1

. , () , .
( )
.
.
:
.

.
.. (C1H2) . ()
.
.
.
.. 2, 3, 4 ...
C3H61
.
2.
.
.
( )
.
.. H2O2 H O O H ,
H

C2 O C O , H C H ..
H

O .
.. C2H6O
H
H
H H
H C C O H H C O C H
H
H H
H

(C1H2) =3.

.
O .
H
.. CH4 H C H, CO2 O C O
H
.
O .
O
.. H
H
.

.


.

H .


(..). 3
:

. () .

, .. a +1 Cl 1
+1

Na , Cl
+2

Ca , 2 Cl

-1

-1

. Ca .. +2

Cl 1 .
.. 1,
+1

-1

Na , H .

. ..
,
, .

H O H .
,
+1

-2

+1

.: H , O , H .
.. +1 2 .
2F

F O F . -

-1

+2

-1

F ,O , F

.. F

1 +2.
H H ,
0

H , H
.. 0.
: H O O H . ..
+1

-1

-1

+1

H , O , O , H . .. +1 1
.
III.
(I) (II).

+1

Na , O H

-1

. Na +1 (OH)
1. -
-2
+1

+1

Na , O , H .. 2 +1.

..

.

.. -4 +7.

, (..e, Fe, 2, O2, O3 ...) ..=0

, ..

3 .. K, a (1 ) ..=+1

3 .. Ca, Mg (2 ) ..=+2

, ..

4 .. -1

4 .. +1 , .. -1

4 .. 2 , ( ---)
.. -1 F (O2F) .. +2

5 .. .

5 .. .

..

..

H2SO4 () ..=+1 ( 4 ),

() ..=-2 ( 4 ). A .. (S) x, : 2 ( 1) x 4 ( 2) 0 ( 5) .. S: x=+6.

() CaOCl2 Cl ..=-1
..=+1 ( 6)

nO4-1 () ..=-2 ( 4 ). A ..
1 ( 5)
(Mn) x : x 4 ( 2)
.. Mn: x=+7.

M
E
T

M
E
T

F
Cl, Br, I
S
N
P, As
C
B

-2

-1

-1

-1

-1

-2
-3

-2

Li, K, Na, Ag
Ca, Ba, Zn, Mg
Al, i
Cu, Hg
Au
Fe, Co, Ni
Pb, Sn, Pt
Cr
Mn

-3
-3

+2

+1

+3

0
-1

-3
-4

+1

+4
+1

+2

0
-2

-1

+1

+4

+2

+3

+7
+6

+5
+5

+4

+3
+1

+2

+3

+1

+1

+2
+3

+2

+2

0
0

+3
+3

0
0

+5

+3
+4
+3

+2

+6
+4

+6

+7

: (C) .. +2 +4.
.. .

: -

,
, , k

.

.
.

.


, . .

Na2 (Na+1)
(2-1) .

I a2
+

Na

+1
a ,

N
Na

-1

.
, , ,
4.
.
2

H
H
.

N
2
2
.

.
.
.
-1

: O2 aO2 O2 O2 , () .. -2 (N) .. +3.

.. (+3) + 2(-2)= -1 .

( ).
() ,
.

.

... ...
...
7

-1

-1

ClO 4
rO 4
O4

...
5

-1

-1

ClO 3
BrO 3
5

-2

-2

-3

-3

SO4

CO 3

PO 4
7

-1

AsO 4
6

MnO 4
6

CrO 4

-1

IO2
3

-2

-3

-1

-2

-3

S O3

PO 3
3

AsO 3

-2

-1

N O2

-2

AlO 3

-2

Cr2 O 7
ZnO 2

-1

BrO 2

-1

ClO 2

-1

I O3
NO 3

MnO 4

...

-3

...
1

-1

-1

ClO
BrO
1

-1

-1

IO
NO

1.
... ...
... ...
-1
.. ClO4 :
-1
rO3 :
-2
SO3 :
-1
O : I ...
:

-1
......
.. O3 : I
-1
O : I
-2
Cr2O7 .
3. :
... +7
...
+7
... +2
... +4
... .
4. , :
............

.

+1
-2 -3
5

HPO 4

-2

, H 2 PO 4

-1

: NH 4

+1

, : O -1 , : CN -1 , HS -1

..
-2
-1
SO4 , O3 ... .
, . .
-1
.

: M/

( ) ... .
... ... , ...
... ( )
.

.
...

...

.
(
)

...

.
...

.
( )

..
5 1.2.
.. :
...

...

...

...

10

.
.

. :
( ) .
+
() (-

) .

-

.
.. (
) , .
:

Ag+1
H+1
Mg+2
C+4

+
+
+
+

S-2
SO4-2
NO3-1
O-2

Ag2S
H2SO4
HNO3
CO2

: (
) .

IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ) - .
IUPAC ,
.


.. NaCl , HNO3 aqua forte ( ).
:

.
(, , )

11

. -
S.Arrhenius :

( Arrhenius)

,
(+) .
.. : HCl H+ + Cl- Arrhenius . +

3+.
:

:
HCl + H2O H3O++ Cl HCl H+ + Cl-

HCl(g)

H2O(l)

H3O

Cl (aq)

(aq)

6 Arrhenius -
:
-1
-1 -1
1. F-1, Cl , Br , I S-2 CN-1
2. . . . . . . .
.

()

HF
HCN
H2S
.
3
2SO4
2

IUPAC
+ -

:
HF, Cl, HBr, HI, H2S CN ,
. . . .
. . Cl (aq)7 , H2S (aq) .
6

O .
T -COOH .. CH3-COOH ( )

12

: HF, Cl, Hr , , 2S , HCN

: HNO3 , H2SO4 , HClO4
: H3PO4, H3PO3 , H3AsO4 , H3BO3
: H2CO3 CO2 +2 , H2SO3

SO2 +2

Arrhenius - .
Arrhenius :

Arrhenius
() =

NaOH , KOH , Ca(OH)2 , Ba(OH)2

H2O
aOH
Na++ OH-, Ca(OH)2

.
H2O

Ca+2+ 2OH-

3 , () ( ),
:
3 + 2
4+ + . 8

()

aOH
H
Ca(OH)2
l(OH)3

()

IUPAC

(aq) .
. +
( ), -.
8

13

1
KOH Na ,
.
2
a(OH)2 , Ca(OH)2 ,
.
3
.. .. .
. . Fe(OH)3 :

( )
().
:
- :
-1
-1 -1
1. F-1, Cl , Br , I , S-2 CN-1
2. . . . . . . .
- :
+ 4+1
.

aF
Ca(CN)2
K2S

3
CaSO4
Na3P3

()
- +

IUPAC
+ -

,

,

1
.. ..

.. FeCl3 : .
.. .
.. FeCl3 : .

14

2
o
.
.. PCl3 : ,
CS2 : .
H, N, C
, , , .
. . CaH2

Ca3N2

l4C3

Ca2C4

Mg3P2

(),
,
()
()
.

.
: NH3, PH3, sH3, SbH3

+ .
.
.

/2

()

Al2O3
a2O
CO
SO3

IUPAC

()

1
.. .
. . Cu2 : , 2.
2
.. .. .
. . FeO : II

..
.
.. Fe2O3 :

T :
2
(.. +1),
O3 (.. +6),

(.. +2),
2O4 (.. +4),
2
(.. +4),
2O5 (.. 5),
2O3
(.. +3),
2O7 (.. +7).

:
(---) ..=-1.
: 2O2 : , aO2 : .

15

16

1. (..) ;
2. ..
;
3. .. :
CH4
2Cr2O7
K2CrO4
H2S
NO3KClO4
K2SO3
KMnO4
SnCl4
NH4+
K2MnO4
H3PO4
Ca(H2PO3)2
CaOCl2
H2SO4
4. :
HCl
HNO3
H2SO4
HClO

H2S
HBrO3

HCN
HClO4

5. :
Ca(OH)2
NaOH
Ba(OH)2
Hg(OH)2
6. N :
Al(NO3)3
K2MnO4
KCl
HgF2
Cr2(SO3)3
ZnS
Ag2S
AlPO4
7. N :
Ca(HSO4)2
Na2HPO4
Zn(HS)2
NaH2PO3
8. :
CO2
K2O
CaO
SO3
SnO
Cl2O7
aO2
Fe3O4
9. :

10. :




11. :

H2O2
Cr2(SO3)3
Fe3O4

H2SO3
HF

CuOH

NaCN
CaCl2
Ca(H2PO3)2

CO
N2O

12. :

13. :

14. :

17