flux (HF) and average
flux (AF) analyses. flux (AF).
809
0.35 deformations. Further studies evaluating the effect of
HF AF shrinkage soil cracking on moisture flow, coupled and
0.3
Cumulative Flux [m3]
810
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper explores the development and application of a numerical model of water uptake in
the vicinity of established trees. A preliminary assessment of the significance of water content (and therefore
suction) changes on the stability of soil slopes is provided. This is a problem that is exacerbated by climate
change and increasingly intense rainfall events. Design, repair, maintenance and operation of railway and road
earthworks are particular areas where this issue is important. For a typical slope geometry the research indicates
that tree-induced suction variations can cause the factor of safety against failure to vary by between 5% and 7%.
This result is independent of other associated contributions that may arise from root reinforcement, windthrow,
weight of vegetation etc. Therefore, further work is needed to consider the overall effect of vegetation and to
reduce parametric uncertainty.
811
2 THEORETICAL AND NUMERICAL Where (ua − uw ) is the matric suction and φ b is an
BACKGROUND angle indicating the rate of increase in shear strength
relative to matric suction. (σn − ua ) is the net normal
2.1 Limiting equilibrium forces for unsaturated stress, c is the effective cohesion and φ is angle of
slope stability friction. Combining equations (1) and (2), gives,
This study uses the theory of limit equilibrium of !
forces and moments to compute the FOS against fail- l c + (σn − ua ) tan φ + (ua − uw ) tan φ b
Sm =
ure. The limit equilibrium method of slices is widely F
used for its simplicity particularly when compared (3)
to the finite element method (Fredlund and Rahardjo
1993, Renaud et al. 2003). The FOS is defined as that From Figure 1, (taking point O as centre of the
factor by which the shear strength of the soil must be moments) the summation of moments in the slope,
reduced in order to bring the mass of soil into a state yields:
of limiting equilibrium along a selected slip surface. " "
Calculations for the stability of a slope are performed Wx − Sm R = 0 (4)
by dividing the soil mass above the circular slip surface
into vertical slices. The limit equilibrium formulation
assumes that the factor of safety is equal for all soils Substituting equation (3) into (4) and substituting
involved and for all slices. (ua − uw ) = S (matric suction) and assuming air pore
The current work aims to explore the importance pressure is atmospheric, ua = 0, equation (4) becomes
of suction changes on shear strength. Therefore, in 2
the example considered, the water table is assumed to c lR + NR tan φ + SRl tan φ b
F= 2 (5)
be below the zone of interest. Tension cracks are, Wx
therefore, excluded from the current work. It is also
assumed that there are no interslice shear forces Equation (5) has been used throughout this research for
involved in the equation for both horizontal and ver- calculating the FOSs. Note that if the matric suction is
tical forces. This assumption has been made for the zero (i.e. the soil is saturated) Equation (5) becomes
following reasons; the standard Fellenius’s method (Fellenius, 1936).
i. Vertical interslice forces can be assumed equal and
opposite (Bishop, 1955). 2.3 The water-uptake model
ii. The resultant of the interslice forces acting on a
slice can be assumed to act parallel to the base of The two-dimensional water-uptake model provided by
the slice. By resolving forces normal to the base of Rees and Ali (2006) is used here. In Cartesian form,
the slice, the interslice forces are eliminated. the sink term can be written as:
4T z x
S(ψ, x, z) = α(ψ) 1 − 1− (6)
2.2 FOS for an unsaturated slope zr xr zr xr
To calculate the FOS of an unsaturated soil slope and
link this with the effect of tree-root-water uptake, a Where S (ψ, x, z) is the sink term (cm3 /cm3 /s),
force equation which includes matric suction must be T is the potential transpiration rate (cm/s), xr is the
established first. The analysis is an extension of con- maximum rooting horizontal distance (cm), zr is the
ventional limit equilibrium analysis where an equation maximum rooting depth (cm), α(ψ) is a dimension-
is formed using the basic principle of static equilibrium less water stress function (see Feddes et al. 1976),
of forces and moments. The mobilized shear force
at the base of a slice can be written as (Lambe and o
Whitman, 1969)
τl 8 350cm
Sm = (1) 6
7
F 5
27˚cm
4 8
500cm
750cm 3
Where τ is shear strength of unsaturated soil. Fredlund
1 2
7
1
250cm
6
et al. (1978) provided the following expression for 2 3 4 5
τ = c + (σn − ua ) tan φ + (ua − uw ) tan φ b
(2) Figure 1. Test slope geometry.
812
z is the vertical coordinate (cm) and x is the horizontal The time dependent nature of Equation (9) is dealt
coordinate (cm). with via a mid-interval backward difference technique,
Combining the Richards equation (Richards 1931) yielding:
and the sink term in Equation (6), provides the
∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ
C(ψ) = K(ψ) + J n+1/2 + S n+1/2 = 0 (14)
∂t ∂x ∂x
This finite element spatial discretisation proce-
∂ ∂ψ ∂K (ψ)
+ K(ψ) + − S(ψ, x, z) (7) dure and a finite difference time-stepping scheme
∂z ∂z ∂z
has been coded in FORTRAN and used throughout
the simulation in this study. Further detail of the
A solution of Equation (7) is obtained via a finite ele- water-uptake model can be found in Rees and Ali
ment spatial discretisation procedure and a finite dif- (2006).
ference time-stepping scheme. In particular, adopting
a Galerkin weighted residual approach yields:
3 CASE STUDY
∂Ns ∂Nr
− K ψs ∂e 3.1 Slope geometry and slip surface
∂x ∂x
e For the purposes of this paper, a typical 1 in 2
∂Nr ∂Ns ∂K slope has been considered. In this study, location of
− K ψs ∂e − Nr ∂e the critical slip surface has been determined using
∂z ∂z ∂z
e e SLOPEW—employing 147 trial surfaces. For stability
analysis, the slope has been divided into eight slices,
+ Nr λ∂ − Nr S(x, z)∂e numbered from 1 at the toe, to 8 at the crest of the
e
slope. Figure 1 shows the geometry of the slope, the
position of each slice and the location of the critical
∂ψs slip surface.
− Nr Ns C ∂e = 0 (8)
∂t
e
3.2 Soil properties
Using, Green’s formula and introducing boundary The soil chosen for consideration here follows from
terms leads to the final discretised form: the work of Rees and Ali (2006). In particular, the
behaviour of Boulder clay is considered. The relevant
∂ψs shear strength properties of Boulder clay are given in
Kψs + C +J +S =0 (9) Table 1.
∂t
The water retention curve and the hydraulic con-
ductivity relationship for this material are shown in
where Figures 2 and 3 respectively. The figures also show
measured data for three other soils as references: typ-
"m
∂Ns ∂Nr ∂Ns ∂Nr ical sand, Kimmeridge clay and typical Loam (Rees
K= K · +K · ∂e 1990). A comparison of results would appear to sug-
∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z
e=1 e gest that the assumed relationship for Boulder clay is
(10) within the range of previously published data for this
m
"
soil type.
C= [Nr Ns C]∂e (11)
e=1 e
m
"
"m
∂K Table 1. Material properties (Bishop et al. 1960).
J = Nx ∂e − [Nx λ]∂ e (12)
e=1 e
∂x e=1 Soil γ c φ φb
e
type (kN/m3 ) (kPa) (degrees) (degrees)
m
"
S= [Nx S (x, z)]∂e (13) Boulder
clay 22 9.6 27.3 21.7
e=1 e
813
1.0E+05 Boulder Clay
(Biddle, 1998). The mesh consists of seven hundred,
Sand
Kimmeridge Clay eight-noded isoparametric elements with 2231 nodes
Capillary Potential (negative value,cm)
1.0E+04 Loam in total. The mesh was configured to offer some refine-
ment within the root zone area since this is the region
1.0E+03
where the most significant moisture content variations
were expected to occur.
1.0E+02
The simulated period covered a spring/summer soil-
1.0E+01
drying phase of 9 months (270 days). The simulation
employed a time-step size of 21600 seconds, which
1.0E+00
was held constant for the entire period considered.
0.05 0.20 0.35
Volumetric Water Content (%)
0.50 0.65 A transpiration rate of 5 mm/day is used for this
tree (Biddle, 1998). In this case, water extraction is
Figure 2. Water retention curve for Boulder clay. assumed to take place at its potential rate. Through-
out the simulation, capillary potential was dry from
−20 cm to −130 cm. Therefore α(ψ) in Equation (6)
Volumetric Water Content (%)
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65
has been taken as unity as this range of capillary poten-
1.0E-05 tial is within the range of optimal water extraction
(Feddes et al. 1976).
1.0E-06
Boulder Clay
A uniform initial value of capillary potential of
Hydraulic Conductivity (cm/s)
700 elements
Mature Tree
2231 nodes 4 RESULTS
12.311.1
9.9
Origin line
siders the effect of a mature lime tree located near the 8.8
6.5
4.2
toe of the embankment. Figure 4 shows a diagram- 2.0
814
Although the active root zone of the tree lies below 2.96
the start of the slope, Figure 5 reveals that suctions
2.94
have been generated within on the lower section of FOS
the slope itself. The water-uptake model, only applies 2.92
the sink (extraction) within the pre-defined geome-
FOS
try of the root zone. However, moisture is free to 2.90
migrate towards this zone from the surrounding soil.
2.88
Hence, a ‘drawdown’ of moisture from the slope can
be expected. 2.86
Figure 6 shows the changes of matric suction at
nodes located at the centre of the base of some selected 2.84
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
slices (see Figure 3). The most significant changes in Days
matric suction occur near the centre of tree (i.e. slice
no 1). This effect diminishes as the distance from the Figure 8. Variation of FOS with time.
centre of tree increases (slice no 2 > slice no 4 > slice
no 8). For ease of interpretation, Figure 7 also shows
the results in terms of volumetric moisture content at Table 2. Comparison of FOS at various conditions.
these slices.
Percentage
Figure 8 shows the corresponding changes in the
Conditions Description FOS difference (%)
FOS computed at various times during the drying
period. This figure shows that FOS varies with time Fully Trial slope with no
and increases with matric suction. saturated tree water up-take 2.74 0
Tree near Position of tree;
toe x = 6 m,
12.0 y = 2.5 m 2.95 7.7
Tree at Position of tree;
10.0
Slice 1
Slice 2
mid-slope x = 10 m, Coor-
Slice 4 dinate y = 4 m 2.89 5.47
Matric Suction (kPa)
2.0
Further work has also been undertaken to examine
0.0 the effect of changing the position of the tree in relation
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Days
to the slope. Presentation of the detailed results is not
possible in this paper due to space limitations. How-
Figure 6. Matric suction (kPa) at the base of selected slices ever, a brief summary of the overall result is presented
(Refer to Figure 3). for two cases; 1) tree located at mid-slope, and 2) tree
located at crest of slope. Based on these variations, two
new water-uptake simulations have been performed.
4.0E-01 All other characteristics of these simulations remain
as described above.
3.8E-01
Volumetric Moisture Content (%)
815
5 CONCLUSIONS GEO—SLOPE ver 6.17 Software, GEO-SLOPE/W Interna-
tional Ltd, Calgary Alberta, Canada, 2004.
The application of a numerical model for the simula- Greenwood, J.R. 2006. SLIP4EX—A program for routine
tion of moisture migration patterns due to tree water slope stability analysis to include the effects of vegetation,
uptake in relation to a soil slope has been presented. An reinforcement and hydrological changes. Geotechnical
and Geological Engineering, 24: 449–465.
approach has been illustrated that enables the result- Greenwood, J.R., Norris, J.E. & Wint, J. 2004. Assessing
ing prediction of soil suction variations to be related the contribution of vegetation to slope stability. ICE Proc.
to a subsequent calculation of slope stability. Stabil- Geotechnical Engineering, 157: 199–207.
ity calculations have been performed by application of Janbu, N., Bjerrum, L. & Kjaernsli, B. 1956. Soil mechan-
the standard theory of limit equilibrium of forces and ics applied to some engineering problems. Norwegian
moments. The model proposed then extends the stan- Geotechnical Institute Publication, 16.
dard framework to include a shear strength equation Lambe, T.W. & Whitman, R.V. 1969. Soil Mechanics. Wiley,
that is suction dependent. New York, 363–365.
Suction variations generated in relation to a mature Morgenstern, N.R. & Price, V.E. 1965. The analysis of the
Stability of General Slip Surfaces. Géotechnique, 15:
lime tree located on (or near) a typical soil slope have 79–93.
been presented. A range of tree locations have been Rees, S.W. 1990. Seasonal Ground Movement Effects on
considered. The problem chosen for consideration Buried Services, PhD thesis, University of Wales, Cardiff.
covered a full spring/summer drying period. Rees, S.W. & Ali, N. 2006. Seasonal water uptake near trees:
The results of this study indicate that matric suction A numerical and experimental study. Geomechanics and
generation caused by the presence of a mature tree can Geoengineering, 1(2): 129–138.
readily increase the factor of safety against slope fail- Renaud, J.P., Anderson, M.G., Wilkinson, P.L., Lloyd, D.M. &
ure by more than 5%. These results are independent Wood, D.M. 2003. The importance of visualisation of
of related vegetation effects e.g. weight of vegetation, results from slope stability. ICE Proc. Geotechnical
Engineering, 156(1): 27–33.
windthrow, root strength etc. and must therefore be Richards, L.A. 1931. Capillary conduction of liquids in
treated only as a one component of the overall problem. porous media. Physics, 1: 318–333.
In addition, it is evident that vegetation may induce Ridley, A., Ginnity, M. & Vaughan, P. 2004. Role of
much higher suctions than those considered here. Fur- pore water pressures in embankment stability. ICE Proc.
ther work is therefore needed to validate the approach Geotechnical Engineering, 157: 193–198.
presented and to set it in a more general context. Simon, A. & Collison, A.J. 2002. Quantifying the mechanical
and hydrologic effects of Riparian vegetation on stream-
bank stability. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,
REFERENCES 27: 527–546.
Simon, A., Curini, A., Darby, S.E. & Langendoen, E.J.
2000. Bank and near-bank processes in an incised channel.
Biddle, P.G. 1998. Tree Root Damage to Buildings. Wil-
Geomorphology, 35: 193–217.
lowmead Publishing Ltd, Wantage.
Spencer, E. 1967. A Method of Analysis of the Stabil-
Bishop, A.W. 1955. The use of the slip circle in the stability
ity of Embankments Assuming Parallel Interslice Forces.
analysis of earth slopes. Géotechnique, 5(1): 7–17.
Géotechnique, 17: 11–26.
Bishop, A.W., Alphan I., Blight, G.E. & Donald, I.B. 1960.
Technical Committee of Investigation 1994. The Collapse of
Factors Controlling the Shear Strength of Partly Satu-
Block 1 and the Stability of Blocks 2 and 3 Highland Tow-
rated Cohesive Soils. Proc. ASCE conf. cohesive soils,
ers Condominium. Report of the Technical Committee,
Colorado, 503–532.
Hulu Klang, Malaysia.
Fellenius, W. 1936. Calculation of the Stability of Earth
Terzaghi, K. 1936. The Shear Resistance of Saturated Soils.
Dams. Trans. 2nd Int. Cong. Large Dams, Washington,
Proc. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., Cambridge, 54–56.
445–459.
Thorne, C.R. 1990. Effects of vegetation on riverbank erosion
Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R. & Widger, R.A.
and stability. In Vegetation and Erosion: Processes and
1978. The shear strength of unsaturated soils. Canadian
Environments, John Wiley and Sons, 125–144.
Geotechnical Journal, 15: 313–321.
Fredlund, D.G. & Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil Mechanics of
Unsaturated Soils. John Wiley & Sons: New York.
816
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper details the development of a transfer method of the hydraulic boundary conditions
from a hydrological finite difference code, SHETRAN, into a geotechnical finite difference code, FLAC two
phase (tp) flow. This transfer allows the daily predicted surface pore water pressures from SHETRAN to be
applied to the surface boundary of the FLAC tp flow model. Once the surface pore water pressures have been
applied then any of the constitutive soil models within FLAC tp flow can be used to model the mechanical
response. This process offers the advantage that actual or predicted climate data can be used together with soils
and vegetation data to model the seasonal responses of an embankment. Ultimately this model will be used with
predicted future climate data to predict the response of infrastructure embankments to climate change.
1.1 Examples
For the purpose of this paper four tests have been con-
ducted. The first test consists of a simple caisson where
the SHETRAN—FLAC models have been run sepa-
rately in order to validate the newer FLAC tp flow
model against the more established SHETRAN model.
The second test involves first running the SHETRAN
model with actual climate data and transferring the sur- Figure 1. SHETRAN surface model.
817
Data requirements for the model are meteorological with the more established SHETRAN model. This
data, soils data, vegetation properties and overland validation exercise involved the modelling of a par-
flow data together with boundary and initial condition tially saturated caisson.
settings. SHETRAN will then automatically output The caisson was 6 m deep and the pore pressure
pore pressures for each cell within the grid. At the was hydrostatic with an initial head of −6 m at the
surface boundary, interception of precipitation is mod- surface and 0 m head at the base. Infiltration of the
eled by a modified Rutter model (Rutter et al. 1971) caisson took place at a rate of 0.2 m/day until full sat-
allowing the calculation of net rainfall reaching the uration was reached. The caisson was then permitted
ground together with the amount of stored water on the to drain. Each software model requires different input
vegetation canopy and evaporation from the canopy. parameters for the soil. The soil parameters were set
Evapotranspiration, the movement of water from the for the FLAC tp flow calculation and the SHETRAN
soil and within plants, is modelled within SHETRAN parameters derived from these, as shown in Tables 1
using the Penman-Montieth equation for actual evap- and 2.
otranspiration (Monteith 1965). This is calculated as a
loss term to describe the uptake of water through plant Table 1. FLAC tp flow soil properties.
roots. Overland flow is also calculated within the pro-
gram. The depth of runoff water is determined from Saturated mobility coefficient 2.92 × 10−10 m2 /(Pa-s)
the available water from the interception evapotranspi- Porosity 0.33
ration component and the rate of infiltration into the Residual saturation 0
subsurface. Flow resistance parameters are then used P0 0.699 × 104 Pa
to model the overland flow using approximations of the a 0.336
St. Venant equations of continuity and momentum. b 0.5
The subsurface is assumed to consist of a porous c 0.5
medium with saturation a function of moisture content.
Flow through the medium is calculated by solving the
non-linear partial differential Richards equation.
where P0 , a, b and c are Van Genuchten parameters
used in the FLAC tp flow program. Saturated hydraulic
1.3 FLAC tp flow
conductivity in SHETRAN is equal to the Saturated
The FLAC finite difference code allows the numerical mobility coefficient in FLAC multiplied by ρω g. The
modelling of structures built of soil and rock. The two- parameters α and n used in SHETRAN are defined as
phase flow option within the FLAC program considers follows:
two immiscible fluids within a porous medium. This
ρω g
allows the modelling of an unsaturated soil assum- α= (1)
ing the fluids present within the soil are water and P0
gas. FLAC tp flow is capable of solving a fluid only
calculation and a fully coupled fluid mechanical calcu- where ρω is the density of water = 103 Pa/m3 and
lation. For the purpose of this paper, only the fluid flow g is the force due to gravity = 10 ms−2 . The
calculation is considered. FLAC tp flow requires soil Van Genuchten parameter n used in SHETRAN is
properties, water properties and boundary and initial defined as
conditions to be specified. Water is able to enter the
1
grid by specifying either a discharge or a pore water n= (2)
pressure at the boundary. The two phase calculation 1−a
approximates the Richards equation if it is assumed
that air within a partially saturated medium is at atmo-
spheric pressure and has a density of zero, and that Table 2. SHETRAN soil properties.
the porous medium has a constant volume and cannot
deform. These assumptions are specified in the fol- Saturated hydraulic conductivity 2.92 × 10−6 m/s
lowing examples in order to validate FLAC tp flow θs 0.33
against the more established SHETRAN model. θr 0
A 1.43 (1/m)
N 1.506
2 CAISSON COMPARISON
Before a transfer of pore water pressures was attemp- where θs is the saturated volumetric moisture con-
ted a simple validation exercise was conducted in order tent (porosity) and θr is the residual volumetric water
to compare the relatively new FLAC tp flow model content.
818
2.1 Saturation 2.2 Drainage
Figure 2 shows the variation of moisture content Figure 4 displays the variation in pore pressure with
for both models during the saturation phase of the depth under drainage from the base of the caisson
modelling. It can be seen that both models have iden- (base boundary condition, head = 0 metres). The
tical initial conditions. Through the first 2.5 days the SHETRAN and FLAC codes correlate well with only
SHETRAN caisson was marginally more saturated some divergence at the base of the model. At this point
than the FLAC tp flow caisson. This divergence of the over time the SHETRAN model loses some moisture
models continued over time as can be seen from the content and is not fully saturated as within the FLAC
plots at 4.25 days. model.
Figure 3 shows the variation of head with depth for Figure 5 displays variation of head over depth within
both SHETRAN and FLAC tp flow models for the the two modelled caissons. Due to the FLAC model
caisson. Again both models have almost identical ini- having a much higher initial pore pressure through-
tial conditions. At 2.5 days negative pore pressures out the grid the two models differ at day one but by no
within both models were almost identical, however more than 0.2 m. The later measurements of head after
the FLAC tp flow model showed a slight positive pore day 4 correlate very well. These results provide confi-
pressure within the saturated zone. At 4.25 days the dence in the capabilities of the FLAC tp flow program
positive pore pressure continued within the saturated to calculate the flow of water through a porous par-
zone stabilising at just above 0.5 m within the top tially saturated medium. The next example attempts
third of the caisson. Within the area of negative pore the transfer of the SHETRAN surface pore pressures
pressures both models again gave similar results. to the surface of the FLAC tp flow grid.
6 6
5 5 initial
SHETRAN initial SHETRAN day 1
4 SHETRAN 2.5 days 4 SHETRAN day 4
elevation
3
FLAC initial 3 SHETRAN day 100
2 FLAC 2.5 days FLAC day1
2 FLAC day 4
FLAC 4.25 days
1 FLAC day 20
1
FLAC day 100
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
moisture content
moisture content
819
3 CAISSON WITH PORE PRESSURE Saturation profile at 100 days
TRANSFER
6
For this test the caisson model was run within the 5 FLAC saturation
elevation (m)
profile 100 days
SHETRAN program but this time with climate data 4
obtained for north Yorkshire, UK in 1994. A pore 3
SHETRAN
2
pressure boundary input file was then created from saturation profile
1 100 days
the SHETRAN results file. This file contained the 0
daily pore pressures for the uppermost cell within the 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
SHETRAN grid. Pore pressures within SHETRAN saturation
were calculated for the centre of each cell. These daily
pore pressures were then transferred to the top of the
FLAC tp flow grid at grid points. A pore pressure read- Figure 7. Saturation profiles after 100 days.
ing was transferred for day 1 and the FLAC tp flow
model allowed to run for 1 day. The next day’s pore
pressure was then applied and the model run again, and SHETRAN. Again it is apparent that the SHETRAN
so on until the end of the simulation. Within the FLAC grid ‘wets up’ slightly faster than the FLAC tp flow
tp code, if a pore pressure is applied at the boundary grid. Below the 2 m mark both models show there
then water is effectively exchanged with the outside has been no infiltration of water and initial conditions
world to maintain that pore pressure, i.e. for a nega- persist.
tive pore pressure water is extracted from the grid and The combined caisson modelling show that the
for a positive pore pressure water is pumped into the FLAC tp flow model is capable of modelling the
grid. This will effectively simulate the infiltration of flow of water through the unsaturated zone and that
water at positive pressures and the extraction of water the method of transfer of pore water pressure from
due to evapotranspiration at negative pore pressures. the SHETRAN surface cells to the FLAC surface is
The test was run for a period of 100 days. effective. These tests were carried out under a one-
Figure 6 shows the variation in pore pressure within dimensional condition only, for the next test the same
the caisson at depths of 0.9 m and 1.8 m below the sur- process was attempted for a two-dimensional problem.
face of the caisson for both the SHETRAN simulation
and the FLAC tp flow simulation. The figure again
shows a slight delay within the FLAC tp flow cal- 4 EMBANKMENT TEST WITH BARE SLOPES
culation compared with the SHETRAN calculation.
The differences are, however, negligible and the same For this exercise an embankment was modelled in
steady states are achieved with reasonable correlation. SHETRAN with initial very dry conditions and with
Figure 7 shows the correlation between the models. the same climate data as used for the caisson with
At the surface there is an exact match due to the pore pore pressure transfer example (see above). The pore
pressure calculated from SHETRAN being applied to pressures within the centre of the top cell from the
the FLAC tp flow surface. Lower down in the grid SHETRAN grid were then imported daily to the
FLAC tp flow shows marginally less saturation than boundary grid points of the FLAC tp flow grid.
Figure 8 shows how the FLAC tp flow grid and the
SHETRAN grid overlap each other. The grey cells
Variation of head over 100 days represent the cells for which daily pore pressures have
been transferred. Several files were created from the
-1.00
SHETRAN simulations, one for each of the surfaces
-1.50
-2.00 FLAC 0.9 m depth
cells. Each file again contained the daily calculated
-2.50
pore pressures from the SHETRAN calculation. For
SHETRAN 0.9 m
day 1 the pore pressures were applied and the model
head (m)
-3.00 depth
-3.50 FLAC 1.8 m depth run for a day, then day 2 pore pressures applied and so
-4.00 on as within the caisson examples.
SHETRAN 1.8 m
-4.50 depth The soil properties for this simulation are given in
-5.00 Table 3.
-5.50
0 20 40 60 80 100
days
4.1 Comparison of results
Figure 6. Pore pressure time series for SHETRAN and Figures 9, 10 and 11 show the variation in head over
FLAC tp flow after transfer of surface pore pressures. the SHETRAN grid and the FLAC tp flow grid for a
820
period of 4 years for 3 points within the grids (indicated
by the dots on the grid on ech figure). It can be seen Head Variation 4yrs
condition. -1
Head m
-2
and 10) the FLAC tp flow calculation shows an initial
-2.5
lag behind the SHETRAN simulation, this is due to -3
the two phase model assumptions not exactly approx- Flac tp flow 7.5m from cent 2m elevation
-3.5
Shetran 7.5m from cent 2m elevation
imating to the Richards equation, but after a period of -4
100 days both models correlate well. Deeper within 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Days
the embankment (Figure 11) the lag is more pro-
nounced; good correlation is not achieved until 300
days. This initial lag deep within the embankment is Figure 10. Pore pressure variation for 4 years for embank-
caused by the excessively dry initial conditions. As ment with bare lopes at height 2 m above foundation.
it can be seen for the remaining 3 years the models
correlate well. Such excessively dry initial conditions
-0.5
-1
-1.5
head m
-2
-2.5
-3
Flac tp flow 1.5m from cent 2m elevation
-3.5
Shetran 1.5m from centre 2m elevation
-4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
days
Figure 8. Overlap of SHETRAN and FLAC tp flow grids.
Figure 11. Pore pressure variation for 4 years for embank-
Table 3. Embankment test FLAC tp flow soil properties. ment with bare slopes at height 2 m above foundation.
-4.00
It can be seen from these Figures when compared
-5.00
shetran 0.5m cent 5.5m elevation to Figures 9, 10 and 11, which represent the simu-
-6.00
-7.00
Flac tp flow 0.5m cent 5.5m elevation
lation for bare ground, there is a much greater range
-8.00
between the summer and winter pore pressures. This
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 greater range is much more pronounced at the surface
days
(Figures 8, 9, 11 and 12). The SHETRAN program
results and the FLAC tp program results still compare
Figure 9. Pore pressure variation for 4 years for embank- well for the three areas investigated despite the greater
ment with bare slopes at height 5.5 m above foundation. variance in pore pressures.
821
Head variation over 4 years
6 CONCLUSIONS
1.00
From these simple tests it has been established that
-1.00
FLAC tp flow is capable of modelling unsaturated flow
-3.00
through a porous medium with a high degree of accu-
-5.00
racy. It has also been shown that the method of transfer-
head (m)
-7.00
ring surface pore pressures from the SHETRAN grid
-9.00
-11.00
Flac tp flow 0.5m from cent 5.5m to the surface grid points of the FLAC tp flow grid is
elevation
-13.00 SHETRAN 0.5m from cent. 5.5m an efficient way to apply the more complex surface
-15.00
elevation condition model of SHETRAN to the FLAC tp flow
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 calculation.
days
It will now be possible to run a simulation within
SHETRAN for a fully vegetated embankment with
Figure 12. Pore pressure variation over 4 years for embank- actual measured or predicted climatic data and trans-
ment with grass covered slopes at height 5.5 m above fer the pore pressures over to FLAC tp flow to run
foundation.
a fully coupled analysis and establish the mechanical
response of the embankment.
Head variation over 4 years
0.00
REFERENCES
-1.00
-3.00
System, Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 5, (3), pp.
-4.00
250–258.
-5.00
Flac tp flow 7.5m from cent 2m elevation Kovacevic, K., Potts, D.M. & Vaughan, P.R. 2001. Progres-
-6.00
SHETRAN 7.5m from cent. 2m elevation
sive failure in clay embankments due to seasonal climate
-7.00
changes, 5th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Geotech. Engng.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Istanbul, 2127–2130.
days
Monteith, J.L. 1965. Evaporation and environment. Proc.
18th Symposium Society for Experimental Biology.
Figure 13. Pore pressure variation over 4 years for embank- Swansea: Cambridge University Press, London, 205–234.
ment with grass covered slopes at height 2 m above Rutter, A.J., Kershaw, K.A., Robins, P.C. & Morton, A.J.
foundation. 1971. A predictive model of rainfall interception in
forests, 1. Derivation of the model from observations in a
plantation of Corsican pine. Agricultural Meteorology, 9,
Head variation over 4 years
pp. 367–384.
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
head (m)
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
Flac tp flow 1.5m from cent. 2m elevation
-4.00
SHETRAN 1.5m from cent. 2m elevation
-4.50
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
days
822
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper describes a simple model which can be used to estimate the time needed for a wetting
front to develop in an unsaturated soil slope. The model is an extended form of the traditional Green-Ampt
method. The first extension recognises that ponding of water cannot occur on a soil slope. It further allows the
user to indirectly account for antecedent rainfall conditions by separating slopes into two categories depending on
their initial suction profiles. In the first category, where the initial suctions are large, the rate of the development
of the wetting front depth is controlled by the rainfall intensity. In the second, where the initial suction is low,
the time taken for a wetting front to develop to a given depth depends on the infiltration capacity of the soil. In
the final section of the paper results from the new model are compared to numerical predictions of wetting front
depth in a fine sand slope.
823
2.2 Horton equation
H Infiltrating water Run-off from a slope will occur only when the rain-
fall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the
soil. Considering Equation 2 we see that the infiltra-
Saturated soil Zf
tion capacity of the slope reaches a limiting minimum
value, equal to the saturated permeability of the
soil (Ks ) when the near surface soils become satu-
Wetting front; rated. Field measurements contradict this assumption.
matric suction pulls Wetting front
moves down Rahardjo et al. (2005) revealed that run-off occurred
water into dry soil on slopes when the rainfall intensity was lower than Ks .
into dry soil
The Horton equation (Jury & Horton 2004) is used
to describe the infiltration capacity of soil with time (t).
Figure 1. Two-layered soil profile defined in Green-Ampt
model. i = if + (i0 − if ) exp(−βt) (3)
824
e and the hydraulic head in this zone is controlled
r fac
pe su exclusively by matric suction. Since the water sup-
fall slo ply at the ground surface is continuous during
ain
aft er r tion rainfall, suction values at the ground surface are
suc
fall zero. Setting the ground surface as the reference
St
re rain
efo nt elevation and considering vertical flow only, the
Su b fro
tti ng hydraulic gradient at depth y should be:
we
Hf
Sb Sy
hi = (4)
y
suction profile
where Sy is the suction value at depth y. The
y
infiltration capacity of the soil at depth y is:
825
Su St 4 APPLICATION OF THE MODEL
H2 zone 1
Tami et al. (2004) performed numerical simulations
H1 using SEEP/W (Geoslope Int.) to investigate the effect
of the duration of a rainfall event on the infiltration
response of a slope which was subjected to a fixed
zone 2
H rainfall intensity of 86.4 mm/hr. Two rainfall dura-
Sy=(Ri/K)*y tions were considered, 15 and 42 minutes. This rainfall
intensity was chosen to correspond to a rate of 10%
of the saturated permeability of the sand. The 30◦
Sb slope considered was made up of a 400 mm deep fine
y sand layer overlying a 200 mm thick gravely sand.
The fine sand had a saturated permeability (Ks ) of
Figure 4. Suction profile divided into two zones. 2.4×10−4 m/s, and the variation of suction with water
content is shown in Table 1.
The initial and final suction profiles for the
According to the Law of mass conservation, in 15 minute infiltration event is shown in Figure 5. It
zone 1, we have: is apparent that after 15 minutes rainfall there was a
significant reduction in suction at the slope surface, a
small reduction at a depth of 200 mm and no change at
Ri dt = θ1 dy (6)
Rewriting the equation and integrating with depth Table 1. Water content of the fine sand at different suctions.
(y), we have the time required to form the wetting front
Suction
to depth H1 in zone 1 (Figure 4):
(kPa) 5.4 4 3.5 2.5 1 1.5
200 mm
zone, the infiltration capacity is lower than the rainfall Zone 1
Final
intensity. So in this zone we have:
400 mm
Initial
3.5 kPa
Sb
K dt = θ2 dy (8)
y
2.5 kPa
Final
T = T1 + T2 (10) Initial
2.5 kPa
It should be noted that in stage 2 as the soil becomes
nears full saturation, it may behave as a saturated soil. Sy=0.2y
In such cases Equation 10 may be overestimate the
actual time required for a wetting front to form in latter Figure 6. Initial and final suction profile in the slope with
parts of stage 2. the 42 min precipitation of 86.4 mm/h.
826
Table 2. Comparison of result from FEM and proposed controlled by the infiltration capacity of the wetted
method in this paper. soil. When compared to the results from FEM analyses
and the Green-Ampt model, the new model provided
Time (min) estimates that were compatible with FEM results and
This paper a significant improvement on the Green-Ampt model,
especially during the early stage of infiltration. This
Case FEM Green-Ampt T1 T2 Total method has an obvious advantage in performing pre-
liminary design prior to the decision to carry out a full
1 15 2.2 10.4 0 10.4 FEM analysis.
2 42 10.2 37.5 0 37.5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
400 mm, suggesting that the wetting front depth just This project is funded by Iarnród Éireann. The authors
exceeded 200 mm. When the duration was increased would like to thanks Mr. Brian Garvey, former Chief
to 42 minutes the wetting front depth evidently pene- Civil Engineer with Iarnród Éireann for financial
trated through the entire 400 mm depth of fine sand assistance received. The first author was the recip-
(See Figure 6). ient of a Geotechnical Trust Fund award from the
Calculation of the time needed to form these wet- Geotechnical Society of Ireland.
ting front depths was carried out using the Green-Ampt
method and the new model and the results are shown
in Table 2. Consideration of Figures 5 and 6 show that REFERENCES
in both cases, because the rainfall intensity is low in
comparison to the infiltration capacity, the soil falls Bouwer, H. (1966). Rapid field measurement of air entry
completely in zone 1, and therefore only T1 needs to value and hydraulic conductivity of soil as significant
parameters in flow system analysis. Water Resources
be calculated. Whilst the predictions made using the
Research 2(4): 729–738.
new model are compatible with the FEM analyses, the Chu, S.T. (1978). Infiltration during an unsteady rain. Water
Green-Ampt model severely under-predicted the infil- Resources Research 14(3): 461–466.
tration time. This is presumably due to the combined Green, W.H. & C.A. Ampt (1911). Studies on soil physics:
effect of the use of Ks and the role of the static water Flow of air and water through soils. Journal of Agricultural
head (imparted by the wetting front) increasing the Science 4: 1–24.
hydraulic gradient. Jury, W.A. & R. Horton (2004). Soil Physics. New Jersey,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Mein, R.G. & C.L. Larson (1973). Modeling infiltration
during a steady rain. Water Resources Research 9(2):
5 CONCLUSION 384–394.
Mishra, S.K., J.V. Tyagi & V.P. Singh (2003). Compar-
To determine the stability of unsaturated soil slopes, ison of infiltration models. Hydrological processes 7:
it is important to determine the depth of the wet- 2629–2652.
ting front. The Green-Ampt model and FEM analyses Ng, C.W.W. & Q. Shi (1998). A numerical investigation of the
stability of unsaturated soil slopes subjected to transient
are widely used to predict the formation of the wet-
seepage. Computer and Geotechnics 22(1): 1–28.
ting front. Whilst FEM analyses can provide rigorous Rahardjo, H., T.T. Lee, E.C. Leong & R.B. Rezaur (2005).
results, the input data required for the models is not Response of a residual soil slope to rainfall. Canadian
readily available for all soils. Whist the Green-Ampt Geotechnical Journal 42: 340–351.
model is widely used and relative easy to apply, some Tami, D., H. Rahardjo, E.C. Leong & D.G. Fredlund (2004).
of the fundamental assumptions used in its derivation Design and laboratory verification of physical model of
are shown to be questionable when the soil surface is sloping capillary barrier. Canada Geotechnical Journal
not subject to ponding. 41(9): 814–830.
A simple extension of the Green-Ampt model is Williams, J.R., Y. Ouyang, J.S. Chen & V. Ravi (1998).
Estimation of infiltration rate in the vadose zone: Compi-
proposed in this paper. In the model the soil above
lation of simple mathematical models (2), United States
the wetting front is assumed to remain unsaturated Environmental Protection Agency.
throughout infiltration. The time for a wetting front Xue, J. & K. Gavin (2007). Effect of rainfall intensity on infil-
to develop is considered in a two-stage process. In tration into partly saturated slopes. Journal of Geotechni-
the first stage infiltration is controlled by the rain- cal and Geological Engineering. Published online October
fall intensity and in the second part infiltration is 2007, DOI 10.1007/s10706-007-9157-0.
827
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Global climate change is expected to result in worldwide increases in temperature and alteration
of rainfall patterns. Such changes have the potential to activate rainfall triggered landslides and a study is
underway in Singapore to investigate these possible effects. The main objective of this work is to calibrate
a numerical model for future prediction by making use of cases where in-situ measurements of pore-water
pressures/suctions have been made in Singapore. The results presented in this study show that the prediction of
changes in the pore-water pressure profile is highly sensitive to the soil-hydraulic properties used in the analysis.
It was found that a SEEP/W flow model is able to capture the general trend of field behaviour of the changes in
the pore-water pressure profile response due to rainfall events. However, the results from the numerical models
indicate that further research is warranted to improve the accuracy of the numerical analysis by better definition
of critical input parameters.
829
Technological University (NTU), Singapore, where information pertaining to the hydraulic properties such
the Jurong sedimentary rock formation is the predom- as water retention capacity and permeability functions
inant geological formation. The residual soils derived of the soil is important.
from the Jurong formation are usually clayey materi- Agus et al. (2001) reported a large number of water
als with sand or silt (Pitts 1984). Due to the warm and retention curves for Singapore residual soil samples,
humid climate of Singapore, the residual soils have an at various depths. Soils near the ground surface are
unsaturated zone, which extends to large depths, above expected to undergo more severe weathering com-
the usually deep groundwater table. Failures of resid- pared to the underlying soils. These soils have less
ual soil slopes in the Jurong formation during severe water retention capacity as they are commonly looser
rainfall are usually shallow and associated with the with some micro structure, such as cracks and fissures.
development of a perched water table near the ground Figure 1 shows the wetting water retention curve of a
surface and the build-up of high positive pore-water soil sample obtained from the NTU-ANX slope at a
pressures. depth of 0.4 m (denoted as Tsarapas 2002). The sat-
The detailed description of this instrumented slope urated volumetric water content was 0.53 and when
can be found in Tsaparas et al. (2003). The NTU-ANX an applied negative pore-water of 200 kPa was estab-
slope has an inclination of 29◦ , height of 21 m, and lished in the sample, then the volumetric water content
length of 43 m. The instrumented area of the site is reduced to 0.38.
relatively small (6 m in length) in comparison with the Agus et al. (2001) reported an envelope for water
size of the slope. The ground surface of the NTU-ANX retention curves established for Jurong Sedimentary
slope is covered with Buffalo Grass. formation residual soils and these are included in the
The simplified soil profile consists of two soil lay- Figure 1 for comparison. The upper, average and lower
ers. Layer 1 is the surface soil layer that extends to water retention curves shown in Figure 1 were estab-
a depth of 10 m. Layer 1 is a hard silty to sandy lished using saturated volumetric water content of 0.53
clay that has an orange color, moderate plasticity, and and the curve fitting parameters reported in Agus et al.
58% fines. Layer 2 is clayey silt with siltstone and (2001).
sandstone fragments and a fines content of 32%. The Other water retention curves from the NTU campus
ground table lies at depths between 15 m and 17 m reported by Agus et al. (2003) are also shown in Figure
from the ground surface and is not greatly affected 1. These are for different depths (5.60 m and 4.0 m).
by rainfall events. Hence, in this numerical analysis, The figure shows that there is similar trend in the shape
the hydrological properties of soil layer 2 were less of the water retention curve for Jurong Sedimentary
important. Formation residual soils even though there is differ-
The main instrumentation of the NTU-ANX slope ence in the saturated volumetric water content. Agus
consisted of three rows of tensiometers, a rain gauge, et al. (2001) also examined the effect of weathering on
and a piezometer. Three rows (A, B & C) of jet-fill ten- the shape of the water retention curves and reported
siometers were spaced 3 m apart. Each row consisted that there are no significant difference between the
of five tensiometers (spaced 0.5 m apart) for measur- shape of these curves and the depth of weathering for
ing the pore-water pressures at depths of 0.5, 1.1, 1.7, Jurong sedimentary formation residual soils.
2.3 and 2.9 m. These measuring depths were chosen to Measurement of permeability functions for unsatu-
study the variation of the pore pressure increase with rated soils is tedious, time consuming and labor inten-
depth during a rainfall event. A rain gauge was also sive process and there are often limited data. However,
installed next to the study area.
0.60
Tsaparas(2002)
3 REVIEW ON WATER RETENTION CURVES 0.50
UP-1 (Agus et al. 2003)
UP-3 (Agus et al. 2003)
AND PERMEABILITY FUNCTIONS
Volumetric water content
830
Agus et al. (2003, 2005) presented unsaturated per- In situ permeability measurements at the study area
meability functions measured in the laboratory for showed that the saturated coefficient of permeabil-
Singapore residual soils. Figure 2 shows the unsat- ity with respect to water, ks , for the surface soil is
urated permeability functions measured for Jurong 6 × 10−7 m/s, measured at approximately 0.4 m deep
sedimentary formation residual soil samples. using a Guelph Permeameter (Tsaparas et al. 2003).
From Figure 2, it can be seen that there is close Other measurements for ks of Jurong soil are shown
agreement between these two soil samples for suctions in Figure 3. It can be seen that ks can vary between
above 20 kPa. Even though the saturated permeabil- 10−10 m/s and 10−6 m/s. The saturated volumetric
ity values are different (due to differences in saturated water content for these soils varies between 0.25 and
volumetric water content as can be seen in Figure 1) 0.60. No clear trend is seen in the saturated coeffi-
the unsaturated permeability functions are almost cient of permeability and saturated volumetric water
identical in the higher suction range. content, which highlights the difficulty of generaliz-
The commonly used integration functions for pre- ing the properties of residual soils. However, the field
dicting the unsaturated permeability function from measurement by Tsaparas (2002) falls within the range
water retention data (Green and Corey 1971, Van of values, and is in agreement with data by Agus et al.
Genuchten 1980, Fredlund et al. 1994) were investi- 2003.
gated for the Jurong residual soil. The predicted curves It can be seen from Figure 2 that there is lack of
showed significant differences between the experi- information on experimental data near the air entry of
mental data reported by Agus et al. (2003) and the value of the soil (below a matric suction of 20 kPa).
predictions. The Green and Corey (1971) method gave Therefore, the Green and Corey (1971) equation was
a curve closest to the experimental results but was still used to estimate the unsaturated coefficient permeabil-
very different. This indicates the danger in using such ity values near the air entry of value up to the matric
expressions without an experimental confirmation of suction of 20 kPa using the water retention curve
their validity. shown in Figure 1 (identified as Tsaparas, 2002) with
saturated coefficient of permeability of 6 × 10−7 m/s.
The fitted permeability function shown in Figure 2
1.0E-06 is based on the Green and Corey equation to 20 kPa
Unsaturated coefficient of Permeability (m/s)
1.0E-10
1.0E-11
UP-1 (Agus et al. 2003) 4 DESCRIPTION OF NUMERICAL MODEL
UP-3 (Agus et al. 2003)
Fitted Permeability function
1.0E-12 Green and Corey (1971)
The commercial finite element code, SEEP/W (Geo-
1.0E-13 Slope International, 2004) was used for the numerical
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Matric Suction (kPa)
modelling of the field measurements, adopting a two-
dimensional and transient seepage model in an infinite
Figure 2. Measured unsaturated permeability function for slope. The geometry of the slope used in the numer-
Jurong Sedimentary Formation. ical analysis is shown in Figure 4. The boundaries of
the finite element mesh are at great distance from the
1.0E-10 study area (rows A to C), to avoid any influence of
Rahardjo et al (2005) the boundary conditions on the computed pore-water
Saturated coefficient of permeability (m/s)
Agus et al (2003)
1.0E-09
Gasmo et al (2000)
pressure changes. The finite element mesh used in this
Rezaur et el (2003) analysis is very fine with dimensions 0.25×0.25 m and
1.0E-08 Rahardjo et al (2001)
Tsaparas (2002)
consists of 8 node iso-parametric elements, in order to
1.0E-07
avoid any possible numerical instability that may occur
in the solution (Karthikeyan et al. 2001).
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
5 MODELLING OF FIELD RESPONSE
1.0E-04
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Saturated volumteric water content
In this study, a comparison is made between the
predictions of the numerical model and the field
Figure 3. Variations of Saturated coefficient of permeabil- observation of changes in the pore-water pressure for
ity and volumetric water content. the period from 23 March 2000 to 24 March 2000
831
to −2 kPa for all depths. The file generated by steady
state analysis was used as the initial condition file for
transient seepage analysis. During the transient analy-
sis, the rainfall event shown in Figure 5 was applied as
a flux boundary condition along the slope surface to
predict the changes in the pore-water pressure profiles.
1.1 m, 1.7 m, 2.3 m and 2.9 m). Hence, in this study, the
2
pore water pressure variation in Row A obtained at a
1
depth of 0.5 m below ground surface is compared with
0 Field (Depth 0.5m)
the numerical solution. From the field measurement on
23 March 2000, the pore-water pressure profiles for all -1 Numerical model
832
One of the major issue facing researchers dealing 4
with the unsaturated zone is the overwhelming het- 3
soil water regime (Van Genuchten et al. 1999). Flow -2 Field (Depth 0.5m)
in structured porous media is frequently described -3 0.25m thick permeable layer
using dual permeability models (Fig. 7) in which soil -4
consists of two regions, one associated with macro 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
pores (the crack network) and the other with the less Time (sec)
permeable matrix region (Van Genuchten et al. 1999).
Tsaparas & Toll (2002) recognized the effect of the Figure 8. Comparison of pore water pressure variations for
higher permeability surficial layer and tried to take 0.25 m thick permeable layer.
account of it by including a more permeable surface
layer of 0.25 m (the depth affected by rooting). In
this analysis, studies were also conducted by introduc- predicted values when including the 0.25 m thick more
ing a 0.25 m thick higher permeabity layer. However, permeable layers. The trend in the results is the same
unlike the analysis of Tsaparas and Toll, this layer was as that shown by the field measured values. How-
modelled with highly anisotropic permeability, using a ever, the numerical predication still underestimates the
high permeability perpendicular to the surface (taking magnitude of the pore water pressure change when
account of cracking and root passages in this direc- compared with field measurement. Nevertheless they
tion), but maintaining the same value of permeability show significantly improved predictions compared to
as the matrix soil for flow parallel to the ground sur- Figure 6.
face. The ratio of hydraulic conductivities (kx /ky ) was Further attempts have been made to introduce dual
set to 1 × 10−3 m3 /s, with the saturated value of kx set porosity and permeability models in the analysis.
to 6 × 10−7 m/s (and hence ky = 6 × 10−4 m/s). However, the numerical results show the inability of
Figure 8 shows the comparison of the measured SEEP/W to handle the steep changes in material prop-
pore-water pressure in the field with the numerically erties required; the solution tends to diverge instead of
converge and oscillate between two extreme solutions
represented by the extremities of the hydraulic conduc-
tivity function. This is a short coming that needs to be
addressed by developing solvers that can ensure con-
vergence under highly non-linear conditions (Fredlund
2007).
The results from the numerical models indicate that
further research is warranted to improve the accuracy
of the numerical analysis. The critical input param-
eters required for models needs to be refined based
on the measurements made in the field and laboratory
to a far greater extent than is commonly undertaken.
To improve the accuracy of the numerical model rep-
resentations, better definition of the soil hydraulic
properties is required. This is the case even for the
Jurong residual soil where significant efforts have
been made to carry out research on its properties.
7 CONCLUSIONS
833
profile with field observation is highly sensitive to the Gasmo, J.M., Hritzuk, K.J., Rahardjo, H. and Leong,
soil hydraulic properties used in the analysis. It was E.C. (1999). Instrumentation of an unsaturated residual
found that the SEEP/W flow model was able to capture soil slope. Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, 22(2),
the general trend of field behaviour of the changes in pp. 128–137.
the pore-water pressure profile due to rainfall events. Geo-Studio (2004). User’s manual for SEEP/W, Geo-Slope
International Ltd., Canada.
This could only be achieved by taking account of a Green, R.E. and Corey, J.C. (1971). Calculation of hydraulic
more permeable surficial layer to allow for the pres- conductivity: A further evaluation of some predictive
ence of root passages and desiccation cracking. The methods, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. Vol. 35, pp. 3–8.
results from the numerical models indicate that fur- Karthikeyan, M., Tan, T.S. and Phoon, K.K. (2001). Numer-
ther research is warranted to improve the predictive ical oscillation in seepage analysis of unsaturated soils.
ability of the numerical analysis by better definition Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 38, pp. 631–651.
of critical input parameters. Novak, V., Simunek, J. and Genuchten, M. Th. (2000). Infil-
tration of water into soil with cracks. Journal of irrigation
and Drainage Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 1, pp. 41–47.
Pitts, J. (1984). A Review of Geology and Engineering
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Agus, S.S., Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H. (2003). A flexi- Rahardjo, H., Lee, T.T., Leong, E.C. and Rezaur, R.B. (2005).
ble wall permeameter for measurements of water and air Response of a residual soil slope to rainfall. Canadian
coefficients of permeability of residual soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 42, pp. 340–351.
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 40, pp. 559–574. Rahardjo, H., Li, X.W., Toll, D.G. and Leong, E.C.
Agus, S.S., Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H. (2005). Estimat- (2001). The Effect of Antecedent Rainfall on Slope Sta-
ing permeability functions of Singapore residual soils, bility, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 19,
Engineering Geology, Vol. 78, pp. 119–133. No. 3/4, pp. 369–397.
Agus, S.S., Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H. (2001). Soil- Rezaur, R.B., Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C. and Lee, T.T.
water characteristic curves of Singapore Residual soils. (2003). Hydrologic behavior of residual soil slopes. Jour-
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 19, nal of hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 8, No. 3,
pp. 285–309. pp. 133–144.
Anderson, M.G., Collison, A.J.C., Hartshorne, J., Toll, D.G. (2001). Rainfall induced Landslides in
Lloyd, D.M. and Park A. (1996). Developments in Singapore, Proc. Institution of Civil Engineers: Geotech-
Slope Hydrology-Stability Modeling for Tropical Slopes, nical Engineering, Vol. 149, 4, pp. 211–216.
Advances in Hillslope Processes, Vol. 2, pp. 799–821. Toll, D.G., Rahardjo, H. and Leong, E.C. (1999). Land-
Buma, J. (2000). Finding the most suitable slope stability slides in Singapore, Proc. 2nd International Conference
model for the assessment of the impact of climate change on Landslides, Slope Stability and the Safety of Infra-
on a landslide in SE France, earth Surface Processes Structures, 27–28 July 1999, Singapore.
Landforms. Vol. 25, pp. 565–583. Tsaparas, I. (2002). Field measurements and numerical mod-
Chappell, N.A, and Lancaster, J.W. (2007). Compari- eling of infiltration and matric suctions within slopes, PhD
son of methodological uncertainties within permeabil- Thesis, School of Engineering, University of Durham,
ity measurements. Hydrological Processes, Vol. 21, United Kingdom. 314p.
pp. 2504–2514. Tsaparas, I. and Toll, D.G. (2003). Factors affecting infil-
Chatterjea, K. (1989). Observations on the fluvial and slope tration into an unsaturated soil slope. Proceedings of the
processes in Singapore and their impact on the urban envi- 2nd Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils (UNST-ASIA
ronment. PhD thesis, National University of Singapore, 2003), Osaka, Japan, pp. 463–468.
Singapore. Tsaparas, I., Rahardjo, H., Toll, D.G. and Leong, E.C. (2003).
Dehan, M., Burger, G., Buma, J. and Gasparetto, P. Infiltration characteristics of two instrumented soil slopes.
(2000). Impact of climate change on slope stability using Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 40, pp. 1012–1032.
expanded downscaling. Engineering Geology, Vol. 55, Van Genuchten, M.T. (1980). A closed-form equation
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Fredlund, D.G. (2007). Engineering Design protocols for Simunek, J. and Leij, F.J. (1999). Modeling flow and trans-
unsaturated soils. Proceedings of the 3rd Asian Confer- port processes at the local scale, in Modeling of transport
ence on Unsaturated Soils, eds. Yin, Z., Yuan, Z and Chiu, process in soils at various scales, J. Feyen and K. Wiyo
A.C.F. Science Press, Beijing, China, pp. 27–45. (eds.), Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 23–45.
Fredlund, D.G., Xing, A. and Huang, S. (1994). Predicting
the permeability functions for unsaturated soils using the
soil-water characteristics curve, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 31, pp. 533–546.
834
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: Water infiltration changes the pore pressure distribution in unsaturated slopes leading to slope
movement, and therefore has been one of the most common triggering mechanisms for landslides in tropical
areas. Field monitoring data suggest that seasonal wetting and drying cycles cause gradual and progressive
downward slope deformation, despite the fact that limited upward movement also occurs in dry seasons. This
paper presents a numerical study aimed at examining the deformation and stress path characteristics in an
unsaturated slope subjected to wetting and drying cycles. The results demonstrate that progressive deformation
is caused by plastic deformation when the stress path of a soil element intercepts the failure criterion during
wetting. The amount of plastic strain varies with locations, and depends on the initial stress state of the soil
element as well as the amount of pore pressure change. The global behaviour of the slope is largely affected by
stress re-distribution.
835
stability of unsaturated slopes (Fredlund & Rahardjo, be valid for unsaturated soils as well as saturated soils
1993). Redistribution of moisture content may influ- (Fredlund & Rahardjo, 1993).
ence the slope deformation and stress distribution, as
well as the global stability. In this study, the decom- ∂h
Sw nvw = −k · (4)
posed soil is treated as a porous medium and modelled ∂x
by the conventional approach that considers soil as a
multi-phase material and adopts the effective stress where k denotes the soil permeability and h is the
principle to describe coupled flow and deformation piezometer head, defined as h = z +uw /ρw g, in which
behaviour. The finite element packages ABAQUS z is the elevation above a reference datum and g is the
were used as a platform for the analysis (ABAQUS gravitational acceleration.
2006).
The elementary volume of the soil material, dV , 2.3 Solution algorithm
is made up of a volume of solid grains, dVg , and
a volume of voids, dVv , i.e., dV = dVg + dVv . A As the deformation behaviour of unsaturated soils
volume of pore water, dVw ≤ dVv , is free to flow is strongly coupled with pore fluid flow, the above
through the soil. It is assumed that the decomposed soil stress equilibrium and flow continuity equations are
is permeable enough for the air phase to be exposed solved simultaneously. The stress equilibrium equa-
to the atmosphere, and a simplified effective stress tion is discretised using a Lagrangian formulation for
principle originally proposed by Bishop (1955) can be the solid phase of the soil, with displacements taken
formulated as follows: as nodal variables, whilst the continuity equation is
integrated in time using the backward Euler approxi-
σ̄ = σ − χ (Sw ) uw I (1) mation method discretised with finite elements using
pore pressure as a basic variable. It would be in general
where σ̄ and σ are the effective and total stresses a nonlinear case when the seepage and deformation
respectively; uw denotes the pore water pressure; χ is behaviour are coupled in the established system equa-
a factor that depends on water saturation degree Sw , tions, and the Newton-Raphson method is applied
and is assumed to be equal to the saturation degree of during the incremental numerical solutions.
soils; I is a second-order unit tensor.
3 SLOPE MODEL
2.2 Governing equations
The fundamental equations describing the stress equi- 3.1 Slope geometry and finite element
librium for the solid phase and flow continuity for pore discretisation
water flow inside the soil are as follows: A simple 2-D slope model is established, as shown in
Figure 1. The geometry of the slope is the same as
σ : δεdV = t · δvdS + f · δvdV the central section of a real slope on which field tests
were conducted (Li, 2003). The exemplary slope has
V s V
an inclination angle of 33◦ to the horizontal, which is
+ Sw nρw g · δvdV (2) equivalent to an average slope angle of 1 on 1.5, similar
to many existing loose fill slopes in Hong Kong (Sun,
V 1999). The slope is 4.75 m high with a flat crest of 4 m.
⎛ ⎞
The slope is discretised using a finite element mesh
d⎝ ρw ⎠ = − ρw Sw nn · vw dS which is made up of 1142 plane strain 4-node bilinear
Sw ndV (3)
dt ρw0 ρw0
V s
836
elements. To allow coupling between pore fluid and A smooth flow potential function proposed by
mechanical calculations, finite elements with multi- Menétrey and Willam (1995) is adopted in the numer-
ple degrees of freedom including pore pressure and ical model, which has a hyperbolic shape in the
displacements are adopted. meridional stress plane and a piecewise elliptic shape
in the deviatoric stress plane. It should be noted that
plastic flow in the deviatoric and meridional planes is
3.2 Material model and parameters in general non-associated.
The model slope is formed entirely by CDG, a com- Table 1 summarises the model parameters adopted
mon soil type in Hong Kong. For simplicity, the CDG in the analyses which are derived from relevant exper-
is modelled by an elasto-plastic model with a Mohr- imental results (Li, 2003). A perfect plastic hardening
Coulomb (M-C) failure criterion and non-associated law is assumed in the calculations. To control possible
flow. As assumed in most critical state models, non- dilation caused by the flow potential, the angle of dila-
linearity is incorporated into the elastic part of the tion (ψ) is chosen as a small value (ψ = 5◦ ). Hydraulic
stress-strain relationship, and the bulk modulus K is properties of the CDG, including the permeability
assumed to be a function of the effective mean stress coefficient as a function of saturation degree (Sw ) and
p according to the adopted soil water characteristics curve (SWCC),
are shown in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. No hystere-
sis is considered in this study, since field measured
∂p ν
K= = p (5) results suggested that the SWCC during wetting and
∂εve κ drying are very similar (Li, 2003). Nonetheless, the
possible influence due to hysteresis should be explored
where εve denotes the elastic volumetric strain, ν is the as a further study.
specific volume, and κ is the slope of an unloading-
reloading line in the ν −ln p space. The Poisson’s ratio
μ is assumed to be constant, and the shear modulus G
can be written as Table 1. Summary of material parameters.
4
where τ is shear strength on the failure plane; c is
the intercept of the ‘‘extended’’ M-C failure envelope 3
on the shear stress axis where the net normal stress
and the matric suction at failure are zero; σ is the 2
total normal stress on the failure plane; uw is the pore
water pressure on the failure plane and φ is the angle 1
of internal friction. When uw is negative, its magni- 0
tude is equivalent to matric suction (ua − uw ) since 30 40 50 60 70 80
pore air pressure, ua , is assumed to be zero. It should Degree of saturation (%)
be noted that the assumption of φ = φ b may not be
valid, particularly at low degrees of saturation. As a Figure 2. Permeability coefficient vs. degree of saturation
preliminary study, this assumption has been adopted. for the loose fill.
837
defined on the right vertical edge of the model to sim-
Volumetric moisture content (%)
50
45 ulate free water flow out of the slope when the soil at
40 this location is fully saturated, whilst other boundaries
35 are assumed to be impervious.
30
25 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
20
15 4.1 Displacements
10 Figure 5 plots the variation of horizontal displacement
5 at some typical points within the slope during the wet-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ting and drying process. Three nodes, located on the
Suction (kPa)
slope crest (Node 703), at the middle of the slope sur-
face (Node 475) and near the slope toe (Node 1559)
Figure 3. Water retention curve for the loose fill.
are chosen. Their locations are shown in Figure 1. Cor-
responding soil elements containing these nodes are
10 also marked in Figure 1 and their centroid points are
AB C D denoted as ‘‘CPx’’, in which x represents the element
number.
8 It can be observed that at all the three locations, the
Flux (Litre/minute)
838
hours of wetting and then the direction of the defor-
mation changes to downward. Similar deformation
pattern can be observed at this location during the sec-
ond wetting period. This observation can be explained
by the elastic swelling behaviour exhibited by the soil
on the upper surface of the slope crest when the effec-
tive mean stress of the soil is reduced during water
infiltration. For the Nodes 475 and 1559 located on
the inclined surface, the rate and magnitude of the
downward movement at the slope toe (1559) are much
smaller than those at the middle of the slope (475),
which can be attributed to the fact that Node 1559
is outside the wetting area. Moreover, it can be seen
that only small horizontal bounce-back is observed for
the soil at Node 1559 during the first drying period,
whilst the soil at Node 475 displays prominent reversed
movement. The calculated results also suggest that
larger horizontal displacements are triggered in the
soils beneath the central part of the inclined slope
surface, up to a depth of ∼2 m.
The numerical results suggest that the soils at typ-
ical positions would not rebound back to the initial
locations corresponding to the start of first wetting
process, even after a sufficiently long drying pro-
cess. The permanent and progressive downward move-
ments are consistent with field observations.
839
strength at the upper portion of the slope is reduced Fredlund, D.G. & Barbour, S.L. 1992. In R.N. Chowdhury
due to wetting. (ed.), Integrated seepage modelling and slope stability
It is also found that the stress states at most of the analysis: A generalized approach for saturated /unsatu-
material points would not return back to the initial rated soils. Balkema: 3–35.
state corresponding to the start point of first wetting Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R. & Widger, R.A. 1978.
Shear Strength of unsaturated soils. Canadian Geotechni-
process, which can be mainly attributed to the effect cal Journal, 15 (3): 313–321.
of redistribution of internal stress and pore water pres- Fredlund, D.G. & Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil mechanics for
sure by the wetting and drying cycles. Particularly for unsaturated soils, Wiley: New York.
the soil at CP573, significant plastic deformation is Gan, J.K.M. & Fredlund, D.G. 1996. Direct shear and triaxial
mobilised during the two wetting stages, and addi- testings of a Hong Kong soil under saturated and unsatu-
tional plastic strain is also induced during the long rated conditions. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong
drying process due to the redistribution of pore water Kong Government.
within the loose fill, as presented in Figure 6(b) the Ho, D.Y. & Fredlund, D.G. 1982. Increase in strength due to
stress path approaches the upper failure bound during suction for two Hong Kong soils. ASCE Conference on
Engineering and Construction in Tropical and Residual
the later period. Soils. Honolulu: 263–295.
Hong Kong Government. 1977. Report on the Slope Failure
5 CONCLUSIONS at Sau Mau Ping, August 1976, Hong Kong Government
Printer.
To investigate the deformation behaviour of unsatu- Li, A.G., Yue, Z.Q., Tham, L.G., Lee, C.F. & Law, K.T.
rated slopes during the wetting and drying cycles, a 2005. Field-monitored variations of soil moisture and
matric suction in a saprolite slope, Canadian Geotechnical
preliminary numerical study has been carried out on a Journal, 42 (1): 13–26.
typical loose fill slope subjected to periodical wetting Li, J. 2003. Field study of a soil nailed loose fill slope. PhD.
and drying. Some representative results of horizontal Thesis, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
displacement and stress path at typical points are pre- Lumb, P. 1962. Effects of rain storms on slope stability.
sented. It is found that the simple numerical model Symposium on Hong Kong Soils: 73–87
is capable of predicting the bounce-back behaviour Lumb, P. 1975. Slope Failures in Hong Kong, Q.J. Engng.
which is consistently observed from field monitoring Geol, 8: 31–65.
records collected from some local slopes. Neverthe- Melinda, F., Rahardjo, H., Han, K.K. & Leong, E.C. 2004.
less, gradual permanent deformation is also predicted Shear strength of compacted soil under infiltration con-
dition, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
during each wetting process. The mobilisation of Engineering, 130 (8): 807–817.
plastic deformation is accompanied by stress redistri- Menétrey, P. & Willam, K.J. 1995. Triaxial failure criterion
bution. The results indicate that the global behaviour for concrete and its generalization. ACI Structural Journal,
of the unsaturated slope is largely influenced by stress 92 (3): 311–318.
redistribution during and after rainfall infiltration. Montgomery Watson Hong Kong Limited (MWH). 2000.
More detailed analyses are underway aiming to Re-assessment of stability conditions and proposal of
identify if this behaviour would reach a steady state remedial works for feature No. 8SW-C/CR175. Report
after a large number of wetting and drying cycles, and to Water Supplies Department, Hong Kong SAR Govern-
also the sensitivity of the major governing parameters ment. MWH Limited, Hong Kong.
Olivares, L. & Damiano, E. 2007. Postfailure mechanics
including the soil properties and the rainfall pattern. of landslides: Laboratory investigation of flowslides in
pyroclastic soils, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvi-
REFERENCES ronmental Engineering, 133 (1): 51–62.
Sun, H.W. 1999. Review of fill slope failures in Hong Kong.
ABAQUS Inc. 2006. Analysis user’s manual, Version 6.6. GEO Report No. 96, Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Bishop, A.W. 1955. The principle of effective stress. Lecture Hong Kong.
delivered in Oslo, Norway, in 1955; published in Teknisk Wong, H.N., Ho, K.K.S., Pun, W.K. & Pang, P.L.R.
Ukeblad, 106 (39): 859–863, 1959. 1998. Observations from Some Landslide Studies in
Brand, E.W. 1984. Relationship between Rainfall and Land- Hong Kong, Slope Engineering in Hong Kong, Balkema:
slides in Hong Kong, Proceedings of 4th International Rotterdam: 277–286.
Symposium on Landslides, Toronto, 1: 377–384. Zhan, T.L.T., Ng, C.W.W. & Fredlund, D.G., 2007. Field
Brand, E.W. 1985. Landslides in Hong Kong. VIII Southeast study of rainfall infiltration into a grassed unsaturated
Asian Geoth. Conference Kuala Lumpur: 1–15. expansive soil slope, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 44
Collins, B.D. & Znidarcic, D. 2004. Stability analyses of (4): 392–408.
rainfall induced landslides. Journal of Geotechnical and Zhang, L.L., Fredlund, D.G., Zhang, L.M. & Tang, W.H.
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 130 (4): 362–372. 2004. Numerical study of soil conditions under which
Endicott, L.J. 2007. Private communication. matric suction can be maintained. Canadian Geotechnical
Farooq, K., Orense, R. & Towhata, I. 2004. Response of Journal, 41 (4): 569–582.
unsaturated sandy soils under constant shear stress drained
condition, Soils and Foundations, 44 (2): 1–13.
840
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
N. Sultan
IFREMER, Brest, France
ABSTRACT: During exploration and exploitation in deep offshore areas (beyond 1000 metres depth) oil
companies have recently been faced with geotechnical problems related to the presence of shallow gas in marine
sediments leading to eruptions during drilling, difficulties in conductor installation and anomalous high pore
pressures measurements during piezocone penetrometer testing (PCPT). Gassy soils can result from various
factors, including hydrates dissociation. They represent a critical issue for the oil and gas industry, at least for
two reasons: (i) the detection of gas is still not reliable, and (ii) the effect on the mechanical properties of the
soil is still rather unclear. In this paper a preliminary numerical analysis of an ideal piezocone penetration in
gassy sediment is presented. This study will serve as a basis in view of a possible interpretation of available in
situ measurement of cone penetration resistance in gas-bearing sediments.
841
work the effect of the penetration of a piezocone in a modulus matrix. The nonlinear elasticity matrix Cijkl
partially saturated medium is studied. The piezocone is a function of the independent variables σ − ua and
penetration is simulated using the finite-element code ua − uw .
θ-STOCK (Gatmiri, 1997; Gatmiri & Delage, 1997;
Jenab, 2000) and the similarity between this process
2.2 Hydraulic equations
and a cavity expansion problem in partially saturated
(gassy) sediment is to be noted. Special attention is Mass conservation equation of water and air can be
paid to the development of elasto-plastic formulations written as follows:
capable of reproducing the characteristic features of
the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils. A fully ∂
(ρw nSr ) + div(ρw vw ) = 0 (3)
coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical approach able to ∂t
take into account the effect of partial saturation will be
∂
used, considering gas-liquid suction as an additional [ρa n(1 − Sr + HSr )] + div[ρa (va + Hvw )] = 0
state variable. Emphasis is given to the effect of partial ∂t
saturation on the evolution of the pore water pressure (4)
in the vicinity of the probe shaft.
where n is porosity, Sr is degree of saturation, H is the
Henry’s constant, ρa and ρw are the air and water den-
sities. Water and air flow are assumed to be governed
2 FIELD EQUATIONS AND FEM by Darcy’s law:
FORMULATION
uw
Unsaturated soil mechanics is a relatively new area of vw = −K w .grad +Z (5)
γw
research in geotechnical engineering and possibly the
area where the most significant advances have been
ua
made during recent years. There is now a general con- va = −K a .grad +Z (6)
sensus on the choice of adequate and independent state γa
variables able to present most of the significant effects
Water and air permeabilities (Kw , Ka ) are tonsorial val-
involved in the coupled process of a deformable unsat-
ues and depend on the suction (Gatmiri et al., 1998).
urated porous medium with three phases (skeleton,
Figure 1 presents an example of variation of gas rela-
water and air). The two independent tensorial vari-
tive permeability as a function of e and Sr . The total
ables: net stress σ − ua and suction ua − uw , (where σ
moisture movement in unsaturated soil due to tem-
is the total stress, and ua and uw the air and water pres-
perature gradient and its resulting moisture content
sures, respectively) have been adopted. Based on this
gradient is equal to the sum of the flows which take
choice, the basic assumptions for the description of
place in both phases, vapor and liquid. Thus:
the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of an unsatu-
rated porous medium are presented. The finite element q
code θ -STOCK is used here to integrate the resulting = −DT ∇T − Dθ ∇θ − Dw ∇Z (7)
ρw
field equations and to simulate the penetration of a
piezocone probe in a partially saturated sediment. where DT is thermal moisture diffusivity and its equal
to DTV + DTW , and Dθ is thermal moisture diffusivity
and it is equal to DθV + DθW . Combining, therefore,
2.1 Mechanical equations
equations (3) and (7) yields the general differential
The total deformation of the porous medium can be equation in an alternative form:
evaluated by using the equilibrium equation of the
skeleton with a constitutive law. In this paper isotropic ∂ρw ∂T ∂ρw ∂P ∂Sr
nSr + nSr + (ρw − ρv )n
nonlinear elastic behaviour has been considered. The ∂T ∂t ∂P ∂t ∂t
equilibrium equation and the stress-suction-strain rela-
∂n ∂ρv
tion which considers the effect of suction on strain can + (Sr ρw + ρv (1 − Sr )) + n(1 − Sr ) (8)
be written as follows: ∂t ∂t
= ρw div(Dw ∇z) + div(ρw DT ∇T )
(σij − δij ua ),j +ua,j + bi = 0 (1) + div(ρw Dθ ∇θ) + Qm
−1
dεij = Cijkl d(σkl − δkl ua ) + Fij−1 d(δij (ua − uw )) (2)
2.3 State surface
where σij is the stress tensor, εij is the strain ten- During the last three decades, various constitutive
sor, Cijkl the elasticity matrix, and Fij the suction laws have been proposed, such as the incremental
842
3 CAVITY EXPANSION MODELLING
IN UNSATURATED SOIL
843
Figure 3. Consolidation state of the sediment: (a) undrained
cohesion vs. depth and (b) Vp measurements (Vernant et al.,
2004).
Axis of cavity
10 cm
0.1 R0 R0 100 cm
844
8 1.0
Sig-Pa=25 Kpa
7 Sig-Pa=50 Kpa
0.9
Sig-Pa=100 Kpa
6 Sig-Pa=150 Kpa
Degree of saturation
Sig-Pa=200 Kpa
Sig X (MPa)
40
25
Succion (Kpa)
0.85
20
0.8
15
0.75
Stage 1, s=15 (Kpa), D=5 (m) 10
0.7 Stage 1, s=5 (Kpa), D=5 (m)
5
Stage 2, s=15 (Kpa), D=5 (m)
0.65
0
0.6 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Time (S)
Time (S)
845
laboratory. The values of these parameters used in this Floodgate, G.D. & Judds, A.G. 1992. The origin of shallow
research are 0.75, 0.1 × 10−4 and 0.11 × 10−4 respec- gas. Continental shelf Research 12 (10): 1145–1156.
tively. The water retention curves in terms of degree Fredlund, D.G. & Xjng, A. 1994. Equations for the soil-
of saturation are illustrated in Figure 7, for the various water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
values of mean net stress. 31: 521–532.
Fredlund, D.G. 1979. Appropriate concepts and technology
The variations of suction close to the cavity surface for unsaturated soils. Can. Geotech. J. 16: 121–139.
during expansion are presented in Figure 8. It can be Gallipoli, D. 2005. Unsaturated constitutive surfaces from
seen that during the horizontal loading, suction in the pressuremeter tests—Discussion. Journal of Geotechnical
first centimetres of the model, during 5 seconds of and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 130 (2): 1181–1183.
loading, increases and then decreases. These evolu- Gatmiri, B. 1997. Analysis of fully Coupled Behaviour
tions are not influenced by the depth, but do depend of Unsaturated Porous Media under Stress, Suction and
on initial suction. Temperature Gradient. Final report of CERMES-EDF,
ENPC.
Gatmiri, B. & Delage, P. 1997. A formulation of fully cou-
pled thermal-hydraulic-mechanical behaviour of saturated
4 CONCLUSION porous media—numerical approach. Int. J. Numer. Anal.
Meth. Geomech 21 (3): 199–225.
An axisymmetric modelling of the piezocone penetra- Gatmiri, B. & Delage, P. & Cerrolaza, M. 1998. UDAM: A
tion in partially saturated marine sediment is simulated powerful finite element software for the analysis of unsat-
using the finite element code θ -STOCK, developed urated porous media. International journal of advances in
at CERMES by Gatmiri (1997), and the concept of engineering software 29 (1): 29–43.
the cavity expansion theory is extended to accom- Grozic, J.L.H. & Kvalstad, T.J. 2001. Effect of gas on deepwa-
modate the framework of unsaturated soil behaviour. ter marine sediments. Conference on Marine Geotechnical
The variables considered were net stress and suc- Engineering 1: 329–344.
Hutchinson, J.N. 1970. A coastal mudflow on the London
tion. The adopted thermo-hydro-mechanical approach clay cliffs at Beltinge, North Kent. Géotechnique, 20 (4):
allows the analysis of the effect of suction on the defor- 412–438.
mation of the skeleton and the permeability of water Jenab, B. 2000. Etude numérique de la modélisation thermo-
and air, as well as the influence of the stress state on élasto-plastique des sols non saturés. Thèse ENPC,
the evolution of the degree of saturation and the pore CERMES.
water pressure. Lloret, A. & Alonso, E.E. 1985. State surface for partially
For the given initial condition (almost saturated saturated soil, In proceedings international conference
sediment) it was found that suction decreases during soil mechanics and foundation engineering, San Francisco
cavity expansion and that the limit value of horizon- 1: 557–562.
Mitchell, J.K. & Santamarina, J.C. 2005. Biological consid-
tal stress is not dependent on suction but only on erations in geotechnical engineering. J. Geotech. Geoen-
initial stress state (i.e. depth). However, for points viron. Eng. 131 (10).
near the surface cavity, horizontal stress decreases Russell A.R. & Khalili, N. 2002. Cavity expansion in unsat-
with an increase in initial suction value. Further work urated soils. Proc. Unsaturated soils conference, Recife
is planned to validate the theoretical approach and (Brasil) Jucà, de Campos & Marinho (eds): 233–238.
to correlate numerical analyses with available in situ Schnaid, F., Kratz de Oliveira, L.A. & Gehling, W.Y.Y.
measurements. 2005. Unsaturated constitutive surfaces from pressureme-
ter tests. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 130 (2): 174–185.
Skempton, A.W. & Bishop, A.W. 1950. The measurements of
REFERENCES the shera strength of soils. Géotechnique, 2 (2): 90–116.
Sultan, N., Cochonat, P., Foucher, J.P. & Mierent, J. 2004.
Carter, J.P., Randolph, M.F. & Wroth, C.P. 1979. Stress Effect of gas hydrates melting on seafloor slope instability.
and pore pressure changes in clay during and after the Marine Geology 213: 379–401.
expansion of a cylindrical cavity, International Journal Vernant, A.M., Sultan, N. & Colliat, J.L. 2004. Etude des
for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics propriétés acoustiques d’un sédiment marin en présence
3: 305–322. de gaz. Journées AUM/AFM, France.
Collins, I.F. & Yu, H.S. 1996. Undrained cavity expansion Wheeler, S. 1988. A conceptual model for soils containing
in critical states soils. International Journal for Numerical large gas bubbles. Géotechnique 38 (3): 399–397.
and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 20: 489–516. Wheeler, S. 1988. The undrained shear strength of soils con-
Coleman, J.D. 1962. Stress strain relations for partly saturated taining large gas bubbles. Géotechnique 38 (3): 399–413.
soil. Géotechnique 12 (4): 348–350.
846
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an experimental study of a natural swelling soil using oedometer tests by
imposing the suction variations with the osmotic technique. Three successive swelling-shrinkage cycles were
applied in a suction range comprised between 0 and 2 MPa under three different values of constant vertical
net stress (20, 40 and 60 kPa). The test samples showed cumulative swelling strains during the cycles. The
volumetric strains also reached an equilibrium stage which indicates an elastic behaviour of the samples at
the end of the suction cycles. Based on these results, the parameters of the elastoplastic model for swelling
unsaturated soils BExM (Barcelona Expansive Model) are derived. This model implemented in the finite-
element code (Code_Bright) is then applied to the practical problem of a shallow foundation based on the natural
swelling soil. This application studies the effects of hydraulic changes due to the variations of climatic conditions
(rainfall and drought) on settlements of this shallow foundation. The obtained results show the capacity of the
model to solve complex hydromechanical coupled problems.
847
Table 1. Properties of the clayey soil in the experimental 10
site of Le Deffend.
N H I J M
Suction (MPa)
Liquid limit (%) 85.6 1
A B C D P
Plasticity index (%) 31.9
Specific gravity, Gs 2.60 Test D1
Test D2
Passing sieve 80 μm (%) 99% 0.1
Test D3
Clay content (<2 μm) 72%
L E F G K
0.01
10 100 1000 10000
Vertical net stress (kPa)
Table 2. Description of the followed stress paths for the
natural soil of Le Deffend. Figure 1. Description of (σv -s) plan for the natural soil of
Le Deffend.
Test Followed stress path
D1 A-B-E1 -H1 -E2 -H2 -E3 -H3 -E4 -H4 -E5 -K-L
D2 A-C-F1 -I1 -F2 -I2 -F3 -I3 -F4 -I4 -C’-P-A’ chosen for these tests is 6 000 Da (1 Dalton, Da =
D3 A-D-G1 -J1 -G2 -J2 -G3 -J3 -G4 -J4 -M-N 1.6605 10−24 g) which makes it possible to impose
a maximum suction of 8.5 MPa. The study of the
hydromechanical behaviour of the natural mixture
used in this paper was performed in the osmotic
ARGIC project (Vincent et al., 2006). The studied oedometer proposed by Kassif & Ben Shalom (1971)
clayey layer is located between 6.10 m and 6.80 m of and modified by Delage et al. (1992).
depth. The dry density of the clayey soil varies between
1.05 and 1.25 Mg/m3 and its water content is between
41 and 50 %. The total suction measured by the filter 2.3 Followed stress path
paper technique (ASTM, 1995a) varies between 200 The oedometric tests (D1, D2 and D3) were carried
and 700 kPa. The geotechnical characteristics of the out on the soil located between 6.25 and 6.35 m of
clayey material are presented in Table 2. The mea- depth. The initial state of the samples is represented
surement of the swelling potential and the swelling by point A on Figure 1 for the three tests. This point
pressure was carried out on the soil from 6.25 m depth corresponds approximately to an initial dry density
by using the free swelling method (ASTM 1995b). The of 1.22 Mg/m3 and an initial water content of 43%.
sample presents an initial dry density of 1.20 Mg/m3 The initial height of the samples is 11.6 mm and their
and an initial water content of 41%. The swelling diameter is 70 mm. The initial suction of the soil is
potential and the swelling pressure are 7% and 225 kPa 0.5 MPa. The initial vertical pressure applied is about
respectively. 10 kPa. Three different loads were applied to the three
samples: 20 kPa (Point B) for the D1 test, 40 kPa
(point C) for the D2 test and 60 kPa (point D) for the
2.2 Osmotic technique
D3 test. Then, three successive cycles of wetting and
The principle of this method is to put in contact the drying were applied between 0 and 2 MPa. The fol-
soil sample and a solution of macromolecules with lowed stress paths of three tests (D1, D2 and D3) are
the semi-permeable membrane between them (Zur, shown in Figure 1 and in Table 2. At the end of the suc-
1966). This membrane prevents the solution of macro- cessive cycles, a loading/unloading cycle was applied
molecules to move towards the sample but it allows at three constant suctions. These applied suctions are
water exchange. Water movements, and thus suction 0 MPa for the test D1, 0.5 MPa for the test D2 and
variations, are controlled by the osmosis phenomenon. 2 MPa for the test D3.
The higher the concentration of the solution, the higher
the imposed suction. The relation proposed by Cui
(1993): 3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
848
(a) 0.10 1.5
S = 0 MPa
E D1 ( σv=20 kPa) 1.4 S = 0.5 MPa
0.08 E45 E S = 2 MPa
Volumetric strain (–)
E3 1.3
F4
0.06 F3 suctions.
F2
0.04 C'
F1 I4 Suction
I3
0.02 I2 Test (MPa) P0 (kPa) λ(s) κ
A I1
0.00 D1 0 500 0.19 0.04
C
0.02 D2 0.5 550 0.17 0.04
0.01 0.1 1 10 D3 2 700 0.16 0.04
Suction (MPa)
(c) 0.10
849
Zero flux 0.15 m Table 5. Clayey soil parameters.
0.6 m
100 kPa
Saturated hydraulic conductivity ks 8 × 10−12 m/s
Concrete foundation Parameters of the soil water retention
curve (van Genuchten, 1980)
Sr − Sr(res)
Zero flux
= [1 + (αS)n ]−m
Zero flux
H=6m
Se =
Clayey Soil of Le Deffend
Sr(sat) − Sr(res)
α 0.00886 MPa−1
n 3.582
ux= 0 ux= 0 m = 1–1/n 0.721
Sr(res) 0.1
Sr(sat) 1
ux = 0 et uy = 0
Zero flux
Parameters of the hydraulic
L=7m
conductivity curve (Mualem, 1976;
van Genuchten, 1980)
Figure 4. Geometry and boundary conditions of the model. m
2
√ 1
k = ks Se 1 − 1 − Sem
m 0.721
Table 4. Parameters of the BExM model for the clayey soil Sr(res) 0.1
of Le Deffend. Sr(sat) 1
Parameters of the macrostructure
Table 6. Parameters characterizing the foundation concrete
κ 0.04 (Burlion et al., 2005).
λ(0) 0.19 p∗0 600 kPa
r 0.7 s0 1 MPa Material Concrete
β 0.6 MPa−1 sh 0 MPa
κs 0.01 k 0.09 Elastic linear
pc 200 kPa M 0.57 Behaviour E = 27000 MPa
ν = 0.2
Parameters of the microstructure Specific gravity γs 2.65
Saturated hydraulic conductivity ks 10−12 m/s
κm 0.025 em 0.74
Parameters of the soil water retention
Interaction functions curve (van Genuchten, 1980)
Sr − Sr(res)
Se = = [1 + (αS)n ]−m
Sr(sat) − Sr(res)
fI 1 = 0.519 fD1 = −1.161
α 0.0235 MPa−1
fI 2 = −0.460 fD2 = 1.183
n 2.105
kI = 10 kD = 10
m = 1–1/n 0.525
xI = 0.15 xD = 0.15
Sr(res) 0
Sr(sat) 1
Parameters of the hydraulic
conductivity curve (Mualem, 1976;
The concrete foundation is assumed to exhibit linear van Genuchten, 1980)
m
2
elastic behaviour. Its mechanical and hydraulic prop- √ 1
k = ks Se 1 − 1 − Sem
erties used in the calculations are presented in Table 6
(Burlion et al., 2005). m 0.17
Sr(res) 0
Sr(sat) 1
4.2 Modelling
finite elements. The mesh was made up of 1344
A strip foundation subjected to a vertical stress of elements and 1419 nodes.
300 kPa is modelled in a 2D plane-strain finite-element Before any loading, an initial stress state corre-
analysis (Figure 4). The influence of the building sponding to the soil weight was defined. Initially, the
protection was taken into account. The soil and the soil of Le Deffend was almost saturated with initial
concrete were discretized by 4 noded-quadrilateral suction of 0.5 MPa.
850
Table 7. Description of calculation phases. Vertical displacements
2.5 A
mass-flow is imposed on the top left borders of the B
model (under the building); 2 C
– the nodes at the base of the foundation are loaded 1.5
D
E
up to a uniform vertical stress of 100 kPa, and a
1
null flow for water is imposed on the surface of the
foundation. 0.5
drying wetting
For these calculations two consecutive phases were 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
considered (Table 7). In each phase, a boundary con-
Time (day)
dition simulating a rainfall or a drought period was
imposed on the soil surface.
Figure 5. Suction variations versus time for the different
points of the studied swelling soil.
4.3 Simulations results
Suctions
0.65 m
The evolution of suction versus elapsed time for dif- A: x = –1m E: x = 1 m
ferent points of the soil located under the base of the C
B: x = – 0.3 m x = 0 D: x = 0.3 m
foundation is presented in Figure 5. The values of suc-
tion increase gradually with time during the drying 0
–4
building and at the base of the foundation (points A, B,
C, D), the suction increase during the drying phase is –6 A
B
less than the other points (Point E) located at the same –8 C
level but outside the foundation, because the building D
–10
and its foundation prevent the flow entrance. E
For the points C, D and E, during the wetting phase –12
(Phase II) the suction initially increases before it starts –14
to decrease. This period of suction increase is even drying wetting
–16
more significant for the point E. This is due to the fact 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
that it takes a certain time for the water to pass through Time (day)
the surface. For the points A and B the suction decrease
starts immediately once the null suction is applied on Figure 6. Vertical displacement versus time for the dif-
the surface because the soil under the building remains ferent points of the studied swelling soil located under the
almost saturated even after 8 months of drying. foundation.
851
numerical model is able to predict qualitatively soil
displacements during the different hydraulic changes.
The mechanical loading produces a maximum dis-
placement in the center of the foundation. The soil
(initially saturated) settles down during the 6 months
drying, with a maximum compression on the right-
hand of the foundation. The wetting period causes a
rotation of the rigid foundation and consequently a
compression of the soil located under the building.
At this stage, it would be interesting to have the
in-situ measurements of the volumetric deformations
during the wetting and drying cycles in order to val-
idate the obtained numerical results for the natural
swelling soil.
852
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between suction and the swelling properties in a heav- water retention and microstructure of unsaturated Boom
ily compacted swelling clay. Engineering Geology, 50: clay. Engineering Geology, 54: 117–127.
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bajo succión controlada. Doctoral Thesis, Universidad polyethyleneglycol (PEG) 6000 and PEG 20 000 in the
Politécnica de Madrid, Spain. osmotic control of soil water matric potential. Canadian
Push, R. 1982. Mineral-water interactions and their influ- Journal of Soil Science, 49: 397–401.
ence on the physical behaviour of highly compacted
Na-bentonite. Revue Canadienne de Géotechnique,
19:381–387.
853
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
G.A. Siemens
GeoEngineering Centre at Queen’s-RMC, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Canada
J.A. Blatz
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
ABSTRACT: Damage caused to shallow foundations constructed on swelling clay soil is extensive and is
usually observed as deformations and cracks in the superstructure as well as basement walls and floor. Generally
this is due to swelling soil responding to changes in the surrounding moisture content regime as a result of
removal of vegetation including trees and grasses as well as covering the ground with a basement. Both lead
to increases in water content in a soil with swell potential. Siemens and Blatz (2008) reported on a new Swell
Equilibrium Limit (SEL) for swelling soil. This limit forms an upper bound for volume expansion and stress
increase in specific volume-mean stress (V-p) space. The final location along the SEL depends on the initial
conditions and boundary conditions encountered during wetting. Boundary conditions can range from constant
stress to constant volume with deformation boundary conditions between the two extremes. In this paper, the
SEL is formulated in a numerical modelling program to model construction and long-term behaviour of shallow
foundations constructed on swelling clay soils. The attempt is intended to be a simplified modelling approach
to capture complex swelling mechanisms by applying an elastic solution to model volume changes due to both
total stress and suction. Triaxial and oedometer results are used to calibrate and validate the numerical model as
well as illustrate the approach. Using the validated model, deformations and swelling induced stresses around
a shallow foundation and basement constructed in swelling clay soil are modelled. Two different scenarios are
modelled including removal of vegetation followed by basement construction, and influence of drainage around a
building. Model results are interpreted and mitigation measures proposed to attenuate deformations and swelling
induced stresses.
1 INTRODUCTION
855
tree roots. As the tree grows taller and its root system speaking, examples of constant volume boundary
expands, this effect increases. The result is differen- conditions are rare since soil requires some finite
tial displacements in the foundation that cause damage displacement in order to mobilize strength however
to the adjacent structure. Unsuspecting home owners these conditions are approached in examples such as
can unknowingly increase the effect of swelling soil a reinforced retaining wall or adjacent to a rigid wall.
by changing vegetation as well local drainage around
their homes. Incurred costs to fix damages after they
2.1 Swell Equilibrium Limit (SEL) development
have occurred are quite significant in relation to the
value of standard homes. Therefore, homeowners have Laboratory evidence for the SEL is displayed in
the choice to live with the damage, periodically per- Figure 2, which plots specific volume versus mean
form surficial repairs, or go through with costly and stress (V-p) from laboratory tests on a highly swelling
intrusive remediation measures. A change in founda- material known as Bentonite Sand Buffer (BSB, details
tion type, such as piles, can be required and other more of the laboratory testing can be found in Siemens
drastic measures are also attempted. and Blatz 2008 and Siemens 2006). Boundary con-
This paper investigates the effect of swelling on ditions ranging from constant mean stress (CMS) to
a residential foundation through numerical modelling constant volume (CV) as well as constant stiffness
of the Swell Equilibrium Limit (SEL, Siemens 2006, (CS25 and CS75), which is a spring-type bound-
Siemens and Blatz 2008). The SEL was discovered ary condition that includes both increasing volume
through laboratory testing of a highly swelling soil that and stress were imposed on the soil during wetting.
investigated the influence of hydraulic and mechani- Each specimen was prepared in the same manner and
cal boundary conditions on the behaviour of swelling brought to the same stress state prior to wetting and,
soil during infiltration. This model is intended to therefore, the influence of boundary conditions can
be a simplified approach for researchers and practi- be viewed directly. The CMS specimen experiences
tioners to predict displacements and swelling induced the greatest expansion while the CV specimen expe-
stresses in swelling soil. In this paper, results from the riences the highest swelling induced stresses, which
laboratory testing are used to calibrate and validate are required to maintain initial volume. The constant
the SEL in a finite element modelling program. The stiffness specimens also swell up to the limit.
limit is then formulated for Lake Agassiz Clay using The line on the figure is the SEL which was deter-
oedometer results and two different scenarios for a mined by fitting a line to the final stress, water content
shallow foundation including basement construction and volume states that occurred during the physi-
and the influence of ponding around a building are cal tests. Siemens and Blatz (2008) showed the SEL
modelled. Numerical modelling shows that, despite agreed with 1-D ‘‘swell pressure’’ measurements that
the significant assumptions and simplified approach were converted to equilibrium mean stresses using an
of the formulation, the SEL can be used to predict assumption of elasticity. All specimens approached
plausible displacements and swelling induced stresses the SEL during wetting and the point at which they
around shallow foundations and basement walls. meet the limit is determined by their initial stress and
volume conditions as well as the boundary conditions
856
imposed during wetting. The SEL is the upper bound
on expansion and swelling induced stresses observed
in the tests shown (250 kPa pre-wetting mean stress)
as well as in tests with pre-wetting mean stress up
to 1500 kPa. In general, as pre-wetting mean stress
increases, potential expansion as well as swelling
induced stresses decreases. This is because of the
greater confining stresses prior to contact with water.
3 NUMERICAL FORMULATION
857
stress relationship is shown in Figure 4. In the experi- 3.1.3 Recompression
mental results, reduced expansion was observed when The third step of modelling was recompression to
pre-wetting mean stress was increased even though pre-swelling volume to model the swelling induced
the change in suction was relatively similar. Reduced stresses as illustrated in Figure 3. The constant mean
expansion corresponds with increasing stiffness as stress model results were used as initial conditions
shown in Figure 4. in the models and displacement boundary conditions
In SIGMA/W, the ‘‘Volume Change’’ Analysis Type were imposed to the periphery of the cylindrical spec-
requires an initial stress condition as well as initial imens to bring them back to their pre-wetting volume.
and final pore pressures to calculate volume changes. As shown in Figure 3, pore pressures were held
Total stresses are not permitted to change during the constant in this step. In the physical tests, swelling-
analysis. The stress-volume paths are shown schemat- induced stress changes were less than the changes in
ically in Figure 3. Initial pore pressures were known suction observed during wetting. This is represented in
from suction measurements in the laboratory tests. the numerical model as a lower ‘‘recompression mod-
The final pore pressure was taken as the water pres- ulus’’ relative to the ‘‘free swell modulus’’ as observed
sure applied during wetting (200 kPa), which assumed in Figure 4. In the CV wetting experiments, volume
the specimen reached equilibrium throughout. In this was held constant. Therefore the recompression mod-
analysis type, displacements due to positive pore pres- ulus was varied to calibrate against swelling-induced
sure changes are calculated using Young’s Modulus stresses measured in the physical tests. Once again,
(E). Displacements due to changes in negative pore the 250 kPa, 1000 kPa, and 1500 kPa tests were
pressure are calculated using the suction modulus, H, used to calibrate the recompression modulus func-
which is set by the program as H = E/(1 − 2υ). tion, which was validated with the 500 kPa test.
Therefore, change in volume due to changes in pore Similar to the free swell modulus, the recompres-
water pressure (both positive and negative) was deter- sion modulus increases with increasing mean stress.
mined from elastic constitutive models. For calibra- This is representative of a stiffer material. Interest-
tion, Young’s Modulus (and therefore the calculated ingly, although the recompression modulus is less
suction modulus) was modified until volume changes than the free swell modulus, at lower stresses, they
observed during CMS wetting were modelled. Since appear to converge (Figure 4). As mentioned above the
total stresses were held constant, deformations mod- swelling induced stresses observed during CV wetting
elled were entirely due to pore water pressure changes. were significantly less than the pore pressure change.
As shown in Figure 4, the free swell modulus From the free swell and recompression modulus rela-
increases with increasing mean stress as anticipated. tionships, this behaviour is confirmed with the free
Physically this represents a stiffer material that expe- swell moduli being consistently 5–7x greater than the
riences less expansion as pre-wetting mean stress recompression moduli.
increases. A second order polynomial was fit to the
250 kPa, 1000 kPa, and 1500 kPa tests and the result-
ing equation was used to calculate the elastic modulus
3.2 Lake Agassiz Clay calibration
for the 500 kPa test. Again, good agreement was found
between the model and physical results. Following calibration and validation of the SEL using
the laboratory tests, the model was also calibrated for
Lake Agassiz Clay. The resulting parameters could
then be used directly in basement models. First the
SEL was calculated for Lake Agassiz Clay by deter-
mining the EMDD from its montmorillonite content of
30% (Dixon et al. 2002) as well as elasticity parame-
ters given in Graham and Houlsby (1983). Infiltration
tests such as those used to develop the SEL have not
been performed on Lake Agassiz Clay specimens so
the model was calibrated using a free swell oedometer
test that allowed vertical swell under a nominal load
followed by compression to original volume. Simi-
lar to above, models were completed in a three-step
process of insitu stresses, free swell and recompres-
sion. The results agreed with earlier observations
that the free swell modulus is relatively greater than
the recompression modulus although they are almost
Figure 4. Variation of constant mean stress and recom- equal (Efreeswell = 1.8 MPa, Erecompression = 1.2 MPa)
pression moduli versus pre-wetting mean stress. for Lake Agassiz Clay at low initial stresses.
858
4 BASEMENT MODEL 20
4.1 Insitu
5
An insitu model was completed to calculate the exist-
ing stresses prior to construction and following excava- 80
tion of the basement. Half the basement was modelled
in two-dimensional space with the depth of 2 m and 0
0 5 10 15 20
total width of 10 m. To ensure validity of the mechan-
Distance (m)
ical parameters, similar suction levels were used as
a boundary condition at the surface (150 kPa suc-
tion) and the groundwater table was maintained at 5 m Figure 6. Pore pressure distribution for ponding underneath
foundation.
depth. The initial pore pressure conditions are shown
in Figure 5.
40
30
The first scenario investigated is basement construc-
tion. During construction, a vapour barrier is placed 20
below the floor to prevent moisture from entering
40.7 mm differential displacement
the house. As a result, water vapour can be trapped
10
below the floor and could result in development of
ponding, especially if the drainage plumbing becomes
0
clogged. Ponding was modelled using SEEP/W as
a zero pore pressure boundary at the base of the
-10
excavation while the surface boundary condition was 0 1 2 3 4 5
maintained at 150 kPa suction. The resulting pore pres- Distance (m)
sure distribution is shown in Figure 6 and the induced
displacements below the foundation are shown in Figure 7. Vertical displacements as a result of ponding at
foundation base.
20
Figure 7. Ponding results in rising of the groundwater
table at the base of the foundation. The vertical dis-
150 kPa suction at surface placements as a result of increase in pore pressure are
15 34.6 mm at the centre of the house with some compres-
-120 sion observed at the edge. The resulting differential
Local Elevation (m)
859
that raises the water table to the surface. Similar to the 5 CONCLUSIONS
calibration and validation modelling procedures, first
a free swell model was performed and then horizon- Environmental factors play an important role in perfor-
tal displacement boundary conditions were imposed mance of a foundation on swelling soil. In this paper,
along the side of the basement wall to maintain pre- the Swell Equilibrium Limit (SEL) was formulated
swell conditions. The result was swelling induced for Bentonite Sand Buffer and Lake Agassiz Clay in
stresses that a rigid wall foundation would experience. a finite element modelling program. The calibration
The free swell model results including a deformation and validation procedure showed the SEL was giv-
mesh (1x magnification) are shown in Figure 8 and the ing results as anticipated with increasing stiffness with
resulting stresses are plotted in Figure 9. Horizontal increasing mean stress and also represented the phys-
displacements as high as 0.24 m are shown in Figure 8 ical tests. The SEL was then used to model a house
and the resulting swelling induced stresses range from foundation under two scenarios including construction
60–110 kPa which is greater that the theoretical passive and surface ponding. The model predicted differen-
earth pressures (c = 5 kPa, φ = 15◦ ). In the long- tial deformations and swelling induced stresses that
term, these high horizontal pressures could result in represent plausible field conditions.
damaging deformations to the house foundation. This model shows the destructive deformations
and stresses that can result from environmental load-
20 ings and (relatively) low changes in suction. More
extreme changes in suction would increase the effects.
To prevent potential problems effort is required prior
to construction. Ideally, surface vegetation would be
15 .24 .18 removed and the surface covered with a vapour barrier
-0 -0
12 so the foundation soil could come into equilibrium
-0.
Local Elevation (m)
REFERENCES
0
5
Dixon, D.A., Chandler, N.A. and Baumgartner, P. 2002.
The influence of groundwater salinity and influences on
the performance of potential backfill materials. In Pro-
ceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Design
0 and Construction of Final Repositories, Backfilling in
0 5 10 15 20
Radioactive Waste Disposal, Brussels, March 2002.
Distance (m)
ONDRAF/NIRAS. Transactions, Session IV, paper 9.
Chandler, N.A. 2000. Water inflow calculations for the
Figure 8. Horizontal deformations induced from surface isothermal buffer-rock-concrete plug interaction test.
ponding and a deformation mesh (1x magnification). Ontario Power Generation Report Number: 06819-REP-
01200-10046-R0, 40 pp.
Domaschuk, L. 1986. Is your house suffering? Cantext
15 Publications, 18 pp.
Geo-slope international Ltd. 2007. Stress Deformation Mod-
eling with SIGMA/W 2007, An Engineering Methodol-
ogy, 2nd Edition, 317 pp.
Local elevation (m)
860
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a new numerical tool to model two-dimensional contaminant transport
through unsaturated porous media using a meshfree method, called the Element Free Galerkin Method (EFGM).
In the EFGM, an approximate solution is constructed entirely in terms of a set of nodes and no characterization
of the interrelationship of the nodes is needed. The advection-dispersion equation with sorption is considered
to illustrate the applicability of the EFGM. The Galerkin weak form of the governing equation is formulated
using 2D meshfree shape functions constructed using moving least square approximants, which are constructed
by using a weight function, a linear basis function and a set of non-constant coefficients. MATLAB code is
developed to obtain the numerical solution. Two numerical examples are presented and the results are compared
with those obtained from the finite element method.
861
The Student’s t distribution weight function is discharge (Darcy) velocity, C0 and g are the concentra-
written in terms of normalized radius r as tion of contaminant at the source and the concentration
⎧ ⎫ gradient at the exit boundary respectively, ns is a unit
(1 + β) (1 + β)
⎪ 2 2 −
⎨ (1 + β r ) 2 − (1 + β 2 )
− 2 ⎪
⎬ normal to the domain and, S and E are the portions
−
(1 + β) r ≤ 1 of the boundary where the source concentration and
w(r) = 1 − (1 + β 2 ) 2
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭ concentration gradient are prescribed.
0 r > 1 The hydrodynamic properties of the soil are
described by the functions of van Genuchten model
(3) (1980):
where β is the parameter controlling the shape of the
weight function and ⎧ 1
⎪
⎨ !1 − 1/χ if h ≤ 0
S= 1 + (α |h|)χ (7a)
x − xI ⎪
x = [x, y] ; r= (4) ⎩
dmax zI 1 if h ≥ 0
862
where λ is a Lagrangian multiplier for enforcing the The δC and δλ are arbitrary values and by
essential boundary conditions and is expressed by: using Equations (1) and (2) in the discretisation of
Equation (11), the following relationship is obtained
λ(x) = NK (κ)λI , x ∈ s (9a) [Equation (12)]:
! !
δλ(x) = NK (κ)δλI , x ∈ s (9b) K (1) {C} + K (2) {C},t + [G] {λ} = {Q}
!
G T {C} = {q} (12)
where NK (κ) is a Lagrange interpolant and κ is the
arc length along the boundary; the repeated indices where
designate summations. ⎡
T
⎤
By using the divergence theorem, Equation (8) is I ,x DL 0 I ,x
⎢ θ ⎥
written as: ⎢ J ,y 0 DT J ,y ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢
T
T
⎥
⎢
⎢ I I ,x I I ⎥
⎥
∂C ∂C ⎢ + u + η ⎥
δC T θ DL ns ds + δC T θ DT ns ds ⎢ J J ,x J J ⎥
∂x ∂y K IJ
(1)
= ⎢⎢
⎥ d
⎥
E E ⎢
T
⎥
⎢ I I ,x ⎥
⎢ + ⎥
T L ⎢ J J ,x ⎥
∂C ∂C T ∂θ ∂C ⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥
− δ θ DL d − δC DL dx ⎣ ⎦
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x −α(θs − θr ) 1/
0 D S (1 − S 1/ )
1−
T L
∂C ∂C ∂ (13a)
− δ θDT d − δC T (uC) dx
∂x ∂y ∂x
T
0
I I
∂ K (2)
IJ = θR d (13b)
J J
− δC ηθCd −
T
δC (Rθ C) d
T
∂t
G IK = I NK d (13c)
− δλT (C − C0 )d − λT δCd = 0 (10) s
S S
QI = I Dgd (13d)
Equation (10) can be split into two parts: E
qK = NK C0 d (13e)
δC,xT θ DL C,x d + δC,yT θ DT C,y d
s
where I (x) is the MLS shape function.
L L Using the Crank-Nicholson method for time
+ δC T θ,x DL C,x dx + δC T uC,x dx approximation, Equation (12) can be written as
0 0 ∗
K (1) + K (2) G Cn Rn
= (14)
+ δC T ηθC d + δC T Rθ C,t d G T
0 λ q
where
+ λ δCd =
T
δC θ DL gx d
T
Rn = ([K (2) ] − (1 − ε)t[K (1) ]){C}n−1
S E
+ εt{Q}n + (1 − ε)t{Q}n−1 (15a)
+ δC θ DT gy d
T
(11a) ∗
K (1) = εt[K (1) ] (15b)
E
in which ε is the constant varying between 0 and 1, C n
δλ (C − C0 ) d = 0
T
(11b) and C n−1 are the nodal concentrations at start and end
of the time increment and, Qn and Qn−1 are the nodal
S mass fluxes at start and end of the time increment.
863
4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES: RESULTS methodology and they are: (1) Advection domi-
nant transport and (2) Advection-dispersion-sorption-
The analysis procedure of the EFGM is impleneted decay. The source of the contaminant is assumed to be
through MATLAB for modelling contaminant trans- continuous.
port through unsaturated homogenous porous media. In the analysis, a central finite difference scheme
Two numerical examples are given to illustrate the (ε = 0.5) is used for time integration. In the EFGM,
a linear basis function is used for constructing the
Table 1. Data used for advection dominant transport. shape functions. As the shape functions are linear, it is
required to take the shape parameter β = 2 in the
Parameter Value weight function. Based on the parametric study, it has
been found that dmax = 2.5 for the present analysis
Length of reach (cm) 40 and the same value is used in the EFGM.
Width of reach (cm) 1.0
Initial condition for flow (cm) −40
Boundary condition for flow at upper surface (cm) 0.0 4.1 Example 1: advection dominant transport
Boundary condition for flow at bottom surface (cm) −40
Saturated volumetric water content 0.368 This example presents the case of contaminant trans-
Residual volumetric water content 0.102 port for which advection is highly dominant [Peclet
Saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil (cm/hr) 0.332
α (cm−1 ) 0.033
χ 2.0
Longitudinal dispersivity (cm) 0.005
Transverse dispersivity (cm) 0.005
Total duration of simulation (hours) 24
Initial concentration (μg/cm3 ) 0.0
Concentration at source boundary (μg/cm3 ) 1.0
864
FEM (VS2DTI) as shown in Figure 2. The centerline concentration
1.2
EFGM profiles obtained from both the FEM and EFGM are
1.0 shown in Figure 3. It is seen from the figure that
the results obtained from the present EFGM model
Normalised Concentration
865
the problem of two-dimensional contaminant transport
through the unsaturated porous media.
5 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Figure 5. Finite element mesh—example 2.
Dolbow, J. & Belytschko, T. 1998. An introduction to pro-
gramming the meshless element-free Galerkin method.
0.6 Archives in Computational Methods in Engineering 5:
207–241.
0.5 x = 20 m Lancaster, P. & Salkauskas, K. 1981. Surfaces gener-
FEM (HYDRUS - 2D)
ated by moving least-squares methods. Mathematics of
Normalised Concentration
EFGM
0.4 Computation 37: 141–158.
Paul, A.H., William, W. & Healy, R.W. 2000. VS2DI—a
0.3 graphical software package for simulating fluid flow and
x = 40 m
solute or energy transport in variably saturated porous
0.2 media. Water Resource Investigations Report 9, USGS,
Denver, USA.
0.1 x = 80 m Rao, B.N. & Rahman, S. 2000. An efficient meshless method
for fracture analysis of cracks. Computational Mechanics
0.0 26: 398–408.
0 73 146 219 292 365
Šimunek, J., van Genuchten, M. Th. & Sejna, M. 2006. The
Time (days)
HYDRUS software package for simulating the two—and
three-dimensional movement of water, heat, and multi-
ple solutes in variably-saturated media. Technical Manual,
Figure 6. Comparison of break through curves at x = 20, Version 1.0, PC Progress, Prague, Czech Republic.
40 and 80 m. van Genuchten, M. Th. 1980. A closed—formed equation for
predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
Soil Science Society of America Journal 44: 892–898.
with 315 nodes as shown in Figure 5. A comparison
between the break through curves obtained from the
present model and the FEM for three cross-sections
along the longitudinal direction is shown in Figure 6.
From the figure it is noted that the results obtained
from the EFGM and FEM are agreeing well, thus
ensuring the correct formulation of the EFGM for
866
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: A lab-scale physical model of a landfill consisting of a permeable blanket was developed. Waste
was simulated by coarse sand. The permeable blanket and the sandy soil below the blanket were instrumented
with sensors consisting of pressure transducers and Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)—based water content
sensors connected to a datalogger, to monitor the migration of injected liquid in the blanket and in the sand.
Liquid injection in the blanket was carried out at a fixed rate using a magnetic drive pump. This manuscript
presents the numerical modeling of the pressure heads and water contents measured in the physical model using
the finite element model HYDRUS-2D. The numerical model was able to simulate the pressure heads and water
contents relatively accurately when a steady state was reached. However, the model was not able to capture the
pressure heads and water contents before the steady state was reached.
1 INTRODUCTION the pressure and flow data from the sensors embed-
ded in the blanket, the landfill model developed for
Bioreactor landfills are designed and operated to this purpose can be used for validation of numerical
accelerate the decomposition of organic constituents studies related to subsurface injection.
of municipal solid waste (MSW) by re-circulating The objective of the study presented here is to
leachate (or injecting other liquids) as a means to numerically simulate the pressure heads measured in
enhance moisture levels within the landfill and cre- the permeable blanket and the water contents of the
ating an environment conducive to rapid degradation underlying soil. This paper presents the design of
of waste. Leachate recirculation or liquid injection the landfill model, data collected from the model,
can be performed using multiple techniques, both and numerical modeling results obtained from the
surface and subsurface. Subsurface application tech- finite-element model HYDRUS-2D.
niques are: (1) vertical wells; (2) horizontal trenches;
and (3) permeable blankets. Haydar and Khire (2005), 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Haydar and Khire (2007) and Khire and Mukherjee
(2007) have presented design guidelines for horizon- 2.1 Physical model
tal trenches, permeable blankets and vertical wells,
respectively, through numerical studies using finite- Figure 1 presents a schematic of the landfill model
element numerical model HYDRUS-2D. However, it fabricated to simulate a horizontal permeable blanket.
has not been possible to verify the modeling results The dimensions of the landfill model are presented in
because controlled field testing is almost impos- Figure 1. All acrylic panels of the model were screwed
sible to verify such numerical models commonly together with rubber seals in-between the panels to
used for modeling liquid flow in landfills. Hence, provide a watertight box to contain the soils subjected
there is a need to verify the numerical models that to injection of water. A silicone sealant was applied
are commonly used to design subsurface injection at the seams to prevent potential leakage. A sepa-
systems. rate acrylic panel was used to make the bottom of
A relatively large laboratory scale physical model the leachate collection system (LCS) raised to a slope
of landfill was developed to conduct controlled lab of 3%.
tests to simulate hydraulics of liquid injection consist-
ing of a permeable blanket. The lab model has sensors 2.1.1 Sensing system
embedded in the sand simulating waste underlying the The sensing system used in the landfill model con-
blanket to understand the hydraulics of liquid flow sisted of these sensors: (1) pressure transducers with
due to subsurface injection. While the ultimate objec- built-in thermistors; (2) time domain reflectometry
tive of the research project is to estimate the real-time (TDR) water content sensors; and (3) flow sensors.
hydraulic conductivity of the underlying waste using All sensors were connected to a datalogger through
867
and the volumetric water content measured by the TDR
water content sensors was observed.
The flow sensor is capable of measuring relatively
low flow rates ranging from 8 to 165 cm3 /s. The
flow sensor incorporates a pelton-type turbine wheel
to measure the flow rate of water. Electrical pulses are
generated as the turbine wheel rotates in response to
the rate of flow. The sensor provides analog DC voltage
output proportional to the flow rate.
During calibration, a linear relationship was
observed between the flow rates recorded by the flow
sensor and the flow calculated from the levels mea-
sured by the pressure transducer. The accuracy of the
flow sensor was within ±0.5%.
Figure 1. Schematic of fabricated lab-scale landfill model.
2.1.2 Materials
Accurate hydraulic characterization of the system is
required in order to verify numerical models. Because
multiplexers to continuously monitor and log the data MSW is highly heterogeneous and anisotropic (Haydar
at frequencies ranging from 5 s to 30 min. and Khire 2004) and measurement of representative
The length and diameter of pressure transducer are hydraulic properties (both saturated and unsaturated)
8.5 cm and 1.2 cm, respectively. The sensitivity of the of waste is challenging, actual or surrogate waste
pressure transducers is ±1% and have a measurement was not used. In order to allow relatively precise
range of 0 to 92 cm of water head. Because the sensors hydraulic characterization, relatively homogeneous
are vented, barometric pressure is not recorded by the and isotropic standard sand (Ottawa sand) was used
diaphragm. A thermistor is embedded within the pres- to simulate waste.
sure transducer to record temperature. The signal drift The selection of Ottawa sand to simulate waste
in the sensor performance resulted in pressure read- was based on preliminary numerical modeling which
ings with errors ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 cm during the indicated that the chosen hydraulic property of the
6 month testing period. In recognition of the concern sand would generate pressure heads which would be
for zero drift and offsets, the accuracy of all sensors within the dimensions of the model and the pres-
was checked from time to time by ponding water and sure heads would be large enough for measurement
checking the measured static heads during the course using the sensors for various magnitudes of rates of
of the experiments. liquid injection. Besides, the saturated hydraulic con-
The pressure transducers were calibrated by adding ductivity (Ks ) of Ottawa sand is consistent with the
de-ionized (DI) water at depths ranging from 15 to typical values of hydraulic conductivities of MSW
35 cm in a container. A linear relationship between published by Fungaroli and Steiner (1979), Korfiatis
the depth of water and recorded pressure head readings et al. (1984) and Chen and Chynoweth (1995). Pea-
was observed. The accuracy of the pressure transducer gravel was chosen as LCS drainage material because
was within ±0.5 cm. it results in lower liquid heads in LCS (Khire et al.
The mini-TDR water content sensors selected for 2006). The saturated hydraulic conductivities (K) of
this study consisted of three pronged 0.15 cm diame- the Ottawa sand and pea gravel were measured in the
ter stainless steel rods mounted into an encapsulated laboratory using a rigid wall permeameter (ASTM
plastic head. The probe rod length is 6 cm and spacing D 2434-68) using a constant head setup. The satu-
between the probe rods is 0.6 cm. The TDR sensors rated hydraulic conductivities of the soils presented
are connected to the datalogger via an electro-magnetic in Table 1 are average values obtained from triplicate
pulse generator and multiplexer. tests.
The TDR water content sensors were calibrated by The soil water retention characteristics were mea-
inserting vertically in a container filled with dry sand sured under static equilibrium by hanging column
and then water was gradually added in known steps method (ASTM D 6836). The experiments for
until the sand became saturated. Topp’s (Topp et al. determining the sorption curves for the soils were
1980) empirically derived calibration equation is used repeated twice. The soil water characteristic curves
to convert the dielectric constant values obtained from are described in terms of the van Genuchten (1980)
the water content sensors to actual volumetric water fitting equation. Table 1 shows the hydraulic charac-
content. A linear relationship between the volumetric teristics of the soils used in the landfill model and the
water content calculated from known addition of water fitting parameters.
868
Table 1. Properties of soils used in the landfill model.
Notes: θs = saturated volumetric water content [-]; θr = residual volumetric water content [-]; and α [1/L] and n are
van Genuchten’s fitting parameters (van Genuchten 1980).
Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity was also mea- pump was chosen because of its ability to deliver a
sured using an instantaneous profile method on an pulseless flow.
instrumented sand sample which was 30 cm high and A pressure transducer was also placed in the storage
had 20 cm diameter. tank to monitor the change in head of water in the
tank to monitor when and if a steady-state is reached.
A closed loop recirculation system was implemented.
2.1.3 Fabrication of landfill model The injected water after flowing through the soil and
Figure 1 presents the schematic of the physical model. discharging freely in the atmosphere from the seepage
A 4-cm thick LCS drainage layer made up of washed pipes was collected in the storage tank. It was injected
pea gravel was constructed at the bottom of the plexi- back into the blanket as shown in Figure 1.
glass model. Two 1.5-cm diameter perforated pipes
discharging freely into the atmosphere were placed in 2.2 Numerical model
the LCS pea gravel layer. The perforated seepage pipes
for LCS had at least 10 times higher flow capacity than HYDRUS-2D is a numerical computer model that
the flows injected in the model to maintain the pressure simulates water, heat, and solute migration in unsat-
head in the LCS within its thickness of 4 cm. About urated, partially saturated, or fully saturated porous
38-cm thick dry Ottawa sand having dry density media (Simunek et al. 1999). The program numer-
equal to 1.6 g/cm3 and porosity equal to 0.42 was ically solves the Richards’ Equation for saturated-
placed below the permeable blanket. In the sand layer, unsaturated water flow and uses van-Genuchten
two pressure transducers were embedded in verti- function for soil-water characteristic curves and
cally upright position at 10-cm intervals (not shown van-Genuchten-Mualem model for predicting the
in Figure 1). A TDR water content sensor was placed unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function. This
immediately next to the sensing tip of the pressure model has been used for saturated/unsaturated liquid
sensors. and solute transport through porous media in sev-
The permeable blanket for the recirculation system eral studies (Haydar and Khire (2007); Khire and
was made up of the same pea gravel used in LCS. Mukherjee (2007); Haydar and Khire (2005); Khire
The blanket was about 50 cm long and 30 cm wide. and Haydar (2004); Scanlon et al. 2002; Henry et al.
The thickness of the blanket was 2.0 cm. The pres- 2002; Pang et al. 2000; Rassam et al. 2002).
sure sensors were vertically placed in the sand below
the blanket such that the tips of the sensors were in the 2.2.1 Boundary conditions and mass balance
blanket. TDR sensors were placed horizontally in the Because the boundary conditions are the driving force,
blanket. In total six pressure transducers and a TDR specifying conditions on the boundaries is a key com-
water content sensor were embedded in the blanket. ponent of numerical analysis. Figure 2 shows the
A 40-cm long perforated PVC pipe of 1 cm diameter finite-element mesh generated in HYDRUS-2D and
was placed at the center of the blanket in the direction the boundary conditions applied to the model.
parallel to the width of the blanket where water was All external boundaries were simulated as zero-flux
injected under pressure. boundaries. The evaporation from the model was neg-
One end of the injection pipe inside the blanket was ligible compared to the amount water that was injected
capped and the other end was connected to a pressure in the model. The perforated injection pipe was sim-
transducer and a flow sensor to measure the injection ulated as a constant flux boundary because water was
pressure and flow rate, respectively. The flow sensor injected at a constant rate to simulate steady state con-
was connected to magnetic drive pump to pump water tinuous injection. Leachate collection pipes embedded
from a storage tank into the blanket. The magnetic in the LCS were simulated as seepage face bound-
drive pump was operated with a variable DC power aries. At seepage face boundaries, the model simulates
supply to obtain variable injection flow rates. This flow only when the pore water pressure becomes zero.
869
the hydraulic pressure heads (henceforth referred to
as pressure heads) in the blanket increased. All pres-
sure transducers in the blanket indicated an increase
in the pressure head in response to the liquid injec-
tion event. The pressure heads in the blanket increased
rapidly at the beginning of the infiltration event and
approached a steady-state value within about 60 hours.
The increase in the pressure head was earliest and
greatest for the sensors located closest to the injection
pipe. Responses of the pressure sensors embedded in
the blanket are presented in Figure 3 as scatter points.
The initial pressure heads developed in the blanket
are a function of hydraulic conductivity as well as the
initial degree of saturation of underlying sand. Hence,
at the beginning of the injection event, the pressure
heads were higher because the unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity of sand was low because the sand was
Figure 2. Mesh discretization and boundary conditions. unsaturated. When the liquid injection started, the
average degree of saturation of the sand below the blan-
ket was about 70%. As the degree of saturation of the
The minimum size of the finite-elements used for dis- sand increased due to continuous injection of water,
cretization of the problem domain, the time step, and the pressure heads in the blanket decreased because of
the error tolerances for pressure head and water con- increase in the hydraulic conductivity of the underly-
tent were selected such that cumulative water balance ing sand. In about 60 hours after the injection began,
error did not exceed 0.1%. We used an error tolerance the pressure heads reached a steady-state value.
of 0.1% for the volumetric water content and 0.1 cm for A steady-state was assumed to have reached when
the matric suction. A minimum time step of 10−10 h the injected flow in the blanket equated the outflow
and a maximum time step of 0.1 h was input to the from the LCS and the pressure heads in the blanket
model. did not show substantial upward or downward trend
for several hours after the flows became equal. Some
2.2.2 Initial conditions and other input pressure sensors had shown increase in pressure heads
The initial conditions input to the numerical model initially. As the degree of saturation of the underlying
were consistent with those measured in the physical sand increased and hydraulic conductivity of the sand
model before the injection was begun. The initial con- increased, the readings of those sensors dropped to
dition was entered in the form of volumetric water zero as shown in Figure 3.
contents, measured by the water content sensors. Simulated pressure heads are also presented in
The saturated and unsaturated properties tabulated Figure 3. The pressure heads in the blanket simu-
in Table 1 were input as material properties for all lated by HYDRUS-2D were relatively close to the
landfill components. The total injected flow rate per
cm length of the injection pipe within the blanket was
Hydrus-2D simulated heads in blanket, hS (cm)
Experimental pressure heads in blanket, hm (cm)
6 6
input as the constant flux boundary for the injection Continuous injection, Q = 120 cm 3/s
pipe. The locations of sensors were input as observa- 5 h m and :hS 5
tion nodes in order to obtain simulated pressure heads 2.5 cm from
4 injection pipe (IP) 4
and water contents (Figure 2). HYDRUS-2D
3 3
2 7.5 cm from IP 2
3 RESULTS
1 1
HYDRUS-2D
3.1 Pressure heads in blanket 0 HYDRUS-2D 0
870
measured pressure heads at steady-state. As observed phase flow of water, under the assumption that the air
in the physical model, the simulated pressure heads phase is always at a constant atmospheric pressure and
decreased as the distance from the injection pipe is able to escape freely and does not impact the infil-
increased. However, the numerical model was unable tration of water into soil. Hence, the model may not
to simulate the initial high pressure heads in the blan- have calculated the initial increase in the water pres-
ket. The simulated pressure heads reached steady-state sure heads measured in the blanket. The pressure heads
immediately. It took many hours (>60 hrs) for the in the blanket observed in the physical model subsided
heads to reach steady state in the physical model. as the trapped air gradually escaped the sand.
871
Haydar, M. and Khire, M. 2005. Leachate Recirculation Pang, L., Close, M. Watt, J. and Vincent, K. 2000. Simulation
using Horizontal Trenches in Bioreactor Landfills. Jour- of picloram, atrazine, and simazine leaching through two
nal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, New Zealand soils and into groundwater using HYDRUS-
Vol. 131(7): 837–847. 2D. Journal of Contaminant Hydrol., Vol. 44(1): 19–46.
Haydar, M. and Khire, M. 2007. Leachate Recirculation Rassam, D., and Cook, F. 2002. Numerical simulations of
using Permeable Blankets in Engineered Landfills. Jour- water flow and solute transport applied to acid sulfate
nal of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering, soils. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng., Vol. 128(2): 107–115.
Vol. 133(4): 360–371. Scanlon, B., Christman, M. Reedy, R. Porro, I. Simunek, J.
Henry, E.J., Smith, J.E. and Warrick, A.W. 2002. Two- and Flerchinger, G. 2002. Intercode comparisons for
dimensional modeling of flow and transport in the vadose simulating water balance of surficial sediments in semi-
zone with surfactant-induced flow. Water Resources arid regions. Water Resources Research, Vol. 38(12):
Research, Vol. 38(11): 331–3316. 5901–5915.
Khire, M.V. and Haydar, M.M. 2003. Numerical Evaluation Simunek, J., Sejna, M. and Van Genuchten, M. Th. 1999.
of Granular Blankets for Leachate Recirculation in MSW HYDRUS 2D, Simulating water flow, heat, and solute
Landfills. Proceedings of the Ninth Sardinia Solid Waste transport in two-dimensional variably saturated media,
Conference, Cagliary, Italy, Oct. Version 2.0, US Salinity Laboratory, ARS/USDA, River-
Khire, M., Haydar, M. and Mukherjee, M. 2006. Liquid side, California and International Ground Water Modeling
head on landfill liners due to leachate recirculation. Pro- Center, IGWMC- TPS 53, Colorado School of Mines,
ceedings of Geocongress 2006, Feb26–Mar1, Atlanta, Golden, Colorado.
GA. Topp, G.C., Davis, J.L. and Chinnick, J.H. 1980. Electro-
Khire, M. and Mukherjee, M. 2007. Leachate Injection magnetic Determination of Soil Water Content: Measure-
Using Vertical Wells in Bioreactor Landfills. Waste ments in Co-axial Transmission Lines. Water Resources
Management, Vol. 27(9): 1233–1247. Research, Vol. 16(3): 574–582.
Korfiatis, G., Demetracopoulos, A., Bourodimos, E. and van Genuchten, M. Th. 1980. A Closed-form Equation
Nawy, E. 1984. Moisture transport in a Solid Waste Col- for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated
umn. Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 110(4): Soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 44:
789–796. 892–898.
872
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
A.A. Javadi
Computational Geomechanics Group, School of Engineering, Computer Science and Mathematics,
University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
M.M. Al-Najjar
Department of Engineering, Higher College of Technology, Al-Khuwair, Muscat, Oman
ABSTRACT: The movement of contaminants through soils to the groundwater is a major cause of degradation
of water resources. In many cases, serious human and stock health implications are associated with this form of
pollution. This work presents the development and validation of a numerical model for simulation of contaminant
transport through unsaturated soils. The governing differential equations include two mass balance equations for
the water and air phases and another balance equation for contaminant transport in the two phases. The governing
equations are solved using a finite element method in the space domain and an implicit finite difference scheme
in the time domain. The mathematical framework and the numerical implementation of the model are presented.
The model has been validated and applied to a case study. A sensitivity analysis is performed to illustrate
the influence of several coefficients on contaminant transport. The merits and limitations of the model are
highlighted.
In recent years, interest in understanding the mecha- There is a broad range of issues that are of inter-
nisms and prediction of contaminant transport through est in relation to transport of contaminant in soils.
soils has dramatically increased because of growing The problem becomes more complex when the soil is
evidence and public concern that the quality of the unsaturated. Unsaturated soil is a multiphase system,
subsurface environment is being adversely affected because at least two fluid phases are present: water and
by industrial, municipal and agricultural waste. In air. The governing equations that describe fluid flow
assessing the environmental impacts of waste dis- and contaminant transport in the unsaturated zone will
charges, engineers seek to predicate the impact of be presented in this section.
emission on contaminant concentration in nearby air
and water (Nazaroff and Alvarez-Cohen, 2001). The
high costs, large time scales and lack of control over the 2.1 Modelling of water and air flow
boundary conditions have prevented the development The governing differential equation for water flow is
of field scale experiments (Hellawell and Sawidou, based on the conservation of mass of the groundwater,
1994). In this paper, the main governing phenom- leading to (Javadi, et al. 2006):
ena of the miscible contaminant transport including
advection, mechanical dispersion, molecular diffusion ∂uw ∂ua
and adsorption are considered. The contaminant trans- cww + cwa = ∇[Kww ∇uw ]
port equation together with the balance equations for ∂t ∂t
flow of water and air are solved numerically using the + ∇[Kwa ∇ua ] + Jw (1)
finite element method, subject to prescribed initial and
boundary conditions. The model is used to analyse the where
transport of a petroleum-based contaminant in a site in
the south west of the UK. The results of the model pre- cww = cfw + cvw ; cwa = cfa + cva ;
diction are compared with those measured on the site.
It is shown that the developed model is capable of pre- cvw = nSa Kfw ; cva = nSa Kfa ;
dicting the variations of the contaminant concentration ∂Sw ∂Sw
with time and space with a very high accuracy. cfw = −n(ρw − ρv ) ; cfa = n(ρw − ρv ) ;
∂s ∂s
873
ρw Kw
Kww = + Kvw ρw ; Kwa = ρv Ka + ρw Kva ; 2.2 Modelling of contaminant transport
γw
In porous media, contaminant transport occurs by
∂h ∂ψ ∂h ∂ψ various processes including advection, diffusion and
Kfa = ρ0 ∇ua ; Kfw = −ρ0 ∇uw ;
∂ψ ∂s ∂ψ ∂s mechanical dispersion. The mass balance equation of
Datms Vv n Datms Vv n contaminant transport can be written as:
Kvw = − Kfw ; Kva = − Kfa ;
ρw ρw ∂(Rθw cw )
+ ∇(vw cw ) − ∇(θw Dw ∇cw ) + λw θw cw = F w
Jw = ρw ∇(Kw ∇z) ∂t
(3)
in which n is the porosity of the soil, Kw is the con- where the four terms on the left hand side of the
ductivity of water, Ka is the conductivity of air, Sw is equation represent the variations of contaminant con-
the degree of saturation of water, Sa is the degree of centration with time, effect of advection, effect of
saturation of air, ρw is the density of water, ρv is the dispersion and diffusion and effect of chemical reac-
density of water vapour, ρ0 is the density of saturated tions respectively and F w represents the source/sink
soil vapour, s is the soil suction, Vv is the mass flow term for water. In this equation θw is the volumet-
factor, uw is the pore-water pressure, ua is the pore-air ric water content, vw groundwater velocity, Dw the
pressure, Datms is the molecular diffusivity of vapour coefficients of dispersivity tensor, λw is the reaction
through air, γw is the unit weight of water, ψ is the rate for water, cw is the contaminant concentration,
capillary potential, h is the relative humidity and ∇z R = [1 + θs ρs Kd /θw ] is the retardation coefficient, ρs
is the unit normal oriented downwards in the direction is the density of the solid phase, Kd is the distribution
of the force of gravity. coefficient and θs is the volumetric content of the solid
The governing differential equation for air flow is phase (McElwee, 1982).
based on the conservation of mass of the ground air,
leading to (Javadi, et al. 2006):
3 NUMERICAL SOLUTION
∂uw ∂ua
caw + caa = ∇ [Kaw ∇uw ] The nonlinear governing differential equations of fluid
∂t ∂t
flow and contaminant transport were solved using a
+ ∇(Kaa ∇ua ) + Ja (2) finite element method in the space domain and a finite
difference scheme in the time domain. The govern-
where ing equations describing transport of contaminants in
unsaturated soil include two sets of equations. The first
set describes the flow of water and air and the second
caw = caw1 + caw2 ; caa = caa1 + caa2 ; set describes the transport of a miscible contaminant
through the water and air phases. In this work, it is
∂Sw
caw1 = −nρda (Ha − 1) ; assumed that the flow processes do not depend on the
∂s transport processes while the transport processes are
∂Sw dependent on the flow fields as they rely on the way
caa1 = nρda (Ha − 1) ; in which each fluid phase transports the contaminant.
∂s
This allows the flow equations to be solved indepen-
caw2 = n(Sa + Ha Sw )cdaw ; dently of the transport equations. It would therefore
be logical to breakdown the solution procedure into
caa2 = n(Sa + Ha Sw )cdaa ;
two stages: in the first stage the flow equations for
Rv 1 Rv water and air are solved simultaneously and then in
cdaw = − Kfw ; cdaa = − Kfa ; the second stage, the calculated values of pore water
Rda Rda T Rda
and pore air pressures (from the first stage) are used to
Ha ρda solve the transport equation and to calculate the values
Kaw = Kw ; Kaa = Ka ∇uw ;
γw of contaminant concentration in the domain.
Ja = Ha ρda ∇(Kw ∇z)
3.1 Numerical solution of governing differential
equations for water and air flow
in which Ha is the Henry’s volumetric coefficient of
solubility, ρda is the density of dry air, Rda is the spe- The governing differential equations for water flow
cific gas constant for dry air and Rv is the specific gas and air flow (equations 1 and 2) as defined above, have
constant for water vapour. two variables uw and ua . These variables are primary
874
n
"
unknowns and can be approximated using the shape !
fw = ∇N T (Kw ρw ∇z) de
function approach as:
e=1
e
n
"
"
n
uw = ûw = Ns uws (4) − Nr {ρw v̂wn + ρw v̂vd + ρw v̂va }d e
1 e=1 e
"
n
ua = ûa = Ns uas (5) in which v̂wn is the approximated water velocity nor-
1 mal to the boundary surface, v̂vd is the approximated
diffusive vapour velocity normal to the boundary sur-
where, Ns is the shape function, uws and uas are the face, v̂va is the approximated pressure vapour velocity
nodal pore-water and pore-air pressures respectively, normal to the boundary surface and e is the element
and n represents the number of nodes in each ele- boundary surface. Similarly, the spatial discretisation
ment. Replacing the primary unknowns with shape of governing differential equation for air flow leads to:
function approximations, equations (1) and (2) can be ∂uws ∂uas
written as: Caw + Caa + Kaw uws + Kaa uas = fa (9)
∂t ∂t
∂ ûw where,
∇[Kww ∇ ûw ] + ∇[Kwa ∇ ûa ] + Jw − Cww
∂t n
" !
∂ ûa Caw = N T Caw N de ;
− Cwa = Rw (6)
∂t e=1
e
& ' ∂ ûw n
∇ Kaw ∇ ûw + ∇(Kaa ∇ ûa ) + Ja − Caw " !
∂t Caa = N T Caa N de ;
∂ ûa e=1
− Caa = Ra (7) e
∂t n
" !
Kaw = ∇N T (Kaw ∇N ) de ;
where, Rw and Ra are the residual errors introduced e=1
e
by the approximation functions. A finite element
n
"
scheme is applied to the spatial terms, employing the !
weighted residual approach, to minimise the residual Kaa = ∇N T (Kaa ∇N ) de ;
error represented by equations (6) and (7) and integrat- e=1
e
ing the equations over the spatial domain (e ). Spatial n
" !
discretisation of the governing differential equation for fa = ∇N T (Kw ρda Ha ∇z) de
water flow can be written as: e=1
e
∂uws ∂uas n
Cww + Cwa + Kww uws + Kwa uwa = fw (8) " $ %
∂t ∂t − N T ρ v̂fn + v̂an .d e
where, e=1 e
n
" In the above equations v̂fn is the approximated
!
Cww = N T Cww N de ; velocity of free dry air and v̂an is the approximated
e=1
e
velocity of dissolved dry air. Spatially discretised
equations for coupled flow of water and air, given
n
" ! by the above equations, can be combined in a matrix
Cwa = N T Cwa N de ; form as:
e=1
e
n
" Kww Kwa uws C Cwa u̇ws f
! + ww − w =0
Kww = ∇N T (Kww N ) de ; Kaw Kaa uas Caw Caa u̇as fa
e=1
e
(10)
n
" !
Kwa = ∇N T (Kwa N ) de ; ∂uws ∂uas
e=1 where u̇ws = and u̇as = .
e ∂t ∂t
875
A time discretisation of equation (10) is achieved where
here by application of a fully implicit mid interval
backward difference algorithm. Applying a finite dif- n
"
b
θc
ference scheme (Stasa, 1985) to equation (10) will M= Aij ;
t
result in: 1 a
n
"
b
φ n+1 − φ n H= vcBij + DcEij + λcAij ;
A φ
n+1/2 n+1
+B n+1/2
+C n+1/2
=0
t 1 a
(11)
" ∂c ∂c b
n
∂c ∂c
F= N 2 vc − D +λ ;
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y a
where 1
∂N ∂N
Aij = NNdxdy; Bij = N N dxdy;
A=
Kww Kwa
; B = ww
C Cwa
; ∂x ∂y
Kaw Kaa Caw Caa
∂N ∂N ∂N ∂N
Eij = dxdy
f u ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
C = W ; φ = ws
fa uas
Applying a finite difference scheme (Stasa, 1985)
to equation (16) will result in:
and n, n+1 stand for time levels (tn and tn+1 = tn +t).
Equation (11) can be further simplified to give: (θ c)n+1 − (θ c)n !
M + H (1 − γ )cn + γ cn+1 + F n+1 = 0
t
−1 n+1/2 n
Bn+1/2 B φ (17)
φ n+1 = An+1/2 + − C n+1/2
t t
(12) where, t is the time step. The value of γ is usu-
ally taken as 0, 0.5 and 1.0 for the forward, central
and backward difference schemes respectively. The
3.2 Numerical solution of contaminant transport backward difference scheme (γ = 1) has been used
governing equation in the model as it is unconditionally stable for all val-
ues of t . The solution of equations (11) and (17)
In the absence of the source and sink terms, equation using the two-stage procedure described above, will
(3) will reduce to: give the distribution of the contaminant concentrations
∂(θ c) at various points within the soil and at different times,
+ ∇(vc) − ∇(D∇c) + λc = 0 (13)
∂t taking into account the interaction between the flow of
The primary unknown can be approximated using air and water and various mechanisms of contaminant
the shape function approach as: transport.
"
n
θ c = θ̂ ĉ = Ns θ c s (14) 4 NUMERICAL RESULTS
1
"
n 4.1 Case study
c = ĉ = Ns cs (15)
The developed finite element model has been validated
1
against a wide range of test cases from the literature.
In this paper, the application of the model to a case
where cs is the nodal contaminant concentration and n study is presented which involves analysis of transport
is the number of nodes per element. In the present of a petroleum-based contaminant at a site in south
work, eight-node quadratic element has been used west of England, in order to study the potential for
(n = 8). Replacing the primary unknowns with contamination from previous commercial use as a fuel
shape function approximation in equation (13) and filling station and vehicle repair workshop.
employing the Galerkin weighted residual approach to
minimise the residual error represented by this approx- 4.1.1 Site description
imation; the discretised global finite element equation The local geology comprises Yeovil Sand beds to 60 m
for single component of contaminant takes the form: depth, with Jurassic limestone immediately to the
dc north. The surface geology of the site includes shallow,
M + Hc + F = 0 (16) fine alluvial deposits containing organic matter, and
dt
876
4.1.3 Sampling
Eight boreholes for monitoring groundwater have been
used for the survey as shown in Fig. 1. These were
all sampled at 0.3 m below groundwater surface to
provide a comprehensive sample containing possible
dispersed and dissolved fuel compounds. Such con-
taminates can be expected to show greatest mobility
and hence potential for migration off-site.
4.1.4 Water
Four monitoring boreholes had previously been
installed to three meters depth, adjacent to the storage
tanks and pump areas. For the tier in investigation, four
additional boreholes were installed by the consultant
in charge of the investigation as close as possible to the
site boundaries. The installation points were selected
to surround the site as far as practicable, with empha-
sis on the north and west boundaries, as observations
suggest that groundwater is likely to flow in this direc-
tion. The new boreholes, B5 –B8 , were of a similar
design to the original, slotted from 1 m below ground
Figure 1. Plan of the site. level, and were installed to a depth of five metres.
Groundwater in the boreholes was allowed to equi-
layers of coarse grained material, probably weathered librate and was sampled four days after installation.
limestone with limestone fragments. The site is under- Water samples were taken at 0.3 metres below ground-
lain by a major aquifer and is on the boundary of a water surface to exclude floating product, which may
fluvial floodplain, having an annual flooding risk of be constrained on the site, and to detect dispersed and
1%. The garage is adjacent to the junction of two minor dissolved fuel components which are more vulnera-
roads. It is surrounded by domestic dwellings, with a ble to migration with groundwater. The receptor was
watercourse approximately 10 m to the north and 2 m also sampled upstream and downstream of the site,
below forecourt level, draining to the east. The plot is adjacent to the site boundaries.
approximately 20 m by 20 m and consists of a build-
ing formerly used as a shop and office, together with 4.1.5 Soil
two attached workshops with concrete floors, used for During installation of the boreholes, soil samples were
repairs and storage (Fig. 1). Adjacent to the current taken, where possible, at a depth just below first water
office entrance is a store containing two paraffin or strike Fig. 6. A survey was initiated in January 2003 in
light oil tanks, each of 1300 litres capacity. The fore- order to assess the extent of contamination throughout
court is concrete surfaced above the fuel tanks, with the site and to assess general groundwater movement.
a tarmac and gravel access road to the rear. The fuel This survey found hydrocarbon contamination at all
filling area is directly adjacent to the public pavement sample points within the site and around the periphery
and consists of four diesel pumps. Five manhole covers as shown in Table 1.
are nearby, two of which provide access to fuel storage A section of the site, 40 m wide and 10 m deep
tanks, with two adjacent surface drains. (Fig. 2) was analysed using the developed finite
element model. The section was divided into 400
4.1.2 Site observation
Numerous inspection covers are present on the site, Table 1. Analysis of contaminants in groundwater (Jan
providing access to fuel tank fillers, pipe manifolds, 2003).
water supply pipes and two surface drains, with two
further drains on the site periphery. Tests carried out Total Petroleum
by a consulting engineering company, showed that one Sample ID Hydrocarbons (TPH) Mg/l
drain adjacent to the fuel pumps discharges directly
into a receptor, which means that any spillages from B2 115034
B5 22000
pump operation has a direct pathway to local surface B6 20100
water. Water present beneath some inspection covers B7 2462
has shown considerable contamination by heavy oils.
877
140000
Dm = 10 8
100000 Dm = 10 6
Dm = 10 7
Dm = 10
80000 5
60000
40000
20000
Figure 2. A conceptual model of the site.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
140000
B2 Measured data - Jan 2003 distance from concentration source (m)
FEM-Model - Feb 2003
120000 Source FEM-Model - Mar 2003
contaminant concentration (mg/l)
140000
60000
B6
k w = 10 7
contaminant concentration (mg/1)
120000
40000
20000
100000
kw = 10 5 kw = 10 6
80000
0
0510152025303540
kw = 10 4
60000
distance from concentration source (m)
40000
878
play a significant role in transport of the contami- presented model in simulating the transport of con-
nant and changes in concentrations with time. In both taminants in soils in a real case study. The sensitivity
cases, the contaminant concentration decreases con- analysis illustrated the influence of a number of coef-
siderably with increasing the value of the coefficients ficients on contaminant transport. The results show
of diffusion Dm and effective permeability kw . that the developed numerical model is capable of pre-
dicting, with a good accuracy, the effects of various
mechanisms of contaminant transport through soils.
5 CONCLUSIONS
879
Case studies
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
G.E. Blight
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT: It has often been observed that the adoption of new theories or practical innovations in
engineering practice is an exceedingly slow process. The time lapse between publication of a new idea and
its adoption as a commonly used article or procedure may be as long as 25 to 30 years. The paper suggests
that one of the main reasons for this tardy progress is that new theories and other innovations are published
prematurely, or in incomplete form. The potential client or user of an innovation is not given the complete story
from theory to practical application, to verification and validation by field testing. Thus a hiatus or gulf develops
and persists between potential advances of practice and the actual progress of their implementation. The paper
presents two examples of cases where it has been possible to go through this complete process and produce an
essentially complete concept, immediately available for wider use, and resulting in rapid progress.
883
Figure 1. Depression of water table by evapotranspiration from eucalyptus plantation.
884
forces each amounted to 1500 kN. Thus the test mea-
surements were valid and design and installation of the
piles proceeded, based on the test results.
The completed power station has now operated for
over 20 years with no problems arising from the pile
foundations. Level measurements have confirmed the
885
Figure 6. (a) White salt stains on a road surface after a light rain shower (b) Salt blisters on the surface of the road
shown in (a).
886
predicted heave movements of the soil surface sur- have allowed pore water to evaporate through it.
rounding the power station. The foundations for the The migration of salt shown in Figure 5b must
next power station to be built on similar soils, that have taken place before the surfacing was applied.
at Majuba, were designed following a similar proce- Thus an effective preventive measure would be to
dure. Thus the process was complete, leaving no gulf use thicker surfacings, designed to be impervious.
between theory and application. c. As a third possible prophylactic measure, the sol-
ubility of the salts can be substantially reduced by
treating the aggregate with a high calcium slaked
3 DAMAGE TO PAVEMENT SURFACINGS lime. This converts the more soluble sodium,
CAUSED BY UPWARD MIGRATION OF magnesium and iron sulphates to calcium sul-
SOLUBLE SALTS phate which has a much lower solubility of only
0.02 g/litre, and reduces the mobility of the salts.
Problems with soluble salts in road-making materials
Further investigation in several localities showed that
have been reported from Australia, India, South Africa
salt blistering did not occur, provided that the overall
and the United States (e.g. Netterberg, 1970).
salt content of the road aggregate was less than 0.2%
In coastal areas, salts commonly consist of sodium
by dry mass. Also, if the ratio of the asphalt perme-
and magnesium chlorides derived from seawater.
ability in mm/s to the surfacing thickness in mm was
Inland, sulphates of sodium, magnesium, iron and
les than 30 × 10−6 /s, no salt blistering was observed.
calcium are common, and derive from oxidation by
natural weathering processes of metallic sulphides. Of a), b) and c) above, a) is the most useful for new
Mine waste rock, ash, clinker, slag, and other rock- construction. Sources of crushed rock, or other gran-
like industrial wastes frequently contain soluble salts. ular material are now routinely tested for soluble salt
If waste containing salts is used to construct road or content. If the salt content exceeds 0.2% by dry mass,
pavement layers, and especially in arid to semi-arid it is rejected for use as road or surfacing aggregate, or
climates, evaporation will cause the salts to migrate to it may be treated with lime.
the surface in solution and may cause physical damage For the repair of salt-damaged surfacings, an over-
to road or pavement surfacings when they crystallize lay of impervious asphalt is used in a thickness to
out at or just below the surface. Figure 5 shows pro- give a maximum ratio of permeability to thickness of
files of soluble salt content (a) for a damaged asphalt 30 × 10−6 /s. The results of the completed investiga-
surfacing and (b) for an undamaged surfacing. tion could be applied immediately, no hiatus existed
Typically, the first sign of damage to a road surface between theory and application, and progress was
is the appearance of white streaks and patches on the made immediately.
surface after a light rain shower, as shown in Figure 6a.
The damage may progress to the formation of salt-
filled blisters in the surfacing, as shown (at the same 4 CONCLUSION
site) in Figure 6b. Depending on the size and intensity
of the blistering (individual blisters may be as large as If they are to contribute to progress in the applied prac-
150 mm in dia. and 50 mm high), traffic may break up tice of the geotechnics of unsaturated soils, potential
the blistered surface and cause pot-holes to form. advances, such as new theories or techniques must
Figure 5 gives two clues as to how to overcome the be demonstrated to be valuable and viable by field
problem of salt blistering: application and testing, followed by a report or pub-
lication that details the complete progression from
a. For new construction, material containing more theory, to testing, to design, to practical application
than a defined maximum of soluble salts should and evaluation.
not be used. Publication of parts of the progression have a value
b. It will be noted from Figure 5a that the damaged as milestones toward progress, but will only result in
surfacing is only about 10 mm thick, whereas progress once all of the steps have been completed and
(Figure 5b) the undamaged one is 40 mm thick. a comprehensive report has been made available.
Moreover, the salt content of the damaged sur-
facing is higher than that of the material below it,
showing that salt has concentrated within the pores
REFERENCES
of the asphalt. This indicates that the surfacing
is relatively permeable and has allowed salt-laden Alonso, E.E. and Pineda, J.A. 2007. Degradation of
pore water to move upwards and evaporate at the argillaceous rocks: a challenge for unsaturated geome-
surface, depositing the salt. In contrast, the salt chanics. 3rd Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils,
content of the undamaged surfacing is negligible, 3–26, Nanjing, China: Science Press. (ISBN 7-03-
showing that it is sufficiently impervious, not to 018739- 0/TU.535).
887
Blight, G.E. 1976. Migration of subgrade salts damages thin Nelson, J.D., Chao, K.-C. and Overton, D.D. 2007. Design of
pavements. Transportation Engineering Journal, ASCE, pier foundations on expansive soils. 3rd Asian Conference
Vol. 102, No. TE4, 779–791. on Unsaturated Soils, 97–108, Nanjing, China: Science
Blight, G.E. 1984. Uplift forces measured in piles in expan- Press (ISBN 7-03-018739-0/TU.535).
sive clay. 5th International Conference on Expansive Soils Netterberg, F. 1970. Occurrence and testing for deleteri-
363–367, Adelaide, Australia. ous salts in road construction materials with particular
Buckingham, E. 1907. Studies of the movement of soil mois- reference to calcretes. Symposium on Soils and Earth
ture. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, Structures in Arid Climates, 87–92, Adelaide, Australia.
Bull 10. Sawangsuriya, A., Edil, T.B., Benson, C.H. and Wang, X.
Fredlund, D.G. 2007. Engineering design protocols for 2007. A simple setup for inducing matrix suction.
unsaturated soils. 3rd Asian Conference on Unsaturated 3rd Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils, 499–504,
Soils, 27–46, Nanjing, China: Science Press. (ISBN Nanjing, China: Science Press (ISBN 7-03-018739-0/
7-03-018739-0/TU.535). TU.535).
888
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
The repeatability of soil water balances at the same site from year to year
G.E. Blight
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT: The soil water balance has been shown to be a characteristic that is essential to establish for an
unsaturated soil site, if the subsequent engineering behaviour of the site is to be fully understood. Establishing
a soil water balance requires at least a year of observations and measurements. Even then there may be some
doubt if the water balance measurements are repeatable, let alone representative for future years. If it can be
shown that water balance measurements are repeatable and reliable, the effects of variation in annual rainfall
can be estimated with fair confidence, and the long term soil behaviour predicted more reliably.
It so happened that the annual rainfall for the site described in this paper was near-identical in the 2004/2005
and 2005/2006 wet seasons, both in total quantity and distribution with time. This has allowed a comparison to
be made, showing that water balance measurements for the two similar years were also similar. Unfortunately,
variability of soil water distribution and uncertainty in its measurement does not permit a more definite statement.
However, the similarity is close enough to strengthen the case for a water balance to be defined whenever an
important unsaturated soil site is to be characterized.
889
0.5 m and the profile changes abruptly from soil to the water balances for two different years. The paper
weathered sandstone. will describe the comparison and show that although
The climate at the site is continental with warm the water balances are similar, measurements are not
moist summers (daily temperatures between +10 and sufficiently accurate to say they are identical. It is
+25◦ C) and cool dry winters (−10 to +15◦ C). believed that the main differences arise from difficul-
ties in accurately measuring in situ water content in
the highly fissured soil at Clarens.
1.3 The experimental objectives
Although, with the aid of equation (1) and a set of
appropriate measurements for a year, the water bal- 2 THE RAINFALL AND
ance for a site can be defined, the equation can seldom EVAPOTRANSPIRATION RECORDS
be closed perfectly because of the unknown losses
and difficulties in accurately defining the recharge Figure 1 shows the cumulative rainfall for the two peri-
term RE and the evapotranspiration E (e.g., Smethurst ods 01 November 2004 to 31 October 2005 (878 mm)
et al., 2006). and 01 November 2005 to 31 October 2006 (855 mm,
As the main input to the equation is rainfall, and this 97% of the previous year). Because antecedent rainfall
can vary widely from year to year and has an effect on will have some effect on the following year, an over-
evapotranspiration, it is seldom possible to compare lap from 01 May to 31 October is shown in both cases.
the water balance for one year with that of another Also, the cumulative rainfall for the antecedent year,
having identical rainfall. Thus it is seldom possible 01 November 2003 to 31 October 2004 was 658 mm.
to confirm the accuracy of the process of defining a That is, the two year period of study was preceded by a
water balance, by direct comparison of years with the drier year in which the rainfall was 76% of that in the
same rainfall. two subsequent years, for which year 1 was slightly
It was noticed that the total rainfall for the periods wetter than year 2.
from 01 November 2004 to 31 October 2005, and 01 In both cases, the line representing E is a compos-
November 2005 to 31 October 2006 were very sim- ite line, established by energy balance measurements
ilar, thus providing a rare opportunity for comparing (e.g. Blight, 2006) over a period of several years.
Figure 1. Comparison of cumulative rainfall recorded at Clarens for the 2004/2005 and 2005/2006 wet seasons (The evapo-
transpiration (E) line has been built up from observations made over several years; it does not relate specifically to 2004,
2005 or 2006).
890
The line applies specifically to a grass-covered sur- with only 15% of annual rain falling in 24 hour events
face, unaffected by the presence of trees or shrubs. of more than 40 mm.
In each case, the point at which the R line crosses
the E line represents the time at which the rainfall
starts to exceed the evapotranspiration and the soil 2.2 Runoff at this site
water goes from deficit to surplus. Note that in the The rainfall analysis by 24 hour event has an impor-
two May to October periods studied, this occurred in tant bearing on the runoff term RO in equation (1).
late December. In a set of artificial rainfall and runoff measurements,
made on a 10 m2 runoff plot, 80 mm of artificial
2.1 Analyses of rainfall records rainfall was applied by a sprinkler in 7 hours (i.e.,
according to Figure 2a, the equivalent of a rare and
Figure 1 gives a visual impression of the similarity intense 24 hour event). The cumulative runoff was only
of the cumulative rainfall records for the two peri- 0.7 mm, or 0.9% of rainfall, with 99% infiltrating, 4%
ods under consideration, and this is supported by the re-evaporating, 68% adding to storage and 27% exit-
analyses that follow. ing the base of the soil profile as recharge. At this
Figure 2a shows analyses of the annual rainfall by site, the soil is clayey, but it is also intensely fissured,
24 hour events and Figure 2b by quantity of rainfall in and the fissuring controls the rate of infiltration. Thus,
each 24 hour event. The analysis by 24 hour events runoff will be negligible for all likely rainfall intensi-
shows that the rainfall event distribution was very ties, and all rainfall can be assumed to infiltrate. Thus
similar for the two years, with small rainfall events equation (1) can be simplified to
(<20 mm) being slightly less frequent in 2004/2005
than in 2005/2006 and bigger events (>20 mm)
slightly more frequent. R+S− E= RE + losses (1a)
The analysis by quantity is a combination of the
records for the two one-year periods and shows that
74% of the annual rainfall quantity fell almost evenly 3 A COMPARISON OF WATER CONTENT
distributed in 24 hour events of between 5 and 40 mm PROFILES FOR THE TWO YEARS
891
Figure 3. Comparison of water content contours adjacent to a line of Populus nigra trees measured in September 2005
and 2006.
892
Figure 5. Comparison of water stored in soil profile adjacent (a) to a line of trees and (b) to a line of bushes, measured in
September 2005 and July 2006.
Figure 5a shows the water stored in the soil (S), cor- 4 CONCLUSIONS
responding to the water contents shown in Figure 3,
and Figure 5b for the line of bushes mentioned earlier. A water content measurement appears to be one of the
For the trees, the 2005 storage quantities everywhere simplest and most fundamental that can be made in soil
exceed those for 2006, but the 2005 rainfall was mechanics. However, Figure 4 shows that it is far from
slightly higher than in 2006. The two profiles are simple to make consistent and variation-free measure-
much closer in the drier region adjacent to the trees. ments of in situ water content, particularly in fissured
For the bushes, the stored water profiles are very much soils. If an indirect method of water content measure-
closer, and almost coincide at distances of more than ment is used, the method will be difficult to calibrate
5 m from the bushes. It is, however, necessary to in the field and the uncertainty in the calibration may
consider that because of the uncertainty of the water arise both from instrumental and soil characteristics.
content measurements, the profiles for the bushes may If allowance is made for these difficulties, it is prob-
actually be further apart than they appear to be, and ably fair to say that in years that have rainfall with
the water profiles for the trees, closer. similar distributions in quantity, time and intensity,
893
soil water distributions by water content and storage Blight, G.E. 2007. Experience with calibrating an instrument
will be similar. Hence the water balances for these for ascertaining the in situ water content of soil by measur-
years will be similar, and hence suitable to use for ing the soil electrical capacitance. In: UnSat-Asia 2007,
predicting soil water conditions in other years. Proceedings, 3rd Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils,
451–456, Nanjing, China, Science Press.
Smethurst, J.A., Clarke, D. & Powrie, W. 2006. Seasonal
changes in pore water pressure in a grass-covered cut slope
REFERENCES in London clay. Geotechnique, 56(8), 523–537.
894
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
G.E. Blight
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT: Although the overall thermodynamics of the process of evapotranspiration is reasonably well
understood, the way in which water moves up to a soil surface prior to being evapotranspired does not seem to
have been studied in detail. After examining the variation of evaporation potential throughout the day, by means
of measurements of solar surface energy, the paper examines diurnal and nocturnal near-surface moisture move-
ment. This is followed by a longer-term study of the depletion of near-surface soil water by evapotranspiration,
and its replenishment by upward water flow from deeper soil layers.
LE = Rn + W − (G + H + P) (1)
LE = Rn − G (1a)
895
Figure 2. Measurements of net solar power Rn (W/m2 ) and cumulative net solar energy Rn (kJ/m2 ) received by grassed
surface at experimental area. The inset shows near-surface soil temperature profiles at sunrise (06.00), noon and sunset (18.00).
could occur throughout the depth of heating of the soil During the night, upward flow will continue,
(see Figure 2). Hence it is probably fair to use a value but evapotranspiration from the surface will not
for λ that corresponds to the mean temperature in the occur as available latent heat of evaporation will
depth of heated soil. be negligible. In addition, because of cooling
Although an estimation of the daily quantum of of the soil surface during the night (see the
evapotranspiration can be made, the way in which the temperature profiles in Figure 2) there will be
water moves up to the surface and escapes as vapour is a slight upward flow induced by the tempera-
obscure. It is known that evapotranspiration can draw ture gradient. The water content of near-surface
water to the surface from depths of more than 10 m soil will decrease during the day, but the suc-
(e.g. Blight, 2006), thus the reservoir of water avail- tion and temperature equilibration processes will
able for transpiration may be large. It will be seen cause a slight increase of water content during the
from Figure 2 that the solar power input is negligible night.
between sunset and sunrise, so that the major impetus
for upward water flow to the soil surface prevails only
during the daylight hours. One can envisage this as 2 MEASUREMENTS OF NEAR-SURFACE
happening in two stages: SOIL WATER CONTENT
1.1 During daylight hours, water will be evapotran- To check the correctness of the above concept, two
spired from the soil surface, inducing increased soil cores, each 100 mm diameter by 100 mm length
soil water suction in the near-surface layers. The were cut from the test area about 1 m apart. They were
suction gradient will induce an upward wave of extracted by driving in a 1 mm wall thickness core-
water flow in the soil. cutter, carefully undercutting and loosening the core
1.2 In general, upward flow of the available near- cutter (plus grass-covered soil core) using a trowel with
surface water will not, by nightfall, have equili- a face curved to 100 mm diameter, and then extract-
brated with the solar-induced increase in suction. ing the core cutter with its contained soil. Both cores
896
means of gypsum block (Soil moisture) and glass fibre
mat (ELE) sensors. (See Figure 5) The sensors were
installed as follows. An undisturbed core of soil was
extracted as described above. The core, in the core-
cutter, was placed in a sealed plastic bag in the shade
while the sensors were installed in the sides of the core-
hole. The gypsum blocks were installed (one each)
at depths of 15, 45 and 75 mm below the surface (at
120◦ in plan) by hand-drilling a hole horizontally into
the soil using a spade bit slightly smaller in diameter
than the sensor. The three sensors were then pushed
into their holes in the side of the core hole and the
electrical leads taken up the side of the hole. The core
was then carefully extruded from the core-cutter and
returned to its hole. The glass fibre mats were installed
in a similar way, except that slots to fit the flat sensors
were gouged out using a knife blade.
The two instrumented holes were left for two
months to equilibrate and for the grass to re-grow,
Figure 3. Results of water content sampling in ‘‘undis- before starting the measurements. In the meantime,
turbed’’ cores of soil. a third 100 mm × 100 mm core with grass growing
on its surface and with a gypsum block and a glass
fibre mat mounted in it on opposite sides at a depth
of 50 mm, was introduced into a Perspex cylinder of
(in their core cutters) were returned to their holes. 100 mm diameter and height, with a closed base,
Core 1 was sampled at 18h00 (sunset) by removing it in order to calibrate the sensor readings against the
from its hole, carefully extruding it upwards from its overall water content of the core. (See Figure 6).
core-cutter and then drilling sample holes in its sides, The calibration core was kept under cover and
by hand, on a vertical line, at depths of 15, 45 and allowed to dry out very slowly from the surface by
75 mm below the soil surface, using a 12.5 mm diam- allowing four hours of drying (06h00 to 10h00), fol-
eter spade drill bit. The core was then pushed back lowed by 20 hours with the top surface sealed to allow
into the core-cutter and returned to its hole. The pro- moisture equilibration, before reading the sensors. The
cess was repeated at 06h00 (sunrise) and 18h00 the sensors installed in the experimental plot were mea-
next day and 06h00 on the third day, each time sam- sured over a period of 15 days in June (the winter
pling on a line at 90◦ in plan to the previous sample solstice) and 7 days in September (the spring equinox).
line. Sampling of core 2 was started at 18h00 on day Space limitations allow only one set of detailed results
3 with sampling being completed at 06h00 on day 5. to be included in this paper, and those for June have
The results of the water content sampling opera- been chosen. Surface energy measurements (similar to
tion are shown in Figure 3. For core 1, the nocturnal those in Figure 2) gave an estimate of the daily loss by
increases in water content, followed by the diurnal evapotranspiration at this time of year of 0.9 mm/day
decrease are clearly shown. By the end of day 3, core 2 (0.9 kg water/m2 /day).
had dried out considerably, and the nocturnal increases The measurements were made at 06h00 each day,
are not very clear. Measurements at 75 mm depth when the sensors were most likely to be at equilib-
were abandoned on day 4 because the lower part of rium, and the results are shown in Figure 4. The graphs
the core was crumbling. Nevertheless, the experiment show a slowing decline of water content that is sim-
showed that the two-stage process, described above, ilar at depths of 15, 45 and 75 mm. For both sets of
does indeed occur. sensors, the overall water content loss was about 15%
at all depths which is equivalent to 0.5 mm of water
per day. Surface energy measurements had indicated
3 LONGER TERM MEASUREMENTS USING a daily total loss of 0.9 mm/day and hence the daily
GYPSUM BLOCK AND GLASS FIBRE upflow from the soil below 75 mm depth was about
WATER CONTENT SENSORS 0.4 mm/day. It will be seen that the water contents in
Figure 3 are much lower than those shown in Figure 4.
The longer-term measurements were intended to study This apparent discrepancy is because measurements in
near-surface changes in water content over periods of Figure 4 are based on the dry mass of an undisturbed
two or more weeks, and hence destructive sampling soil core, riddled with grass roots and having a dry den-
could not be used. The measurements were made by sity of only 650 kg/m3 , whereas the measurements in
897
Figure 4. Decline of water content of near-surface soil as a result of evapotranspiration.
Figure 3 are based on samples of soil solids with about tests in September. The results of this sampling are
twice the dry density of the core. shown in Figure 7. For the observations in September,
To confirm that the overall evapotranspiration was surface energy measurements indicated a daily total
partly drawn from soil below the depths of the sensors, water loss of 1.9 mm/day. The sensor measurements
the soil in the vicinity of the two sets of sensors was indicated a water loss from the top 75 mm of soil of
sampled for water content both before and after the 0.6 mm/day, and hence an upflow from deeper soil of
898
Figure 5. Gypsum block on the left and glass fibre sensor on the right (scale is centimetres).
Figure 6. Set-up for calibration of the sensor readings against the water content of the soil core.
899
Figure 7. Water content profiles before and after observations in September.
1.3 mm/day. The water content sampling confirmed 75 mm, and possibly to greater depths than this. The
that an average of 0.6 mm of water per day was lost measurements in Figure 4, when compared with
from the surface down to 75 mm, and also showed that surface energy measurements, show that water lost
an additional 0.5 mm/day was lost from 75 to 200 mm, from the surface is partly replaced by upflow from
a total loss of 1.1 mm/day. This left 0.8 mm/day to be deeper soil layers.
drawn to the surface from below a depth of 200 mm. d. The changes in the water content profile, observed
(Measurements could not be extended below 200 mm during the September tests, and shown in Figure 7,
because of a dense gravel layer that occurs below confirm that water lost from the soil by evapotran-
this depth.) spiration is drawn partly from soil at shallow depths
and partly from deeper layers.
4 CONCLUSIONS Thus the results of the experiments confirm the prin-
ciples of the process of water loss from soil by
The measurements described here show the evapotranspiration, as described in sections 1.1 and
following: 1.2, as well as providing details of the process.
a. Because evapotranspiration from a soil surface
is driven by the availability of latent heat of REFERENCES
evaporation, as shown in Figure 2, almost all loss of
water from the soil surface must take place during Blight, G.E. 2002. Measuring evaporation from soil surfaces
daylight hours. for environmental and geotechnical purposes. Water S.A.
b. Evapotranspiration from the surface depletes water 28(4), 381–394.
in the near-surface and deeper soil. The depletion Blight, G.E. 2006. The infiltrate-stabilize-evapotranspire or
near the surface is partly offset by upward flow from ISE landfill cover. In G.A. Miller, C.E. Zapata, S.L.
deeper soil during the hours of darkness, as shown Houston & D.G. Fredlund (eds), Unsaturated Soils 2006,
Geotechnical Special Publication No. 147: 1: 753–764,
by Figure 3.
American Society of Civil Engineers.
c. Over periods of several days, if there is no replen- Calder, I.R. 1990. Evaporation in the Uplands, Chichester,
ishment of water by rain or irrigation at the surface, U.K.: Wiley.
the water content of the near-surface soil continu- Schmugge, T.J. and Andre, J.-C. 1991. (Eds). Land Surface
ally declines. Figure 4 shows that the decline occurs Evaporation. Measurement and Parameterization, New
more or less uniformly down to a depth of at least York, U.S.A.: Springer.
900
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
D.G. Toll
School of Engineering, Durham University, Durham, UK
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore
H. Rahardjo
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
ABSTRACT: The paper reports on field, laboratory and computational studies of the mechanisms of
rainfall-induced landslides carried out in Thailand and Singapore. Shallow landslides due to rainfall are common
in both countries, as well as other parts of South East Asia. In both countries, field studies have been performed
to monitor the changes in pore-water pressure resulting from rainfall infiltration. In Thailand, suctions have been
measured using a new miniature tensiometer developed by Kasetsart University. In Singapore, commercially
available ‘‘jet-fill’’ tensiometers were used. The observations include suction changes due to natural rainfall
events and also using rainfall simulators to impose precipitation with controlled intensity and duration. The
field data suggest the formation of a near-saturated zone along the slope surface (where most of the pore-water
pressure changes take place) explains why many failures are shallow in nature (1–2 m deep). Experience in
Thailand and Singapore shows many similarities between the mechanisms of failure and the paper highlights
this common experience.
901
When the soil is unsaturated, suction or negative pore-
water pressure provides additional strength to the soil,
hence stabilizing the slope. This additional strength
disappears during an intense rainstorm when the soil
becomes saturated and pore-water pressure becomes
zero. The pore-water pressure can also become more
positive due to seepage forces or perturbation of the
soil slope, and the shear strength can be reduced even
further as effective stress decreases. The increases in
excess pore-water pressure and its threshold effect
in destabilizing the slope in tropical areas can be
explained by the reduction of permeability with depth
(Vaughan, 1985) or by changes in permeability with
suction or degree of saturation (Tsaparas and Toll,
2002).
In order to understand the infiltration process and
consequently the relations between rainfall, soil mois-
ture, and landslide occurrence, field infiltration tests
were carried out on 6 research slopes located in the
areas where landslides had occurred (Figure 3). Infil-
tration characteristics of four research slopes (OMK,
UD, TK, CB, and PP) were studied using artificial
rainfall for a period of about 2 days, while the slope
TD was monitored under natural climatic condition for
longer period. Only site CB is presented here. The CB
test area was a square plot of about 5 × 5 m2 , sloped at
Figure 1. Rainfall-induced landslides in a) NTU campus, about 18◦ and instrumented with tensiometers, runoff
Singapore (1995) and b) Uttaradit, Northern Thailand (2007). collector and rain gauge. The tensiometers used were
developed by Kasetsart University (KU), using a com-
mercially available MEMs pressure sensor, and are
500
described in Jotisankasa et al. (2007). The tensiome-
ters were installed at depths of 0.04, 0.15, 0.30, and
400 0.50 m. The depth to hard weathered granitic bedrock
1999 at CD
varied between 0.50 to 1.00 m within the test plot. The
300 (40slides) probable failure plane was considered to take place
within these depths. The materials found at the test
200 area are mainly low plasticity clayey sand, silty sand,
2006 at UD
and well-graded gravel at greater depth. They have
100
(160slides) liquid limit of 40–60%, plasticity index of 10–25%,
2001 at CD (46slides)
and typically contain 20–40% of silt and clay sized
2003 at Phuket
(30slides) particles. The saturated permeability varies between
0
10−5 m/s and 10−6 m/s. The rainfall intensity and
0 100 200 300 400 500
runoff collected during rainfall simulation are shown
in Figure 4. The variations of suction profile with time
Figure 2. Rainfall events leading to major landslide events are also shown in Figures 5 and 6.
in Thailand. The rainfall simulation was carried out in stages
over a period of about 45 hours. The first stage (Hours
0–16) involved installation of tensiometers and other
100, 200, and 300 mm for areas with medium, high, instruments, as well as equilibration of reading. Initial
and very high risk of landslide, respectively. Never- suctions were only around 1–4 kPa, indicating rela-
theless, the criterion of rain patterns used for issuing tively moist profiles before the test. During Hours
warnings is largely empirical and would be subjected 16–22, there was some slight rain falling naturally,
to a number of factors such as soil type, vegetation which was followed by rapid reduction of suction at
covers, slope gradient as well as geological structures. a depth of 0.04 m at Hour 22 (Figure 5). The first
Soil slopes in Thailand are normally unsaturated simulation of rainfall with an intensity of 174 mm/day
during the dry season and the groundwater is nor- (7.25 mm/hour) then started from Hour 22, until Hour
mally at depth of more than 10 m most of the year. 26 when suction became zero to a depth of 0.5 m.
902
OMK, Chiangmai province -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
0 Time of
UD, Uttaradit province measurement, hr
0. 1
TK, Tak province 41.12
0. 2
TD, Nakorn-Nayok 41.33
province 0. 3
41.47
0. 5
PP, Nakorn-Sri- 41.9
-Thammarat province
Figure 3. Locations of research slopes in Thailand. Figure 6. Variation of pore-water pressure during rainfall
simulation (stage 2).
500
450 Rainfall 3
400
350
After the first artificial rainfall, the tensiometers
300
Rainfall 2 were left in the ground overnight during Hours 26–41.
250 The suctions at Hour 41 reached values of around
200 Rainfall 1
Run-off
1–3 kPa due to evaporation and redistribution of soil
150 moisture during Hours 26–41 (Figure 6). The second
100
Natural rain Run-off
stage of artificial rain was then imposed on the slope
50
0
at the intensity of 283 mm/day (11.8 mm/hour) for a
0 10 20 30 40 50 period of about 3 hours. The soil depth of 0.5 m became
nearly saturated when the 2nd simulation continued
for about 0.8 hour, equivalent to rainfall of 9.4 mm.
Figure 4. Rainfall and runoff for CB slope.
The difference between the total amount of rainfall
required to saturate the soil thickness during 1st and
2nd simulation (29 mm and 9.4 mm, respectively) is
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
caused by the difference in initial soil suction, as well
0 as the soil wetness.
Time of
measurement, hr The soil-water retention curves of the undisturbed
0.1 soil samples from the research slope were also deter-
20
mined using the Kasetsart University (KU) tensiome-
0.2 22 ter. Undisturbed samples with diameter of about
60 mm were collected from an open test pit using
0.3 23
miniature soil core at depths of 0.10, 0.50 and 1.0 m.
0.4
24 The suction of a soil sample as collected from the
25
ground was 4.5 kPa. The samples were gradually wet-
0.5 ted and dried and their suctions during each stage were
26 monitored incrementally. Figure 7 shows the retention
curve of sample from 0.1 m. The hysteresis of the
curve is evident during first wetting and first drying.
Figure 5. Variation of pore-water pressure during rainfall The difference in the soil moisture-suction relationship
simulation (stage 1). would also be an explanation for the aforementioned
difference in saturating rainfall for the 1st and 2nd sim-
ulations. In other words, the amount of water required
The total rainfall during Hours 22–26 was about to reduce the suction from say 1 kPa to 0.1 kPa would
29 mm. It can be seen that the suction at 0.5 m remained be much less if the sample was on the ‘‘first wetting’’
unchanged until the wetting front reached the depth of path than if it was on the ‘‘first drying’’ path.
0.5 m around Hours 24–25. The decreases in suctions These data thus show that during rainfall the pore-
at depths 0–0.5 m resulted from infiltration alone and water pressure increase would be most significant near
not from the ground water table rising. the slope surface, while the ground water table level is
903
45 the final triggering rainfall event that precipitates a
First wetting
failure.
40 initial state
First drying Figure 8 shows rainfall data for a large number
Second wetting of landslides in Singapore (Toll, 2001). It shows the
35
rainfall on the day of the landslide (triggering rain-
fall) plotted against the rainfall in the five day period
30
preceding it (antecedent rainfall).
25
Some minor landslides have occurred after heavy
1-day rainfalls with little antecedent rainfall. In
20 February 1984, the daily rainfall inducing failures
0. 1 1 10 100 was almost 100 mm, whereas those in March 1984
were higher. However, it can also be seen that other
minor slides take place with low 1-day rainfall but
Figure 7. Soil-water retention curve of undisturbed sample where the 5-day antecedent rainfall is significant. For
from 0.10 m depth. instance, there is the case of 28 Dec 1984 where a slide
occurred with only 18 mm of daily rainfall, but after
a 5-day antecedent rainfall of 85 mm. This suggests
expected to be affected at a later stage. The hysteresis that the conditions for failure are dictated by total rain-
of the soil water retention curve and wetting-drying fall, since either daily or antecedent rainfall can induce
history of the slope also play an important role in deter- failures. The diagonal line drawn in Figure 8, repre-
mining the amount of rainfall required to saturate the senting a total rainfall of 100 mm in a six day period,
soil slope. appears to define the minimum rainfall conditions that
have led to minor failures.
Although these empirical observations on rainfall
3 LANDSLIDE STUDIES IN SINGAPORE patterns can be useful in identifying the minimum con-
ditions that are likely to precipitate a landslide, they
Minor, shallow landslides have occurred frequently on do not explain why the landslides occur. To prop-
the island of Singapore, particularly as urban devel- erly understand such failures we need to apply an
opment has greatly increased since the 1970s (Tan understanding of unsaturated soil behaviour. In many
et al. 1987). However, very few major landslides have tropical regions, water tables exist at significant depth
occurred; where slides have occurred, the volumes of (>10 m). This means that pore-water pressures can
material involved have generally not been large, and be negative (suctions). Therefore, it is important to
serious damage has been uncommon (Brand, 1984; understand the role of suction in supporting the slope
Toll et al. 1999). (increasing the strength of the soil) and how infil-
Tropical residual soils cover almost two-thirds of tration of rainwater causes changes in the pore-water
Singapore Island. They are derived mainly from the pressures (or suctions).
weathering of the sedimentary Jurong and granitic Four research sites in Singapore were instrumented
Bukit Timah formations. The residual soils are typ- as part of a major study of rainfall-induced landslides
ically medium plasticity clayey silt, sandy clay and in Singapore (Rahardjo et al. 2000). Rainfall gauges
clayey to silty sand materials (Poh et al. 1985; Chang, were installed on each slope to provide specific rainfall
1988). They commonly contain 50–60% of silt and data. Negative pore-water pressures were measured
clay sized particles with typical values of liquid limit using jet-fill tensiometers. These were installed at
being 40–60% and plasticity index of 15–25%. The depths of 0.5, 1.1, 1.4, 2.3 and 3.2 m on the NTU-
saturated permeability can vary between 10−10 m/s CSE site (the only site that will be discussed here). At
and 10−6 m/s (Agus et al. 2003). this site, piezometer data indicated that the groundwa-
It is clear that rainfall has been the dominant trigger- ter table was 10 m below the ground surface (Rahardjo
ing event for landslides in Singapore (Ramaswamy & et al, 2000).
Aziz, 1980; Toll, 2001). Studies of minor landslides The pore-water pressures within the NTU-CSE
on the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) and slope were monitored from August 1999 until August
National University of Singapore (NUS) campuses 2000 (Tsaparas et al. 2003). Figure 9 shows the pore-
show spates of landslides occurring after unusually water pressures at the various measuring depths for
wet periods. It may not be a single rainfall event a row of tensiometers installed near the mid-point of
that causes a landslide (Rahardjo et al. 2001). In the slope (6 m down-slope from the crest). The daily
low permeability clayey soils (as is typical of the rainfall is also shown as a bar graph in Figure 9.
residual soils of Singapore) the pore-water pres- It can be seen from Figure 9 that the pore-water pres-
sures may build up over a number of days (due to sures within the NTU-CSE slope were, for a large part
a series of rain storms) eventually culminating in of the monitoring period, only slightly negative and at
904
350
To t Minor landslide
al R
a in Major landslide
300 fa ll
= 320
mm
250
2 Mar 1984 (8 slides at NUS)
200 2 Mar 1984 (12 slides at NTU)
11 Jan 1987 (Pasir Panjang, 14
To t 26 Feb 1995 (20 slides at NTU) slides at NUS, 9 slides at NTU)
150 al R
a in 9 Jan 1986 (5 slides at NUS)
fa ll 11 Jan 1987 (Chong Pang -
= 15 0 20 Feb 1984 (3 slides at NUS)
To t m Admiralty Road, 5 slides)
100 al R m 28 Dec 1991 (Bukit Batok)
a in
fa ll
= 10 0 23 Jan 1984 (5 slides at NUS)
m m 26 Jan 1984 (2 slides at NUS)
50
1 Feb 1984 (2 slides at NUS) 19 Dec 1984 (3 slides at NUS)
28 Dec 1984 (1 slide at NUS)
0 2 Dec 1989 (Bukit Batok)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
2 Dec 1985 (2 slides at NUS)
Figure 9. Pore-water pressure and rainfall measurements for an instrumented slope in Singapore.
3.2 m depth were generally positive. However, there December 1999 and March 2000 that are described in
were six periods during the year when pore-water pres- detail by Toll et al. (2001). These dates represent a ‘wet
sures reduced significantly following a drier period. period’ (with high initial pore-water pressures) and a
During March 2000, pore-water pressures dropped to ‘dry period’ (with low initial pore-water pressures).
as low as −70 kPa near the surface (0.5 m depth). The rainfall event in December 1999 was very
However, piezometer data shows that there was little large (86 mm) whereas that in March 2000 was
change in ground water table level. Therefore, these small (1 mm). However, it can be seen from
suction changes are the result of infiltration and evapo- Figure 10 that the small rainfall in March during
transpiration occurring at the surface, rather than being the dry period produces a significant change in
due to changes in water table. the pore-water pressure near the surface. After a
Figure 10 shows pore-water pressure profiles with- period of equalisation (24 hours after the rain) the
in the slope, during and after two rainfall events in pore-water pressure near the surface has dropped
905
shallow in nature (Toll et al. 1999). Failures tend to
occur within the near-surface zone where pore-water
pressures increase close to hydrostatic levels. Deep-
seated failures are also limited by increased cohesion
with depth as is common in such weathered profiles.
4 CONCLUSIONS
906
Lumb, P. 1975. Slope failures in Hong Kong. Quarterly Toll, D.G., Rahardjo, H. and Leong, E.C. (1999). Land-
Journal of Engineering Geology. 8: 31–65. slides in Singapore, Proc. 2nd International Conference
Poh, K.B., Chuah, H.L. and Tan, S.B. (1985). Residual on Landslides, Slope Stability and the Safety of Infra-
Granite Soils of Singapore, Proc. 8th Southeast Asian Structures, Singapore, pp. 269–276.
Geotechnical Conf., Kuala Lumpur, Vol. 1, pp. 3:1–3:9. Toll, D.G., Tsaparas, I. and Rahardjo, H. (2001). The
Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C., Deutcher, M.S., Gasmo, J.M. Influence of Rainfall Sequences on Negative Pore-water
and Tang, S.K. (2000). Rainfall-induced Slope Failures, Pressures within Slopes, Proc. 15th International Confer-
Geotechnical Engineering Monograph No. 3, NTU-PWD ence on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Geotechnical Research Centre, Singapore. Istanbul, Rotterdam: Balkema, Vol. 2, pp. 1269–1272.
Rahardjo, H., Li, X.W., Toll, D.G. and Leong, E.C. Tsaparas, I., Rahardjo, H., Toll, D. and Leong, E.C. (2003).
(2001). The Effect of Antecedent Rainfall on Slope Sta- Infiltration Characteristics of Two Instrumented Resid-
bility, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 19, ual Soil Slopes, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 40,
No. 3–4, pp. 371–399. No. 5, pp. 1012–1032.
Ramaswamy, S.D. and Aziz, M.A. (1980). Rain Induced Tsaparas, I. and Toll, D.G. (2002). Numerical Analysis
Landslides of Singapore, Proc. International Symposium of Infiltration into Unsaturated Residual Soil Slopes,
on Landslides, New Delhi, Vol. 1, pp. 403–306. in Proc. 3rd International Conference on Unsaturated
Tan, S.B., Tan, S.L., Lim, T.L. and Yang, K.S. (1987). Land- Soils, Recife, Brazil, Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger, Vol. 2,
slides Problems and their Control in Singapore, Proc. pp. 755–762.
9th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Bangkok, Vaughan, P.R. (1985). Pore pressures due to infiltration into
pp. 1:25–1:36. partly saturated slopes. Proc. 1st International Confer-
Toll, D.G. (2001). Rainfall-induced Landslides in ence on Geomechanics in Tropical Lateritic and Saprolitic
Singapore, Proc. Institution of Civil Engineers: Geotech- soils. Brazil, Vol. 2, pp. 61–71.
nical Engineering, Vol. 149, No. 4, pp. 211–216.
907
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: This paper reports the main results of in situ experiment for an ongoing experimental research
project on mudflows in pyroclastic soils described in a companion paper presented at this conference. We
present the geological and stratigraphic aspects of the test site selected to monitor climatic conditions (affecting
infiltration), matric suction and water content in the subsoil. The planned in situ instrumentation consists of
tensiometers, TDR probes and wire vibrating piezometers. At the present time only tensiometers have been
partly set up. The monitoring data collected span about two years of observations and allow clear identification
of seasonal variation in matric suction.
909
E deep trench (max 5 m)
D borheoles
instrumented area
F
A
SS
1 B
G 4
3
2
1 SS C
2
ancient C 7 6
5
4
3
2 1 SS
slides SS 5 3
B A 7 6 5
4
SS 6
D' B SS 0 10
A C
testingSITE
TESTING site
E'
C' F'
B' G' 0 10 20 30 40 m
A'
plified profile was derived (Figure 3), based on the 1 & 2: topsoil & ashy soil 0.25
(0.00 ÷0.80 m)
experimental investigation of the geotechnical proper- 0.45
3: pumiceous deposits of
ties of the pyroclastic cover (Papa et al. 2008). Avellino eruption 3.7 ky b.p.
(0.80 ÷1.20 m)
By contrast, the continuity of the strata and their 4: palaeosoil 1.50
thickness were carefully considered in order to inves- (weathered volcanic ashes)
(1.20 ÷2.80 m)
1.60
1.70
tigate the interaction of the pyroclastic cover with both
5: pumiceous deposits of
the atmosphere and the limestone bedrock. As regards Ottaviano eruption 8.0 ky b.p.
(2.80 ÷3.50 m)
soil layer continuity, it is worth noting that accu- 6: palaeosoil
rate inspection of morphological and stratigraphical (weathered volcanic ashes)
(3.50÷4.40 m)
4.00
data showed that while the layers from the Ottaviano 7: volcanic sand
(4.40 ÷4.90 m)
8: highly weathered fine-grained
eruption are found throughout the investigated area ashy soil
(4.90 ÷5.50 m)
5.00
5.50
those from the Avellino eruption and the underly-
ing palaeosoil are absent in areas with slope angles
higher than 35◦ . These observations suggest that in Figure 3. Instrumentation design of the test site: vertical
those areas with a slope angle exceeding 35◦ these distribution of sensors.
910
layers were scoured as a consequence of some kind considerations suggested that manual readings be
of instability phenomenon. Hence it is argued that preferred to automatic data collection in the present
slides may well have occurred along surfaces affecting study.
the palaeosoil interbedded between eruptive products The occurrence in the pyroclastic cover of two
from Avellino and Ottaviano. We should also point thick layers of coarse-grained soils (layers 3 and 5)
out that the collected data left some doubts about significantly conditioned the instrumentation design.
the continuity of the two layers of highly weath- Both tensiometers and TDR probes were ineffec-
ered fine-grained brownish ashy soils at the bottom tive for measuring matric suction and water con-
of the pyroclastic cover; hence some new boreholes tent inside these pumiceous strata. Furthermore, the
were programmed to investigate this stratigraphic hydraulic properties (water retention curve and per-
feature. meability function) of these coarse grained soils differ
immensely from those of the other soil layers. Hence
the sensor probes were arranged in order to investigate
3 INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN the pore water pressure field: in the top part of the soil
profile (layers 1 & 2), the intermediate part (layer 4)
The field instrumentation was designed to measure and the bottom part (layers 6, 7 and 8).
matric suction and water content in the pyroclastic At the time this paper was prepared the instrumen-
cover and the climatic conditions as well. An area of tation was still being installed and only the shallower
about 230 m2 was chosen on the slope in question. tensiometers (in layers 1 & 2 and layer 4) had been set
In this area 26 instrumented vertical sections were up and had been working for about one year. Hence
realised. These vertical sections were distributed at the below only these preliminary results of monitoring are
vertex of a fairly regular rectangular grid formed by presented.
14 square meshes 4 m × 4 m (see Figure 1). Four ten-
siometers and three TDR probes were arranged along
the vertical section inside the shallower soil layers 4 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES
(see Figure 3). Installation in the deeper soil layers of OF INVESTIGATED SOILS
two more tensiometers and two more TDR probes was
planned (see Figure 3) along the vertical sections sit- The results of hydraulic tests performed on undis-
uated at the two ends of the instrumented area (points turbed samples recovered at the site are briefly pre-
SS in Figure 1). Furthermore, in each of these sections sented below. Soil physical and mechanical properties
a piezometer at the bottom of the pyroclastic cover are reported in a companion paper (Papa et al. 2008).
was set up to measure any positive pore water pres- Constant head tests were used to determine satu-
sure at the limestone upper surface (Figure 3). Finally, rated permeability while forced evaporation tests and
a weather station was installed to monitor the climate drying tests in a pressure plate apparatus allowed
conditions affecting the pore water pressure field in the both water retention curves and permeability func-
soil cover (i.e. rainfall, solar net radiation, soil temper- tions to be determined. The test procedures adopted
ature, air temperature, air pressure, air humidity, wind were quite innovative and are extensively described by
speed, etc.). Papa (2007). The water retention curves and the per-
Standard vacuum tensiometers were employed. In meability functions of the studied soils are reported
particular, the shallower instruments consisted of a in Figure 4. All these curves were determined along
transparent nylon water-filled tube with a high air a drying process starting from totally saturated con-
entry value porous ceramic tip and a silicon plug at the ditions. As regards water retention properties, all the
top end. The measurements by means of these instru- investigated soils behave like coarse-grained materi-
ments had to be carried out manually with an electronic als; they have an air entry value in the range from
tensimeter equipped with a steel needle. The deeper 6–8 kPa to 12 kPa. Starting from saturated condi-
tensiometers were the jet-fill type equipped with tions, they become almost dry when the applied matric
differential vacuum gauges. Previous experience in suction reaches about 100 kPa. However, some differ-
measuring matric suction in similar unsaturated pyro- ences can be recognised between the shallower and
clastic deposits (Evangelista et al. 2003) showed that in intermediate layers (1 & 2 and 4) and the deeper ones
such conditions vacuum tensiometers require weekly (6 and 8). Careful comparison of the water reten-
maintenance (i.e. diffused air removal by means of tion curves in Figure 5 reveals that layers 6 and 8
water flushing). Furthermore, in situ and lab equalisa- have a substantially higher air entry value than the
tion tests (Nicotera & Tarantino 2004) demonstrated shallower strata. Furthermore, saturated water per-
that vacuum tensiometers installed in pyroclastic soils meability (the experimental determinations are con-
have an equalization time varying from several hours ventionally reported in Figure 4 as isolated points
for suction values smaller than 50 kPa up to some corresponding to a suction value of 0.1 kPa) clearly
days for suction values of about 60–80 kPa. These decreases with soil layer depth. In particular, the
911
0.8 1E-05
soil 1
0.4
1E-08 2: mean function
0.3
(wetting)
0.2 2: mean wetting curve
1E-09
0.1
0 1E-10
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000
matric suction (kPa) matric suction (kPa)
0.8 1E-05
soil 4
0.3 1E-08
mean wetting curve
mean function
0.2 (wetting)
1E-09
0.1
0 1E-10
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000
matric suction (kPa) matric suction (kPa)
0.8 1E-05
soil 6
0.7
hydraulic conductivity function (m/s)
soil 8
1E-06
0.6
0.5
1E-07
0.4
0.3 1E-08
0.2
1E-09
0.1
0 1E-10
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Figure 4. Water retention curves and permeability functions; permeability of saturated soils is indicated by mean points on
the hydraulic conductivity axis.
hydraulic conductivity of layer 8 is significantly lower quick-draw tensiometer was initially used weekly to
than that of all other soils along the whole investigated measure matric suction up to 0.60 m depth inside the
suction range. instrumented area. These measurements proceeded
until summer 2006. In mid-autumn 2006, tensiome-
ters in layers 1 & 2 and in layer 4 were installed and
5 MONITORING RESULTS monitoring continued by means of these instruments.
In Figure 5 some of the monitoring results are
Monitoring began in the autumn of 2005. Prior to summarised. Figures 5a & b report daily rainfall
completion of tensiometer installation a portable registered by two neighbouring rain-gauge stations
912
2005 2006 2007
120
100 Avella's rain gauge a)
80
daily rainfall (mm)
60
40
20
0
120
100 Monteforte's rain gauge b)
80
60
40
20
0
100 c)
Total volume of tensiometers refilling (%)
75
50
25
0
80 depth (m) d)
TL1 0.20÷0.25
TL2 0.40÷0.45
matric suction (kPa)
60 TL3 1.30÷2.20
TL4 1.35÷2.30
QD1 0.30
QD2 0.60
40
20
Figure 5. Main monitoring results: a) Avella rain gauge readings; b) Monteforte rain gauge readings; c) total volume of
tensiometer refilling; d) mean matric suction.
(Avella 198 m a.s.l. and Monteforte 502 m a.s.l.). of the tensiometer operation range (about 70 kPa) as
Figure 5d represents matric suction measurements: as testified by the abrupt increase in the refilling vol-
regards preliminary monitoring carried out using the ume reported in Figure 5c. On the other hand, only
portable tensiometer, the data collected are reported meticulous inspection of measurements reveals that in
as mean measurements taken at two different depths winter matric suction is much lower in shallower strata
(0.3 m and 0.6 m). Analogously, the mean measure- than in deeper ones, testifying to rain water infiltration
ments obtained with the tensiometers are presented into the soil.
as mean measurements carried out at similar depths. Interestingly, there are differences between mea-
Finally, in Figure 5c the total water volume used for surements in the shallower part of the soil cover (TL1
refilling the shallower tensiometers (TL1 and TL2) is and TL2) and those in the intermediate strata (TL3 and
reported as a percent of the total inner volume of the TL4). Tensiometers TL1 and TL2 seem to respond to
tensiometers. The data collected during preliminary singular rainfall events but the corresponding suction
monitoring with the portable tensiometer are in good variations are relatively small compared to the seasonal
accordance with subsequent measurements. trend. Conversely, tensiometers TL3 and TL4 follow
Data reported in Figure 5d clearly show the seasonal a trend unaffected by individual rainfall events. Fur-
trend in the measurements at different depths even thermore, it must be observed that the seasonal cycle
if the monitoring periods did not continuously cover in the intermediate part of the cover is quite delayed.
a complete seasonal cycle. Matric suction appears The total fluxes of water filtrating vertically into
almost constant in winter while increasing in spring the upper and the intermediate part of the soil cover
and summer; maximum suction values are measured were estimated on the basis of both monitoring and
by shallower tensiometers (TL1 and TL2) in summer; lab data (hydraulic conductivity). Concurrent readings
finally, matric suction progressively decreases as the of the tensiometers installed along the same vertical
wet season begins. section were used to estimate the hydraulic gradients
During the dry season, matric suction values in in each vertex of the instrumented grid at two differ-
the shallower part of the soil cover are significantly ent depths (i.e. between tensiometers TL1 and TL2
higher than those in the intermediate part. However, and between tensiometers TL3 and TL4). The mean
summer matric suction values in the shallower soil permeability functions experimentally determined in
layers reach and sometimes exceed the upper limit the laboratory were used to estimate the value of the
913
2006 2007
30
a)
TL1 - TL2: permeability along main drying curve
25 TL3 - TL4
water flux (mm/day)
TL1 - TL2: permeability along wetting curve
20 TL3 - TL4
15
10
1500 b)
cumulative water flux (mm)
1200
Monteforte's rain gauge
900
Avella's rain gauge
600
300
Figure 6. Water fluxes estimated on the basis of in situ suction measurements and lab determination of hydraulic
permeability along the main drying and the wetting curves: a) fluxes; b) total fluxes and cumulative rainfall.
hydraulic conductivity corresponding to each of the matric suction and hydraulic conductivity were deter-
aforementioned gradients. Finally, the fluxes calcu- mined by forced evaporation tests along the main
lated by applying Darcy’s law were integrated over the drying curves of each soil. On the other hand, exten-
whole instrumented area. The results of this analysis sion of the hysteresis domain in the matric suction
are reviewed in Figure 6. In Figure 6a the mean cal- versus water content relationship was evaluated by
culated fluxes (positive when directed downward) are comparing the water retention curve of Figure 4 with
represented while in Figure 6b the cumulative fluxes a number of direct measurements of matric suction
are plotted against cumulative rainfall registered at the within undisturbed samples. The main wetting curve
two rain-gauge stations. was considered as the bottom envelope of the above
The fluxes calculated testify to a fairly continuous measurements. The matric suction versus hydraulic
infiltration process occurring in both the upper and conductivity relation along the main wetting curve
intermediate part of the soil cover during autumn, win- was estimated by assuming the relation between vol-
ter and early spring. By contrast, evaporation (negative umetric water content and hydraulic conductivity as
flux) took place during late spring and summer. How- unique. Hence water fluxes in the field were revised
ever, the data lack continuity in this period and hence to allow for hydraulic conductivities along the wetting
outward fluxes are poorly estimated. curve (see Figure 6). This second estimation seems to
The trends of the cumulative fluxes into the two be more reasonable than the first; cumulative fluxes
investigated strata are in good mutual agreement and are indeed lower than the cumulative rainfall. These
are comparable with the general trends in cumula- results show the need to allow for hydraulic hystere-
tive rainfall. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that sis in analysing the interaction phenomena between
the cumulative fluxes estimated with the described the atmosphere and the pyroclastic cover. Obviously
procedure are higher than the cumulative rainfall these considerations are significant for the shallower
measured at both rain-gauge stations. It must be and intermediate parts of the soil cover while hystere-
pointed out that the adopted relationships between sis could be unimportant for filtration in the deeper
914
soil layers. These points will be thoroughly examined Monteforte Irpino (AV). In C. Nunziata (ed.) Piattaforme
in future research. Evolute di Telecomunicazioni e di Information Technol-
ogy per l’Offerta di Servizi al settore Ambiente Petit-Osa:
263–272. Rome: Aracne.
6 CONCLUDING REMARKS Evangelista, A., Nicotera, M.V. & Scotto di Santolo, A. 2003.
Experimental and Theoretical validation of matric suc-
tion measurements in pyroclastic soils. Proc. of Int. Conf.
The monitoring results clearly show the seasonal on Fast Slope Movements prediction and prevention for
variation in matric suction at the test site. The soil cover risk mitigation, Naples, Italy, 173–177. Bologna: Pàtron
can be subdivided into three portions characterised by Editore.
different seasonal cycles of pore water pressure: matric Nicotera, M.V. & Tarantino, A. 2004. Laboratory measure-
suction in the top part of the cover seems to be affected ment of matric suction in pyroclastic soil using vacuum
by singular rainfall events but the corresponding suc- and high-suction tensiometers. Proc. of Int. Conf.: From
tion variations are relatively small if compared to the Experimental Evidences Towards Numerical modelling of
seasonal trend; conversely, the suction in the inter- Unsaturated Soils, Weimar, Germany, 193–208, Berlin:
Springer.
mediate part of the cover follows a trend unaffected Papa, R., Evangelista, A., Nicotera, M.V. & Urciuoli, G.
by individual rainfall events; finally, pore water pres- 2008. Mechanical properties of unsaturated pyroclastic
sure in the bottom part of the cover has not yet been soils affected by fast landslide phenomena. E-UNSAT
investigated. However, there are several arguments 2008.
suggesting that suction variations in the intermediate Papa, R. 2007. Indagine sperimentale di una copertura
part of the cover should be more effective at triggering piroclastica di un versante della Campania. PhD thesis,
landslide mechanisms (Papa et al. 2008). Università di Napoli Federico II.
REFERENCES
915
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The paper describes some results of an ongoing experimental research project on mudflows
in pyroclastic soils in the southern Italian region of Campania. Based on geological and geomorphological
considerations a test site was selected in order to collect experimental data from laboratory tests on undisturbed
samples, as well as monitor climatic conditions (affecting infiltration), matric suction and water content in the
subsoil. Eight different soil layers were identified at the test site. The results of suction-controlled triaxial and
direct shear tests on undisturbed unsaturated specimens from one of the soil layers are presented and tentatively
interpreted. It emerges that matric suction is not suitable, as an independent stress variable, to describe the shear
strength of this unsaturated pyroclastic soil. By contrast, a satisfactory interpretation is achieved by taking into
account both matric suction and saturation degree, representing the data in terms of Bishop stress.
917
silt sand gravel silt sand gravel
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
Percent finer
60 2 (N=9) 60
50 1 (N=12) 50 4 (N=12)
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 a) 10 b)
0 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle diameter: mm Particle diameter: mm
silt sand gravel silt sand gravel
100 100
90 90
80 80
70
6 8 70
Percent finer
60 60
50 50 5 3
40 40
30 30 7
20 20
10 c) 10 d)
0 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Figure 1. Grain size distributions of soils constituting the cover on the limestone substratum, in the trial field at Monteforte
Irpino.
These observations suggest that in those areas with grey area in Figure 1a). Soil 4 (Fig. 1b) is well-graded,
a slope angle higher than 35◦ , layer 3 was whipped ranging from sand to silt with a small clay fraction.
out as a consequence of some kind of instability phe- Layers 6 and 8 (Fig. 1c) are significantly finer than the
nomenon. Hence it has been argued that layer 4, others. Soils 3, 5 and 7 (Fig. 1d) should be described
due to both its position in the stratigraphic sequence as quite uniform coarse-grained materials: soil 7 is a
and its mechanical properties, played a significant medium silty sand, soil 5 is a coarse sand and soil 3 is
role in such instability. Therefore, even if the main a gravel.
goal of the experimental program was the mechanical Mean values of the main soil physical properties
and hydraulic characterisation of all the pyroclastic are reported in Table 1. All soils are extremely porous.
soils covering the limestone massif, the investigation This feature is evident in Figure 2 where the probabil-
primarily focused on soil 4. ity density functions of the porosity n as estimated on
In all, 158 undisturbed samples were recovered at the basis of laboratory data are reported: the porosity
the site by means of a thin wall sampler either in of layers 1, 2 and 4 present bell-shaped distributions
drill holes or in deep trenches. However, recovery with a clearly defined mode; slight left stretching of the
of undisturbed samples from coarse-grained soil was bell left tail is likely due to sampling disturbance. By
excluded a priori. Hence the mechanical behaviour contrast, density functions of deeper layers (not repre-
of strata 3 and 5 was not investigated and will be sented in the figure) are less clear, probably owing to
disregarded below. both spatial variability and sampling disturbance.
Grain-size distributions of the eight layers are All layers are partially saturated but deeper lay-
reported in Figure 1. The grain-size envelopes of ers have higher values of the saturation degree (see
investigated soils exhibit limited scatter, demonstrat- Table 1). However, the saturation condition varies on
ing the uniformity of the deposits. Shallower layers a seasonal basis.
(1 & 2) have quite similar grain-size distribution: the Mechanical and hydraulic behaviours of the pyro-
two envelopes are partially superimposed (light grey clastic material were investigated in both unsatu-
area in Figure 1a) even if layer 1 is rather finer (dark rated and saturated conditions. As regards hydraulic
918
Table 1. Mean soil physical properties. 200
7 fcv' = 40.3
γd γ
2 fcv' = 36.2
Soil Gs (kN/m3 ) (kN/m3 ) n Sr
150
1 2.65 8.06 11.91 0.69 0.57
2 2.66 7.77 12.49 0.70 0.69
4 2.57 7.11 12.11 0.71 0.71
6 2.57 7.13 12.51 0.72 0.77 100 1 M = 1.50; f’ = 36.9˚ N. 11
7 2.47 7.71 11.93 0.69 0.64 2 M = 1.47; f’ = 36.2˚ N. 9
8 2.49 10.64 15.49 0.58 0.87
4 M = 1.50; f’ = 36.9˚ N. 12
50 6 M = 1.62; f’ = 39.8˚ N. 4
7 M = 1.65; f’ = 40.3˚ N. 7
(n) 8 M = 1.51; f’ = 37.0˚ N. 5
0
25 25
2 0 50 100 150 200
20 20
4
1 Figure 3. Results of triaxial compression tests on saturated
15 15
samples.
10 10
4: 0.723
1 & 2: 0.713
5 5
3.1 Triaxial tests on saturated specimens
0 0
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 Triaxial tests on saturated specimens consisted of
the following phases: saturation under minimal
effective confining stress (≈2 kPa) by means of back-
Figure 2. Probability density function of the porosity of
investigated superficial soils. pressurising and upward flushing with de-aired water;
isotropic compression; shearing. The shearing phases
were performed either in drained or undrained con-
ditions at constant mean stress ( p or p equal to 30,
properties, constant head tests were used to determine
50 and 70 kPa) or at constant confining stress (σr )
saturated permeability while forced evaporation tests
or σr equal to 30, 50 and 70 kPa). Stress levels were
and drying tests in a pressure plate apparatus allowed
selected to be analogous to in situ stress states. How-
both water retention curves and permeability functions
ever, it was not possible to carry out tests at stress
to be determined. Hydraulic test results are presented
levels as low as those acting in the shallower lay-
in a companion paper (Evangelista et al. 2008) while
ers. The isotropic compressions were completed at a
experimental techniques are extensively described by
loading rate of 5 kPa/hour. The shearing phases were
Papa (2007). Conversely, some of the results regarding
performed in strain-controlled conditions at a strain
the mechanical behaviour of the investigated soils are
rate of 0.1 % hour.
presented below.
Soils 1, 2 and 4 showed a highly contractive and
ductile behaviour in all the tests. By contrast, soil 6
behaved as brittle and rather dilative in tests executed
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS under a mean effective stress equal to 30 kPa and as
ductile and contractive in tests performed at higher
In all, 48 stress-path controlled triaxial compres- stress levels. Finally, soils 7 and 8 behaved brittly in
sion tests were performed on undisturbed specimens the entire stress range.
previously saturated in the triaxial cell. These tests Some of the experimental results are summarised
were carried out on all the studied soils. By con- in Figure 3: for each test deviatoric stress q = (σa −
trast, 9 suction-controlled tests on naturally unsatu- σr ) at ‘‘near’’ critical state is reported as a function
rated undisturbed specimens were executed only on of mean effective stress p [= 1/3(σ1 + 2σ3 ) − uw ].
soil 4. By means of triaxial tests, shear strength Experimental points lay in quite a narrow area bounded
of soil 4 at high and intermediate stress levels was by the critical strength envelopes of soil 2 and 7; it is
obtained. Moreover, 12 conventional and 19 suction- worth noting that the estimated critical friction angles
controlled direct shear tests were employed to inves- range from 36.2◦ to 40.3◦ .
tigate the shear strength of the same soil at very low Although from the mechanical lab tests soil 2
stress. appears to be the weakest of the stratigraphic series,
919
morphological evidence indicates that soil 4 is the stress state. Nevertheless, it must be observed (Fig. 4b)
most prone to landslides. This can be justified by the that at the end of the tests corresponding to a shear
presence of roots inside soil 2, which reinforce it. strain value of about 15% the volumetric strain of the
unsaturated specimens was still rising while that of the
saturated specimens was almost ‘‘stationary’’. Hence
3.2 Suction-controlled triaxial tests
the deviatoric stress recorded at the end of the suction-
Triaxial tests on natural unsaturated specimens of controlled test may well be slightly smaller than the
soil 4 were carried out by means of a stress-path corresponding critical one.
and suction-controlled triaxial apparatus (Aversa & In Figure 5a the final value of the deviatoric stress
Nicotera 2002). recorded in each test is reported as a function of
Each test consisted of the following phases: mea- mean net stress and compared to the critical state line
surement of the initial suction by means of the axis inferred for the saturated material. The experimen-
translation technique; equalisation to an assigned suc- tal points corresponding to suction-controlled triaxial
tion value; isotropic compression at constant suction; tests lie well above the saturated critical state line,
shearing at constant suction (6 kPa, 12 kPa and 20 kPa) indicating the matric suction effect on critical shear
and constant mean net stress (30 kPa, 50 kPa and strength. Nevertheless, the shear strength increment
70 kPa). Suction measurements lasted about 48 hours cannot be justified by a linear dependence on matric
while equalisation phases took from 48 to 96 h. The suction as proposed by a number of authors (e.g.
isotropic compressions were completed at a loading Fredlund & Morgenstern 1977). On the contrary, a
rate of 5 kPa/hour. The shearing phases were per- better interpretation can be achieved by representing
formed in strain-controlled conditions at a strain rate the data in terms of mean Bishop stress ( p ):
of 0.1%/hour.
As regards water retention properties, soil 4 actu- 1
ally behaves like coarse-grained material; it has an air p = · (σ1 + 2 · σ3 ) + Sr · s (1)
3
entry value of about 6–8 kPa and starting from satu-
rated conditions becomes almost dry when the applied as originally proposed by Jennings (1960) and subse-
matric suction reaches about 100 kPa. Suction values quently adopted by others (Jommi 2000; Gallipoli et al.
for the triaxial tests were selected in order to study the 2003). This representation is proposed in Figure 5b:
mechanical behaviour during the transition between the experimental data seem to be arranged along a sin-
fully saturated and partially saturated conditions. gle envelope; moreover, this envelope is well described
The results of the suction-controlled triaxial tests by the same line adopted for representing the critical
are reported in Figure 4 in terms of deviatoric stress state of the saturated soil. This result confirms that
q and volumetric strain εv as functions of shear strain the stress state acting in unsaturated soils can be accu-
εs [= 2/3 · (εa − εr )]. In Figure 4 the stress strain rately represented only if the adopted stress variables
curve corresponding to the same mean net stress take into account both matric suction and degree of
pnet [= 1/3(σ1 + 2σ3 ) − ua ] but to different values saturation (e.g. Nuth & Laloui 2007). However, selec-
of the matric suction s(= ua − uw ) can be compared tion of the best variables is still a matter for debate
between them as well to three triaxial tests on a sat- (e.g. Nuth & Laloui 2007) and even in the present
urated specimen carried out at equivalent values of case some attempts to improve the data interpretation
effective mean stress p . The maximum deviatoric by means of different stress variables have been made
stress reached in each constant suction test is much (Papa 2007). Furthermore, the coincidence in the p ,
higher than that recorded in the corresponding test q plane of the critical state line for the unsaturated
on the saturated specimen. However, the trend of the soil with the critical state line for the saturated soil
dependence of maximum deviatoric stress on the value indicates that the so-called ‘‘bonding effect’’ due to
of matric suction is not clearly recognizable: for the water menisci (Gallipoli et al. 2003) has a negligible
constant mean net stress of 30 kPa, there is an increase effect on critical shear strength. Similar considerations
in the maximum deviatoric stress with the increase in have already been proposed by some authors though
applied suction. With an increase in constant mean net for quite different soils and stress levels (Tarantino &
stress, this trend fails to become evident. It appears that Tombolato 2005, Tarantino 2007).
matric suction is not suitable, as an independent stress Indeed, careful inspection of Figure 5b reveals that
variable, to describe the shear strength of a partially a number of experimental points lie just below the
saturated soil. critical state line, according to the observation that
The comparison between the volumetric strain in unsaturated soil triaxial tests, critical state has not
recorded in suction-controlled triaxial tests and triaxial been attained at the ultimate strain. Therefore more
tests on saturated specimens is reported in Figure 4b. accurate estimates of the slope of the critical state
It is evident that the unsaturated specimens behave line in the p , q plane were performed by extrap-
as more contractive than the saturated one at a similar olating the experimental data using a well-defined
920
05101520
150
0 p' = 30 kPa
p' = 50 kPa
p' = 70 kPa
1
p-ua = 70 kPa
p' = 70 kPa p-ua = 30 kPa
3
p' = 50 kPa p-ua = 50 kPa
p-ua = 70 kPa
p-ua = 30 kPa 4 p-ua = 70 kPa
50 p' = 30 kPa p-ua = 50 kPa
5 p-ua = 50 kPa
6 6
suction : kPa 12 12 suction : kPa
20 6 20 p-ua = 70 kPa
a) Sr = 1 Sr = 1 b)
0 7
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 4. Mechanical behaviour of soil 4 in unsaturated triaxial compression tests: a) deviator versus shear strain,
b) volumetric strain versus shear strain.
250 250
200 200
f cv' = 36.9 f cv' = 36.9
deviatoric stress, q: kPa
saturated saturated
CSL CSL
150 150
100 100
Figure 5. Critical shear strength of soil 4 from suction-controlled triaxial tests: a) net stress interpretation; b) Bishop’s stress
interpretation.
stress-dilatancy relationship (Papa 2007). However, wider stress range. Each test consisted of the fol-
discussion of these points would go beyond the scope lowing phases: measurement of the initial suction by
of the present paper. means of the axis translation technique; equalisation
to an assigned suction value; vertical compression at
constant suction; shearing at constant suction (6 kPa,
12 kPa and 20 kPa) and constant normal net stress
3.3 Suction-controlled direct shear tests
(3–12–24–36–75–150 and 250 kPa). Suction mea-
In all, 19 direct shear tests on unsaturated undisturbed surements lasted about 24 hours while equalisation
specimens were performed by means of a suction con- phases took from 48 to 72 h. The vertical compres-
trolled direct shear apparatus (Evangelista et al. 2004). sions were completed at a loading rate of 5 kPa/hour.
These tests were carried out at very low values of nor- The shearing phases were performed in displacement-
mal net stress ranging from 3 kPa to 250 kPa. The controlled conditions at a rate of 0.1 mm/hour. The
experimental program was conceived to assess the lin- shearing rate was selected by scaling down the opti-
earity of the shear strength envelope. However, some mal displacement rate determined for saturated tests
more tests at higher value of net normal stress were on the basis of a trial and error procedure (Papa
performed to depict the shape of the envelope in a 2007).
921
250 250
saturated saturated
200 CSL 200 CSL
100 100
suction: kPa suction: kPa
0:6 0:6
50 6 50 6
12 12
a) 20 b) 20
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Figure 6. Shear strength of soil 4 from suction-controlled direct shear tests: a) net stress interpretation; b) Bishop’s stress
interpretation.
Data representations similar to those proposed in on critical shear strength of soil 4 could not be inter-
Figure 5a, b for triaxial shear strength data are reported preted by a simple model such as the classical one
in Figure 6a, b for data from suction controlled proposed by Fredlund & Morgenstern (1977). The
direct shear tests. Figure 6a shows that shear strength trend of the dependence of maximum deviatoric stress
of unsaturated specimens in direct suction-controlled on the value of matric suction was not clearly recog-
tests is significantly higher than the critical ones esti- nizable. Hence it was concluded that matric suction
mated on the basis of the triaxial saturated envelope. was not suitable, as an independent stress variable, to
The same data drawn in terms of normal Bishop’s stress describe the shear strength of this unsaturated pyro-
σ = σnet + Sr · s) seem to agree quite well with clastic soil. However, a satisfactory interpretation was
the same envelope. However, in this case some of the achieved by taking account of both matric suction and
experimental data are just above the triaxial critical saturation degree, representing the data in terms of
envelope. This result could be ascribed to the follow- Bishop’s stress. Furthermore the results from suction-
ing factors: the effect of the deformation path (almost controlled direct shear tests performed in a lower stress
2D in the direct shear apparatus); the higher strain lev- range confirmed these observations.
els reached in the direct shear tests (the shear strength
was recorded at about 10 mm); the actual saturation
degree inside the shear band being higher than the
mean value employed to determine σnet (by contrast, REFERENCES
no strain localisation was observed in triaxial tests).
Aversa, S. & Nicotera, M.V. 2002. A triaxial and oedome-
ter apparatus for testing unsaturated soils. Geotechnical
Testing Journal, GTJODJ, 25(1): 3–15.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS Bilotta, E., Cascini, L., Foresta V. & Sorbino G. 2005.
Geotechnical characterisation of pyroclastic soils involved
By performing triaxial tests on the undisturbed speci- in huge flowslides. Geotechnical and geological engineer-
mens recovered in the soil layers identified at the Mon- ing, 23: 365–402.
teforte Irpino test site the saturated shear strength of Calcaterra, D., de Riso, R., Evangelista, A., Nicotera, M.V.,
the pyroclastic cover resting on the limestone bedrock Santo, A. & Scotto di Santolo, A. 2003. Slope instabili-
was defined with good accuracy. Although, from the ties in the pyroclastic deposits of the Phlegraean district
mechanical lab tests, soil 2 appeared the weakest in the and the carbonate Apennine (Campania, Italy). In L.
stratigraphic series, morphological evidence indicated Picarelli (ed.) Occurrence and Mechanisms of Flows in
Natural Slopes and Earthfills, Proc. of Intern. Workshop,
that soil 4 was the most prone to landslides. Sorrento, 14–16 May 2003: 61–76. Bologna: Pàtron.
Soil 4 lies in between two pumiceous layers and Di Crescenzo, G., Rotella, M. & Santo. A, 2007. Il con-
is extremely porous. This soil behaved in a highly tributo della geologia per lo studio dei meccanismi di
ductile and contractive fashion in both saturated and innesco di colate rapide di fango al campo sperimentale di
suction-controlled triaxial tests. Matric suction effects Monteforte Irpino (AV). In C. Nunziata (ed.) Piattaforme
922
Evolute di Telecomunicazioni e di Information Technol- Jommi, C. 2000. Remarks on the constitutive modelling
ogy per l’Offerta di Servizi al settore Ambiente Petit-Osa: of unsaturated soils. In A. Tarantino & C. Mancuso
263–272. Rome: Aracne. (eds.) Experimental evidence and theoretical approaches
Evangelista, A., Nicotera, M.V. & Aversa, S. 2004. in unsaturated soils: 139–153. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Un’apparecchiatura di taglio a suzione controllata per lo Jennings, L.E. 1960. A revised effective stress law for use in
studio delle condizioni di innesco dei fenomeni franosi the prediction of the behaviour of unsaturated soils. Pore
nelle coltri piroclastiche. Proceedings of the XXII Con- Pressure and Suction in Soils. London: Butterworths.
vegno Nazionale di Geotecnica, Palermo: 81–88. Patron, Nutn, M. & Laloui, L. 2007. Effective stress concept in
Bologna. unsaturated soils: Clarification and validation of a unified
Evangelista, A., Nicotera, M.V., Papa, R. & Urciuoli G. framework. Intern. Journal for Numerical and Analyt-
2008. Field investigation on triggering mechanisms of ical Methods in Geomechanics. Pub. online in Wiley
fast landslides in unsaturated pyroclastic soils. E-UNSAT InterScience.
2008. Papa, R. 2007. Indagine sperimentale di una copertura
Fredlund, D.G. & Morgenstern, N.R. 1977. Stress piroclastica di un versante della Campania. PhD thesis,
state variables for unsaturated soils. Journal of the Università di Napoli Federico II.
Geotechnical Engineering Division (ASCE), 103 (GT5): Tarantino, A. & Tombolato, S. 2005. Coupling of hydraulic
447–466. and mechanical behaviour in unsaturated compacted clay.
Gallipoli, D., Gens, A., Sharma, R. & Vaunat, J. 2003. An Geotechnique 55(4): 307–317.
elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the Tarantino, A. 2007. A possible critical state framework
effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical for unsaturated compacted soils. Geotechnique 57(4):
behaviour. Geotechnique 53(1): 123–136. 385–389.
923
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
R.R. Pacheco
Departamento de Química. Facultad de Ciencias. Universitat de Girona. Campus Montilvi, Girona, Spain
ABSTRACT: Tailings storage facilities are complex geotechnical structures. The present paper focuses on
the study of a case-history, a tailing dam from the nickel industry from Cuba, with the objective of gaining
knowledge about the geotechnical behaviour of such structures. The dam was modelled by means of a coupled
hydro-mechanical finite element formulation. Due to the low permeability of tailings, the phreatic levels in the
deposit remain high during and after its construction. Steady-state flow regime would be reached only after
several decades after closure. Moreover, capillary rise causes the degree of saturation to stay high in the whole
storage. Under the action of rain storms, phreatic levels rise quickly due to the presence of capillary water. At
the end of the storm, phreatic levels fall slowly because of the low hydraulic conductivity. The results of the
analysis show that the stability of the dam strongly depends on its hydraulic operation.
925
a) stress and suction (Olivella et al. 1994). For the present
analysis, only coupled flow and deformation problems
were considered.
1
Original
3 MODELLED SECTION
r
Embankment
ve
1 Drainage
Ri
Supernatant Pipelines
oa
M
20
Original Embankment boundary of the problem. Three different materials
10 Moa River
0 were considered: alluvial soil (sand and silt), embank-
-10
-20 ment (compacted laterite) and tailings. The section
-30
LEGEND: 0 50meters modelled has a total height of 12.5 m on the embank-
Scale
ment side, and 10 m adjacent to the decant pond. The
Tailings Organic Clay and Silt
Embankment Fill-Compacted Laterite Marine Clay and Silt embankment is 8 m high, with a slope of 1H:1V and the
Alluvial Sand and Silt Highly Weathered Serpentine alluvial layer is 4.5 m thick. The tailings beach slopes
down 0.5% in the upstream direction. The phreatic
Figure 1. (a) Tailings dam planimetry. (b) Cross section 1-1 level downstream the embankment is determined by
through the tailings facility (after Chalkley et al. 2002).
the water level in Moa River.
The impoundment construction was simulated in
400 5 layers (Figure 3). Each layer was built in 1000
350 Rainfall days, approaching the mean rising rate of the dam
300
(Rodriguez, 2002). The layers were subdivided into
Average Rainfall and
Evaporation
Evaporation [mm]
250
200
10 zones in order to take into account the variation of
150 material properties within the dam. Due to hydraulic
100 particle sorting during the flow of slurries along the
50 tailing beach, grain size reduces with increasing dis-
0
tance from the slurry discharge point (Blight, 1994).
January
Marz
June
April
August
October
December
September
July
February
May
November
926
Supernatant pond Tailings
10 Embankment
3 2 1
5 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Foundation
0
550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0m
Figure 3. Tailings dam geometry for model calculation (vertical scale magnified by a factor of 2).
Elastic behaviour
Elastic modulus E MPa 50 50 50
Poisson’s ratio n – 0.35 0.35 0.35
Plastic behaviour
Virgin compressibility for saturated (l(0) − k) – 0.084 0.084 0.077
conditions
Parameter that establishes the min- r – 0.2 0.2 0.2
imum value of the compressibil-
ity coefficient for high values of
suction
Parameter that controls the rate of b MPa−1 2 2 2
increase in stiffness with suction
Reference stress pc MPa 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033
Slope of critical state strength line M – 1.44 1.44 1.33
Parameter that controls the increase in ks – 0.246 0.246 0
cohesion with suction
Parameter that defines the non- a – 0.3 0.3 0.3
associativeness of plastic potential
Initial state for tailing dam model
Initial yield mean net stress p∗o MPa 0.003 0.1 0.03
Initial porosity Fo – 0.66 0.6 0.4
Mechanical parameters for each material are shown in Horizontal permeability of the embankment material
Table 1. was taken as identical to the outer tailings zone and
Darcy’s law is used to describe the water flow vertical permeability was assumed to be 1/5 due to
behaviour. Saturated water conductivity decreases anisotropy (Ky = 2 × 10−7 m/s).
from the dam to the centre of the impoundment, due Retention curves were fitted with the Van
to the decrease in grain size. Permeability of samples Genutchen model. The retention curve of a sample
taken in the outer zone of the deposit (zone 2) was from the outer zone of the deposit was obtained by
measured by Rodriguez (2002). Tests have also shown Rodriguez (2002), under different void ratios (e =
that tailings permeability is significantly influenced 1.5, 1.75 and 2). According to the experimental data,
by desiccation cracking (Rodriguez, 2006). A value of the value of parameter l of the Van Genutchen equa-
Kx = Ky = 1×10−6 m/s was used. The hydraulic con- tion, was taken constant (= 0.38). On the other hand,
ductivities for the rest of tailings zones were estimated the air entry value, P0 , is assumed to vary exponen-
by means of scaling, on the basis of the Hazen for- tially with the change in porosity (Olivella, 1994). A
mula, decreasing proportionally to the square of D10 . value of P0 = 0.079 MPa was computed from the
Variation of permeability with changes in the material experimental data for the outer tailings zone, at a ref-
porosity during the consolidation process is described erence porosity of 0.66. For the rest of tailings zones,
by means of the Kozeny model. Relative permeabil- P0 was scaled, increasing inversely proportionally to
ity (unsaturated) was described by means of the Van D10 .
Genuchten model (Olivella, 1994).
The horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the alluvial
soil was estimated as Kx = 2 × 10−6 m/s on the basis 5 HYDRAULIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
of pumping test data (Rodriguez, 2002). A ratio of 10
was adopted between horizontal and vertical perme- Rainfall and evaporation influence the water content
ability for taking into account the effect of anisotropy. of the tailings deposit through its whole life. Their
927
long-term effect was included in the model by means 0
Porosity at 26m
of mean rates of infiltration and evaporation. 2 Porosity at 120m
Run-off water has no effect on the deposit water Porosity at 420m
balance since the excess water accumulated in the 4
Depth [m]
supernatant pond is eliminated through decant pip- 6
ing. The run-off/infiltration ratio was estimated for the
monthly rainfall record shown in Figure 2, by means 8 At the end of construction
of the SCS hydrological model (SCS, 1957). Parame- 10
At 50 years after impoundment
construction
ter CN (Curve number) in SCS model was estimated
as 91, on the basis of the material permeability and the 12
bare condition of the deposit surface. 0,59 0,61 0,63 0,65 0,67
porosity
Drying of soils due to evaporation generally occurs
in three stages (Gowing et al., 2006): 1) the evap-
oration front coinciding with soil surface, hence the Figure 4. Variation of porosity with impoundment depth at
three vertical sections located at 26 m, 120 m and 420 m from
evaporation rate is controlled by the available energy the edge of the dam.
(coming from sun radiation and wind) for latent vapour
heat consumption; 2) evaporation rate is controlled by
the rate of capillary rise of water from the phreatic S = 0.85
level to the evaporation front; 3) evaporation rate is S = 0.90
S = 0.95
controlled by molecular diffusion of vapour from the
evaporation front to soil surface. S = 1.0
Considering the climate factors at the site and
the tailings hydraulic properties, it was numerically
checked for the case study that, even in the harshest Figure 5. Degree of saturation at the end of construction
evaporative condition, drying would always occur in period.
the first stage.
Hence, the mean evaporation rate can be estimated a) At end of impoundment construction.
from pan measurements shown in Figure 2. A pan
coefficient Kpan = 0.8 was selected (Smajstrla et al.,
2000), on the basis of the mean RH (85%) and the b) 50 years after end of impoundment construction.
average wind speed (2 m/s).
The annual balance between infiltration-evaporation
yields a positive value of 91 mm/year (net infiltration).
This boundary condition was permanently applied to
the model during the whole analysis time.
Figure 6. (a) Phreatic level after impoundment construc-
tion (6000 days) (b) Phreatic level after 50 years from
impoundment construction.
6 BASE CASE
Sixteen years of continuous filling of the impound- Figure 5. Most of the tailings volume remains satu-
ment were simulated with the model. The effect of rated, while in the dam crest Sr reaches a minimum
consolidation of tailings under the self-weight loads value of 85%. This is due to the presence of capil-
and the hydraulic boundary conditions imposed is lary water above the phreatic level and the continuous
shown in Figure 4. Porosity variation with depth is addition of water with the slurry discharge. Figure 6
plotted at three vertical sections located at 26 m, 120 m displays the position of phreatic surfaces at the end
and 420 m from the edge of the deposit (dam). A 50 of construction and after 50 years. The later analysis
year period after the end of construction was also ana- shows that the steady-state flow regime is reached 20
lyzed, keeping active all boundary conditions except years after end of construction.
the tailings discharge. It may be observed that poros-
ity decreases with depth, faster in the perimeter of
the deposit than in the centre zone. This is due to 7 EFFECT OF RAINSTORMS
the favourable drainage conditions in the vicinity of
the dam, larger permeability and lower phreatic levels An extreme rainfall event recorded at the site, as
leading to higher effective stresses. described by Greenaway et al. (2002), was applied to
The degree of saturation of tailings at the end of the model at the end of construction period. The storm
construction is high in the whole deposit, is shown in comprised 722 mm rainfall in 48 hours, with a peak of
928
(a) a) At the end of construction.
100
80
b) Atthe end of rain storm (48h.)
Rainfall [mm]
60
c) 11 days after end of rain storm.
40
20
Figure 8. Variation of the position of phreatic surface (wet
0 case).
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47
Time [hours]
b) At10 h after storm initiation.
The results of the sensitivity analysis show a
strong influence of the assumed long-term infiltra-
c)At the end of storm (48h) tion/evaporation boundary condition, on the behaviour
of the deposit under the action of the rain storm.
Figure 8 depicts the rise of the phreatic surface for the
d) 10 days after theend of the storm. wet case under the action of the storm of Figure 7. a.
Phreatic water approaches the outer face of the deposit
much faster than in the base case. Eleven days after the
end of the storm, the phreatic surface reaches its max-
Figure 7. a. Rainfall storm. 7 b, c and d. Model results: imum elevation intersecting the dam slope at 3.5 m
variation of the position of phreatic surface. above the base. This is a consequence of the presence
of a larger volume of capillary water in the unsatu-
rated zone, above the phreatic surface, reducing the
available water storing capacity of tailings.
140 mm in 90 minutes (Figure 7a). Figure 7b shows
the model results at different times after storm initi-
ation. The phreatic surface rises fast during rainfall, 9 STABILITY ANALYSIS
the highest position being reached at the end of the
storm. On the contrary, phreatic drawdown is a slow Stability analysis of the deposit was performed by
process. Ten days after rainfall ends, the phreatic level means of the limit equilibrium method. The analysis
is still in a higher position than the initial situation domain covered the zone of variation of the phreatic
at the beginning of the storm (Figure 7c). Moreover, level. A summary of the strength parameters of the
phreatic water intersects the slope face of the dam 2 m materials involved are presented in Table 2. Apparent
above the base. cohesion due to matric suction was taken into account
If the same amount of rainfall is applied over a in the computed parameters.
longer time span (4 days), the rise of the phreatic sur- Stability analyses were carried out for the base and
face is somewhat more pronounced. This due to lower wet cases. The critical sliding surfaces obtained are
runoff/infiltration ratios associated with lower rainfall shown in Figure 9 and 10 respectively. The values of
rates. In this case, the highest position of the phreatic computed safety factors are summarized in Table 3. In
surface at the dam slope face is 2.4 m above its base the base case, the storm causes a considerable decrease
and it is reached 4 days after the end of the storm.
Table 2. Mohr-Coulomb parameters.
Material C (KPa) F
8 SENSITIVITY TO INFILTRATION –
EVAPORATION BOUNDARY CONDITIONS Saturated tailings 35.6◦∗
Unsaturated tailings (above 28.59∗ 35.6◦∗
Additional cases were run to study the influence phreatic level)
Saturated compacted laterite 11.00 31◦
of the infiltration-evaporation boundary condition Unsaturated compacted laterite 45.40 31◦
on the impoundment surface. In the ‘‘wet case’’ Foundation soil 33◦∗∗
infiltration/evaporation model parameters were set to
CN = 90 and Kpan = 0.75, resulting in a 367 mm/year ∗ Obtained from triaxial tests (Rodriguez, 2002).
net infiltration. ∗∗ Estimated from index properties.
929
of the safety factor in relation to the pre-storm values, could be larger than the suggested by Figure 10 if static
although sliding is not triggered. The minimum safety liquefaction of tailings is triggered as a consequence
factor is reached at the end of the storm. of sliding.
In the wet case, the deposit becomes unstable by
the end of the storm. Moreover, it remains unstable 11
days after the storm. The amount of material released 10 CONCLUSIONS
930
measurement of capillary water (not detected by com- Greenaway, G.R., Parfitt, M.R. & Kerr, T.F., 2002. Seismic
mon piezometric monitoring) could be relevant for the stability assessment of the Moa nickel tailings facility.
assessment of the impoundment stability conditions Canadian Dam Association 2002 Annual, Conference,
and its overall safety. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Olivella, S. 1994. Code_Bright User’s Guide. Departa-
mento de Ingeniería del Terreno. Universitat Politécnica
de Catalunya.
REFERENCES Rodriguez, R. 2002. Estudio experimental de flujo y trans-
porte de cromo, níquel y manganeso en residuos de la zona
Alonso, E.E., Gens A. & y Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive minera de Moa (Cuba): influencia del comportamiento
model for partially saturated soils. Géotechnique 40, No. hidromecánico. Tesis Doctoral, Universitat Politécnica de
3, 405–430. Catalunya, Barcelona.
Alonso, E. & Gens, A., 2006. Aznalcóllar dam failure. Part 2: Rodriguez, R. 2006. Hydrogeotechnical characterization of
Stability conditions and failure mechanism. Géotechnique a metallurgicalwaste. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 43,
56, No. 3, 185–201. 1042–1060.
Blight, G.E., 1994. The master profile for hydraulic fill SCS 1957. Hydrology National Engineering Handbook.
tailing beaches . Proc. Instn. Civ. Engng., 107, 27–40. USDA Soil Conservation Service.
Chalkley, M., Kerr, T., Parfitt, M. & Greenaway, G., 2002. Smajstrla A.G., Zazueta F.S., Clark G.A. & Pitts D.J. 2000.
Rehabilitation of the acid leach tailings facility at Moa Irrigation Scheduling with Evaporation Pans. Bulletin 254
Nickel in Cuba. CDA 2002 Annual Conference, Victoria, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering,
BC, Canada. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food
Fourie, A.B., Blight, G.E. & Papageorgiou, G., 2001. Static and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.
liquefaction as a possible explanation for the Merriespruit Staple, W.J. 1974. Modified Penman Equation to Provide
tailings dam failure. Can. Geotech. J, 38, 707–719. the Upper Boundary Condition in Computing Evapora-
Gowing, J.W., Konukcu, F. & Rose, D.A.2006, Evapora- tion from Soil. Science Society of America Proceedings.
tive flux from a shallow watertable: The influence of a Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 837–839.
vapour—liquid phase transition. Journal of Hydrology
321 77–89.
931
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: It is well known that the degree of saturation of a soil is time-varying in consequence of
atmospheric conditions. Experimental data of matric suction at a site in Pilastro, Parma, Emilia Romagna
Region, Northern Italy, have been used to compare against a simplified model, which is able to directly correlate
the degree of saturation of a clayey-silt soil with rainfall events. The paper deals with the in-situ measurements
of matric suction, the procedure to obtain the degree of saturation on the basis of assumed soil-water retention
curves and comparison against the simplified model. This model, in turn, has been introduced in a simplified
physically based stability method, recently set up by the authors to describe the most important factors influencing
the rainfall-triggered mechanism of shallow landslides.
933
located on the side of the Po plain, near the hilly 30 Temp. Rainfall 200
margin, close to the top of the alluvial fan of the Parma 24 160
stream, at about 166 meters above sea level, where the
Rainfall [mm]
Temp. [˚C]
water table typically ranges from 10 m to 30 m below 18 120
the ground level. 12 80
From a pedological point of view, the soil at the field
site could be considered as an ‘‘Udic Haplusteps loamy 6 40
skeletal, mesic’’ (Mantovi et al. 2005); from a geotech- 0 0
01/01/04
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
nical point of view it is classified as a clayey-silt. The
shallow soil, which contains altered gravels near the
surface, is not calcareous, while the substratum, which
is more calcareous, presents a gravelly-sandy texture,
with non altered cobbles, starting from 1.20 m below
the ground level. From field measurements of the infil- Figure 1. Temperature and rainfall depth for the ‘‘Pilastro’’
tration rate, the soil permeability was found to be very site during the monitoring period.
high. At a depth of 10 meters from the ground level,
the presence of a thick clay layer that obstructed the
vertical water flow was found. It could be supposed 100
that the ground water, for the most part of the year, 80
Suction [kPa]
gathers and flows on the clay layer, so determining the
60 0.3 m
presence of a relatively shallow water table (Mantovi
et al. 2005). 40 0.6 m
Field measurements of matric suction and rainfalls 20
0.9 m
refer to a 3-year period under standard local agronomic
practices: tomatoes, maize (corn), rye-grass. All the 0
soil suction measurements had been acquired by com- 100
mon ‘‘Skye’’ automatic electronic tensiometers. For 80
Suction [kPa]
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
Moreover, a well and a piezometer allowed the
measurement of the position of the ground water
level (Mantovi el al. 2005). It must be remembered
that a common tensiometer allows measurements of
matric suction limited in the field of gravity water Figure 2. Field measurements of soil suction at different
and capillary water, to typically less than 80 kPa. depths from the ground level for the ‘‘Pilastro’’ site, during
The tensiometers were left in situ and connected to the monitoring period (CRPA—Reggio Emilia).
a datalogger for continuous recording of soil mois-
ture measurements. Each tensiometer was fitted with
a low pressure transducer, stabilised for temperature
and linearity. The output was ratiometric for excita- of the abscissa (time). It can be seen that in shallow
tion voltage, and calibrated at 5 volts. The transducer soil layers, the range of the matric suction was nearly
behaved like a ‘‘bridge’’ type sensor and was suitable always between 0 kPa and 15 kPa, except some short
for connection to a logger with differential voltage periods during the summer, between May and Septem-
inputs (Mantovi et al. 2006). ber, when the soil seemed to get dry in consequence of
Figure 1 shows the trend of both temperature and both high temperature and drought. On the contrary, in
rainfall versus time for the monitoring period: tem- soil layers at a depth higher than 1.5 m, matric suction
peratures ranged between a maximum of 37.5◦ C and a kept constantly near to 20 kPa even during summer.
minimum of −10.5◦ C. Average atmospheric measured It is worth noting that suction measurements
temperature was 13.4◦ C and cumulated total rainfalls, acquired by common tensiometers can be consid-
in nearly three years, were 2859.6 mm. ered reliable for the aim of this work, even if the
Figure 2 shows soil suction measurements versus composition of the soil, that contains not a negligi-
time, related to different depths from the ground level, ble percentage of cobbles, and the structure of the
and can be related to Figure 1 thanks to the coincidence instrument, that utilizes a porous cup, leave some
934
doubts about the real hydraulic continuous connection where ES is the effective saturation, s is the suction,
between soil matrix and pressure sensor. For the same α, n and m are empirical coefficients that determine
reason, it could be supposed that during summer soil the shape and the slope of the curve.
matric suction was also higher than 90 kPa, which was ES, in turn, is defined as the following:
the maximum value measurable by the tensiometers
in use. θ − θr
ES = (2)
θs − θr
where θ is the volumetric water content, θr is the
3 FROM MATRIC SUCTION TO THE DEGREE residual water content, which represents the adsorbed
OF SATURATION water, while θs is the saturation water content, which
represents the maximum volumetric water content and
Most rainfall-induced shallow landslides occur on is usually 5–10% smaller than porosity, because of
slightly steeper slopes and involve unsaturated soil. the presence of trapped or dissolved pore air (Ungaro
To model the trigger mechanism of these phenom- et al. 2005). For these reasons θr and θs are usually
ena in a simplified manner, it was considered that the considered as empirical constants in the definition of
soil shear strength depends on the apparent cohesion, the soil retention curve (Van Genuchten and Nielsen
which represents the effect of partial saturation and can 1985). Then from (1) and (2) the volumetric water
be expressed as a function of the degree of saturation content could be expressed as
(Sr ). In particular, when net normal stresses are kept
constant, that is the condition of a shallow soil layer, −m
a soil suction variation provokes changes in soil water θ = θr + (θs − θr ) 1 + (α · s)n (3)
content. The link between water content and suction
is expressed by the soil moisture retention curve. Once the value of θ is determined, by using Equation
It is known that the amount of retained water for a (3) as a function of the suction (s), Sr can be evaluated
relatively low value of suction firstly depends on the by using the following equation:
capillary effect and on the distribution of pore dimen-
sions: it is then deeply influenced by soil structure.
On the other hand, the higher the value of soil suction θ θr + (θr − θs ) [1 + (α · s)n ]m
Sr = = (4)
the more water retention depends on adsorption and is θs θs
influenced by soil texture and by grain specific surface
more than by soil structure. Soil moisture retention In the present work, since the experimental data have
curve is also influenced by the presence of air bub- been acquired by previous works (Mantovi et al. 2006,
bles and changes in soil structure that are determined Merafina 2003), parameters for the Van Genuchten
both by rapid moistening or prolonged saturation pro- curve have been obtained by using Vereecken ped-
cesses. It is known, moreover, that each soil retention ofunctions (Vereecken et al. 1989), as these are
curve, which is specific for each kind of soil, presents considered by Merafina (2003) the most suitable to
an hysteretic behaviour. represent the water retention behaviour of soils that
Although many theoretical treatments allow hys- are present in the Emilia Romagna Region. As input
teresis modeling (Parlange 1976, Mualem 1984), their values, these pedofunctions need the apparent volume
relatively high complexity, the difficulty in determin- mass (AVM) and the percentage of organic carbon
ing some necessary experimental parameters, associ- (Org. C), sand and clay.
ated with the specific aim of the present work, that is For the field site of Pilastro, the data have been
the evaluation of the safety factor of slopes in a wide obtained by laboratory experimental analyses on soil
area (Montrasio 2000) led us consider, for simplifica- samples taken at different depths from the ground level
tion, as biunique the link between suction and water (Merafina 2003) and are shown in Table 1.
content. For the same reason, soil structure and fab-
ric were assumed constant in time and the degree of
saturation was assumed as a variable representing the
Table 1. Composition of the soil of Pilastro site.
water content, by using a common model to describe
the soil retention curve. An analytical model, among Depth [m] Sand [%] Clay [%] Org. C [%] AVM
those that in the course of time showed a strong appli-
cability in different conditions, is expressed by the Van 0–0.25 18 30 1.51 1.5
Genuchten equation, that is: 0.25–0.40 15 34 1.04 1.5
0.40–0.65 30 31 0.58 1.5
1 0.65–1.05 35 29 0.46 1.5
ES = (1) 1.05–1.25 59 23 0.46 1.5
[1 + (α · s)n ]m
935
Vereecken pedofunctions used are given in the 180 Sr calculated from suction d = 0.9m 1.2
following: 150 1.0
Rainfall [mm]
120 0.8
ϑr = 0.015 + 0.005 · Clay + 0.014 · Org.C 90 0.6
Sr
Rainfall Sr calculated from rainfall
ϑs = 0.81 − 0.283 · AVM + 0.001 · Clay 60 0.4
α = e(−2.486+0.025·Sand−0.351·Org.C−2.617·AVM−0.023·Clay) 30 0.2
∧ 0 0.0
n = e(−0.053−0.009·Sand−0.013·Clay+0.00015·Sand 2)
01/01/04
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
m=1
160 Suction 0.3 m Sr 1.2 180 Sr calculated from suction d = 1.2m 1.2
1.0 150 1.0
Rainfall [mm]
120
Suction [kPa]
Sr
80 0.6
Sr
Rainfall
0.4 60 0.4
40 30 0.2
0.2
0 0.0
0 0.0 01/01/04
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
01/01/04
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
Sr
150 1.0 90
Rainfall
Rainfall [mm]
90 0.6
Rainfall Sr calculated from rainfall
60 0.4 0 0.0
01/01/04
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
30 0.2
0 0.0
01/01/04
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
936
180 Sr calculated from rainfall d = 1.8m 1.2 Table 2. Values of parameters assumed for the model.
150 1.0
Depth (d)
Rainfall [mm]
120 0.8
Sr calculated from suction
[m] S0 z β∗ n
Sr
90 0.6
Rainfall
60 0.4 0.3 0.970 0.9940 0.3 0.6
30 0.2 0.6 0.970 0.9975 0.3 0.6
0 0.0 0.9 0.950 0.9983 0.3 0.6
1.2 0.947 0.9988 0.3 0.6
01/01/04
25/06/04
18/12/04
12/06/05
05/12/05
30/05/06
22/11/06
1.5 0.947 0.9990 0.3 0.6
1.8 0.920 0.9992 0.3 0.6
937
in the evaluation of Sr in both methods, the agreement 4 0.15
between the two predictions appears not bad on the
Fs
5 APPLICATION OF THE MODEL TO A CASE 0.05
1
HISTORY
0 0.00
01/01/05
02/03/05
01/05/05
30/06/05
29/08/05
28/10/05
27/12/05
Recently, a simplified physically based stability model
has been set up by Montrasio & Valentino (2003, 2007)
to describe the most important factors influencing the
rainfall-triggered mechanism of shallow landslides.
The method has been drawn up as a means of sim-
plified analysis: it considers an infinite slope, made Figure 10. Trend of the safety factor versus time for the
by a thin soil layer, whose permeability is greater ‘‘Ca’ Bernini’’ site in the neighbourhood of the 5th of October
than that of the bedrock. The phenomenon is triggered 2005.
following the loss of shear strength: the soil, firstly
unsaturated, becomes saturated in consequence of a
certain amount of rainfall, which is strictly related to soil-water retention curve. The values of Sr calcu-
the initial water content of the soil. lated from field soil suction measurements have been
The safety factor, calculated on the basis of the compared with those calculated by using a simplified
limit equilibrium method, deeply depends on slope model, which is able to directly correlate Sr with rain-
geometry (slope angle, thickness of the layer), soil fall events. The model, in turn, has been introduced in a
properties (specific gravity, porosity, degree of satu- simplified physically based stability method, recently
ration), shear strength parameters (effective cohesion, set up by the authors, and has been applied to a case
friction angle), drainage capability of the soil and history, in order to catch, with a satisfactory result, the
rainfall depth. In particular, the shear strength is trigger instant of a rainfall-induced shallow landslide.
evaluated through an equation similar to Peterson’s
relationship (1988), reported by Fredlund et al. (1996)
(Montrasio & Valentino 2007). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The method has been applied to the case history of
‘‘Ca’Bernini’’ (Neviano, Parma), a site that was a few Experimental data of soil suction were provided
kilometers far from the Pilastro field site and that had by C.R.P.A. S.p.A. (Centro Ricerche Produzioni
been subjected to a shallow rainfall triggered landslide Animali—Reggio Emilia) and the authors would like
on the 5th of October 2005. to express their gratitude to Dr Paolo Mantovi and
On the basis of geotechnical and rainfall data at that to Dr Letizia Fumagalli for their cooperation.
site, the method allows the trend of the safety factor
versus time to be obtained, highlighting the instability REFERENCES
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Figure 10 shows that the model catches well the safety Geotech. J. 33 (3): 440–448.
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measure soil slip risk, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. On Comp. Ungaro, F., Calzolari, C., Busoni, E. 2005. Development
Simulation in Risk Analysis and Hazard Mitigation. of pedotransfer functions using a group method of data
Southampton: Wit Press. handling for the soil of the Pianura Padano-Veneta region
Montrasio, L., Valentino, R. 2003. Experimental analysis of North Italy: water retention properties. Geoderma 124:
on factors triggering soil slip. In Luciano Picarelli (ed.), 293–317.
Fast slope movements prediction and prevention for risk Van Genuchten, M.T., Nielsen, D.R. 1985. On describing and
mitigation; Proc. Int. Conf., Napoli, 11–13 May 2003. predicting the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils.
Bologna: Patron Ed. Ann. geophysicae 3 (5): 615–627. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
Montrasio, L., Valentino, R. 2007. Experimental analysis Vereecken, H., Maes, J., Feyen, J., Darius, P. 1989. Estimat-
and modelling of shallow landslides. Landslides 4 (3): ing the soil moisture retention characteristic from texture,
291–296. Springer-Verlag. bulk density and carbon content. Soil Science 148 (6):
Mualem, Y. 1984. Prediction of the soil boundary wetting 389–403.
curve. Soil Science 137: 379–389.
Parlange, J.Y. 1976. Capillary hysteresis and the relationship
between drying and wetting curves. Water Resour. Res.
12: 224–228.
939
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
ABSTRACT: The variation of stability with time due to suction changes was calculated for an instrumented
slope in Switzerland using the software Slope/W. The motivation for this study was a heavy rainfall event in
the area of this slope, which caused a great number of slope failures. The aim was to find the periods of lowest
slope stability, which represent the most unfavourable initial condition for a subsequent rainfall event. The pore
water pressure distributions used for the stability analysis came from precedent hydraulic calculations using the
software Vadose/W. Field and laboratory experiments provided the data for the configuration, the calibration
and the validation of the model. It is well known that the saturation of the soil has a significant influence on
slope stability and that periods of high saturation are most unfavourable in terms of risk of failure, and this was
quantified herein.
2 INVESTIGATION METHODS
941
0.50
θ [-]
z [m]
10 0.20
0 clayey sand
sandstone 0.00
-10 0 10 20 30 0.1 1 10 100 1000
x [m]
suction [kPa]
3.3.2 Permeability
3.2 Discretisation Also the determination of the suction dependent
Spatial and temporal discretisation of the model have permeability is based on laboratory investigations
been chosen with respect to calculation accuracy and on undisturbed soil samples. The results have
calculation time. A structured Finite Element mesh been modelled using the following equation by van
of 934 nodes and 869 quadrangular elements was Genuchten (1980):
constructed for the spatial discretisation (Fig. 2).
The elements of the sandstone basement are ‘‘zero
2
1 − aψ (n−1) 1 + (aψ n )−m
elements’’ which means that they are not taken into k(ψ) = ks m (2)
account for the calculations. Concerning the temporal
discretisation, time steps of 24 hours have been chosen. ((1 + aψ) )
n 2
942
Table 1. Material parameters. 3.3.4 Soil unit weight
The soil unit weight is varying dependent on the
Organic Clayey Silty volumetric water content of the soil. Table 1 shows
Parameter soil sand sand the maximum and minimum values for each soil layer.
Permeability and WRC
a [−] 8.37 8.37 5.60 3.3.5 Shear resistance
m [−] 0.18 0.18 0.29 Shear resistance for saturated and unsaturated soil con-
n [−] 1.22 1.22 1.40 ditions is calculated using the following equation from
ks [cm/s] 7.5 ∗ 10−7 7.5 ∗ 10−7 3 ∗ 10−4 Fredlund et al. (1978):
θs [−] 0.45 0.45 0.42
Thermal conductivity τ = c + (σ − ua ) tan φ + (ua − uw ) tan φ b (3)
kt [kJ/(day m ◦ C) ] 35 155 155
with τ as the shear resistance of the soil, c as the
Specific heat capacity
effective cohesion, (σ − ua ) as the effective normal
cs [kJ/(kg ◦ C) ] 1.67 0.71 0.71
stress, φ as the angle of internal friction, (ua − uw ) as
Soil unit weight matric suction and φ b as an additional friction angle
γmax [kN/m3 ] 16.07 17.29 15.78 depending on soil suction. The parameters c , φ and
γmin [kN/m3 ] 18.07 18.78 18.30 φ b of Equation 3 have been determined in the labo-
Shear parameters
ratory with the help of suction dependent direct shear
ϕ [◦ ] 31 31 37.5 tests and can also be taken from Table 1.
c [kPa] 15 0 0
ϕb [◦ ] 28 28 28 3.3.6 Summary of material parameters
The above mentioned material parameters for the
different soil types are summarised in Table 1.
943
25 40
35 150 cm (c)
150 cm (m)
15
5 10
5
0
1 51 101 151 201 251 301 351
-5 day of the year 2005
-15 -5 5 15 25 35
x [m]
Figure 6. Comparison of the calculated (c) and measured
Figure 5. Initial temperature distribution on 1st January (m) soil temperature at different depths for the year 2005.
2005.
0
PWP [kPa]
-20
layer and the sandstone basement (‘‘zero elements’’) -40
and at the right and the left boundary of the model. Cli- -60
-80 15 cm (c)
mate boundary conditions on the soil surface, in the -100 15 cm (m)
-120
form of daily data from field measurements, have been
applied, including maximum and minimum air temper- PWP [kPa] 0
-20
ature, maximum and minimum value of air humidity, -40
mean values of wind speed and net radiation and rain- -60 95 cm (c)
-80
fall amount. It should be mentioned here that data -100
90 (m)
for net radiation was estimated for most of the time
steps because of a lack of field data. The soil-bedrock 0
PWP [kPa]
-20
interface is considered as an impermeable hydraulic -40
boundary condition. At the right and the left bound- -60 122 cm (c)
-80 120 (m)
ary of the model, the water is free to flow in and out. -100
A heat flux has been applied between soil layers and 1 51 101 151 201 251 301 351
bedrock to represent the thermal boundary conditions. day of the year 2005
944
0 4
PWP [kPa]
-20
-40
factor of safety
-60 3
-80 15 cm (c)
-100 15 cm (m) 2
-120
0 1
PWP [kPa]
-20
-40 0
-60 95 cm (c) 1 51 101 151 201 251 301 351
-80 90 cm (m) day of the year 2005
-100
4.4 Validation of the model Figure 10. Slip circle corresponding to the smallest factor
of safety during the year 2005.
The validation of the hydraulic model has been per-
formed in comparison to the field data of the year
2006 and the results confirm the good quality of the
chosen model (Fig. 8).
5 STABILITY ANALYSIS
For every first day of the month for the year 2005, the
calculated pore water pressures have been introduced
into a stability analysis with Slope/W and the most
probable slip circles with the corresponding factors of
safety have been determined.
Figure 8 shows the development of the factor of
safety for the year 2005.
Figure 9 shows the slip circle corresponding to the Figure 11. Slip circle corresponding to the highest factor
smallest factor of safety calculated for the 1st February of safety during the year 2005.
2005.
It can be seen in Figure 8 that the stability of the
slope was guaranteed all over the year 2005. If the 6 CONCLUSIONS
seasonal development of the factor of safety (Fig. 9)
is compared to the seasonal development of suctions This study has made a contribution to extending the
(Fig. 6), the correlation shows up very clearly. The understanding about the behaviour of unsaturated soils
stability is highest when also suctions are highest. It in slopes. The computer aided modelling of water
could also be observed that the highest factors of safety balance and stability based on results from field and
correspond to the smallest slip circles with the highest laboratory experiments can be judged as an appropri-
ratio of depth over length (see Figure 10 in comparison ate engineering method in a correct manner, because
to Figure 11). it was possible to represent the slope behaviour, and
945
especially the suction development, due to climate Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R. & Widger, R.A.
influences. 1978. The shear strength of unsaturated soils. Canadian
The saturation of the soil and the corresponding Geotechnical Journal, 15(3): 313–321.
suctions showed a significant influence on the stabil- Friedel, S., Thielen, A. & Springman, S.M. 2006. Investiga-
ity of the test slope and, as a consequence, also on tion of a slope endangered by rainfall-induced landslides
using 3D resistivity tomography and geotechnical testing.
the stability of other slopes with similar soil struc- Journal of Applied Geophysics, 60(2): 100–114.
ture. Even though the observed slope was stable all Gasmo, J.M., Rahardjo, H. & Leong, E.C. 2000. Infiltration
over the calculated period, the stability analyses have effects on stability of a residual soil slope. Computers and
shown that in times of high saturation, the factor of Geotechnics, 26: 145–165.
safety becomes significantly smaller. Smallest factors Kawamoto, K., Kawamura, T., Kobayashi, K. & Oda, M.
of safety show up between January and June, which is 2004. Soil Water Dynamics in a Forested Soil at a Land-
interesting since the heavy rainfall event, which caused slide Site under Natural Precipitation. Report. Faculty of
many failures in the vicinity of the test slope occurred Engineering, Saitama University.
in May. Many natural slopes have a greater inclination Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C., Deutscher, M.S., Gasmo,
J.M. & Tang, S.K. 2000. Rainfall-induced slope failures.
than this slope and, during their hydrological history, NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Centre of Nanyang
they were perhaps never fully saturated. Because of the Technological University, Singapore.
climate change and the accumulation of extreme rain- Thielen, A., Friedel, S., Plötze, M. & Springman, S.M. 2005.
fall events, it is possible that these slopes may reach Combined approach for site investigation in terms of the
their critical saturation degree and will fail. analysis of rainfall induced landslides. Proceedings of
the 16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, Osaka, Japan.
Thielen, A. & Springman, S.M. 2005. First results of a moni-
REFERENCES toring experiment for the analysis of rainfall induced land-
slides. Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Cazzuffi, D. & Crippa, E. (2005). Shear strength behaviour Advanced Experimental Unsaturated Soil Mechanics—
of cohesive soils reinforced with vegetation. Proceedings EXPERUS 2005, Trento, Italy.
of the 16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics Thielen, A. & Springman, S.M. 2006. Monitoring field
and Geotechnical Engineering, Osaka, Japan. Millpress, experiment in an unsaturated sandy soil slope in Switzer-
Rotterdam. pp. 2493–2498. land. Proceedings of the The Fourth International
Fischer, C., López, J. & Springman, S.M. 2003. Remediation Conference on Unsaturated Soils—UNSAT06, Phoenix,
of an eroded steep slope in weathered sandstone after a Arizona.
major rainstorm. Proceedings of the International Con- van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A closed-form equation for pre-
ference on Landslides, Hong Kong, 8–10. Dec. 2003: dicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils.
878–883. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44: 892–898.
946
Unsaturated Soils: Advances in Geo-Engineering – Toll et al. (eds)
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-47692-8
In situ field experiment to apply variable high water levels to a river levee
P. Teysseire
Teysseire & Candolfi Ltd, Visp, Switzerland
ABSTRACT: A section of flood protection levee along the river Rhone in the canton of Valais has been
identified as the site for a field experiment to investigate response due to extensive and repeated river floods.
This section has been isolated and within a sheet pile box and a range of instruments have been installed for
measuring degree of saturation and suction. The river side will be flooded in order to represent expected critical
floods and thereafter cyclic water loading will occur in spring 2007. It is planned that breaching will also occur.
This paper will report first results from this in situ experiment.
947
summers that may dry out the levees (Schär et al.
2004). Furthermore, the construction period will be
30 years, so the stability must be investigated in more
detail to aid optimal decision making on the sequence
of remediation.
The cost is estimated at 1 billion Swiss Francs, paid
mainly by the Federal Government through the Office
for Environmental Protection (BAFU), with additional
financial support from the cantons of Valais and Vaud.
The Institute for Geotechnical Engineering at ETH
(IGT) was involved following the 2nd Rhone correc- Figure 2. Geological section of the levee and the under-
tion as advisory geotechnical experts to the cantonal ground.
authorities. A system of classification of the levees has
been developed using history files, results of field tests • examination of the effect of the initial state of the
like SPT, CPT and logs of boreholes (Teysseire et al. levee (c.f. saturation degree) immediately prior to
1999). Most of the levees are built of sand and silt and an extreme event.
these two materials control the behaviour of the levees.
A classification system was developed by dividing the This test is expected to enhance the basic understand-
levees into 5 different risk scenarios. The studies came ing of the response to environmental perturbations, to
to the conclusion that the most dangerous scenario was aid evaluation of the state of existing levees and for the
that of hydraulic fracture mechanism caused by piping design and construction of the newly planned ones.
from an aquifer beneath a shallow fine grained layer
below the levee. This rough but robust classification
2 GEOMETRY OF LEVEE & GROUND
system allowed a first estimation of the amount of lev-
MODEL
ees needing remediation works and has proved very
useful for the first phase of the project.
The levee at the test site is 3.3 m high and has two
In a second step, the degree of risk of particular
different zones. The lower part (about 1.5 m) slopes at
existing levees had to be evaluated more precisely.
an average of 22◦ whereas the upper 1.8 m is steeper,
Critical levee cross sections in various locations along
at about 40◦ .
the Rhone were instrumented and data obtained during
Three boreholes were drilled, two through the exist-
past extreme events contributed towards the prepara-
ing levee on either side of the crown to a maximum
tion of the documents for the 3rd Rhone Correction.
depth of 15.5 m and one beyond the cell into the lower
Three levee cross sections have been instrumented
Rhone gravel and sand, down to a depth of 13.0 m.
in the neighbourhood of Visp in 1999. They pro-
Undisturbed samples were taken. Figure 2 shows the
vided an insight into the response of the levee and the
results of the field investigations. The upper part of
underlying soil layers to high river levels. The instru-
the levee is divided into two layers. The first 90 cm
mentation was concentrated in the saturated zone of the
consists of fine silty gravel with some stones, the
levee and the underlying layers. They consisted mainly
remaining 90 cm being formed by a silty sand with
of piezometers to measure the water pressure at differ-
gravel and organic components. Stones were encoun-
ent depths and the river level. No measurements were
tered in both boreholes at the border between the
made in the unsaturated zone of the levee.
upper and the lower part of the levee. The lower part
In order to improve the understanding of the behav-
itself consists mainly of uniform sand (SP), with some
ior of the levee under the influence of river level
rounded boulders.
variation and changing weather conditions, a test on an
The levee is built on a layer of upper fluvial deposits,
existing levee was planned with the following goals:
whose classification ranges between GP and SP. A
layer of upper Rhone gravel follows under the first
• improved understanding of levee response under
layer. A thin layer of organic material was encoun-
consideration of saturated and unsaturated state of
tered in the first two boreholes, on top of the lower
the embankment and underlying soil layers,
fluvial deposit layer, which is classified as SW-SM.
• impact of river level variations and weather condi-
The lower Rhone gravel and sand lies below, whose
tions,
classification varies from GW to SP.
• scrutiny of the response of the nominally unsatu-
rated zones in the levee due to repeated cycles of
saturation and desaturation, 3 INSTRUMENTED TEST CELL
• investigation of extreme scenarios such as long
lasting high water levels, both with and without An area of 35 m by 12.5 m, more or less centrally
significant (sometimes artificial) rainfall, located across a section of levee near to a former test
948
Figure 3. Air view of the (shortened) test cell (Photography:
P. Mayor).
949
force and direction and radiation has been installed on quick response of all the sensors including the TDR
the valley side of the cell. and tensiometer.
Data are collected, usually every 10 min, and stored After lowering the water level, the sensors near the
by means of a data logger. Measurements can then be surface registered a rapid decrease in water content.
downloaded as necessary to the office by phone. Deeper seated sensors reacted more slowly and the
water content was still higher at the end than at the
beginning of the test.
The TDR measurements on the river side are shown
4 PRELIMINARY TEST RESULTS in Figure 6. TDR 1 situated at a depth of 0.9 m reacts
very quickly to changes in water level and shows the
The variation of the water level during the first phase drying out of the levee after lowering the water level
of the field tests is given in Figure 5 together with in the cell. The three other TDRs are located at a depth
the response of the 2nd EnviroSmart tube, TDR 4 and of 1.5 m and show less pronounced reactions, whereas
Tensiometer 2 located on the river side of the levee. TDR 4, which is the nearest to the centre of the levee,
The depths of the sensors shown are given in Table 1. exhibits the slowest reaction and the highest water con-
All sensors are located not far from the surface in tent at the end of the test. TDR 3 located closest to the
vertical or in horizontal directions. This explains the slope shows a peak due to a rain event (16 mm in
3 hrs) after 68 days.
There was no visible sensor response to the rising
water level on the ‘air’ side of the levee. The 4 deeper
seated EnviroSmart gauges and the TDR also showed
no reaction during the entire test duration of about 80
days. The increase in water content measured from
the 2 EnviroSmart gauges near the surface was caused
by a rain storm (64 mm in 23 hours), as shown in
Figure 7.
The assessment of the slope stability of the levees
is crucial for the whole project. The suction history of
the soil must be taken into account for a reliable pre-
diction of the safety factor. This has been confirmed in
the field tests carried out in the forefield of the Gruben
glacier by IGT, concerning instabilities on moraine
slopes induced by loss of suction (Springman et al.
2003).
The instrumentation enables the evolutio