1. Refer to the texts description (on p.

196) of the pulsechase experiment used to determine the duration of certain phases in the Cell Cycle (Fig. 11.3). What is meant by a pulse-chase experiment? What procedures were followed? What were the cells labeled with? In what cell compartment was the label found? According to the data provided in class, the first labeled mitotic cells were observed about 4-5 hours after the end of the labeling period. Mitotic cells continued to appear over the next 6-8 hours. These data led researchers to conclude that S phase lasts about 6-8 hours, and G2 lasts about 4 hours. Explain their reasoning. A pulse-chase experiment is a method for examining a cellular process occurring over time by successively exposing the cells to a labeled compound (pulse) and then to the same compound in an unlabeled form (chase). In the case of the cell cycle, researchers exposed cells to radioactive thymidine. After a short while they flooded the cells with nonradioactive thymidine. Researchers believed that cells in their G2 phase is where chromosome replication is complete but mitosis hasnt begun.

2. What is MPF? Is it different in different species of eukaryotes? MPF protein kinase is relatively constant across the cell cycle. How, then, can it be a trigger for initiating MPhase? What is the relationship of cyclin to MPF? What activates MPF and when does this activation occur? What causes the MPF concentration to decline sharply during M-Phase? Mitosis-promoting factor (MPF) is a complex of cyclin and cyclin dependent kinase that phosphorylates a number of specific proteins needed to initiate mitosis in eukaryotic cells. MPF protein kinase initiates the M-Phase because of its second subunit, cyclin. Concentrations of cyclin associated with MPF build up during interphase and peak during M phase. Late in the G2 phase enzymes in the one of the phosphate groups to on the Cdk subunit to drop off. This dephosphorylation reaction changes the shape of MPF. MPF concentration declines during anaphase when an enzyme complex begins degrading MPFs cyclin subunit.

3. Checkpoints in the cell cycle are specific times at which certain requirements must be fulfilled for the cell to continue through the cycle. Where in the cell cycle are the checkpoints found? How do they differ? What is the relationship between MPF and one (or more) of the checkpoints? Cell cycle checkpoints are regulatory pathways that control the order and timing of cell cycle transitions and ensure that important tasks like and chromosome segregation and DNA replication are completed. In addition, checkpoints respond to damage by arresting the cell cycle to provide time for repair and by inducing transcription of genes that facilitate repair. The first checkpoint is located at the end of the cell cycle's G1 phase, just before entry into S phase, making the key decision of whether the cell should divide, delay division, or enter a resting stage. The second checkpoint is located at the end of G2 phase, triggering the start of the M phase. The mitotic spindle checkpoint occurs at the

point in metaphase where all the chromosomes have/should aligned at the mitotic plate and be under bipolar tension.

4. Most cells in multicellular organisms do not divide in response to the arrival of nutrients (as do unicellular organisms) because ______________ ? In multicellular organisms individual cells are generally allowed to divide only when ______________ . Explain both responses. [Hint: Review Social Control in Section 11.4.] That is because most multicellular organisms divide in response to other cells. The nutrients help the cells divide but are not a determining factor in the cell division. In most multicellular organisms cells are allowed to divide when it is in the best interest of the organism as a whole.

5. Cancer is said to involve the loss of cell-cycle control. What does this mean? What are growth factors and what role do they play in the control, or loss of control of the cell cycle? What is the relationship of cancer to the G1 checkpoint?

Cancer is when there is a defect in the regulation of the cell cycle. Cancer cells are rapidly dividing cells that no longer are controlled by the mechanisms of the cell cycle. Cancer cells can form tumors due to the unchecked growth of growth. The G1 checkpoint is the first point in the cell cycle where cells are passed through so if the cells arent in good condition and passed through, cancer may occur.

6. In mitosis how are chromosomes arranged during metaphase, and what takes place immediately after metaphase (dont just name the phase; instead, describe specifically what happens)? Does an equivalent process take place at some point during meiosis? If so, when during meiosis does this occur? What happens and when? What is different about the ploidy of the cells undergoing this process in mitosis and meiosis? After metaphase comes anaphase. During anaphase sister chromatids separate, and the now-daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. Anaphase begins when the duplicated centromeres of each pair of sister chromatids separate, and the nowdaughter chromosomes begin moving toward opposite poles of the cell due to the action of the spindle. At the end of anaphase, a complete set of chromosomes has assembled at each pole of the cell.

7. Does crossing over occur during mitosis? If so, when? If not, explain why not. Crossing-over can occur at mitosis, but it must take place when homologous chromosomal segments are accidentally paired in asexual cells such as body cells. Also mitotic crossing-over is rare, but when it does occur it is important for some organisms.

8. What is the difference between diploid and haploid? What cells in the body are diploid and which are haploid? What kind of diploid cells can become haploid cells? A diploid cell is a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. A haploid cell is a cell that contains one complete set of chromosomes. The human reproductive cells are haploid cells and can be made into diploid. 9. Is self-fertilization likely to result in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent? to each other? Explain why or why not. Self-fertilization occurs in bisexual organisms, including most flowering plants, numerous protozoans, and many invertebrates. Since there is only one parent giving all traits to the offspring the offspring mostly likely would be identical to the parent unless some type of mutation occurred. 10. At what point during meiosis are haploid daughter cells first produced? How many are there? Are the chromosomes in these daughter cells surrounded by a nuclear membrane? Are these daughter cells gametes? How many daughter cells are produce by the entire process of meiosis (i.e., beginning with a single pre-meiotic germ cell how many daughter cells will there be at the end of meiosis II)? Are these daughter cells diploid or haploid? During Telophase 1, two daughter cells are formed with each daughter containing only one chromosome of the homologous pair. During Telophase 2, cell division is complete and four haploid daughter cells are obtained.