ImpactAssessmentofSmallScalePumpIrrigationinthe SomaliRegionofEthiopia

PLIPolicyProject September2010

Acknowledgements
Theassessmentteamisgratefultoallwhoparticipatedintheimpactassessmentandmade avaluableintellectualcontributiontotheassessmentprocess.Thesearetheparticipantsof theABGsfromGode,KelafoandMustahildistricts;CHFexpertsnamelyMr.AbubokerHaji Ali,Mr.AbdulahiMohamed,Mr.MohamedAhmed,Mr.IssieAli,Mr.HeysFarahandMr. SamuelTesfayethe;irrigationexpertsconsultedinGodetownnamelyMr.TeyibSherifof FAO,andMr.DerejeRorisaandSalehuWoldeyesworkingforthegovernmentofEthiopiaon theSouthGodeirrigationdevelopmentproject;privatepumpownersMr.YussufIssieand IsmailMahadinKelafo;eldersandexsettlersfromtheWolloandGojamarea;W/roMeselu Abebe,ownerofJignochHotelwhoorganisedthemeetingheldwithoniontradersfrom SomaliainKelafo;andgovernmentemployedhumanhealthexpertsconsultedinMustahil town.TheteamwouldalsoliketothankMr.SolomonTibebuofCHFAddisAbabaforhis supportinthedesign,planningandorganisationoftheassessment.

Contents
SUMMARY..........................................................................................................................I 1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................1 1.1BackgroundtosmallscaleirrigationdevelopmentinEthiopia................................1 1.2CHFLSAPProjectbackground..................................................................................3 1.3Projectimplementation.............................................................................................4 2. ASSESSMENTMETHODOLOGY...................................................................................5 2.1Fieldassessmentdesign............................................................................................5 2.1.1 Assessmentareas.........................................................................................6 2.1.2 Samplingmethodandsamplesizes..............................................................7 2.1.3 Datacollectionmethods...............................................................................8 2.1.4 Pretesting....................................................................................................9 2.1.5 Triangulation...............................................................................................10 2.1.6 Dataanalysis...............................................................................................10 2.2Economicanalyses...................................................................................................10 3. ASSESSMENTFINDINGS...........................................................................................11 3.1BackgroundinformationoncropfarmingalongtheWabeShabelleRiver.............11 3.1.1 Traditionallandmanagementandlivelihoodsystems...............................11 3.1.2 ThedevelopmentofirrigatedagricultureinsouthGode...........................13 3.1.3 Traditionalcropfarmingpractice...............................................................15 3.2TheLSAPirrigationprojectfindings.......................................................................16 3.2.1 OperationalstatusofABGs ........................................................................17 . 3.2.2 Groupmembershipandlandstatus...........................................................18 3.2.3 Productionhistories ...................................................................................19 . a. Gode ....................................................................................................20 . Top: FailedbananacropatIlan...............................................................23 b. Kelafo...................................................................................................23 c. Mustahil...............................................................................................24 3.2.4 Trendsinproduction,costs,salesandnetbenefits...................................26 a. Trendsinwealthgroups,nonABGmembersinGode........................26 b. TrendsamongLSAPparticipants........................................................27 3.2.5 TimecostsoffarmingbyABGhouseholds.................................................29 3.2.6 Zekat...........................................................................................................30 3.2.7 Benefitsandrisksofgrowingdifferentcropvarieties................................30 3.2.8 Perceptionsofthebenefitsofirrigatedfarming........................................31 3.2.9 Commonrisksandchallenges....................................................................32 a. Environmentalfactors ........................................................................32 . b. Economicfactors.................................................................................33 c. Socialfactors.......................................................................................34 3.3CostbenefitanalysisofirrigatedfarminginGode .................................................34 . 4. DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................37 4.1Theimportanceofpreprojectanalysis..................................................................37 4.1.1 Participatoryapproaches............................................................................37 4.1.2 Preprojectlessonsfromtheliterature......................................................38 4.2Projectmonitoring ..................................................................................................40 . 4.3Livelihoodsissues....................................................................................................40

4.3.1 Livelihoodimpactandimplications............................................................40 4.3.2 Economicissuesmarketsandtrade.........................................................41 4.3.3 Environmentalandhealthimpactsandimplications.................................43 4.3.4 Socialimpactandimplications...................................................................43 4.4Futureconsiderations..............................................................................................44 4.4.1 Securingaccesstoland...............................................................................44 4.4.2 Irrigationinvestmentsaredevelopmentinvestments...............................44 4.4.3 Designissues...............................................................................................44 4.4.4 Recommendations......................................................................................45 5. CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................................46 ANNEXES.........................................................................................................................48 Annex1 InputsprovidedperABG.............................................................................48 Annex2 Numberofirrigationsrequiredpercrop....................................................49 Annex3 WaterpumpmaintenancecostsincurredbyABGs....................................50 Annex4 ResultsofABGcroppreferenceranking.....................................................51

SUMMARY
GodezoneintheSomaliNationalRegionalStateofEthiopiaisaremoteareainthe eastofthecountry,characterizedbymarkedunderdevelopmentandfrequent humanitariancrises.Inaddition,variousformsofconflictinandaroundthezone, includinginneighbouringSomalia,havecreatedaverydifficultoperationalcontext forinternationalNGOs. TheLSAPprojectofCHFInternationalwasfundedbyOFDAforoneyear,inthree woredasinGodezone,andendedinDecember2008.Theprojectaimedtoimprove thehouseholdincomeandassetsoftargetedpoorhouseholdsthroughestablishing groupbasedsmallscaleirrigationschemesalongtheWabeShabelleRiverforthe productionoffoodandcashcrops.Theprojectestablished18Assetbuilding Groups(ABGs),eachcomprisingatleast50households.TheABGswereprovided withwaterpumps,fuel,seedsandtools,andtraining.Eachgroupwastobe allocated25haofland,equivalentto0.5ha/householdforagroupof50 households.Theprojectwasassessedinmid2010,18monthsaftertheproject ended. Mainfindings 1. Theprojectareashadalonghistoryofbothprivatesectorandgovernment projectbasedpumpirrigation,datingbacktothe1960sandintermsofprivate activities,influencedbyexperiencesfromsmallscaleirrigationinneighbouring Somalia.Manyyearsbeforetheproject,communitieshadevolvedlocally appropriateirrigationsystemsbasedondhulqeyb(landsharing)orbirgerac (pumprenting).Theseexistingsystemsdevelopedtosuitthenaturaland sociopoliticalenvironmentseemedtohavebeenoverlookedduringthedesign oftheproject. 2. Animpactassessmentoftheprojectwasinitiallyviewedasusefulduetothe proposedtargetbeneficiariesinGodeworedabeingdestitutewomen pastoralists,andthepotentialtoofferanalternativelivelihoodsoptiontothese womenviasmallscaleirrigation.However,theparticipantsinGodewereall preestablishedcropproducersandsomehadexperienceofpumpirrigation datingbackto2001.SimilarlyinMustahilandKelafoworedas,theproject participantsallhadpriorandoftenlongexperienceofpumpirrigation. 3. Theabovefindingsonlybecameapparentwhentheassessmentteamfirst visitedGode,andhighlightedasetofdifficultprojectattributionissues. AttributionwasfurthercomplicatedwheninMustahilandKelafo,italso becameevidentthatintendedbeneficiarieswerefarmingasindividualsnot groups,andhadmostlyrevertedtothewellestablisheddhulqeyborbirgerac systems.Projectpumpsintheseareashadsimplybeenaddedtopreexisting pumpsprovidedbyprivateownersandpreviousprojects.Themeasurementof impactandattributionwasfurtherhinderedbythelackofverifiablecrop productionorsalesdatafromtheirrigatedfarms,eitherinCHForamongtheL SAPprojectparticipants. 4. Atthetimeoftheassessmentinmid2010,CHFreportedthat15outof18of theoriginalABGswerestillfunctioning.Theassessmentsampled13ofthe i

5.

6.

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9.

remaining15ABGs,butfoundthatonlythreewerestillfunctioningasgroups (bothinGode)andoneofthesehadbeenlinkedtoanotherNGO.Asnotedin point3above,allABGsinMustahilandKelafohadrevertedtopreexisting individualfarmingarrangements.Itseemspossiblethatinmanyproject locations,localpeopleagreedtoformgroupsmainlytoaccesshighvalueand freelydistributedprojectresourcessuchaspumps,spares,fuel,toolsand seeds. Ofthe25haplannedforeachABGtocultivate,inGodeonlyaround5to10ha hadbeencultivatedbythegroups.InKelafoandMustahil,thelandallocatedto theABGswasincorporatedbythecommunityandinmostcases,allowedthem toexpandthepreexistingirrigatedarea.However,therecentfloodsinMustahil swampedsomeoftheirrigatedplotsandreducedtheareaundercultivationin otherformerABGsites. Thepumpbasedirrigationsupportedbytheprojectproducedsubstantialgains intermsofthevolumeofagriculturalproduction,andincomefromthesalesof produce,inallthreeworedas.Thesetrendscorrespondedwithincreasesin householdconsumptionofproduce,andmoreexpenditureonhealthand education.Thesefindingspointedtoanoverallbenefittothosehouseholds whichcontinuedtofarm,relativetothepreprojectperiod.However,fromthe perspectiveofaidinvestmentthesebenefitshavetobecomparedwiththe costsoftheproject,andtheincreasedcostsincurredbyhouseholds(e.g.for fuelandspareparts)forusingpumpirrigation. Notallprojectparticipantsmaintainedtheirplots,and,localinformants describedthevariousrisksofcropproductionandmarketinginGodezone,and associatedimpactsonharvests.Theseriskswerenumerousandincludedcrop diseases,cropdamagebywildanimals,flooding,windstorms,salinityproblems, humandiseases,fuelpriceincreases,storageproblems,marketinstability,and conflict. Theissuesoutlinedinpoint6abovewerecapturedinthecostbenefitanalysis fortheprojectinGodezone.WhenonlytheLSAPprojectperiodwas considered,thecostbenefitratiowas1:0.4;ifalongertimeperiodwas considered,coveringthreecropplantations,thecostbenefitratiowas1:0.7. Althoughthebenefitsincreasedovertime,asmorecropswereproducedand sold,thecostsalsoincreasedovertimeasthewaterpumpsbecameless efficient,andrequiredmorefuelandspareparts.Inaddition,itwasevidentthat waterpumpscouldbeacquiredprivatelyinGodeatapproximatelyhalfthecost ofthepumpswhichweresuppliedbyCHF. Theassessmentcoveredvariouspolicyandinstitutionalissuesrelatedtosmall scaleirrigation.Ofparticularrelevancewasthehistoryofriverineirrigationin Somalia,whereminorityethnicgroupspracticingirrigationweredisplacedfrom theirlandandsufferedextremeimpoverishment.Thisdisplacementoccurred whenlandwasappropriatedbyprivatecommercialcompaniesandlater, throughtheviolentactionsofmorepowerfulclans.InEthiopia,althoughthe RerBarreareassociatedwiththeHawiyeclan,theycouldbeconsidereda minoritygroup.Ifso,theirfoodinsecuritynotonlyrelatestotherisksofacrop basedlivelihoodsummarizedinpoint7,butalsototheriskofdisplacementand limitedsecurityoflandtenure. ii

 Mainrecommendations 1. Supporttosmallscaleirrigationisadevelopmentactivity,requiringgoodinitial analysisofthepreexistingsystems,andrelatedconstraintsandopportunities. Constraintsarenotonlytechnical,butrelatetocomplexsocial,environmental, policyandinstitutionalissues.Aoneyearprojecttimeframeisnotsufficient eithertoensurethesuccessofnewirrigationschemesortoassesstheresults. 2. CHFandOFDAshouldnotdirectlysupportsmallscale(i.e.onepistonpump) groupbasedirrigationschemestargetedatpoorhouseholdsbutinstead, considerhowbesttoencouragethestrengtheningandappropriateexpansion ofpreexisting,privatelyrunschemes.Poorhouseholdsmightthenaccessthe privateservicethroughavouchersystem.Aswaterpumpscanbepurchased locallyinGodeathalfthecostofthepumpsprovidedbyCHF,thedeliveryof morefreepumpsthroughaidprojectsisdifficulttojustify. 3. Technicalapproachestobetestedincludespreadingthecostsoffuture schemesbyensuringmultipleproductivewateruses,and,promotingotherlow inputwatertechnologiessuchasrainwaterharvesting,treadlepumps,etc.that canpotentiallybeusednotonlyforirrigation,butalsoforrainfedfarming. 4. Supportandstimulatetheprivateandgovernmentalsectorsasappropriatefor thesupplyofandaccesstotheotherinputsnecessaryforthesuccessof irrigatedandrainfedfarming,suchasagriculturalandhealthextension support,supplychainsforfarminputsandcredit,improvedpostharvest storage,andmarketingoptions. 5. Optionsin2to4aboverequiregoodlocalanalysiswithstakeholders.In addition,futureprojectsneedtoconsiderrisksandhowtominimizethem.For somerisks,suchasthecontrolofpestsorwildanimals,furthercostswillbe incurredwhichinturn,furtherquestiontheeconomicviabilityofthesystems. 6. Intheabsenceofsecuredlandtenure,cropfarmingremainsespeciallyriskyfor minoritygroups.ThisraisesthequestionofhowNGOsshouldengageregional governmentonlandtenureissuese.g.throughlinkageswiththeEthiopiaLand AdministrationProject.

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1. INTRODUCTION Underthe12monthemergencyLivelihoodSupportforSomaliAgroPastoralists program(LSAP),fundedbytheOfficeforForeignDisasterAssistance(OFDA),CHF International(CHF)establishedsmallscaleirrigationinterventionsalongtheShabelle river,inthreeworedasofGodezone,inSomaliNationalRegionalState.Theproject setup18AssetBuildingGroups(ABGs),withtheaimofbuildinghouseholdassets throughdiversifyingfarmproductionandincreasingincomefromirrigatedcrop farming.Theprojecthelpedtoorganisetheallocationoflandtothegroupsand providedIndianmadeAnilwaterpumps,fuel,farmtoolsandseedsandtrainingon irrigatedfarming.TheprojectendedinDecember2008. ThisreportdescribesanimpactassessmentoftheABGirrigatedfarmingactivities, conductedinJulyandAugust2010.Theassessmentfocusedonhouseholdincome andassetcreation,andtheperformanceandthesustainabilityofthegroupssince theprojectended,withaviewtolearninglessonstoinformthescalingupofsimilar interventionsinfuture.Theassessmentalsoconsideredthesocialand environmentalimpactsoftheintervention.Ofthe15ABGsreportedtobestill functioningatthetimeoftheassessment,13ABGswerevisited. Thereportbeginswithashortbackgroundsectiononthedevelopmentofsmall scaleirrigationgenerallyinEthiopia(section1.1),andthendescribestheCHFproject intervention(section1.2)andtheassessmentmethodology(section2).Thereport thengivesabriefhistoryofcropfarmingandthedevelopmentofirrigated agricultureintheprojectarea,placingtheCHFinterventioninanhistoricaland geographicalcontext,anddescribestheresultsoftheimpactassessment,includinga costbenefitanalysis(section3).Thereportendswithadiscussionandsetof recommendations(section4). 1.1 BackgroundtosmallscaleirrigationdevelopmentinEthiopia Largescaleirrigationprogramsandrelatedtechnologiesarerelativelywellknownin Ethiopia,andthegovernmentactivelypromotedtheseschemesduringthe1970s and1980s.However,duringthe1990smanyirrigatedstatefarmswereabandoned andinvestmentinlargescaleandmediumscaleschemesstagnated.Atthesame time,therewasacorrespondingexpansionofsmallscalecommunalirrigation schemes.Untilrecentlytherehasbeenrelativelylimitedgovernmentinvestmentin improvingthesetraditionalsmallscaleirrigationschemesorinexpandingmodern schemeseitherthroughprovidingincentivestoencourageprivatesector involvement,orthroughgovernmentresearchandextensionprograms.The governmentsWaterSectorDevelopmentStrategy(2002)andPlanforAccelerated andSustainedDevelopmenttoEndPoverty(PASDEP),2005/62009/10emphasises theimportanceofirrigationdevelopmentinstimulatingruraleconomicgrowthand development,andensuringlongtermfoodsecurity,andseesthefurther

developmentofsmallscaleirrigationandwaterharvesting,alongwithagricultural research,asplayingasignificantrole.1 EstimatesofthepotentialirrigableareainEthiopiavary.FortheSomaliRegion,an IWMI(2005)reportusesestimatesfroma2004studythatsuggestatotalirrigable potentialof500,000ha,ofwhichonlyaround12,000ha(2.4%)wasunderirrigation ofanykind.Ofthis,thereportestimatesonly1,800ha(15%)tobeundermodern smallscaleirrigationschemes,whilstaround8,200hawasundertraditionalsmall scaleirrigation2.Anotherreportsuggeststhataround265,000haoflandinthe WabiShabellebasinisverysuitableforirrigation,whilstaround90,000hais moderatelysuitable3.Traditionalsmallscaleirrigationschemescanincludespate irrigation,controlledoruncontrolledflooding,liftirrigationusingbucketsorgravity fedsurfaceirrigationcanals.Theseschemesareusuallyorganisedbygroupsof interestedhouseholds,sometimeswithgovernmenttechnicalandmaterialsupport. Theuserstypicallyfarmsmallplotsof0.25to0.5haandproducebothfoodandcash crops4.Incontrast,modernsmallscaleschemesmayinvolvetheconstructionof dams,riverdiversions,theuseofwaterpumps,orsprinklerordripirrigation systems. Untilrelativelyrecently,themodernschemesdependedonthesupportof governmentorNGOs,whichtypically,handedovertowateruserormanagement committeesoncetheschemewascompleted,sometimeswithanexpectationof ongoingtechnicalormaterialsupportfromthegovernmentorNGO.Theseschemes wereusuallydesignedwithanemphasisoncashcrops.Whatthetraditionaland modernschemeshaveincommon,andwhatdistinguishesthemassmallscaleis thattheyaregenerallyownedandmanagedbythefarmersthemselves,ontheir ownland5. Intermsofgovernmentresponsibilityforsmallscaleirrigation,inthepastthe mandatewassharedbetweentheMinistryofAgricultureandRuralDevelopment (MOARD)andtheMinistryofWaterResources(MoWR).In2004,theresponsibility forirrigationatthefederallevelwashandedoverfromtheMoWRtotheMoARD. Thepotentialbenefitsofsmallscaleirrigatedagriculturearewellknownirrigation canmitigateagainstrainfallvariabilityandcropfailure,allowingfarmerstointensify theirproductionbyproducingtwoorthreeharvestsannually(ratherthanone),and increasetheirincomesthroughtheproductionofhighvaluecashcrops.The potentialimpactonlivelihoodsincludeshigherconsumptionandbetternutrition
TheWaterSectorDevelopmentProgramplannedtodevelopanadditional127,138haofsmallscale irrigationduringtheperiod20022016. 2 Awulachew,S.B.etal.(2005),Experiencesandopportunitiesforpromotingsmallscale/micro irrigationandrainwaterharvestingforfoodsecurityinEthiopia.InternationalWaterManagement Institute(IWMI),WorkingPaper98. 3 AyeleGebreMariam(2005).TheCriticalIssueofLandOwnership.WP1GovernanceandConflict Transformation,WorkingPaperNo.2,Bern:NCCRNorthSouth. 4 Awulachew,S.B.etal.(2005),ibid. 5 Carter,R.andDanert,K.(2006).FARMAfricaEthiopia:PlanningforSmallScaleIrrigation Interventions.FARMAfricaWorkingPaperNo.4.
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(throughcropdiversification),purchaseofassetssuchaslivestock,andinvestmentin childrenseducation.However,therearealsosignificantchallengesandpotentially negativeimpactsincludingthehighcostofinputs(pumps,fuel,agriculturalinputs), pestsanddiseasesaffectinghighvaluehorticulturalcrops,storageproblemsandthe perishabilityofsomecrops,plustransportationandmarketaccessproblems,and increasedlabourdemands. TheliteratureonthedevelopmentofsmallscaleirrigationinEthiopiahighlightsa numberoftechnical,social,managementandinstitutionalconditionsthatneedto beinplaceforthesuccessful,sustainabledevelopmentofsmallscaleirrigation schemes.Thisisdiscussedfurtherinthelightoftheassessmentfindings,attheend ofthisreport(section4). 1.2 CHFLSAPProjectbackground InSeptember2007,CHFwasawardedaCooperativeAgreementfromOFDAto implementLSAPovera12monthperiod.Theprojectwasanemergencyresponse tothedroughtof2006inagropastoralandpastoralareasofSomaliRegion,andthe goalwasto,Toimprovethecapacityofagropastoralistsfromselectedworedasin GodeZonetocopewithshocksandachievesustainableandimprovinglivelihoods. WithinLSAP,theAgricultureandFoodSecuritysubcomponentoftheproject aimedtoassistvulnerableagropastoralcommunitiesinGode,KelafoandMustahil woredasinGodezonetoincreaseanddiversifytheiragriculturalproduction,which willenhanceincomegenerationandenabletheaccumulationofessentialhousehold assets.Thiswastobedonethroughhelpingcommunitiestoestablishsmallscale, pumpbasedirrigationschemesalongtheWabeShabelleriverfortheproductionof maizeforhomeconsumption,aswellascashcropsfruit,vegetablesandoilcrops forsale.AkeyelementoftheinterventionwastheformationoftheABGswhichona cooperativebasis,weretosharetheprojectinputs,managetheschemeandshare thebenefits.Thesegroupsweretobeginagroupsavingsandloansprogramwiththe aimofcoveringthefuturecostsofpumpmaintenanceandrepair,aswellto generatecapitalforothergroupand/orindividualbasedincomegenerating activities.Inthisway,CHFhopedtorespondtotheemergencyandatthesametime supportvulnerablehouseholdstoincreasetheirincomeandassetsandthusmitigate theeffectsoffuturedroughts. TheprojectgainedathreemonthcostextensionfromSeptember2008,and officiallyendedinDecember2008.Aftertheproject,CHFhadminimalcontactwith theABGs.InSeptember2009andbeforeanexternalevaluationoftheLSAP,CHF wereawardedUSAIDfundingforanothersmallscaleirrigationprojectwhichwould enablethemtoscaleuptheLSAPapproachwithnewABGsinallfiveworedasof Godezone.Animpactassessmentwasrequestedasameansoflearninglessons fromLSAPthatcouldinformthenewprojectandothergovernmentandINGO smallscaleirrigationprojectsinthezone.Italsoprovidedagoodopportunitytolook atsustainabilityissuesalmostoneandahalfyearsaftertheinitialLSAPproject.

1.3 Projectimplementation FollowingapprovalofLSAPinlate2007/early2008,CHFandtheWaterand AgricultureBureausofGodezoneselectedsixpotentialprojectsiteseachinGode, KelafoandMustahilworedasfortheestablishmentof18ABGs(sixperworeda), whichwouldestablishanirrigationschemeintheircommunities.Atthesametime, CHFnegotiatedwithlocalclanleaderstoallocate25hectares(ha)oflandcloseto theriverandsuitableforirrigation,foreachABG.Eachcommunitythenselected50 vulnerablehouseholdstobeamemberoftheABG,witheachhouseholdusingaplot ofaround0.5ha.ThecriteriafortheselectionoftheABGmembersincluded: thelevelofpovertyofthecommunityi.e.theABGmembersdidnotown individualprivateirrigationplotsbeforeandcouldnotaffordtobuyapump bythemselves; theABGmembersliveclosetotheareaallocatedforirrigationandbelongto thesamesubclan; theABGmembersarewillingtoparticipateintheprojectandwillingand abletocontributetothepurchaseofthewaterpumps; themajorityoftheparticipantsshouldbefemale(specifictoGodeworeda). CHFprovidedeachABGwithtwoAnilIndianwaterpumpsofonepistoncapacity, fuelforthefirstproductionseason,farmtoolsand10quintalsofseedsincluding maize,sesame,onionandtomato,andbananaplants.Detailsoftheinputsprovided areshowninAnnex1.Theprojectalsoconductedanumberoftrainingse.g.in irrigatedagriculture,innurseryestablishment,savingsandcreditetc. EachgroupwasaskedtomakeaninitialcontributionofETB50permember(totalof ETB2,500perABG)tosetupanoperationsandmaintenance(O&M)fund,in additiontoamonthlysavingscontributionofaroundETB3permember,whichwas tocoverthesalaryofthepumpoperator.However,becauseoftheshortproject timeframeandCHFinternalstaffingconstraints,theplannedsavingsandcredit programmedidnotmaterialiseandtheABGsmadetheirownarrangementsfor coveringthesecosts6.

InformationprovidedbyseniorCHFmanagementstaff.

2.

ASSESSMENTMETHODOLOGY

Theassessmentwasbasedontwomainactivities.First,afieldassessmentwas designedwithCHFtoexaminetheperformanceoftheirrigationschemesand relatedissues.Second,economicanalyseswereconductedwhichinpart,drewon datacollectedinthefield. 2.1 Fieldassessmentdesign TheinitialdesignofthestudywasbasedoninformationprovidedbyCHFandan understandingthattheABGsdifferedbothintheirlocationsandintheparticipants mainsourcesoflivelihoodpriortotheproject.Therefore,twomainclustersofABGs wereidentifiedininitialmeetingswithCHF: i. GodeABGs,madeupofimpoverishedexpastoralists,largelywomen. ii. KelafoandMustahilABGs,formedpredominantlybymembersoftheJirir tribe7whotraditionally,dependedoncropfarmingfortheirlivelihoods. However,duringtheearlystageofthefieldworktheauthorsnotedthattheGode groupswerepredominantlyagropastoralists,whowerepermanentlysettledand whohadconductedrainfedcropfarmingintheareaformanyyears.Asaresult,the ABGswerereclassifiedbasedonthethreeseparatelocations,asGode,Kelafoand MustahilABGs. BasedondiscussionswithCHFseniormanagementandprogramstaff,thestudywas designedaroundsixkeyquestionsrelatingtothepotentiallivelihoodsimpactofthe irrigationinterventionandtheimplicationsforscalingup.Indicatorsweredeveloped aroundeachofthesequestions,leadingtothedevelopmentofasetofparticipatory toolstomeasuretheindicators. Keyquestion Indicators
Whatwasthehouseholdlevellivelihoods impactoftheintervention? Howsustainableistheintervention,both intermsofthesustainabilityoftheABGs andtheirrigationscheme? Howdidtheformalorinformalpolicy andinstitutionalenvironmentassistor constraintheproject,forexamplein relationtoclan,landaccessortrade issues? Whatarethemainopportunitiesand constraintsaroundmarketingofABG produce,fortheexistinggroupsandfor newgroups? Whataretheimplicationsforscalingup inrelationtoorganisationaltechnical capacities? Householdincomefromirrigatedfarming;uses ofincomeobtained FunctioningandperformanceoftheABGgroups postproject,withoutanyexternalsupport Costofinputsdeployed(byproject)andvalueof producesalesfromirrigatedfarming ABGutilisationofprojectinputsprovided Landuse/accessarrangements,changesinland use ABGaccesstomarkets(internalandcross bordertrade); Documentedgoodpracticeandkeylessonsfor improvedprogramdeliveryandpolicymaking.

Intheliterature,thisgroupisknownastheRerBarre,farmersofBantudescentwhoareassociated withtheHawiyeclaninGodezone.
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Theassessmentcollecteddatafromtwomainareasviz.projectareasandnon projectareas. Projectareasprimarydatawascollectedasfollows: individualhouseholdinterviewswithABGparticipantstocaptureperceptionsof impactatthehouseholdlevel; focusgroupdiscussionswithABGmemberstocaptureinformationrelatedto groupperformance,andthecostsandbenefitsoftheirrigationscheme,aswell astotriangulatethedatafromtheindividualinterviews; keyinformantinterviewswith, o eldersandreligiousleadersfromthesampledcommunitiestoidentify changesincommunitywealthstatus; o irrigationexpertsinvolvedinthedesignandimplementationofirrigation programsinGodezone. Theseinterviewswerealsousedtotriangulatedatafromtheindividualand focusgroupdiscussions. Nonprojectareassecondarydatawascollectedfromnonprojectsitesandfrom discussionswithkeyinformantsinGodetown. 2.1.1 Assessmentareas TheCHFinterventionareacomprisedriverineareasofGode,KelafoandMustahil woredasinGodezone,SomaliRegion(Figure1). Figure1.MapofSomaliRegion,Ethiopia,showingCHFprojectworedas

Source:UNOCHAEthiopia

2.1.2 Samplingmethodandsamplesizes LSAPreportsandCHFstaffconfirmedthattheperformanceoftheABGsdifferedby locationandthereforethegeographicalsamplingwasstratifiedtocoverallthree woredasGode,KelafoandMustahil.CHFinformedthePIAteamthatthreeofthe GodeABGswerenolongerfunctioning,thatoneoftheMustahilABGswas inaccessibleduetoflooding,andthatoneoftheABGsinKelafowasnotsecure enoughtovisit8.Therefore,13operationalABGs(with650registeredmembers) wereincludedintheassessment. InGode,allthreeofthereportedfunctioningABGswereselectedand householdsforindividualinterviewwererandomlysampledfromtheseAGBs, usingalistprovidedbyCHF. InKelafoandMustahil,arandomstratifiedsamplingapproachwasusedto identifyboththesamplesitesforthefocusgroupdiscussionsandthehouseholds forindividualinterviewwithineachassessmentworeda.Thesamplingframewas derivedfromthelistsofABGsitesandhouseholdparticipantsoftheABGs establishedbyCHFineachassessmentdistrict. Individualhouseholdinterviewswereheldwithatotalof104households(16%of the650registeredmembers).Focusgroupdiscussions(FGDs)wereheldin8ofthe operationalandaccessibleABGsatthetimeoftheassessment.Boththehousehold interviewsandtheFGDswereprearrangedbytheCHFfieldstaffandweremostly heldat,orcloseto,theABGirrigationsites9. Itshouldbenotedthatwhenfirstvisitingthefield,itbecameevidentthattheABGs inKelafoandMustahilwerenolongerfunctioningasgroups. Table1 DistributionofsampledABGs
Woreda NumberofABGs Numberof household interviews Female Male Numberof focusgroups

Established 2008 Gode Kelafo Mustahil Total

6 6 6 18

Reportedas functional 2010 34 6 6 15

Assessed 2010 3 5 5 13

35 21 15 71

0 15 18 33

3 3 2 8

GodeAlloftheGodeABGs,includingthoseclassifiedasnonoperationalwere visited.Bardoquorahwasvisitedforthepretestandwasfoundtobepartially functioning.TheteamvisitedDabaldagandDudadeforthecollectionofsecondary dataandfoundthatbothoftheseABGsdisbandedpriortothefirstharvest.

8 9

CHFstaffhadnotbeenabletovisitthissitesincetheprojectstartedforsecurityreasons. TheQonlaweABGwasnotaccessibleandtheinterviewswereconductedattheDanyereABGsite.

KelafoInKelafo,theLuqdhereABGwasexcludedbecauseofongoingsecurity problems. MustahilInMustahil,theIbadbadisitewasexcludedsinceitcouldnotbeaccessed becauseoffloodwaterremainingfromtheseverefloodingofMarchandApril2010. AfieldresearchervisitedalloftheothersampledsitesexceptQonlaweinMustahil, whichwasalsoinaccessiblebecauseofflooding. 2.1.3 Datacollectionmethods TheassessmentwasconductedbyTuftsUniversityfromJuly13toAugust4,2010. OnememberoftheassessmentteamspoketheSomalilanguage. Individualhouseholdinterviewswereconductedusingsemistructuredinterviews andwerestructuredaroundastandardizedsetofexercisesusingparticipatory methods,particularlybeforeandafterproportionalpiling.Thesetoolswereused tocaptureperceptionsofchangeinoverallhouseholdproductionandthe proportionoftotalproductionobtainedfromfarmingin2007i.e.beforetheproject establishedtheABGirrigatedplot,andin2010.Thesametoolwasusedtocapture perceptionsofchangeintherelativeproportionoffarmproductionthatwas consumed(byhumansorlivestock)andsold,aswellastoidentifychangesinthe usesoftheincomederivedfromproducesales,particularlytheproportionspenton farminputs. FocusgroupdiscussionswereconductedwithABGparticipantsat8ABGsites (Table1).ThefocusgroupdiscussionswereheldwithABGmembersotherthan thoseinvolvedintheindividualinterviews.Thediscussionswereprimarilyusedto capturequantitativeandqualitativedatarelatingtotheABGsperformanceand achievementssincethestartoftheLSAPproject,includingdataontheinputs receivedfromCHFandtheuseoftheseinputs,thecostsincurredandbenefits obtainedfromtheirrigationschemetodateandanychallengesfacedbythegroup. Atimelinewasdevelopedwitheachgrouptodefinetheprojectstemporal boundariesandtounderstandthehistoryofrainfedandirrigatedfarmingactivities intheirrespectiveareas. KeyinformantinterviewswereheldwitheldersattheGodeABGsites.Thesewere structuredaroundabeforeandafterproportionalpilingexercisetocaptureand explainanychangesincommunitywealthclassesbetween2007(preproject)and 2010.KeyinformantinterviewswithgovernmentandINGOirrigationexperts consultedinGodetownprovidedusefulinformationonirrigationprogram interventionsinsouthGodebygovernmentandaidagenciessincetheearly1960s. Secondarydatawasderivedfromtheliteratureandkeyinformantinterviewsand communitydiscussionsaswellasdirectobservationduringfieldvisitstothethree nonoperationalABGsitesinGodeandthroughsitevisitsand/orinformal discussionswithABGparticipantsinthefivenonFGDsitesinKelafoandMustahil. 8

Table2

Summaryofparticipatorymethods
Use/issue Tomeasure: relativechangesinoverallHHproduction relativechangesinHHproductionderivedfrom farming relativechangesinproportionoffarmproduction consumedandsold relativechangesinusesofHHincomederived fromfarmsales relativechangesintheproportionoftimespent onfarmactivities relativechangesinwealth,assessedintermsof receiptorpaymentofzakat Tocollect: qualitativeperceptionsoftheimpactoftheCHF inputs quantitativedataonthenumberandtypeof plantationsandestimatesoftheyieldandcash incomeobtainedsinceprojectstart dataonchangesinthesizeandgender compositionoftheABGandthesizeofland holdingssinceprojectstart croppreferencerankingsforirrigatedcrops qualitativeinformationonthechallenges encounteredwiththeprojectandirrigated farmingactivitiesgenerally To: measurerelativechangesincommunitywealth classesbetween2007and2010,andreasons collecttechnicalinformationandtimelines relatingtoirrigationprograminterventionsin southGode Usedwithallmethodstocrosscheckinformationand clarifyresponses Sample 104households

Method Beforeandafter proportionalpiling

Focusgroupdiscussions

8groups

Keyinformant interviews

GodeABGsite Various

Semistructured interviews

2.1.4 Pretesting FieldtestingofthedatacollectiontoolswasdoneonJuly14to15,2010.TheFGD pretesttookplaceatBardoquorah,oneofthesitesidentifiedbyCHFasnon operational.DuringthisvisittheteamidentifiedthattheGodeABGswerenotex pastoralistsbutwerefromwellestablished,settledcommunities,withahistoryof engaginginrainfedandirrigatedfarming.Thepretestofthehouseholdinterviews wasdoneattheBarsanABGsite.Followingthepretests,theresearchteamrevised thetoolsandfinalisedthedatasheets.

2.1.5 Triangulation Priortothefieldwork,oneoftheresearchteammembersreviewedtheprojectfield anddonorreportsandABGproductiondataprovidedbyCHF.Thisincludeddataon theamountandtypeofcropsharvestedandareaplantedbyABGforthefirst productionseason.Duringthefieldwork,documentationintheGode,Kelafoand Mustahilfieldofficeswasusedtomatchprojectservicedeliveryandinputswiththe outputsandimpactcapturedduringtheassessment.Unfortunately,CHFrecords wereincompleteandsincetheABGsdidnothaveanywrittenrecordsofinputs received,expenditureorcropproductiondata,thestudyteamreliedonoralreports fromtheFGDstocrosscheckthisdata.TheCHFproductiondatacouldnotbe verifiedbytheseoralreportsanddidnotmatchwithtechnicaldatarelatingtothe capacityofthepumps,theareairrigated,thenumberofirrigationsrequiredpercrop orwithcropyielddataforthearea. OtherresourcedocumentsthatwereusedfortriangulationweretheSavethe ChildrenUK/DPPCLivelihoodsProfiles(2008)forSomaliRegion,particularlythe ShabelleRiverineLivelihoodZone.Focusgroupdiscussionsandkeyinformant interviewswerealsousedtotriangulatethedatacollectedduringthehousehold interviews.Thiswasdonebycollectingmorequalitativedataonprojectimpact,and comparingtheperceptionsoftheFGDparticipantswiththemorequantitative perceptionscapturedinthehouseholdinterviews.Finally,theassessmentteamheld discussionswithCHFmanagementandfieldstaffbeforeandduringtheassessment, andduringafeedbackmeetingattheendoftheassessmentintheGodefieldoffice. 2.1.6 Dataanalysis AllthequantitativedatafromthehouseholdinterviewswasanalysedusingSPSSin PASWStatistics18andMicrosoftOfficeExcelversion2007. 2.2 Economicanalyses Thiscomponentofthestudyfocusedonacostbenefitanalysis(CBA)oftheCHF irrigationactivitiesunderLSAP.Theanalysisused: DataprovidedbyCHFonprojectcosts,includingmaterialsinputssuchas waterpumps,spares,fuel,seedsandfarmtools,andoperationalcostssuch asstafftime,travel,perdiemsandorganizationaloverheads. Datacollectedfromthefieldoncropproductionandsales,andcostsincurred byfarmersandagropastoralists. Asexplainedinlatersectionsofthereport,theCBAwasrestrictedtoGode,where relativelybetterproductionandsalesdatawasavailable,andwhereproject attributionwaslessaffectedbyvariousprivatesectoractivitiesaroundirrigation, andotherprojects.

10

3. ASSESSMENTFINDINGS 3.1 BackgroundinformationoncropfarmingalongtheWabeShabelleRiver 3.1.1 Traditionallandmanagementandlivelihoodsystems TheWabeShabelleriverineareapassesthroughGodezone.Approximately95%of thezoneisgrazingland,whiletheremaining5%isarable.Ofthearableland,around 20%wasundercultivationinmid2008,mostlyusingirrigationalongtheriver.The ruralpopulationoftheassessmentworedasmakeuparound65%oftherural populationofthezone,witharound52%ofpeoplelivingintheShabelleriverine area10. Table3 Populationofassessmentworedas
Woreda Mustahil Kelafo Gode Ruralpopulation 53,227 88,156 95,647 Populationinriverinearea 37,259 61,709 23,912

Godezone,andparticularlyGodeworedaisamongthemostdroughtaffected pastoralareasinEthiopia.Atthesametime,thecommunitieslocatedinthelow lyingareasalongtheriverinMustahilandKelafoarealsoaffectedbyregular floodingcausedbyheavyrainfallinthehighlands.Thefloodsdestroycropsand livestock,butalsoprovideanopportunitytopracticefloodrecessionagriculture. Thepeopleintheruralareasareamixofcropfarmersandpastoralistswhomake theirlivelihoodslargelyfromcropfarmingandlivestockrearingrespectively.The pastoraliststendcattle,camels,smallruminantsanddonkeysthroughseasonal movementsbetweenthewetseasongrazingareasintheinteriorandthedryseason grazingareasalongtheShabelleriver.Thefarmersdependmainlyongrowing maize,producedundergravityorpumpfedsurfaceirrigationalongtheriverbanks11, andsorghumwhichistraditionallygrowninthetworainyseasonsthemaingu rainyseasonandtheshorterdeyrrainyseason.Thesefarmersalsohavesmallherds ofcattle,smallruminantsanddonkeys,whichtheyusetotransportproducetolocal marketsandforcollectingandtransportingfirewood. AlongtheShabelleriver,farmersalsouseirrigationtoproducecashcropssuchas sesameandonion,usuallyonrelativelysmallplotsofland(0.5to5ha)verycloseto theriverwhereirrigationiseasier.However,becauseofthehot,dryclimateeven farmerspracticingirrigatedagriculturetendtofocusproductionintherainyseasons, eitherbecausetraditionalgravityfedirrigationchannelsarefullanditiseasyto irrigateusingbuckets,oriftheyareusingpumps,becausetheycansaveonthecost
SavetheChildrenUKandDisasterPreventionandPreparednessAgency(2008);Livelihoodsand Vulnerabilities:AnunderstandingoflivelihoodsinSomaliRegionalState,Ethiopia,Updatedversion, June2008,AddisAbaba,Ethiopia. 11 Gravityirrigationcanbeusedwheretheriverisembanked;whereriverbedsaredeep,pumpsare needed;farmersalsoplantmaizeandsorghuminriverbeds.
10

11

offuel.Thedryseason(hagay)isalsoknownforstrongwindsthatcreatedustand sandstormsmakingfarmworkdifficultandcoveringcrops.InKelafoandMustahil woredas,regularfloodingallowsfarmerstoengageinuncontrolledorcontrolled(i.e. usingchannelsorpumps)floodrecessionproductionofstaplecropsfurtherback fromtheriver.Althoughyieldscanbegood,floodrecessionfarmingisriskyasfloods canreturnbeforethecropsareharvested. Othereconomicactivities,particularlyforpoorerhouseholdsincludethesaleof charcoalandfirewoodandgrassforthatchingandforlivestockfeed,aswellasfarm labour. Asinotherpartsoftheregion,inalloftheareascoveredbytheassessment,land useandaccessiscollectivelymanagedbytheclanandsubclanlineagesoccupying thearea.Clanmembershavetherighttofencelandandconductirrigatedfarming andthereisnolimitationontheamountoflandthatanyhouseholdcanuse. However,theclanhastherighttoredistributethebestlande.g.thelandclosestto theriverthatiseasiertoirrigate,amongstitsclanmembersatanytime.Thiscould includetheplotsofindividualsalreadyinvolvedinirrigatedfarmingatthetimeof theredistribution.Nonclanmemberswhointendtoconductirrigatedfarmingmust getpermissionfromtheclanthatownstheland. WhileGodeworedaisdominatedbytheOgadeniclans,KelafoandMustahilworedas areamixofOgadeniandRerBarregroups.Intheseareas,pastoralistsandcrop farmersdiffereitherbytribeorclanandinterethnicconflictsoftenbreakout, affectingthelivelihoodsofbothgroups.ThefarmersaremainlyJirirfromtheRer Barreethnicgroup,whilethepastoralistsintheareaaremainlyJilefromtheOgaden andHawiyaethnicgroups12.ThetraditionaldryseasongrazingareasoftheJile pastoralistsincludelandsusedforirrigatedcropfarmingintheShabelleriverine areas.Conflictsariseaspastoralistsattempttoaccesspotentialdryseasongrazing landandlivestockwaterpointsanddamagecrops,eitheraccidentallythrough livestockescapingtofieldsclosetotheroadsleadingtothewaterpoints,or intentionallybypastoralistsreleasinglivestockintothefarmerscrops.Although theseconflictsaresometimesviolent,therearealsotraditionalprocessesof cooperationandexchangerelationswhichprevailbetweenthepastoralistand farming/agropastoralistclans13.Issuesaroundlandownershipanduserrightsover landusedforirrigatedfarmingalsocauseconflictbetweentheOgadenandRer BarreandtheHawiyaandRerBarretribesinareaswhereboththeJileandtheJirir conductirrigatedfarming.

JileandJirirareSomalinamesgiventoSomaliswithsofthair(fromtheOgaden/Hawiyatribes)and hardhair(fromtheRerBarretribe)respectively. 13 AyeleGebreMariam(2005),ibid.

12

12

3.1.2 ThedevelopmentofirrigatedagricultureinsouthGode SouthGodereferstotheShabelleriverineareasouthofGodetownthroughKelafo andMustahilworedastotheborderwithSomalia.WestGodereferstotheSomali regionalgovernmentirrigatedfarmwestofGodetown.Figure2summarises irrigationrelatedresearchanddevelopmentworkconductedinsouthGodebythe governmentandNGOssincethe1960s. Figure2 TimelineofmajorirrigatedfarmingrelatedeventsinsouthGode

Time 1960s Keyevent UnderHaileSelassiesgovernment,AlemayaCollegeofAgricultureopenedaresearch centreinGodewiththemainobjectiveofassessingthepossibilityofusingtheWabe ShabelleRiverforlargescaleirrigatedcropfarming. TheimpactoftheresearchcentreincludedtheinitiationofcropfarmingintheWabe ShabelleRiverbasinandtheinitialdesignoflargescaleirrigationprogramsinsouth Gode,laterdevelopedbytheEPRDFandDerggovernments. LocalSomalifarmersinGodeproducedfoodcrops,mainlymaizeandsorghum, throughrainfedfarmingandfruitsuchaspapayaandlemonusingirrigatedfarming methods,withthetechnicalandmaterialsupportoftheGoderesearchcentre. Followingthe197274drought,pastoralistsweresettledonaround1,000haof irrigableland. DuringtheEthioSomaliawarin1977,theSomalicropfarmersmigratedtoSomalia andtheirlandwastakenoverbytheDerggovernment.Thegovernmentsmottowas weproducewhilefighting. Consequently,agravitybasedirrigationschemewasdesignedwiththeaimofbuilding adamatwestGode14andaseriesofcanalstoenablethedevelopmentofalargescale irrigationprogramforsouthGode,KelafoandMustahil;thiswasknownasthesouth Godeirrigationprogram. In1979,throughitsReliefandRehabilitationCommission,theDerggovernment broughtsettlersfromWolloandTigraytosouthGode.Thesettlersstartedproducing foodcropsthroughapumpbasedirrigationschemeatselectedsitessuchasWelwel andBarsan. In1980,theDergestablishedthesouthGodestatefarmatWelwel,Gelewage,Barsan, GudareandBedled. In1981,theRRCtransferredtheresponsibilityofmanagingthesouthGodeirrigation programtotheAwashIrshaLimatCorporation,whichestablishedtheGodeIrshaLimat project. TheGodeIrshaLimatprojecthiredsettlersfromWolloandTigrayandstartedpump basedirrigatedproductionofcottonandfruitsuchasbananaandpapaya.This programendedwiththefalloftheDergregimein1991. ReturneesfromSomaliaclaimedtheirlandthathadbeenconvertedintothestate farm,nowoccupiedbythesettlers. TheEPRDFtransitionalgovernmentestablishedacommitteeundertheprime ministersofficetohandleissuesrelatedtoclaimsonthestatefarmlandbytheSomali returneesandthesettlers.Thesettlerswerereturnedhome. TheEPRDFgovernmentannouncedanewdevelopmentmottoselfsufficiencyinfood crops;theGodestatefarmwastransferredtotheSomaliRegionLivestock,Cropand

1970s 1980s 1991

1991/2 1992/3 1994

14

ThissitewasusedforthedambuiltunderthewestGodeirrigationprojectdesignedforsettlersby theEPRDFgovernmentintheearly2000s.

13

 1995

2000 2001/2 2006 2007/8 2008 2008/9 2009 2009/10 2010

NaturalResourcesDevelopmentBureau(LCNRDB). TheLCNRDBlaunchedanirrigationprojectdesignedforreturneesfromSomaliawith claimstothepreviousstatefarm.Waterpumpsof4pistoncapacitywereinstalledat Gelewage(421ha),Barsan(400ha),Bedled(596ha),Gudare(428ha)and Iskasheto/Welwel(118ha)tobeusedbyatotalof2,259households.Eachhousehold wasgivenupto1halandmainlyformaizeproductiononanindividualbasis,butusing stateownedtractors.Projectbeneficiariescontributed500ETBperhouseholdper cultivationperiodforfuelandrunningcostsuntiltheOgadendroughtof1999. Asaresponsetothedrought,thegovernmentofSomaliregiondecidedtocoverthe fuelcostforthepumpsfortheirrigationproject;however,theareaoflandplantedto maizestartedshrinking,mainlybecauseofthelackofbudgetforpumpandtractor maintenancecosts. CCM,anItalianNGO,implementedafood/cashforworkprogramfortheconstruction ofcanalsforagravitybasedirrigationschemeinKelafoandMustahil15. ThePastoralCommunityDevelopmentProject(PCDP)waslaunchedbythefederal governmentincollaborationwiththegovernmentofSomaliregiononapilotbasisin selectedworedasandkebeles;inputsdeliveredincludedwaterpumpsof4piston capacity,fuel,seeds,farmtools,andrunningcostsdeliveredviatheconcerned governmentbureaus. ThePCDPphasedoutandfarmingactivitywasinterruptedmainlyduetoproblems relatedtopumpsparepartsandmaintenancecosts. TheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross(ICRC)distributedpumpsparepartsto individualsandgroupsusingpumpsinGode,KelafoandMustahil. CHFlaunchedtheLSAPproject,topromotesmallscaleirrigatedfarminginGode, KelafoandMustahil;theyorganisedABGsinselectedvillagesandprovidedinputs includingwaterpumpsof1pistoncapacity,fuelandseedsforthefirstcultivation periodandfarmtools.TheprojectendedinDec.2008. TheWabiShebeleDevelopmentAssociation(WASDA)implementedafood/cashfor workprogramforcanalconstructionforagravitybasedirrigationschemeintheKelafo area. TheSomaliRegionalgovernmentlaunchedanewirrigationprojectatBarsenandIftin for800households;2pistoncapacitywaterpumpsandrunningcostsincludingfuel wereprovidedbyFAO.Theprojectfailedimmediatelyafterthefirstcultivationperiod mainlyduetomanagementproblems. SavetheChildrenUSestablishednewABGsinselectedvillagesinGodeworedawhere LSAPusedtooperate;inputsincludedsmallwaterpumpsof1pistoncapacity,fuel andseeds(mainlyonion)forthefirstcultivationperiodandtools. SeverefloodsdestroyedirrigatedcropsintheMustahilarea. Currently,thesouthGodeirrigationdevelopmentprojectprovidestechnicaladviceto individualsinvolvedinsmallscaleirrigatedfarmingusingprivatepumpsof1piston capacity.

Inalloftheareastargetedbythevariousirrigationprojectsovertheyears,someof theexprojectbeneficiarieshavecontinuedwithirrigatedfarmingusingprivately ownedpumps.ThepumpsareusuallybroughtinascontrabandgoodsfromSomali andareusedeitheronadhulqeyb(landsharing)orbirgerac(pumprenting)basis16. Underdhulqeyb,inexchangefortheuseofthepumpthelandownergivesthepump ownerfreeuseofhalfofthelandtobeirrigatedbythepump.Inthiscase,thepump

Participantsofthisschemeindicatedthatgravitybasedirrigationrequiresatwotothreeyear periodtobecomefunctional,dependingonthewaterlevelsintheShabelleRiver. 16 AonepistonpumpbroughtfromSomaliacostsaroundETB9,000to10,000.TheCHFpumpscost ETB19,000,sincetheCHFheadofficerequiresinputstobepurchasedfromalicensedsupplier.
15

14

ownerisresponsibleforoilandpumpmaintenancecosts,whileeachpartyis responsibleforthefuelandlabourinputsrequiredforcultivatingtheirrespective plots.Thissystemislimitedtothefertilelandslocatednearertheriverthatareused forcashcropproduction. Underthebirgeracsystem,thepumpusersarrangetheirownfuelandalsopay10 12ETBperhourforthepumpduringthecultivationperiod.Underthissystem,the pumpuserpays50%ofthepumprunningcostspercultivation(ie.fuelandthe hourlypayment)tothepumpowneraftertheharvest;thepumpowneralsoreceives landfromthelandownerforfree.Onaverage,ittakesasmallpumpofonepiston capacityaround16hourstoirrigateonehaofmaize17;sincemaizenormallyrequires fourroundsofirrigationoverafourtofivemonthcultivationperiod,thepumpuser couldenduppayingaroundETB640toETB960perhaofmaize,plusfuelcosts. Annex2showsthenumberofirrigationsnormallyrequiredpercroppercultivation period.Thefarmersformcooperatives,knownasishkashetotocollectivelyuse waterpumpsthatbelongtoindividualinvestors.18 Theavailabilityofprivatepumpsforrenthasbeensteadilyincreasing,particularly sincethedemiseofthegovernmentrunirrigationprojects.InKelafoandMustahil particularly,increasingnumbersoffarmersandtradersfromSomaliaarejoining localfarmersintheirrigatedproductionofcashcrops,mainlyonion,tomeetthe increasingmarketdemandinSomalia.ThisispartlyduetotheimpactofAlShabab onfarmingactivityinSomalia;manyofthesefarmersleftSomaliaeitherbecause theirlandwasreturnedtoitsoriginalownersbyAlShabab,ortoescapethe stringentSheriyasystem.Accordingtocashcroptradersinthearea,mainlywomen frombothEthiopiaandSomalia,oneofthereasonsfortheincreasedtradeisthe improvedsecurityimposedbyAlShabab,andtheremovalofcheckpoints(isbadho) intheareasthatitcontrols,includingBaladweyn.Truckownersinterviewedbythe fieldresearchersaidthatAlShababchargesareasonableamountoftaxandthis, togetherwithremovalofthecheckpoints,hasallowedanincreaseinthetruckingof cashcropsfromKelafoandMustahilfortheSomalimarket.Asaresult,thedemand foronionhasincreasedandthepricehasgoneupfrom160ETB/quintal(100kg)in 2009to450ETB/quintalinJuly2010,forastandingcropinthefield.Althoughthe priceofonionintheJijigaandDhegahburmarketsinEthiopiais15ETB/kg(1,500 ETB/quintal),accesstothesemarketshasbeenblockedsincearound2005,whenthe SomaliregionalgovernmentblockedtheroadtodenytheONLFaccesstoincome (dheqala)fromtaxingtheSomalitrucksonthetraderoute. 3.1.3 Traditionalcropfarmingpractice Asalreadymentioned,irrigationisgenerallylimitedtothelandslocatedclosetothe riverwherefarmingwitheitheragravityorpumpbasedsurfaceirrigationsystemis easier.Otherwise,floodrecessionandtraditionalrainfedfarmingarepracticed. RainfedfarmingisdependentlargelyontherainfallfromtheHarargheandBale
Estimatedfrommanufacturerspecifications,andcrosscheckedwithABGmembersandprivate pumpowners. 18 AyeleGebreMariam(2005),ibid.
17

15

mountainstothenorthandwestthatdeterminestheleveloftheWabeShabelle River.Generally,themajorcropplantationseasonshappentwiceperyeartowards theendofthedeyrandgurainyseasons.Thedeyrplantationisdependentonthe shortbelgrainsinthehighlandareastothenorthwestandparticularlyontheflood waterwhichcomesfromthenorthernpartoftheSomaliregionandadjacent easternHarargheareas,whichisusedduringthejilaldryseason.Theguplantation largelydependsonthefloodwaterfromthelongkremtrainsintheBalemountains, whichisusedduringthehagaydryseason. Farmersfromtheareabelievethatthefloodwaterfromthebelgrainsviathe northernpartofSomaliregionisnotgoodforcropswhilethefloodwaterfromthe BaleMountainsproduceshealthiercrops.Thisperceptioncoincideswiththe relativelyhigherincidenceofcropfailureencounteredinthejilalseasonthaninthe hagayseason,asreportedbytheABGs.Althoughthisneedstobefurther investigated,thegeneralunderstandingisthattheconcentrationofsaltishigherin thefloodwaterwhichcomesfromtheSomaliregioncomparedwiththefloodwater fromtheBaleMountains.Iftrue,salinitycouldcontributetocropfailures encounteredbytheABGsmostlywiththejilalplantations(seebelow). 3.2 TheLSAPirrigationprojectfindings TheprojecttimelineisshowninFigure3withotherkeyeventsinthearea. Figure3 LSAPprojecttimeline
Date 2006 SeptOct2007 OctDec2007 JanFeb2008 MarApr2008 MayJun2008 JulySep2008 Nov2008 Dec2008 Projectevents LSAPfundingapprovedbyOFDA, Regionalagreementsigned RecruitmentandinductionofLSAPstaff; technicaltrainingofstaff; Siteidentification;ABGformationand beneficiaryselection;technicaltraining andsigningofMOUswithABGs;purchase of36pumps Landpreparation;TrainingofABGsin irrigatedfarmingandnursery establishment;distributionofseedsand tools Distributionofwaterpumps(2perABG); DistributionoffueltoABGsforfirstround ofirrigation Refreshertraining&supervisionofABGs; 3monthsnocostextensionapproved LSAPfieldstaffscontractsended OfficialendofLSAP General Poorguand deyrrains Poordeyrrains,drought Adoptionofdistresscoping mechanisms(slaughterdestocking); migrationtoriverareas;livestock deaths. Poorgurain;Hyperinflationofstaple foodprices Poorgurain;livestockdeaths Poordeyrrain

16

3.2.1 OperationalstatusofABGs TheLSAPprojectwasimplementedinatotalof18kebelesacrossthethreeworedas i.e.6kebeleseachinGode,KelafoandMustahil.ThenumberofABGsestablishedby CHFin2008andtheircurrentstatusareshownbelow. Table4 OperationalstatusofABGs,mid2010

Woreda ABGs established 2008 6 ABGsreportedas functional 2010 34 Actualstatus inmid2010

Gode

Three ABGsstillfunctioningonagroupbasis. BarsenandIlanABGsarestilloperatingasa group,butwerestrugglingtocoverthe costsofpumprepairsandfuel. DudAdeandDabaldegABGswere disbandedin2008. BardoquorahABGwaslinkedtoSCUS. BahktileyABGmemberswerenotfarming asagroup. NoABGsstillfunctioningasgroupstheKelafo ABGswereincorporatedintovariousprivately andcommunitymanagedirrigationschemes usingamixofCHF,privateandgovernment pumpsthatserveindividualplots. NoABGsstillfunctioningasgroupsasabove, theMustahilABGswereincorporatedinto variousprivatelyandcommunitymanaged irrigationschemesusingamixofCHF,private andgovernmentpumpsthatserveindividual plots.Becauseofrecurrentfloods,farmersare practicingfloodrecessionfarmingratherthan usingpumps.

Kelafo

Mustahil

GodeofthenonoperationalABGsinGode: Bardoquorahwasstillfunctioning,atleastinname.Followingthebreakdownof theCHFpumpsin2009,thisABGcouldnotaffordtopayforsparepartsand insteadpurchasedasubsidisedpumpfromthegovernment.Thegroupsaidthat theyhavebeenoperatingatalossandwererentingadonkeycart19totransport firewoodtoGode,whichtheysoldtocoverthecostsoffuel.Theyrequested supportforfuelandspareparts.Oneofthereasonsoriginallygivenforthe disbandmentofthegroupwasthatsincethecloseofLSAP,SavetheChildrenUS (SCUS)hasestablishedanewirrigationschemeinthearea,whichincludedmany oftheformerBardoquorahABGmembers.Althoughthiscouldnotbefully
19

Halfofthesaleproceedswerepaidtothecartowner.

17

ascertained,onvisitingthesiteitappearedthatsomeoftheformerABG memberhouseholdsmaybesupportedbytheSCUSproject. DudAdeandDabaldegABGsbothdisbandedin2008. o InthecaseofDudAde,theABGplantedmaizeon25haoflandand receivedaninitialtwobarrelsoffuel(400litres)fromCHF,whichthey usedforthefirstroundofirrigation.Thegroupwereexpectingtoreceive anadditionalninebarrels(1,800litres)20fromCHFbutthisfuelwas reportedlysoldinGodetownbeforeitreachedthegroup,andtheABG subsequentlydissolved.ItisnotclearwhosoldthefuelaccordingtoCHF staff,theABGparticipantswerefarmingonanindividualratherthana groupbasisandthereforeitwasdifficultforthemtoholdeithertheABG committee,thekebeleadministration(orCHF)accountableforthelossof thefuel. o InthecaseoftheDabaldegABG,thesitechosenfortheABGirrigation schemewasapreviouslyuncultivatedsite,closetothewestGode irrigationproject.Whentheassessmentteamvisited,mostofthe communitymembershadleftthevillagetobecomeregisteredassettlers withthewestGodeprojectandtherewerenosignsofanyirrigation equipmentatthesite.Thegroupdisbandedbeforethefirstplantationfor reasonsthatareunclear.HoweverformerABGmemberssuggestedthat thesitewasnotsuitableforfarming.AlthoughtheTuftsteamdidnot havetimetoinvestigatefurther,theremayalsohavebeensomemisuse offuelinDebaldeg21.

KelafoandMustahilinKelafoandMustahilalloftheABGswerereportedbyCHFas stillbeingoperational.However,thesecommunitieswerealreadyinvolvedin irrigatedfarmingusingprivatewaterpumpswellbeforetheformationoftheABGs byCHF.TheCHFpumpsdeliveredtotheKelafoABGswerepooledwiththeother pumpsalreadybeingusedbythecommunity,andenabledthecommunitytoexpand andintensifyirrigatedfarminginthearea.TheABGpumpsandlandhaveeffectively beenincorporatedintothevariousongoingirrigationschemesinthecommunity, althoughtheABGparticipants,likeothersinthecommunity,areconductingirrigated farmingonanindividual,ratherthanagroupbasis.Inmostoftheseareas,theCHF pumpshavebeenhandedovertoindividualsselectedfromtheformerABG members.InMustahil,becauseoftherecurringfloods,farmersarepracticingflood recessionfarming,ratherthanusingthepumps. 3.2.2 Groupmembershipandlandstatus Theprojectwastargetedat50householdsperkebeleandtheCHFlistofregistered ABGparticipantsindicatedatotalof900directbeneficiaryhouseholds.Assoonas
NotethatCHFrecordsintheGodefieldofficeshowedatotalofthreebarrelsoffuel(600litres) beingdeliveredtotheGodegroups. 21 NotethatmisuseoffuelwasalsoreportedinoneofthenonsampledABGsinKelafo.
20

18

theprojectstarted,manyofthegroupsvoluntarilyincludedadditional,non registered,ABGmemberswhotheyfeltmettheselectioncriteria.AlloftheGode ABGmemberswerefemale(exceptthechairmanoftheBarsangroup),asperthe CHFselectioncriteria.BetweentheendoftheprojectinDecember2008andthe timeoftheassessmentinJuly2010,therewerefurtherchangestothegroup membership.Forexample,insomegroups(BakhtileyinGode,QufdhaleyKinchoin Kelafo)memberslefttheABGorthevillagebecauseofeconomicproblems. However,becauseofthechangesinmostofthegroupsmodeofoperationfrom farmingasagrouptofarmingasindividualsonaprivatebasis,asexplainedabove,it wasnotpossibletogiveaccuratefiguresofcurrentABGmembership. WithregardtothelandcultivatedbytheABGs,theprojectwasplannedonthebasis of25haperABG,equivalentto0.5haperhousehold,andCHFnegotiatedwithclan leaderstoallocatelandtotheABGonthatbasis.DuringtheFGDsinGode,the researchteamfoundthatonlyaround5to10hahadbeencultivatedbythegroups. Thiswassupportedbythegroupsaccountsoftheamountandtypesofcrops producedandsold,aswellasbydirectobservationatthesites.InKelafoand Mustahil,asmentionedabove,thelandallocatedtotheABGswasincorporatedby thecommunityandinmostcases,allowedthemtoexpandtheirrigatedarea, althoughthiscouldnotbeverifiedbythesitevisits.However,therecentfloodsin Mustahilswampedsomeoftheirrigatedareasandreducedtheareaunder cultivationinotherformerABGsites,forexampleGodaro.Again,itwasnotpossible toaccuratelyestimatetheareaoflandcurrentlyundercultivationby(former)ABG members. 3.2.3 Productionhistories Althoughintheoryirrigationmeansthatcropscanbeplantedoutsideofthemain rainyseasons,inpracticefarmersintheareasticktotheseseasonssincetheycan reducetheamountofwaterthatneedstobepumpedfromtheriverthusreducing theamountoffueltheyneedi.e.theypracticesupplementaryratherthanfullcrop irrigation.Inthedry,windyhagayseason(JulytoSeptember),cropsneedmore waterandfarmersarereluctanttoplant.TheCHFpumpsweredeliverednine monthsintotheLSAPprojectandthreemonthsbeforetheoriginalprojectend.This timelinecorrespondswiththeoralhistoriestoldbytheFGDs,whichindicatethat therehavebeenfourpotentialproductionseasonsformaizesincetheABGswere formeduntilJuly201022. Thetimelinesbelow,basedonfocusgroupdiscussions,summarisethehistoryofthe ABGsassessedinGode,KelafoandMustahil.Asmentionedabove,theCHF productiondataforthe2008/09cultivationseasoncouldnotbeverified,andthe groupsthemselvesdidnothaveanydocumentedproductionrecords.Therefore,the productiondataisbasedontheFGDdiscussionswiththegroups.WhiletheGode
AtthetimeoftheassessmentinJuly2010theTuftsteamnotedthatpumpsfortheUSAIDfunded SHAPEprojecthadjustarrivedinGodetown,eighttoninemonthsafterprojectstartupandfour monthsbeforetheofficialprojectendinNovember2010(i.e.missingtwopotentialproduction seasons).
22

19

ABGswereabletoprovideaggregatedproductiondataforthegroup,inKelafoand Mustahil,wherefarmingwasindividuallybased,itwasnotpossibletoobtain estimatesofthetotalproductionoftheABGs. a. Gode Informationonthehistories,activitiesandimpactsofthethreeABGsvisitedduring theassessmentisprovidedbelow.

Barsen

1991 1997 BarsanvillagecreatedbyreturneesfromSomalia. 25womenraisedfundstostartcropfarmingandreceived25haofformerDergstate farmland. Theyproducedvegetablesusingbucketirrigation,andrainfedandfloodrecessionmaize. Theypurchaseda1pistoncapacitypumpandstartedirrigatedfarming. Theydidnotmakeaprofitbecauseofthehighrunningcostsofthepump. CHFreorganisedthemintotheABGtogetherwithanother24womenandaman(ABGchair) fromthevillage.Theyreceived2IndianAnilwaterpumpsof1pistoncapacity,3barrelsof fuel(600litres)23,10quintalsofseedsandvariousfarmtools24.Theyaddedanadditional6 haofland. 1stcultivationABGmembersshared50quintalsofmaizebetweenthemi.e.1quintalper person.Therestoftheproducewassoldandsavedforfuelandsparepartsforthepumps. Strongwind(dufan)andsoqududaffectedthefirstcultivationofmaizeandthecropfailed. 2ndcultivationnothingwassharedtotheABGmembers. Fuelpriceincreasedfrom7.50to11ETB/litre;theypurchasedsparepartsfor>6,500ETB. Theyraised150ETB/personforfuel,sparepartsandthepumpoperatorssalary(400 ETB/month). 3rdcultivationABGsold47quintalsmaizefor250ETB/quintaltoWFPoncredit25.Atthe timeoftheassessmentthegrouphadnotyetreceivedthepayment Theypurchaseda1pistoncapacitypumpfromthegovernmentforasubsidisedpriceof 4,500ETB.Thefuelpriceincreasedto17ETB/litre. 4thcultivationtheyshared500ETB/personfrommaizebyproductssoldasanimalfeedand otherfarmproduce.Sparepartshavecost7,000ETBsofar.

2001 2007 2008

2009 2009

2010

ThethreeABGsassessedinGodeworedaconfirmedthattheharvestcollectedfromthefirst cultivationperiodwasproducedonlywiththe600litresoffuelreceivedfromCHFi.e.theydidnot purchaseadditionalfuel.Assumingafuelconsumptionrateof30litres/ha(minimum),andthat maizerequiresfourirrigationsperfourmonthcroppingperiod(seeAnnex2)thiswouldbeenoughto irrigatearoundfivehaofmaize. 24 Seedinputsincludedmaize,sesame,onion,tomato,banana,beansandgrass;sixdifferenttypesof toolswereprovided.TheseedsandtoolsprovidedtotheABGswereuniforminallthreeworedas (seeAnnex1). 25 ThemainreasonwhytheBarsenABGsoldthemaizeoncreditwasduetotheUNsprocurement procedurethatrequiresthemtosignanagreementwiththeregionalgovernmenttowhichthe paymentshouldbemade.Giventhisprocedureandthefactthatpaymenthasbeendelayedfor aroundfivemonths,CHFshouldfollowupthepaymentontheABGsbehalf,especiallysincethe womenwerenotevenclearwhetherFAOorWFPcollectedthemaize.
23

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Ilan 1999 2003

IlanvillagewascreatedbymembersoftheReerMahadAssieclanwhostartedrainfed farmingontheformerstatefarmonanindividualbasis. ThegovernmentlaunchedthePCDPatIlanfor400householdson400haland.Theyreceived twowaterpumpsoffourpistoncapacityeach,25kgofmaizeseedsand600litresoffuelfor thecultivationof1hamaizeperhousehold. CHForganised50womenintoanABGanddonatedtwowaterpumps,fuel(600litres),seeds andtools.Thegroupwasgiven27habytheclan. 1stcultivationthegroupshared100ETB/personfromsaleofproducefromthefirst cultivation Thegroupproducedfodderforownlivestock. 2ndcultivationthefirstcropofmaizefailedduetodufan,buttheABGsoldsesameand tomatofor6,000ETB;sparepartscost2,750ETB. Theyspent1,750ETBonspareparts,andraisedadditionalmoneyfromthegroupforspare partsandfuel.Themembersraised50ETBperpersonforcosts. 3rdcultivationthesecondcropofmaizeandsorghumwassoldasanimalfeed(for5,000ETB and1,500ETBrespectively);theyalsosoldtomato(for2,500ETB);grasswasfedtoown livestock. TheABGiscultivatingmaizeforanimalfeed,tomatoandwatermelonbutsalinityis becomingaproblemonthefarm.

2008

2009

2009

2010

Bakhtiley ThevillagewassooldthattheABGparticipantsdidnotknowexactlywhenitwasformed. 1999 ThenameBakhtileywasgiventothevillageinconnectionwiththemassivelivestock mortalitycausedbythe1999Ogadendrought. 2008 CHForganised50womenintoanABGandgavepumps,fuel(600litres),seedsandtools. 1stcultivationthemaizecropwaslosttowarthogs. 2009 Thegroupcouldnotaffordtopayforthepumpmaintenancesparepartscost7,950ETB,so theygavethepumpstoMr.NuurIbrahimthecurrentpumpoperatorwhoinvestedhistwo cows(soldfor2,300ETBand1,100ETB)tocoverthecost26.Mr.Nuurcharged120ETBper plotperirrigationround,towardsfuelandpumpoperatingcosts. 2010 Themembersbegantofarmonanindividualbasis;someestablishednewplotsclosetothe river.

TheBakhtileyABGcalledtheirplotIsnugtomeaningselfsuckingbecauseofthelargeproportion ofincomefromthesaleoffarmproducethathastobeusedforfuelandpumpspareparts.Inallof theareasassessedinGodeworeda,thewomenABGparticipantsrequestedadonkeycart,tobeused partlyfortransportingfirewoodtosellinGodetowntoraisecashforfuelandspareparts.

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21

Upperleft: Upperright: Lowerleft: Lowerright:

WabeShabelleRiveratIlan BarsanABGwaterpumpandpumpoperator SalinityatBarsan IrrigatedplotsatBardoQorah

Topleft: Topright: Upperleft: Upperright:

BaktileyABGplot Maizestalkborerdamage,BardoQorah Watermelondamagecausedbyporcupines,Ilan HagaywindatDabaldeg

22

Top: FailedbananacropatIlan Lower: PeppercropatIlan

b. Kelafo ItwasnotpossibletocollectproductiondatafortheformerABGsasgroupssince farmingwasdoneonanindividualbasis.

Agweyne 1993 Agweynevillagewascreatedbyexpastoralistsinterestedinrainfedandfloodrecession farming. 2006 Thevillagelostcattle,smallruminantsanddonkeystothe2005/6drought. 2007 2008 2010 28membersofthevillagecontributedmoneytorentawaterpumpfromKelafotown;each personplantedhalfhamaize.Theownercollectedthepumpattheendof2007. CHForganizedtheABGandprovidedtwopumps,12barrelsoffuel(2,400litres),seedsand tools. TheABGrentedanotherpumpastheCHFpumpwasunusable.TheABGpurchasedan additional105litresoffuel.

Beladamin 1983 TheDerggovernmentlaunchedanirrigationprojectwith2GermanDOSSpumpsof4piston capacityandtheJirirsstartedmaizefarmingasacooperative;thegovernmentcollectedthe costoffuelinkindafterharvest.Themaizeyieldwassogoodthatthelifeofthecommunity changed. 1991 TheSaidBaregovernmentdissolvedandreturneesfromSomaliacametotheKelafoarea.

23

1992

AfterthedownfalloftheDerg,theOgadenisdestroyedthevillageandtookthepumps;2 monthslaterthecommunitydevelopedcanalsandrestartedirrigatedfarmingthrougha gravitysystem.TheJiriragreedthatinfuturetheywouldpurchaseaKalashnikovaftereach harvestincaseoffutureattack. TheleveloftheShabelleRiverdecreasedandthegravityschemefailedtowork. Avillagememberbroughtawaterpumpof4pistoncapacityandirrigated farmingrestartedthroughthebirgerac(pumprental)systemthepumpwasrentedfor10 ETB/hour;fuelcost6ETB/litre.Irrigatedfarmingwasconductedwithprivatepumpsto2008. CHForganizedtheABGandprovidedtwopumps,12barrelsoffuel(2,400litres),seedsand tools. 118householdssharedthepumpsandcultivatedlandonindividualirrigatedplots.Inallof theKelafoABGs,anadditional5hawascultivatedforthekebelechairandvicechairpersons andthepumpoperators27. Therewere12privatepumpsoperatinginthevillageatthetimeoftheassessmentinAugust 2010.

1996 1998 2008 2009

2010

Irkabanan 1983 TheDerggovernmentbroughtwaterpumpsandthecommunitybeganirrigatedfarming. 1992 FollowingthedownfalloftheDerg,theOgadenisinvadedthevillageandtookthewater pumps.Threeprivatepumpswerebroughttothevillageandirrigatedfarmingrestartedvia thebirgeracsystem.Thepumpswererentedfor200ETB/haperirrigationround. 2008 CHForganized50householdsintotheABGandprovidedpumps,fuel(2,400litres),seedsand tools.TheABGpurchasedanadditional200litresoffuelforthefirstcultivation. 2009 119householdssharedthepumpsandcultivatedlandindividually 2010 TheABGpurchasedanAnilwaterpumpofonepistoncapacityfor7,000ETBfromthe governmentwithincomefromthesaleoflivestock28.

c.

Mustahil

AtotaloffiveABGswereassessedinMustahilworeda.GodaroisclosetoMustahil town,whileKunasoandKobaneABGsarelocatedtothenorthandQonlaweand DanyereABGstothesouth.Generally,theareastothenorthofMustahilarehighly floodproneandmoresuitableforlivestockthancropproductionthegroups reportedonlyonesuccessfulcultivationduringthelastfourpotentialproduction seasons,becauseoffloods29. TheMustahilgroupsreportedthattheprevalenceofwaterbornedisease particularlybloodyurine(schistosomiasis,alsocalledbilharzia)hasbeenincreasing

Fiveharepresentshalfoftheareathatitispossibletoirrigatewithonepumpofonepiston capacity. 28 InKelafo,theABGparticipantsindicatedthatthemainpurposeofpurchasinglivestockfromcrop salesaftereachharvestwastosavemoneyforpumpmaintenancecosts. 29 Notethattherehavebeenfurtherfloodssincethetimeofthisassessment.
27

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overthepastfewyears30.Thiswasborneoutbythecaserecordatthegovernment hospitalinMustahilwhichindicatedthatthenumberofcasesadmittedhas increasedfromtwopermonthin2007toaroundsevenpermonthin2010.The hospitalhasofficiallyreportedtheincreasetotheRegionalHealthBureau.Abefore andafterscoringexercisewiththeGodaroABGshowedanincreaseintheincidence ofbloodyurine,mainlyinchildren,fromaroundthreecasesin2008tosevencases in2010andanincreaseinmalariafrom12to15casesperseasonoverthesame period.Thehospitalisconductingextensionworkinareaswherecommunities engageinirrigatedfarmingtoadvisefarmershowtoreducetheriskofinfectione.g. bydiscouragingchildrenfromplayingbarefootinirrigationcanals.
Kunaso 1990 MardhisvillagesplitintotwoandKunasowascreated;thecommunitybegansavingtobuya waterpump,butfailed. 2000 CCMbroughtaDOSSpumpoffourpistoncapacityandfuelforonecultivation.Thepump wasusedfrom2000to2004. 2008 CHForganizedtheABGandprovidedtwowaterpumps,fuel(1,400litres),seedsandtools. Theypurchasedanextra6barrelsoffuelforthe1stcultivation. 2009 TherewasaminorfloodandtheABGwasabletocultivatea2ndplantationfollowingflood recession;however,theharvestwasnearlynilduetotreelocustanddiseaseoutbreaks. 2010 Theypurchasedeightbarrelsoffuelforthe3rdplantationbutasevereflooddestroyedthe crops.Usingthefloodrecession,thegroupcultivateda4thplantationofmaize. Kobana 1998 KobanevillagewasformedbyJile(Hawiya)andJiriragropastoralistsdisplacedbyfloodfrom avillageeastofMustahil;theystartedfloodrecessionfarmingofmaizeandsorghum. 2005 Agoodharvestwasobtainedfrommaizeandsorghumfollowingfloodrecession(medium flood). 2007 Sorghumfieldswerelosttobirds. 2008 CHForganizedtheABGandprovidedtwopumps,fuel(1,100litres),seedsandtools.The ABGboughtanextra6barrelsoffuelandused40litresoffuelperplot. 2009 The2ndplantationwaslosttoatreelocustoutbreak. 2010 Severefloodingdestroyedthemaizeandsesamecultivatedduringthe3rdplantation Increasingincidenceofbloodyurine,especiallyamongchildren,reportedtotheRegional HealthBureau. Schistosomiasisisaparasiticdiseasetransmittedbyaquaticsnails.Thelarvaeofinfectedsnails penetratehumanskinandovertimecancausedamagetointernalorgansandimpairgrowthin children.Thediseaseiscommonlyassociatedwithirrigatedareaswheresurfacewaterincanals carriestheinfectedsnails.Riskcanbeminimisedbygooddesignofthescheme,suchas reducing/avoidingpotentialareasofpondingandallowingpartsoftheirrigationchannelstodryout periodically.
30

25

Upperleft: Upperright: Midleft: Midright: Lowerleft: Lowerright:

Irrigatedplots,Kelafo Irrigatedplots,Kelafo Sesameharvest,Kelafo Transportingmaizecrop,Kelafo Flooding,Mustahil Cattleeatingmaizestove,Kelafo

3.2.4 Trendsinproduction,costs,salesandnetbenefits a. Trendsinwealthgroups,nonABGmembersinGode Asindicatedinprecedingsections,inalloftheareascoveredbytheassessment, communitymemberswhowerenotABGmemberswerealsoinvolvedinsomekind ofirrigatedfarmingusingprivatepumps.Beforeandafterproportionalpilingof communitywealthclasseswasconductedwithnonprojecthouseholdsintheGode ABGareastoidentifyanytrendsinwealthstatusbetween2007and2010inthe generalpopulation.TheexercisewasnotconductedinMustahilandKelafosincethe

26

communitiesdidnotmakeadistinctionbetweenABGmembersandthegeneral community31.Theresultswere: theproportionofbetteroffhouseholdsdecreasedbyaround9%(from33% to24%ofthepopulation); theproportionofpoorhouseholdsdecreasedbyaround33%(from67%to 34%ofthepopulation); theproportionofmiddlehouseholdsincreasedbyaround42%(from0to 42%ofthepopulation). Thereductioninthepoorestwealthcategoryandincreaseinthemiddlecategory wasattributedtotheincreaseinirrigatedfarmingactivitythroughwaterpumps broughttotheareabothbygovernmentandprivateindividuals.Forexample, between2009and2010,theregionalgovernmentsoldaround50small(1piston capacity)waterpumpsatsubsidisedpricestoindividualsandgroupsinGodedistrict alone.Asoutlinedalready,intheKelafoarea,clanmembersreturningfromSomalia carriedtheirpumpswiththem,andtheirexperienceofirrigationinSomalia. b. TrendsamongLSAPparticipants Trendsinfarmproductionandrelatedhomeconsumptionofproduceandsalesof produceareshowninFigure4,alongwithtrendsinexpenditure,bytypeof expenditure. WhenviewingFigure4itshouldbenotedthat: forGodeworedatheassessmentcoveredonlythethreeoutofsixABGs whichwerereportedasstillfunctioninginmid2010.Thereforetheresults arebiasedtowardsremainingABGsandoverlookthelimitedimpactsand changesinthethreenonfunctioningABGs. forKelafoandMustahil,projectinputswerecombinedorabsorbedintopre existingirrigationsystemsbylocalcommunities.Itwasdifficultto disaggregateimpactandchangesduetoprojectinputsfromprivate activities.Thepossibilitythatthetrendsshownareattributablemainlyto privatesectororpreexistingcommunityarrangementshastobeconsidered. Intermsofgeneraltrendstheresultsshowedthat: trendsinproduction,consumption,salesandexpenditureweresimilarinthe threeworedas; householdproductionfromfarmswasfarhigherin2010thanin2007,being 3.1timeshigherinGode,2.2timeshigherinKelafoand2.3timeshigherin Mustahil; markedincreasesinthehomeconsumptionoffarmproducewereevident; expenditureonfarmsuppliesincreasedsubstantially,being8.5timeshigher inGode,3.5timeshigherinKelafoand3timeshigherinMustahil;
InKelafoandMustahilwhereallvillagemembersparticipatedinirrigatedfarmingintheABG areas,informantsinsistedthatallhouseholdswerepoorin2007.
31

27

Figure4

Trendsinhouseholdfinancialindicators

NotesforFigure4 1.Dataderivedfromproportionalpilingwithhouseholdinformants.Whenviewingthegraphs,thex axisscalesarearbitraryandareusedonlyforillustratingthetrendsforeachindicatorbetween2007 and2010. 2.Homeconsumptionreferstoallproduceusedinthehome,includingtomatoes,onionsand peppersformakingsauceforhumanconsumption,andgrasses,maizeandsorghumleavesusedto feedlivestock. 3.Farmexpensesforirrigatedplotsincludedcashspentonseed,fuelandsparepartsforthewater pumps,farmtoolsandhiredlabour(forexample,thepumpoperatororfarmlabourers). 4.Socialexpensesincludedweddingsandfunerals. 5.Statisticallysignificantchangesareillustratedusing95%confidenceintervalsforeachindicator.

increasesinfarmproductionandtheneedtoacquirecashtomeetrising farmexpenses,ledtocorrespondinglylargeincreasesinthesaleoffarm produce,being5timeshigherinGode,3timeshigherinKelafoand2.7times higherinMustahil;

28

moderateincreasesinhealth,education,andhouseholdconsumableswere evident,witheducationexpensesrelatedtobothKoranicandformal education; expenditureonassets,especiallylivestock,increasedslightlyandwasmost noticeableinKelafo.

Table5representsthenetprofitobtainedbytheABGhouseholdsin2007and (current/former)ABGhouseholdsin2010,asmeasuredusingproportionalpiling. Table5 ABGhouseholdnetprofitfromfarming

Woreda Gode(n=35) Kelafo(n=36) Mustahil(n=33) Meanscore2007 Sales Expenditure 11 5 16 9 18 12 Netprofit 6 6 6 Meanscore2010 Sales Expenditure 54 42 47 33 48 36 Netprofit 12 14 12

Therewasahighlevelofagreementacrossthethreeareasregardingthenetprofit fromfarmingbothbeforeandaftertheLSAP.Onaverage,thenetprofitfrom farmingdoubledbetween2007and2010fortheABGhouseholds. 3.2.5 TimecostsoffarmingbyABGhouseholds Inallareas,theamountoftimespentonfarmingwasfarhigherin2010thanin2007 (Figure5).InGodeandMustahil,householdswerespendingatleasttwiceasmuch timeontheirfarmasin2007,whileinKelafohouseholdsarespendinghalfasmuch timeagainonthefarmasin2007. Figure5 TrendsintimespentonfarmingbyLSAPparticipants(n=104)

Mustahil

Kelafo Before After Gode

20

40

60

80

Meanproportion(%)oftimespentonfarming
Note Dataderivedfrombeforeandafterscoringwith100stones.

29

Reasonsforthesechangesincluded: anincreaseinthescaleandintensityofirrigatedfarmingbytheABG households; anincreaseinthescaleandintensityofirrigatedfarmingbycommunities generallythroughprivateinvestmentinirrigation,particularlysincethe interruptionofthelargescalegovernmentirrigationschemesin2006. SpecifictoMustahil,thefloodsofAprilandMay2010destroyedthefirstroundof cropsandmeantthatfarmershadtocultivatetwicealreadythisyear,partly explainingtheincreaseintimespentonfarminginthatarea.InKelafo,theincrease isrelativelysmallerprobablysincefarmersinthatareawerealreadyheavilyinvolved infarming,whileinGode,theincreaseisgreaterbecausetheywerelessinvolvedin farmingpriortotheproject,thanintheotherareas.Theextratimewasmainlyused forirrigatingtheplotandforguardingthecropsagainstanimaldamage,bothwild anddomestic(theriskincreasesduringthedryseasonwhenthereisashortageof theirnaturalsourcesoffood).Theseactivitiesweremostlydoneduringtheevenings andearlymorning.Therefore,althoughtheworkloadincreased,theadditionaltime didnotnecessarilyaffectthetimespentonother,nonfarmingactivities. 3.2.6 Zekat TheassessmentplannedtousethepaymentandreceiptofzekatbyLSAP householdstocrosscheckforanychangeintheirincomeorwealthstatus.However, althoughthenumberofsampledhouseholdsreceivingzekatdeclinedfrom7in2007 to1in2010,thezekatpaymentsystemdidnotreflectactualhouseholdwealth statusbecausetherearetwotypesofzekatpaymentrules.Undernormalzekata householdpaid10%ofitsincome(inlivestock,grainorcash),basedonwealth, whereasunderwajibzekatallhealthyadultsvoluntarilygavesomethingtosomeone inneedinthecommunity,intheformoffirewood,water,labouretc.).Since1977, religiousleadershavestoppedcollectinganddispatchingzekatanditisgenerally paidtosomeoneinreturnforaservice,suchasQuranicteaching. InthecaseoftheGodeABGs,thezekatpaymentwasdeductedbytheABG committeefromthegroupsproduce1quintalforevery10quintalsproducedby thegroup. 3.2.7 Benefitsandrisksofgrowingdifferentcropvarieties LocalpreferencesfordifferentcropsaresummarizedinTable8,withreasonsforthe ranking.Acrossallareas,maizewasrankedfirstfollowedbysesame,onionand tomato(SeeAnnex4).

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Table6

Croppreferences(n=9groups)
Reasonsforranking Wecansellbothasanimalfeedandhumanfood Wefeedmaizeleaftoourlivestock Wecangrowusingfloodrecession Itdoesnotrequireguardingfrombirds Evenwhenitfails,wecanfeedtheleaftocalvesandmilkinganimalsat least Thereisrelativelylessdiseaseproblem Itdoesnotrequireguardingagainstwildordomesticanimalsexcept camels Itrequiresrelativelylesswater Ithasarelativelygoodmarketcomparatively Itcanbemadeintooilforhomeuse Itisdifficulttostorewhenthereisnomarket Itissusceptibletodisease Itrequirestoomuchwatering Lowpriceandthereisnoalternativewayofusingbulkproduction Itkillsthesoil Lowpriceandthereisnoalternativewayofusingbulkproduction Itisdifficulttostoreaswellastransporttodistantlocatedmarkets

Cropandmedian rank(range) Maize1st(1,3) Sesame2nd(1,4)

Onions3rd(1,4)

Tomatoes4th(3,4)

Therankingandreasoningagreedwiththeinformationfromfocusgroupsonthe productionhistoryoftheGodeABGs,whereallofthegroupsprioritisedthe cultivationofmaize(section3.2.3a).Allgroupshadsoldmaizestalksorleavesas fodderinatleastoneofthefourproductionseasonssinceLSAPstarted.TheGode ABGscouldnotfindamarketfortheirtomatoandonionsinthefirst2009cultivation andallgroupsalsomentionedthehighcostofirrigatingonion,sinceitrequired irrigationonaverageeverythreedaysforasixmonthgrowingperiod.Also,onions requiredthepurchaseofpesticidesneeded,andsprayingduringeachwatering. 3.2.8 Perceptionsofthebenefitsofirrigatedfarming Oneofthekeyreasonsidentifiedbythestudyparticipantsforundertakingirrigated farmingwastoprotecttheirlivestockassetsagainstrecurrentdroughtbygrowing cropsforfodder.Thevalueoffodderwasexplainedbyreferencetotwotrendsviz. thereductioninpastureastraditionalpasturelandwasconvertedtofarmland,and thedamagebeingcausedtotraditionalpastureduetoinvasionbyProsopisjuliflora. Informantsreferredtotheformerstatefarms,nowabandoned,thatwerebeing encroachedbyProsopis(inSomaliknownasbirsoobis,literallywhenthestemiscut itsproutswithshoots)32;thiswasaparticularproblemintheKelafoarea.Relatedto

32

AyeleGebreMariam(2005),ibid.

31

thistrend,informantsalsoreferredtothebenefitoffarmingforcontrollingthe expansionofProsopis33. Maizecouldbesoldforfodderaftertwotothreemonths,eitherasmaizeshootsor atthegreenstage.Thiswaspracticedtoreducethecostofproductionbyavoiding thethirdandfourthroundsofirrigationneededtobringthemaizetofullterm. Sellingmaizeforfodderattheearlystagealsoreducedtheriskofcropfailuredueto diseaseanddamagebywildanimals34.However,theSomaliregionalgovernment hadapolicyofencouraginghumanfoodproductionintheregionandgovernment supportedfarmerse.g.thosereceivingfarminputsorfoodaidwerenotallowed(in theory)toproducemaizeforanimalfeed.Therefore,producersnotedthepotential benefitsofcashinginthemaizecropearlyagainstthepotentialnegative consequencesintermsofaccesstogovernmentassistance. 3.2.9 Commonrisksandchallenges Referringtorepeatedcropfailures,informantshighlightedsomeofthefactors,both naturalandmanmade,thatcontributedtotherelativelylowreturns(intheirview) frompumpbasedirrigatedfarming.Inareascoveredbytheassessment,LSAP participantsencounteredonetothreetotalorpartialcropfailuresbetween2008 and2010fromapotentialoffourharvests. a. Environmentalfactors Poorharvestscropfailureswereattributedtodisease35,pestsincludingtreelocust andbirds36,anddamagefromwildanimals37.Cropfailuresweresaidtobemore likelyinjilalseasonbecauseofthebadfloodwater(seebelow)andbecause damagefromwildherbivoreswasmorecommonthaninthehagayseason. However,thehagayseasonplantationwasalsosaidtobedifficultduetothewind storms(dufan)thatcausehighwaterevaporationandbringheavydust,increasing thenumberofroundsofirrigationrequiredandreducingseedgermination respectively. WaterandsoilsalinityalloftheFGDsreportedfailuresofcropsplantedinjilalfor atleastonetypeofcrop.Asdescribedabove,thesecropfailureswereatleastpartly
USAIDalreadyhasaprogramforProsopiscontrolinGodezoneandthereappearstobesome evidencethatirrigatedfarmingcanhelptostopthereinvasionofclearedland. 34 Forexample,BakhtileyABGlostmaizeplantedduringthefirstcultivationin2008/9duetodamage bywarthogsandtoldthefieldresearcherthattheyhighlyregrettednotsellingitearlierasfodder. 35 Gududiyeadiseaseaffectingallcropsexceptsesameisnamedaftertheredcolouroftherootsof theaffectedcropandwasacommonlyreportedprobleminallassessmentareas. 36 Inmaizeandsorghum,birdscauseproblemsbothbyeatingmaizeseedsfromthefieldandby attackingthematuredsorghum.Inthecaseofsorghum,thecostofproductionincreasesbecause labourhastobehiredtoprotectthesorghumfields.Inthecaseofmaize,farmersirrigatethenewly plantedmaizeimmediatelytoprotecttheseedagainstbirds;thisincreasesthenumberofirrigations appliedpercultivationfromfourtofiverounds. 37 Warthogandporcupinearecommonproblemsinallareascoveredbythisassessment(seephoto), aswellashyenaandfox,particularlyaffectingmaizeandwatermelon.
33

32

associatedwithwhatwasbelievedtobetherelativelysalinefloodwaterfromthe highlandbelgrainsandusedforirrigationinjilal.Althoughtheriskofincreasing secondarysalinity,duetoirrigationhadbeenrecognizedforsometime,informants feltthattheproblemwasincreasing. Theassessmentteamsawevidenceofsalinityinseveralofthestudysites(see photograph,page22). Someofthefactorsthatmaycontributetothesalinityproblemincluded: theincreasinguseofsmallonepistonwaterpumps,whichhasforcedfarmersto concentrateonlandclosetotheriverwhereirrigationiseasier; poordesignoftheirrigationinthattherewasnoprocessforleachingoffthe salinewater(e.g.subsurfacedrainagechannels)andpreventingthebuildupof saltinthesoil; hightemperaturesandaridclimatewhichcausehighevapotranspiration;theuse ofloosesoilfortheconstructionoftheirrigationcanalswhichmeansthatthe waterisabsorbed,leavingthesaltbehind(thusaggravatingsecondarysalinity). Theriskofirrigatedfarmingactivitybeingaffectedbysecondarysalinisationis reportedlyhigherintheMustahilareathaninKelafoandGode.Intheformer,the concentrationofsaltinthesoilisrelativelyhighandrunoffwaterfromthehillsides duringtherainyseasonwasreportedtoaggravatethesalinityproblem. WaterbornediseasesthisproblemwaslimitedtoMustahil,wheretheprevalence ofschistosomiasiswasreportedtohaveincreasedoverthelasttwoyearsas irrigatedfarmingexpanded.Asmentionedabove,gooddesignoftheirrigation schemecanreducetheriskascanextensioneffortsaimedatraisingawareness abouthowtopreventchildrenandadultsbecominginfected. b. Economicfactors Highcostsofproductiontheincreasingpriceoffuelwasseenbyinformantsasone ofthemainreasonsfortherelativelylownetbenefitsfromirrigatedfarming. Between2008and2010,thefuelpriceincreasedfrom11ETBto17ETBperlitre(a 54%increase).Theeffectofincreasingfuelpriceswasexacerbatedasfuel consumptionofthepumpsincreasedastheyaged,andalso,bytheheavywind stormsthatincreasedthenumberofirrigationsrequired(especiallyinhagay). Althoughtherewasnomajorchangeinthepricesofsparepartsforthepumps, informantscomplainedaboutthedecliningqualityofthepartsavailableinthelocal markets,whichmeantthattheyhadtobereplacedwithincreasingfrequency. AbsenceofreliablemarketsandlowmarketpricesinGodetheABGsfailedtofind amarketfortheironionandtomatoharvestsfromthefirstroundharvestin2009.In alltheassessmentareas,theABGparticipantsfeltthatthepricespaidforbothcash andfoodcropsinthelocalmarketsweretoolow.Theyblamedtheregional governmentforblockingtheroadfromGodetoJijiga,effectivelycuttingthemoff 33

fromtheJijigamarket.Theyalsonotedthealmostblanketinjectionofpoorly targetedfoodaidintothearea,whichtheysaidhaddepressedfarmprices. c. Socialfactors ConflictintheKelafoarea,pastoralistsdryseasongrazinglandhadbeen convertedtofarmlandsandhere,informantsreportedtensionandconflictbetween camelpastoralistsandsesamefarmers.Specificexamplesincludedcasesofcamels beingburnedaliveorknifedbycropfarmers,andapastoralistwhoheldasesame farmeratgunpointwhilehiscamelsfedonthecrop38.InMustahil,wherethecrop farmerswereagropastoralistswithrelativelylargelivestockherdsthemselves,a significantpartofthepasturelandwasfencedoff. PumpmanagementintheABGscoveredbytheassessment,therewerenomajor problemsrelatedtotheuseormanagementofthewaterpumps.InKelafoand Mustahil,wherefarmingisconductedonanindividualbasis,eachpumpuser connectedthefueltubeofthepumpdirectlytotheirfuelcontainerratherthan puttingitintothemaintank.Inthisway,eachpersoncouldonlyusethepumpfor aslongtheyprovidedfuel.Thecommunitiesintheseareasalsousedasystemwhere theyallocatedthelandclosetoandfarfromtheriverequally,thussharingtheextra costoffuelincurredinirrigatingplotsfurtherfromtheriver. OneexceptionwastheTundhowABGinKelafo,whichhadnotusedtheirpumps sincethefirstcultivationbecauseofaconflictbetweentheparticipantsandthe formerABGcommitteemembers,withthelatterblamedformisusingpartofthe fuelcollectedfromCHFin2008.AlthoughtheABGparticipantsagreedtoprivatize thepumps,theyfailedtoagreeonwhoshouldberesponsibleforpump managementcandidateshadbeenidentifiedfromfourdifferentsubclansofthe sixsubclansthatsharedthepumps. 3.3 CostbenefitanalysisofirrigatedfarminginGode Acostbenefitanalysis(CBA)wasconductedusinginformationprovidedbyCHFon projectcosts,andinformationcollectedduringtheassessmentonbenefits,being mainlytheincomefromproducesales.Farmexpensesbyprojectparticipantswere alsoconsideredintheanalysis.TheCBAwasrestrictedtoGode,asABGsinthisarea wereabletoprovideproductiondataestimates,whereasinKelafoandMustahil, peoplewerefarmingonanindividualbasisandrepresentativeproductiondatawas notavailable. TheGodeandKelafoABGscollectedthreeharvestsfromthefourplantations conductedbetweenthehagay2008seasonandthejilal2010season.Generally,the firstplantationin2008wasperceivedtobethebestintermsofyield,followedby thethirdplantationinthesecondhalfof2009.InMustahil,wherethethird
38

ThesetypesofconflictstookplaceevenbeforeLSAPandwerenotnecessarilycausedbyor exacerbatedbytheproject.

34

plantationwasdestroyedbyfloodsinearly2010,farmershadcollectedtwoharvests byAugust2010. ItwasnotablethatattemptstoconducttheCBAwasconstrainedbyabsentor incompletedataontheoutputsofirrigatedfarmingduringtheproject.The productiondataobtainedfromtheCHFGodeofficewasassumedtobeinaccurate, asthefigureswereidenticalacrossABGsandsuchanoutcomewasviewedashighly unlikelybytheassessmentteam.TheCHFproductiondataalsocontradictedsomeof theinformationobtainedfromtheABGs.Forexample,theCHFdata(albeitprovided foratimeperiodaftertheendoftheLSAPproject)indicatedthatalloftheABGs hadharvestedfourtimesbetweenJuly2008andJuly2010includingthoseof Mustahil.ThiscontrastedwiththethreeharvestsreportedbyABGsduringthe assessment.Also,itwasnotpossibleforinformantstoestimatethevalueofthecrop byproductsfedtotheirownlivestock,orthevalueoffarmproducethatwas consumedbeforebeingharvested;bothwerepotentiallysubstantialbenefits.In Gode,whereirrigatedfarmingwasconductedasagroupventure,theABGshadnot keptanyrecords. Withtheaboveissuesinmind,twocostbenefitratioswerecalculatedasfollows: 1. ACBAduringtheCHFprojectperiodonly,basedon1cultivation,harvestand saleofproduce: 2. ACBAbasedonproductionduringandaftertheproject,assuming3 cultivations,harvestsandsaleofproduce. Asnotedabove,theCBAsdidnotincludebenefitssuchasthevalueofcropby productsfedtolivestockordirecthouseholdconsumptionofproduce.These omissionswouldleadtoanunderestimationofthecostbenefitratio.However,the calculationsalsoomittedthebenefitsofpreprojectfarmingactivities,andtheneed forafullCBAtoconsideronlytheadditionalbenefitsprovidedbytheproject, relativetothepreprojectperiod.Thisomissionwouldleadtoanoverestimateof projectbenefits.Furthermore,theCBAalsoomittedthevalueoflabourinputsand theadditionaltimespendonfarmingactivitiesrelativetothepreprojectperiod(e.g. seeFigure5).

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Table7
TypeofCBA

CostbenefitanalysisofpumpbasedirrigationinGode
Amount(US$)

CBAforoneplantation(2008) Costs Projectcosts1 Costofseedprovidedtotalcostplustransport Costofpumps12pumpsx$1698/pump CostoffuelprovidedtoABGs20barrelsx$213/barrel2 CostofagriculturaltoolsprovidedtoABGs Trainingforgroupmembers CHFtechnicalandadminstaffcosts Projectvehiclerentandfuelcosts CHFoverheadcosts Subtotalprojectcostsforall6ABGs Communitycosts(firstplantation) InitialcontributionbytheABGs(2,500ETBperABG) Transportationofproducetomarket Subtotalcommunitycostsfor6ABGs Totalcosts6ABGs Benefits3 Estimatedvalueofproducesalesfrom1stplantation,GodeABGs4 Costbenefitratio CBAfor3plantations(20082010) Costs Projectcosts Communitycosts:reportedtotalcostsfor3plantations Total Benefits Estimatedvalueofproducesalesfrom3plantations5 Costbenefitratio
5

5918 20385 4260 4441 333 2790 3686 1889 43702 1364 109 1473 45175 16394 1:0.4

43702 5818 49520 34636 1:0.7

NotesforTable7 1 Costsfor6GodeABGscalculatedasonethirdoftotalcostsfor18ABGs,exceptforfuelcost. 2 ActualcostestimatedfromnumberofbarrelsoffueldeliveredtoGodeABGs. 3 ValuesestimatedfromFGDsandLSAPprojectdocuments;note2ABGshadnilproduction. 4 Thesalesvalueisequivalentto82US$(902ETB)perhhassuming4ABGsof50hheach. 5 CostsandbenefitscalculatedfromBarsanABGwhichreportedthehighestincomeoftheGode ABGs.

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4.

DISCUSSION

4.1 Theimportanceofpreprojectanalysis 4.1.1 Participatoryapproaches ThephysicalgeographyandclancompositionofGodezonemeansthatlivelihoodsin thezonehavebeenstronglyinfluencedbytrendsinneighbouringSomalia,including trendsinthedevelopmentofirrigationsystemsontheSomaliasideoftheborder.In bothSomaliaandEthiopiathereisalonghistoryofirrigation,datingbacktothe 1960s,andlocally,anextensiveperiodofexperimentationandadaptationof irrigationapproachesindependentlyofgovernmentoraidprojects.Therewas alreadyconsiderablelocalknowledgeonwhatworksandwhybeforetheCHF project,withthedevelopmentofthedhulqeybandbirgeracsystemstosuitlocal social,environmentalandmarketcontextsandopportunities. TheLSAPprojectwasfundedbyOFDA,andbestpracticeforthedesignof humanitarianprojectsincludesparticipatoryassessment;thefirstCommonStandard oftheSpherehandbookisparticipation39.Thisstandardcapturesnotonlytheright oflocalpeopletocontributetothedesignofprojectsfromwhichtheyaresupposed tobenefit,butalso,recognizesthatlocalknowledgeisakeyintellectualandpractical resourceforprojectdesign.TheLSAPprojectclearlyincludedmuchlocal involvementinprojectimplementation,butwhatwaslessclearwastheextentto whichthegroupbasedapproachtoirrigationandthespecificmaterialinputsdrew onlocalknowledgeoranunderstandingofpreexistingirrigationsystemsand histories.ThegroupbasedABGapproachseemednottotakeaccountofthestrong tendencyforwellestablishedirrigationsystemsintheareastobeorganizedonan individualbasis,withpumpshiredfromprivateowners.Thisisanexampleofapre existingservicewhichlivelihoodsbasedapproachesshouldaimtounderstandand improve40orstrengthen,ratherthanreplacewithanalternativeapproach.Similarly, therewerepreexisting,clearandequitablesystemsforallocatinglandforirrigation. Forexample,thelandclosesttoandfurthestfromtheriverwastraditionallyshared equallybetweenthecommunitymembersinvolvedinfarming,inordertosharethe higherbenefitfromirrigationclosetotheriverandthehighercostsofirrigatingplots furtheraway.IncommunitiessuchasKelafo,thelandallocatedtotheABGwaslater sharedoutinthisway.ThissuggeststhatinsuchcommunitiesandcontrarytoL SAPitwouldnotbeappropriatetotargetselectedpoorhouseholdswithsmall pumpsforirrigationclosetotheriver. InKelafoandMustahil,therapidreversiontopreprojectirrigationsystems indicatedthatcommunitiesviewedtheABGapproachasunnecessary,buta relativelyacceptablewaytoacquirethefreematerialinputsofLSAPsuchaspumps,
TheSphereProject(2005),HumanitarianCharterandMinimumStandardsinDisasterResponse. http://www.sphereproject.org 40 Thereareconcernsthattheprivatesystemsaredisproportionatelybeneficialtothepumpowners andexcludepoorerfarmers;furtherresearchwouldbeneededintoexactlyhowthesesystemswork andhowtheycouldbeexpandedtobenefitmorefarmers,includingpoorerfarmers.
39

37

fuel,seedsandtools.Intheseareas,theseprojectresourcesweresimplyabsorbed intotheexistingsystems,usuallywithprivateoperatorstakingovercontrolofthe pumps.Theplannedintroductionofagroupbasedsavingsandcreditscheme potentiallycouldstrengthenexistingsystemsbyprovidingasourceofcreditforthe individualpurchaseoffarminputs.However,althoughplanned,thisdidnothappen underLSAPandcouldnotbeconsideredduringtheassessment. Theseexperiencesillustratetheimportanceofunderstandingandworkingwith privatesectorstakeholdersfromtheonset.IntermsofscalinguptheCHFapproach, itmightbearguedthatCHFshouldbasefurthersupportonananalysisofconstraints andopportunitieswithprivatepumpowners.Asthesestakeholderscanpurchase pumpsataroundthehalfthecostofCHF(seefootnote16,page14),OFDAandCHF willneedtoconsidertheeconomiclogicofdeliveringmorepumpsfreeofcharge. 4.1.2 Preprojectlessonsfromtheliterature Theparticipatoryanalysisoutlinedcanbestrengthenedifexperiencesfromprevious smallscaleirrigationareconsidered.Indeed,manyoftheissuesdescribedinsection 3.2.9arealsoreflectedintheliteratureonsmallscaleirrigationinEthiopia.Someof thekeylessonsfromtheliteraturearesummarisedinTable8inrelationtothe criticalengineering,socioeconomic,environmentalandinstitutionalaspectsofthe schemeswhichcanleadtotheirunderperformance.Inanalysingtheopportunities forexpandingsmallscaleirrigationinEthiopia,IWMI(2005)summarisethe difficultiesasfollows:evenincountrieswherewaterresourcespotentialis relativelywellknownandknowntobesubstantial,otherconditionsmaynotbe conduciveforsustainableirrigationdevelopmenttoachievefoodsecurity,improve livelihoodsandreducepoverty.Suchconditionsmayvaryfromattributessuchas topography,soilsconditionsandrainfallcharacteristics,totechnicaland socioeconomicissuessuchaslackofphysicalinfrastructure,accesstoinnovations andinformation,markets,credits,extension,andotherinstitutionalsupportservices neededtoenhanceviableirrigationfarming.Thereisampleevidencethatmostof theseconditionshavenotbeensufficientlymetintheexpansionofsmallscale irrigation,microirrigationandrainwaterharvestinginEthiopia.Thus,theimpactsof theseinitiativesinmostregionsofthecountryhavebeenlimited,especiallyin addressingthecountryschronicfoodinsecurityproblems.41 OtherreviewsbyFARMAfrica(2006)suggestthatinanyscheme,theanalysisofthe potentialbenefitsandcostsofintroducingsmallscaleirrigationneedstobeweighed againstthebenefitsandcostsofalternativemeansofimprovingagricultural production,forexamplethroughimprovedpostharvestpractices,bettermarket linkages,improvedseedsandsoon,whichmayprovidewiderbenefitsthanasmall scaleirrigationscheme42.ThisadviceisechoedintheIWMI(2005)reportwhich concluded:Thus,wehypothesizethateffortstoachievefoodsecurityandreduce povertythroughirrigationwillachievegreaterimpacts,ifcomplementedby simultaneouseffortstoincreaseproductivityintherainfedsubsector,which
41 42

Awulachew,S.B.etal.(2005),ibid. Carter,R.andDanert,K(2006),ibid.

38

Table8

Lessonsfromtheliterature,Ethiopia

CommonfactorsthreateningthesuccessofSSI Overemphasisonphysicaldesignandinfrastructure,andlackofan integratedapproachtotheenhancementoflivelihoodsthroughthe scheme(afocusonthehardwareofirrigation) Poorphysicaldesignduetolackofdataorlimitedtechnicalexperience Pumpcapacitynotadequatetocovertheplannedirrigationarea;this canresultinasmallerareabeingirrigatedand/orreducedirrigation frequency,bothleadingtolowerproduction(andthereforeincome) Focusonsingleratherthanmultiplewaterusesystemswheredomestic, sanitation/hygiene,livestockneedsaswellasagriculturalneedsare considered Lackofaccesstoinputs,particularlyimprovedinputswheretheseare requiredfortheproductionofcashcrops;lackofasourceofincomefor thepurchaseofinputs(seed,fertiliser,pesticides,credit) Lackofinternalmarketsforthesaleofoutputsandlowfarmgateprices; localmarketsmaybecomesaturatedwhenproducersinaschemegrow thesamecropsleadingtolowprices,oreventhelossofperishablecrops Lackofplanningforoperationandmaintenance,includingidentifying sourcesofincomeforoperationandmaintenancecosts;inflationinthe priceoffuelandotherinputs Increasedburdenoflabourbecauseofagriculturalintensificationnot alwayscosted(particularlyimpactonwomenfarmers) Conflictsbetweenuseoflandforsmallscaleirrigationandotheruses (e.g.grazing) Lackofattentiontogenderissues,forexamplewomensaccesstoland, labourandwater,andtheirparticipationinwaterusercommittees Poorcatchmentmanagement/limitedsoilconservationmeasurescan resultinflashfloods,siltladensoilsanddebris Increasedcompetitionforwaterresourcescancreateconflictbetween upstreamanddownstreamwaterusers, Soildegradationthroughsalinisation,waterlogging,erosionandsoil nutrientminingarecommonproblemsofirrigationschemes Yearroundimpoundmentofwatercanleadtoanincreasedincidenceof malariaandschistosomiasis(especiallybelow2000m) Newcommunitymanagementmechanismsintroducedwithouttaking intoaccountexistingstructurescanleadtooverlap,confusionand exclusionandmaynotbesustainable Lackoflocallevelgovernmentbodiesfortheguidanceofirrigation operation,maintenanceandwatermanagementatcommunitylevel, particularlyonceschemesarehandedovertofarmers Weaklinkagestotheagriculturalextensionsystemforfollowupand supportwithcropselection,thesourcingofinputs,production techniques,pestanddiseasemanagement,andstorageandmarketing, particularlywherenew,highvaluecropsareintroduced Weakregulatory/legalframeworkfortheresolutionofissuesrelatedto wateruserrights(e.g.betweenupstreamanddownstreamusers, betweenpastoralistsandfarmers,betweentraditionalirrigatorsand usersofimprovedschemes) Tableadaptedfrom:Carter,R.andDanert,K.,ibid;Annen,C.(2004).IrrigationPlanningand Implementation:EthiopiaCaseStudiesinIWMI(2004)InvestmentinAgriculturalWaterManagement inSubSaharanAfrica:DiagnosisofTrendsandOpportunities;Awulachew,S.B.etal.(2005),ibid.

Aspectofthescheme Engineering/physical Economic Socialandgender Environmentand environmentalhealth Institutional Policy

39

contributestotheoverwhelmingproportionofagriculturalproductionandnearlyall thestaplegraininthecountry.Infact,thismayhaveamuchmoredirectimpacton foodsecuritythanirrigationalone,becausemostofthefoodcropsarerainfed.43 AcomparisonoftheresultsfromtheLSAPproject(section3)withtheissues detailedinTable8issobering,andreinforcestheconclusionthattheinitialproject designwasweak,anddidnottakeaccountoflessonsalreadylearnedinEthiopiaon smallscaleirrigation.Specificprojectissuesarediscussedinmoredetailinthe followingsection. 4.2 Projectmonitoring Thelackofverifiableprojectmonitoringdataonproduction,andlimited documentationofthecostsandbenefitsoftheABGschemesunderLSAPlimited thelearningfromtheproject.Inthisregard,theCHFfieldoffices,particularlyin MustahilandKelafoneedtobesupportedtoestablishbetterdocumentation systems. 4.3 Livelihoodsissues 4.3.1 Livelihoodimpactandimplications Theassessmentshowedthattherehasbeenasubstantialincreaseinhouseholdon farmproductionsince2007acrossallthreeareas.Althoughthisledtomore householdconsumptionoffarmproduce,mostoftheincreaseinproductionwas cropsforsale.However,thelivelihoodimpactsofthesechangeswereminimaldue tothecorrespondingincreasesinexpenditureonfarminputsparticularly,fueland pumpspareparts,andtherelativelypoormarketoutletsandlowmarketpricesfor thecropsproduced. Ofthecashreceivedfromproducesales,theamountspentonfarminputs accountedforalmostthreequartersofincome,asignificantlyhigherproportionof incomethanin2007.Similarly,theamountspentonnonfarmusesaccountedfor aroundonequarteroftotalfarmincomeatthetimeoftheassessment,comparedto around43%in2007.Householdspendingonconsumablesandhealthandeducation increasedinallareas,andthisincreasewassignificantforspendingoneducation andhealthcareinKelafoandGode.Itwasnotablethattheincreaseinincomehas nottranslatedintoasignificantincreaseinhouseholdinvestmentinkeyassetssuch aslivestock,exceptinKelafo. Intermsofthenetprofitfromfarming,althoughtheproportionalpilingexercises suggestedthatnetprofithasdoubledsince2007(Table5)withsimilarscoresgiven acrossthethreesitesthiswasnotsupportedbydatafromFGDs,suchasoneto threefullorpartialcropfailuresduringthepreviousfourproductionseasons.The groupsalsodescribedsubstantialexpenditureonspareparts,especiallyafterthe
43

Awulachew,S.B.etal.(2005),ibid.

40

firstproductionseason,withtwooftheFGDsstatingthattheycouldnotafford repairstothepumps.OnegrouphadpurchasedanotherpumpwhentheCHFpumps brokedown,whileanothergroupshiftedtoapumprentalsystem.Thegroupsin Godeweresellingfirewoodtoraisefundstocoverthecostsoffuelandspareparts, andallrequestedadonkeycarttohelpwiththisactivity. Althoughthecostofsparepartswashigh,thepriceoffuelwasfarmoreimportant intermsofimpactingonnetprofits.Sincetheprojectstartedin2008,thepriceof fuelincreasedbyover50%andthiswascitedasoneofthemajorfactorsaffecting theprofitabilityoffarms.Foranirrigatedproductionareaof5haofmaizeat2009 pricesinGode(i.e.fuelcost11ETB/litreandmaizesoldfor250ETB/quintal),we estimatedthatanincreaseinthepriceoffuelto17ETBledtoa34%reductioninnet profit.Incomparison,a50%increaseinthecostofsparepartsledtoonlya3% reductioninnetprofit.Marketpriceswerealsoakeydeterminantofprofitability. Forexample,a20%increaseinthepriceofmaizeledtoa36%increaseinnetprofit. Additionalcalculationsusingdataprovidedbylocalinformantsindicatedthatthe productionofirrigatedmaizealonewasnotprofitableorsustainableifcurrent trendsinfuelpricecontinued.Forexample: Weestimatedanetprofitof13,973ETBfroma5hamaizeplot,basedon fourirrigationspercultivationperiod,anoptimumyieldof20quintals/ha, andthesaleofallproduce(at2009pricesasabove). However,ataninflatedfuelpriceof17ETB,iffiveirrigationswereneeded andthehouseholdsconsumed30%ofthemaizeproduction,thentheprofit turnedtoalossevenifthemaximummaizeyieldwasobtained. Thistypeofanalysishelpstoexplainwhyfarmerspreferredtosellmaizeforfodder atanearlystageofgrowth,thusreducingirrigationcostsaswellastheriskofcrop damage.Peoplealsoplacedahighvalueonmaizebyproducts,forexample,maize leavesfedtotheirownlivestock. Althoughsimilareconomicanalysessuggestedthattheproductionofcashcropsis relativelymoreprofitable,thehighcostofproductionandsusceptibilitytodisease increasetheriskofcropfailureandreduceprofitability.Forexample,onionshadto beirrigatedeverythreedaysoveragrowingperiodof140days,makingfuelcosts veryhigh.Tocounterthis,communitiesallocatedplotsonlyforonionproduction closertotheriver. 4.3.2 Economicissuesmarketsandtrade Theinclusionofhighvaluecashcropsseemstobeessentialtotheprofitabilityof smallscaleirrigatedfarming.Itfollowsthataccesstomarketsandafairmarketprice forthesecropswillbeamaindeterminantofprofitability.However,accesstothe Jijigamarketwaslimitedandsofarmersdependedonlocalmarkets.Thismeantthat somepeople(particularlyinGode)struggledtofindamarketfortheircrops. AlthoughthenumberoftradersaccessingtheSomaliamarketshadincreased

41

followingtheexpansionofAlShebab,reopeningaccesstotheJijigamarketwould avoidforcingproducerstodependonSomaliamarketsalone. Whenresearchingthepotentialforsmallscaleirrigatedagriculture,wefoundfew studiesthatusedthepotentialyieldsfordifferentcombinationsofirrigatedcrops andthepotentialmarketforthesecrops,asthestartingpointforanalysis.Theuse ofsimplemodelstocalculatethepotentialcostsandbenefitsofirrigatedagriculture underdifferentscenariosrelatingtocropyields,marketprices,pumpoperatingand maintenancecostsetc.isneededduringthedesignoffutureprojects. Theimpactofaidfoodindepressingmarketpricesforfarmproduceand discouraginglocalproducerswashighlightedbyinformants.Althoughbeyondthe scopeoftheassessment,thisisanotherfactorthatneedstobeconsideredwhen assessingthepotentialmarketforlocallyproducedirrigatedcrops.

FoodaidinMustahil,citedasacauseoflowpricesforproducefromirrigatedLSAPplots

Futureprojectsalsoneedtoconsiderwaystosupportproducerstoidentifymarkets andsecureproductionagreementsinadvanceofthegrowingseason.Forexample, wherelocalsourcesareusedforpurchasingaidfood,aidagenciescouldsign agreementswithproducersinadvance,basedonthebiannualassessments conductedbyUNagenciestoforecastfoodneeds.Inthisregard,UNagenciesneed toreviewthecurrentstringentaidfoodprocurementprocedureswherebypayments forgrainpurchasedfromlocalfarmerse.g.inGode,needtobemadeviathe regionalgovernmentinJijiga.Also,intermsofcropselection,farmersneedtohave bettermarketinformationtoenablethemtocoordinatewhattheyproducetotake advantageoflocalmarkets,ratherthanproducingthesametypeofcropsinagiven seasonandthenoversupplyingthemarket. 42

4.3.3 Environmentalandhealthimpactsandimplications Thekeyenvironmentalissuearisingfromtheassessmentwastheimpactof increasingsoilandirrigationwatersalinityonreducingcropyields.Saltlinedthe irrigationchannelsinprojectsites,andinformants(particularlyinGode)stressedthe problemofsoilsalinityduringthejilalcroppingseason.Itwasunclearwhether designfeatures(suchassubsurfacedrainagechannels)couldbeusedinfutureto reducethesalinityproblems. Inpart,theincreaseintheincidenceofschistosomiasisinMustahilalsorelatedto designfactors.Theriskofschistosomiasiscanbereducedboththroughthedesignof irrigationchannels(toreducepondingandallowforperiodicdryingoutofthe channel)aswellasthroughraisingawarenessaroundthemanagementofthe scheme.Thiscouldbeaddressedinfuturethroughamoremultidisciplinary, integratedapproachtoirrigationdevelopmentthatensuresthatfarmersinvolvedin newirrigationschemesarelinkedtotheagriculturalandhealthextensionsystemsin thearea. Awiderissuewasthegeneralsuitabilityoftheareaforsmallscaleirrigated agriculture,intermsofenvironmentalcharacteristics.AlthoughtheLSAPproject proposalanticipatedatleastthreeirrigatedcultivationsperyear,inreality,farmers didnotproducemoretwocultivationsperyear,timedtothetraditionalrainfed croppingseasons.Thearidsoils,hightemperaturesandhagayseasonduststorms meantthatthecostsandrisksofcropproductionoutsidethetraditionalrainfed croppingseasonswerehigh.Inaddition,inpartsofMustahilandKelafo,farmers facedregularfloodswhichdestroyedcropsandprofitsforthatseason.Withinthis environmentalcontextandunlessthecostsofproductioncanbesubstantially reduced,livelihoodsbasedonirrigatedcropfarmingarehighrisk. 4.3.4 Socialimpactandimplications Theassessmenthighlightedanumberoflessonsrelatedtothepotentialsocial impactsofaidrelatedsmallscaleirrigationschemes.First,thereisaclearriskof conflictintheconversionofformerpasturelandtofarmlandwhenlandwasformerly usedasdryseasongrazingforlivestock.Unfortunately,therehavebeenanumberof casesofconflictbetweenfarmersandpastoralistsintheLSAPareasinKelafo,not necessarilyrelatedtotheproject. Incontrast,inthosecommunitieswithahistoryofpracticingirrigatedagriculture therearealreadyclearandequitablesystemsforallocatinglandforirrigation.For example,thelandclosesttoandfurthestfromtheriveristraditionallyshared equallybetweenthecommunitymembersinvolvedinfarminginordertosharethe higherbenefitfromirrigationclosetotheriver,andthehighercostsofirrigating plotsfurtheraway.Inthesecommunities,thelandallocatedtotheABGwasshared outinthisway.Thissuggeststhatinsuchcommunities,itwillnotbeappropriateto targetselectedpoorhouseholdswithsmallpumpsforirrigationclosetotheriver.

43

4.4 Futureconsiderations 4.4.1 Securingaccesstoland

AlongtheWabeShabelleandJubariversinSomalia,thehistoryofirrigationincludes appropriationofproductiveriverinelandeitherbygovernmentormorepowerful clans,leadingtotheimpoverishmentofsmallscalefarmersoragropastoralistsfrom minorityclanswhohadhithertooccupiedtheseareas.44InEthiopia,theWabe Shabellehasseenlargescalecommercialirrigationschemeswithlimited sustainability(e.g.seeFigure2).Intheabsenceofformalizedlandtenure arrangementswhichsecuretheuseofriverinelandforlessinfluentialclans,thereis ariskthatsuchgroupswillbedisplacedatsomepoint.Furthermore,asgroupssuch astheRerBarrearesodependentoncropfarming,ifdisplacedtheyhavefew alternativelivelihoodsoptionstoturnto. Thiskindofanalysisindicatesthatalthoughtheremaybeoptionsfortechnical supporttostrengthensmallscaleirrigationinGodezone,thekeyissuesmaybe aroundlandtenureandthecomplexitiesoflandrightsinthispartofEthiopia. Furtheranalysisoftheseissuesseemstobefundamentaltothefutureofriverine farmersinthezone,andcouldinvolvelinkageswiththeongoingEthiopia StrengtheningLandAdministrationProgram.45 4.4.2 Irrigationinvestmentsaredevelopmentinvestments Theassessmentshowedthattheestablishmentofsustainablesmallscaleirrigation schemesrequireslongertermtechnicalsupportthancanbeprovidedbyaoneyear project.TheLSAPprojectwasdesignedasanemergencyinterventionandphased outimmediatelyafterthedistributionofinputs.ThisdidnotallowCHFeitherto learnlessonsabouttheimpactofitswork,ortoprovidethegroupswiththe necessarysupporttomanagetheschemeanddealwiththemanypracticaland technicalproblemstheyfaced(risingfuelcosts,findingmarketsforproduce,analysis ofthecostsandbenefitsofproducingdifferentcrops,accesstocreditandextension servicesetc).MostoftheABGgroupswerenolongeroperatingasgroups,but peoplecontinuedtoengageinirrigatedagricultureonaprivate,individual householdbasis. 4.4.3 Designissues Intermsofthedesignandscaleofirrigationschemes,availableevidenceindicates thattheriskofsalinityincreaseswiththeuseoflandclosetoariver,and,itis difficulttolimitorcontrolthenumberofhouseholdsparticipatinginthescheme.In contrast,theuseoflandfarfromariverrequiresmorepowerfulwaterpumps and/oragravitybasedirrigationsystem,whichistoocostlyforindividual,small scaleirrigationusers.
Besteman,C.,Cassanelli,L.V.(eds.)(2003),TheStruggleforLandinSouthernSomalia:TheWar BehindtheWar.HaanPublicationsLondonandTransactionPublications,NewBrunswick. 45 http://eltap.net/
44

44

 Largerscaleirrigationprojectsthatcompetewithpastoralismfordryseasongrazing areasclosetoariver,caneasilyresultinlanddisputesbetweenpastoralistsandcrop farmers,andruntheriskofcausingirreversibledamagetothesegrazingareas. However,toavoidthisproblemaschemehastobelargeenoughtojustifytheuseof morepowerfulpumpsandagravitysystemthatenableslandtobeirrigatedfurther inland.Suchschemesrequirehugeinitialinvestments,andtheextenttowhichthey aresustainableintheenvironmental,socialandgovernancecontextofSomali Regionwouldappeartobeunderquestion,giventhehistoryofcomparableschemes intheregion. 4.4.4 Recommendations TheoptionsforanorganizationsuchasCHFinclude: Shiftfocusawayfromsupportingsmallscale(i.e.onepistonpump)group basedirrigationschemestargetedataselectednumberofpoorhouseholds, whichthenbecomeresponsibleformanagementandcontroloffuel,spare partsandotherinputs. Supportandencouragethecontinuedexpansionofprivatelyrunschemes (forexampleusingpumpswithahighercapacitythatcansupportirrigation furtherfromtheriver)andsupporttheparticipationofpoorhouseholdsby helpingthemtocoverthecostsoffuelandpumphire,forexamplethrougha vouchersystem46.Thiswouldalsohavetheadvantageofreducingtherisks ofagencyprovidedinputsbeingmisappropriated,ashappenedinanumber ofABGsunderLSAP. Spreadthecostsoffutureschemesbyensuringthatschemesallowfor multipleproductivewaterusese.g.fordomesticuse,forlivestock,for sanitationandhygiene,aswellasforfarmingthiscouldpotentiallyspread thecostsoftheschemeovermultipleuses/users,aswellascreating benefitssuchasreducedlabourforwomenandchildreninfetchingwater. Considerthecostsandbenefitsofpromotingotherwatertechnologiessuch asrainwaterharvesting,manualwaterliftingpumps/treadlepumps,drip kits,thatcanpotentiallybeusednotonlyforirrigation,butalsoforrainfed farmingandforotherpurposes47;thesewouldavoidthehighcostsof collectiveschemesandbemoreaccessibletoindividualfarmersifsupplied throughtheprivatesector. Supporttoandstimulationoftheprivateandgovernmentalsectorsas appropriateforthesupplyofandaccesstotheotherinputsthatare necessaryforthesuccessofirrigatedandrainfedfarming,suchas
Moredetailedresearchwouldbeneededintothecurrentmodalities,andtherelativedistribution ofcostsandbenefitsoftheexistingpumprentalschemesinGodeandelsewhereintheregion. 47 Ibid.Someofthesetechnologies(e.g.treadlepumps)havealreadybeenintroducedinTigrayand Amhararegions.
46

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agriculturalandhealthextensionsupport,supplychainsforfarminputs (improvedseeds,pesticidesandfertilisers)andcredit,improvedpostharvest storage,produceragreementsandmarketingoptionsandsoon.

5.

Conclusions

Asevidencedinthisproject,andsupportedbytheliterature,thevalueofirrigated farmingtoacommunityisdependentonanumberofvariables,someofwhichare withinthecontrolofaprojectandsomeofwhicharenot.Theseneedtobe thoroughlyconsideredatthedesignstageofanyirrigationintervention.Ifan organisationistosetupanewirrigationscheme,itneedstohavetechnicalcapacity tobeabletoassessthepotentialcostsandbenefitsfromallitsvariousaspectsthe irrigablepotentialofthelandtobedeveloped,themultipleneedsforwaterand potentiallycompetingneeds,thesocialorganisationandgenderimplicationsofthe scheme,accesstoinputmarkets(forfuelandsparepartsaswellasforseeds, fertilisersandpesticides)andaccesstoandsizeofmarketsforthecashcropstobe produced.Italsoneedstoassesstheenvironmentalcontextandenvironmental implicationsofthescheme.ThePIAresultsshowthattheLSAPprojecthada positiveimpactonhouseholdincome,butnottotheextentanticipatedinthe projectdesign.AfewoftheGodeABGsarestilloperatingonacollectivebasis,but theschemesareperformingwellbelowtheirpotentialandtheireconomic sustainabilityisinquestion.InKelafoandMustahil,theABGsnolongerexistandthe schemesarebeingoperatedandmanagedbythecommunityonaprivateindividual basis.However,againthereareeconomicandenvironmentalfactorsthreateningthe sustainabilityoftheseschemesnamely,thelimitedaccesstotheJijigaand Degahaburmarketsforproduce,andconsequentrelianceontheSomalimarket,and inthecaseofMustahil,theregularthreatoffloodswhichdestroyinputsandcrops andmaketheschemeseconomicallyunviable. TheFARMAfrica(2006)papersuggeststhateachschemeneedstobeconsideredon acasebycasebasis,takingintoaccountthepotentialbenefitstoacommunity versusissuesofcostandsustainability.TheresultsfromtheLSAPPIAwouldsupport theideathattheverydifferentenvironmental,social,economicandpolitical contextsoperatingevenwithinSomaliregionjustifiesthiskindofcasebycase approachinfutureprojectdesign.Theuseofasimplemodellingtoolcouldhelpto estimatethepotentialcostsandbenefits,andthesensitivityofthepotential profitabilityofanirrigationinterventiontochangesinkeyvariablessuchastheprice offuelandthemarketpricesofcrops. ThePIAresultsshowthatfarmersinKelafoandMustahilwhoalreadyhad experienceofirrigatedfarmingwereimmediatelyabletoadoptandadapttheCHF inputstotheirownsystemsofproduction.InGode,wheretherewaslessexperience ofirrigatedfarming,thegroupsprobablyrequiredmoresupportduringandafterthe projecttobeabletogainexperienceandbuildtheircapacityinallofthedifferent aspectsofirrigatedproduction.Fortheformer,thewayforwardmaybetosupport thecontinuingexpansionandintensificationofprivatelyrunschemes,supporting andstrengtheningtheprivatesectorsupplychainsforbothinputsandoutputs,and 46

enablingpoorerhouseholdstoparticipatebycoveringtheircosts.Forboth,thereis aneedtoinvestigatewaysofbringingdowntheoperatingandmaintenancecosts throughtheintroductionoflowinputalternativetechnologies. Foranyscheme,thereneedstobemuchstrongerlinkagestolocallevelsupportand guidanceservicessuchasthehealthandagriculturalextensionservices,andcredit supplyservicesthatareequallyasnecessaryforthesuccessofsmallscaleirrigation schemesasthephysicaldesignofthescheme.Althoughtherehastobeabalance betweenprovidingadequatesupporttofarmersandtheriskofcreatingdependency onexternalagencies,theresultsofthePIAsuggestthataoneyeartimeframeisnot enoughtoensurethesustainablesuccessofthistypeofintervention.Thelackof timeforevaluationorimpactassessmentoftheLSAPhasmeantthatsomeofthe samemistakesarelikelytohavebeenrepeatedinthesubsequentSHAPEproject. Thereisrelativelylittledocumentedevidenceoftheperformanceofsmallscale irrigationinSomaliregion.ItisimportantthatthelessonslearnedfromCHFsLSAP andSHAPEprojectsarewidelysharedtoinformthedesignoffutureinterventions.

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ANNEXES Annex1

InputsprovidedperABG(basedonCHFdocumentsinGodefield office) Maize350kg;Sesame 80kg;Tomato(large) 3.25kg;Onion3 kg;Sweetpepper3kg;Sudangrass10kg;Smallcowpea10kg; Banana?notlisted 50spades,50sickles,2rollspolybags(small),2rollspolybags(large), smallrope(100m),3wheelbarrows,50localaxes,50Kelafohoes,50 frockhoes,35Kawawes 2AnilIndianwaterpumps1 handoverdocumentinGodefieldoffice states2dieselirrigationgeneratorswithcentrifugalpumpandfull accessories GodeUndateddocumentsintheCHFGodefieldofficerecordthe handoverof3barrelsoffuel(600litres)totheGodeABGs KelafoUndateddocumentsintheCHFGodefieldofficerecordthe handoverofvaryingamountsoffuelfrom10barrels(2,000litres)to 14barrels(2,800litres)offueltotheKelafoABGs MustahilNodocumentscouldbefound.TheABGsassessed reportedreceivingfrom5.5barrels(550litres)to7barrels(1,400 litres)offuel.

Seed

Tools

Water pumps Fuel2

Notes: 1 TheAnilpumpswere1pistoncapacitypumpsandwereselectedbyCHFbecause theyarewatercooledpumps(andthereforesuitablefortheGodeclimate),spare partsarereadilyavailableinGode,andtheyaresmallandcaneasilybemovedifthe riverfloods. 2 ThefuelwasnotdeliveredtotheABGsinonebatch,butinvaryingamountsprior toeachirrigationround. 48

Annex2
Crop

Numberofirrigationsrequiredpercrop
Frequencyofirrigation needed Every21daysfor4to5 months Every21daysfor2to3 months No.ofirrigationsneededper cultivationperiod 4normally,5ifverydry 2or3dependingonthemarket demand(thereisagoodmarketfor maizeleaffromsmallherdsdependent onbuyingfeed) 4 6 6 6070(NBhigherthaninhighland areas) 36

Maizeforseed/ consumption Maizeforfodder

Sesame Hotandsweetpepper Tomato Onion

Every21 daysfor2to3 months Every5daysfor1month Every5daysfor1month Every3daysfor6months

Banana

Every7daysfor9months

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Annex3
ABG

WaterpumpmaintenancecostsincurredbyABGs(for2pumps)
Pumpmaintenancecostpercultivation(ETB) Remarks 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Bakhtiley Ilan Barsen Qonlawe Agweyn Qudhaley Beladamin Irkabanan Danyare Kunaso Kobane Average

2500 3000 3000 2500 5566 2000 4000

870 2750 6500 4000 1800 6000 6500 5566 3000

7100 1750 7000 6000 1000 5000 2500 5566 2000

3400

Nocostsgivenfor1st cultivationforGodegroups; pumpspossiblyworkingbelow capacity

6000
Averageoftotalcostof16,700 ETBfor3cultivations Pumpsnotworkingafter1st cultivation Averageoftotalcostof3,650 ETBfor2nd&3rdcultivations Averageover3cultivationsis 3,693ETBfor2pumps

1825
3224 3881

1825
3974 4700

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Annex4 ABG Barsen Ilan Bakhtiley Agweyn Beledamin Irkabanan Kunaso Qonlawe Kobane

ResultsofABGcroppreferenceranking Maize Sesame Onion Tomato 1 2 3 4 2 1 4 3 3 2 1 4 1 4 2 3 1 4 2 3 1 2 4 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 3 4

51