Course Materials & Evaluation Image Processing with Biomedical Applications

ELEG-475/675 Prof. Barner Books

Digital Image Processing, Gonzalez & Woods Introduction to the Mathematics of Medical Imaging, Epstein

Evaluation
Tests: midterm and final Homework and small projects Final independent research project

Independent reading Ch. 1, Introduction

Image Processing Introduction Prof. Barner, ECE Department, University of Delaware 2

Structure of the Human Eye Imaging Fundamentals

Enclosing membranes:
Outer cornea, sclera Choroid Retina

Iris opening (2-8 mm) Retina light receptors

Cones in fovea

Image Processing with Biomedical Applications ELEG-475/675 Prof. Barner

6-7 million color sensitive Photopic (bright-light) vision

Rods
75-150 million Not color sensitive Scotopic (low-light) vision
Image Processing Imaging Fundamentals Prof. Barner, ECE Department, University of Delaware

Distribution of Rods and Cones

Focal Length

Fovea
Size: approximately 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm Cone density: approximately 150,000 elements per mm2

Focal length
distance between lens center and retina Approximately 14-17 mm

By geometry, the image in the above example is 2.55 mm high on the retina
Falls primarily in the fovea
Image Processing Imaging Fundamentals Prof. Barner, ECE Department, University of Delaware

Image Processing Imaging Fundamentals

Prof. Barner, ECE Department, University of Delaware

Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination

Light sensitivity range: 1010 Subjective (perceived) brightness logarithmic Entire range cannot be perceived simultaneously
Brightness adaptation

Weber Ratio
Ability to discriminate between changes in light intensity
Flat field I Short duration increment I Record 50% discrimination point

Photopic (cone) range is greater than scotopic (rod) range

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Brightness discrimination is poor at low levels of illumination Rods have better discrimination
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Brightness Perception
Brightness perception is not strictly a function of intensity The visual system introduces under shoot and over shoot at boundaries
March bands

Simultaneous Contrast

The perceived brightness depends on the background

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Image Processing Imaging Fundamentals

Human Perception Influences

Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Newton discovered (1666) that white light is comprised of a continuous spectrum of colors
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Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wavelength, Frequency, and Energy

Wavelength () and frequency () relation:
where c is the speed of light (2.998x108 m/s)

= c /
E = hv

Energy (electron-volts) is given by

where h Plancks constant

Electromagnetic waves can be visualized as:

Propagating sinusoidal waves A stream of massless particles (photons) moving at the speed of light
Higher frequency photons possess more energy
Gamma rays are dangerous while radio waves are not
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Radiance and Luminance

Monochromatic (achromatic) light is void of color
Intensity (gray level) is the defining attribute

Image Acquisition

Radiance is the total energy that flows from a light source Luminance is the level of energy and observer perceives from a light source Fundamental limit:
To see an object the electromagnetic wavelength must be no bigger than the object To image molecules far ultraviolet or soft x-ray waves must be used
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Various Acquisition Methodologies

Digital Image Acquisition

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Simple Image Formation Model

An image is proportional to the radiated energy

Sampling and Quantization

f ( x, y ) = i ( x, y ) r ( x, y )

Illumination bound: 0 < i ( x, y ) < Reflectivity bound: 0 < r ( x , y ) < 1

Transmission cases (x-ray): transmissivity rather than reflectivity

Frequency dependent functions

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Sampled and Quantized Image

Digital Image Representation

Pixels of a MxN image are represented in matrix form
f (0,0) f ( x, y ) = f ( M 1,0) f (0, N 1) f ( M 1, N 1)

or more compactly as
a0,0 a 1,0 A= aM 1,0
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a0,1 a1,1 aM 1,1

a0, N 1 a 1, N 1 aM 1, N 1
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Grayscale Image Storage Requirements

The number of quantization levels are: Lk For a NxN image the number of storage bits is B=N2k

Spatial Resolution (Fixed Pixel Size)

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Spatial Resolution (Fixed Image Size)

Grade Level Resolution

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Resolution and Image Detail

Isopreference Curves
Subjective quality for detailed images depends primarily on spatial resolution Low detail images are sensitive to the number of gray levels

Resolution requirements are detail-level dependent Isopreference curves give (N,k) pairs that produce equal subjective quality
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Aliasing and Moire Patterns

Shannon Sampling Theorem: signals must be sampled at a rate at least twice the highest frequency to avoid aliasing Paradox
Only infinite time duration signals may be band-limited Finite time duration signals have infinite bandwidth No practical signals are band-limited

Moire Pattern Effect

Each grate is periodic Their superposition breaks the periodicity
Aliasing occurs

The problem is common in scanning of printed material

Periodicities do not line up causing aliasing

Special case: periodic signals can be preserved by sampling over a finite interval
The sampling must capture an integer number of periods
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Image Zooming and Shrinking

Both operations involve resampling
Zooming is oversampling Shrinking is undersampling

Bilinear Interpolation
Unknown pixels are formed as a (distance) weighted sum of the four closest known pixels

Nearest neighbor interpolation

Overlay two sampling grids (known and unknown) Populate unknown grid with the closest sample from unknown grid Special case: pixel replication
Integer increases in sampling rate Repeat rows, columns, etc.

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Zooming Example

Pixel Neighborhoods
Let the pixel p have coordinates (x,y) N4(p) is the 4-neighborhood of p consisting of horizontal and vertical neighbor pixels at locations ( x + 1, y ),( x 1, y ),( x, y + 1),( x, y 1) ND(p) is the diagonal neighborhood of p: ( x + 1, y + 1),( x + 1, y 1),( x 1, y + 1),( x 1, y 1) The 8-neighborhood of p is N8 ( p ) = N D ( p) N 4 ( p) Consider border affects

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Adjacency
A set of gray levels, V, is used to define adjacency
Examples:
Binary, V={1} Grayscale, V={128, 129, , 255}

Adjacency Example

Let pc be the coordinates of a pixel p p and q are 4-adjacent if p,qV and qcN4(p) p and q are 8-adjacent if p,qV and qcN8(p) p and q are (mixed) m-adjacent if p,qV and
qcN4(p) or qcND(p) and N4(p)N4(q) has no pixel values from V
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The example above is binary, with V={1} A path from p to q is a sequence of coordinates where p0=p, pN=q and pi and pi-1 are adjacent The length of the path is N We can do find 4-, 8-, or m-paths depending on adjacency
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0 N pC , p1 , , pC C

Adjacency Example II
Consider the 4-, 8-, and m-paths of this figure
Binary case, V={1}

Paths, Regions, and Boundaries

A path is closed if p0=pN Let S be a subset of pixels in an image
p and q are connected in S if there exists a path between them consisting entirely of pixels in S For any p in S, the set of pixels connected to p in S is the connected component of S S is a connected set if it has only one connected component
Connected subsets are referred to as regions

Under what connectivity are the 45 and -45 lines distinct?

The boundary of a region R is the set of pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors outside R
Boundaries form closed paths (different concept than edge)
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Distance Measures
Let p, q, and z be pixels. D is a distance functions (metric) if
D(p,q)0 (D(p,q)=0 iff p=q), D(p,q)= D(q,p), and D(p,z)D(p,q)+D(q,z)

Distance examples
D4 example:
2 2 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 2 2

Dm distance is defined as the length of the shortest m-path

Euclidean distance: De(p,q)=[(pc1-qc1)2+(pc2-qc2)2] City-block distance: D4(p,q)=|pc1-qc1|+|pc2-qc2| Chessboard distance: D8(p,q)=max(|pc1-qc1|,|pc2-qc2|)

D8 example:
2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2

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