Argument a collection of propositions where it is claimed that one of the propositions (the conclusion), follows from the other

r propositions (the premises) Inductive Argument an argument where it is claimed that within a certain probability of error, the conclusion follows from the premises Deductive Argument an argument where it is claimed that the conclusion absolutely follows from the premises Valid Argument a deductive argument is said to be valid if, whenever the premises are all true, the conclusion is also true Illustrations 1. Today is Monday. Therefore today is Monday or 5 is a prime number. Suppose P is true, P Q is true P (since 1 Q is also true) P Q 2. If 10 is divisible by 2, then 10 is an even number. 10 is divisible by 2. Hence, 10 is an even number. Suppose P Q and P are both true Q must be true. PQ P P QP Q Rules of Inference ( Basic Valid Arguments ) 1.Addition P P Q 6.Disjunctive Syllogism PQ Q P 7. Hypothetical Syllogism PQ QR P R 8.Constructive Dilemma (PQ)(RS) PR Q S 9.Destructive Dilemma (PQ)(RS) Q S P R

2.Conjunction P Q P Q 3.Simplification PQ P

4.Modus Ponens PQ P Q 5. Modus Tolens PQ Q P

Proving Invalidity To show that an argument is invalid, we make an argument of truth values to the component propositions that will make the premises true and the conclusion false. example 1: J(KL) K ( L M ) (LM)N JN 1 1 1 0 J=1 K=0 L=0 M=0 N=0 example 2: RP PQ P Q

Proving Validity: Rule of conditional Proof To prove P Q, include P among the premises and prove Q instead. 1. A ( B C ) 2. B ( C D ) A(BD) 3. A B D 4. B D 5. C D 6. B C 7. C 8. D

Rule of conditional proof Rule of conditional proof MP 2,4 MP 1,3 MP 4,6 MP 5,7

Rule of Indirect Proof To Prove Q, include Q among the premises and derive a contradiction (prove 0). 1. P Q 2. Q R 3. S R 4. S T 5. T Q P 6.P 0 7.P 8.Q 9.R 10.S 11.T 12. Q 13. Q Q 14. 0 Rule of indirect proof DN 6 MP 1,7 MP 2,8 MT 3,9 MP 4,10 MP 5,11 Conj. 8,12 Identity 13

Examples: 1. Prove the following argument: 1. ( A G ) S 2. ( A T ) S 3. A Simp. 2 4. A G Add. 3 5. S MP 1,4 2. Prove the following argument: 1. ( A B ) ( A ( D E )) 2. ( A B ) C DE 3. A B Simp. 2 4. A ( D E ) MP 1,3 5. A Simp. 3 6. D E MP 4, 5 7. D Simp. 6 8. D E Add. 7 3. If we are a rich nation then we can help the poor. If we can help the poor then surely we should. On the other hand, if the poor can help themselves then we shouldnt help them. But if the poor cant help themselves then there are not sufficient jobs. If there are not sufficient jobs then we cant help the poor. But either the poor can help themselves or they cannot. Hence, either way, it seems that we are not a rich nation! Let P = We are a rich nation. Q = We can help the poor. R = We should help the poor. S = The poor can help themselves. T = There are sufficient jobs. Proof: 1. P Q 2. Q R 3. S R 4. S T 5. T Q 6. S S P 7. S Q HS (4,5) 8. Q S Contrapositive (7) 9. Q R HS ( 8,3) 10. R Q Contrapositive (2) 11. Q Q HS (9,10) 12. Q Q Material Implication (11) 13. Q Idempotence (12) 14. P MT (1,13)

4. If the test subject asks for food then he is hungry and if he is deprived of food for twenty-four hours, he is hungry. Analysis of the test subjects blood will indicate an absence of significant amount of glucose only if he is deprived of food or asks for food. Hence, if the analysis of the subjects blood shows an absence of significant amount of glucose, he is hungry. Let P = The test subject asks for food. Q = The test subject is hungry. R = The test subject is deprived of food. S = Analysis of the test subjects blood shows an absence of glucose. Proof: 1. ( P Q ) ( R Q ) 2. S ( R P ) SQ 3. S Conditional Proof Q 4. R P MP (2,3) 5. P R Comm (4) 6. Q Q CD (1,5) 7. Q Idempotence 5. If universities charge no tuition, everyone will enter. If universities charge tuition, there is no equality of opportunity unless deserving students get scholarships. But universities must either not charge or charge tuition. Moreover, it is false that everyone will enter universities. Accordingly, if there is equality of opportunity, then deserving students get scholarship. Let P = universities charge tuition, Q = everyone will enter, R = there is equality in opportunity, S = deserving students get scholarships Proof: 1. P Q 2. P (R S) 3. P P 4. Q R S 5. P 6. R S 7. R S 6. If the world is chaos, then it cannot be reformed unless a sage appears. But no sage can appear if the world is chaos. The world surely is chaos. Hence, it cannot be reformed. 7. If fish can fly or ants can swim, then Samson is handsome. If Samson is handsome, then he will pass the course. But Samson is not handsome. Therefore, ants cannot swim. 8. If there was a ball game, then traveling was difficult. If they arrived on time, then traveling was not difficult. They arrived on time. Therefore, there was no ball game.