Plants

I. Types A. Gymnosperms B. Angiosperms 1. About =flowering plants recognized by # of cotyledons (seed leaves) present on embryo 2. Types a. Monocots *Characteristics 1. One cotyledon 2. Veins carry vascular tissue, parallel 3. Vascular bundles complexly arranged/spread throughout 4. Fibrous, adventitious root system 5. Floral parts multiples of 3 *Examples -Orchids -Bamboos -Palms -Lilies -Yuccas -Grasses (wheat, corn, rice) b. Dicots *Characteristics 1. Two cotyledons 2. Veins netlike 3. Vascular bundles arranged in ring 4. Taproot with lateral branches 5. Floral parts multiples of 4 or 5 *Examples -Roses -Beans -Sunflowers -Oaks 3. Flowers II. Anatomy A. Tissue systems 1. Dermal (or epidermis) *Functions: a. secretes the cuticle (waxy coating) that helps the aerial plant parts retain water b. single layer of tightly packed cells that covers and protects all young parts of the plant *Example: a. Root hairs -What? Epidermal extensions -Where? Near the tips of roots -Function? Absorption of water and minerals 2. Vascular *Functions: a. continuous throughout plant, involve in transport of materials between roots and shoots *Types: a. Xylem *Function -conveys water and dissolved materials upward from roots into the shoots b. Phloem *Function -transports food made in B. Structure 1. Leaf Parts 1. 2. Palisade mesophyll =densely packed cylindrical cells with many chloroplasts -main photosynthetic tissue positione near upper surface where light intensity is greatest 3. Spongy mesophyll =loosely packed rounded cells with few chloroplasts -labyrinth of air spaces -through which gases circulate up to the palisade region -large near the stomata -b/c provides the main gas exchange -cell walls provide moist surface for gas exchange for photosynthesis -water evaporates, lost= transpiration 4. Stoma =pore that allows CO2 for photosynthesis to diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out 5. Guard cells

=pair of cells that can open or close the stoma -therefore controls amount of transpiration 6. Xylem -brings H20 lost from transpiration 7. Phloem -transports photosynthesis products out of leaves 8. Vascular Infrastructure -centrally located to be close to all cells -skeleton that reinforces the shape of the leaf 2. Stem 3. Roots Functions -Absorption of Water and Minerals By Roots C. Modifications 1. Roots a. Storage roots -store food and water ex. sweet potatoes b. Prop roots -aerial roots that support tall, top-heavy plants ex. maize c. Buttress roots -support the tall trunks of some tropical trees ex. ceiba tree d. Pneumatophores -air roots produced by trees that inhabit swamps -enable root system to obtain 02 ex. mangrove, cypress trees epiphytes- orchids, spanish moss, staghorns 2. Stems a. Bulbs -vertical, underground shoots -enlarged bases of leaves that store food ex. onion b. Tubers -enlarged ends of rhizomes specialized for storing food -vascular bundles arranged in a ring (hence stem) ex. potato c. Rhizomes -horizontal stem that grows just below the surface -swollen rhizome is a tuber ex. ginger plant d. Stolons (runners) -horizontal stems that grow along the surface -enable plant to reproduce asexually ex. strawberry plant 3. Leaves a. Tendrils -narrow outgrowths from leaves that rotate through the air until they touch a solid support, to which to which they attach, allowing the plant to climb upwards ex. sweet pea b. Spines -reduce water loss ex. cacti, prickly pear c. Storage leaves -store water ex. most succulents D. Structural Support 1. Thickened cellulose 2. Cell Turgor -Turgur pressure -created when: plant tissue placed in pure water. cell swells, pushes against cell wall -partially elastic wall pushes back against pressurized cell. -when wall pressure great enough to offset tendency for water to enter because of solutes in cell, a dynamic equilibrium will be reached and cell will be turgid -healthy plant cells turgid most of the time -turgor contributes to support in non-woody parts of plant 3. Lignified Xylem III. Functions A. Photosynthesis B. Transpiration =the loss of water vapor from the leaves and stems of plants -Plant parts involved a. Spongy mesophyll b. stoma c. guard cells d. xylem

e. phloem -Xerophyte adaptations C. Transport Occurs on three levels 1. individual cells -depends on selective permeability of membranes ex. absorption of H2O and minerals from soil by root cells 2. short-distance ex. loading of sugar from photosynthetic cells of mature leaf into sieve tubes of phloem 3. long-distance ex. sap within xylem and phloem at level of whole plant Three general mechanisms 1. Passive transport (diffusion) 2. Facilitative diffusion -transport proteins -bind selectively to solute on one side of membrane and release solute on opposite side -selective channels 3. Active transport -pumping of solutes across membranes against electrochemical gradients -ATP ex. in root cells- absorption of potassium, phosphate, nitrate, and other mineral ions concentration in soil much lower than inside root cells Driven by energy from: a. Protein pump= major pump -generate hydrogen ion gradient and membrane potential (voltage) -inside of cell is negative, outside is positive -form of stored energy that can be harnessed for cellular work b. membrane potential Types A. Cotransport -Transport protein couples the downhill passage of one solute (H+ ions) to uphill passage of another (proteins/phosphates/nitrates) -coattail effect responsible for uptake of sugar, sucrose ex. cells accumulate anions (nitrate) by coupling transport to inward diffusion of hydrogen ions through cotransporter B. Ion Transport Three Ways 1. Diffusion of mineral ions -facilitates making contact with an appropriate pump protein before active transport 2. Mass flow of water-carrying ions -when water drains through soil -ions bind to surface of soil particles 3. Roots + fungal hyphae = mycorrhizae -symbiotic structures grow arround plant roots in mutualistic relationship -hyphae absorb H2O and selected minerals, transferring much to host plant -fungi receive organic products of photosynthesis C. Water Transport -driven by differences in water potential (osmosis) -passive transport of water across membrane -aquaporins =transport proteins in specific channels for passive traffic of water -affects: rate that water diffuses down its gradient -does not affect: the gradient, nor direction of water flow -controls net uptake or loss of water by a cell -Two factors influence direction 1. hypotonic hypertonic area 2. cell wall adds physical pressure -causes water to move -if solution separated from pure water by selectively permeable membrane, external pressure on solution can counter tendency to take up water due to presence of solutes -Turgur pressure D. Lateral Transport Compartments in vacuolated plant cells 1. Cell wall -continuum= apoplast 2. cytosol -continuum= symplast (cytosol + plasmodesmata) 3. vacuole (bound by tonoplast) -NOT shared Three available routes 1. Transmembrane -requires repeated crossings of plasma membranes -substances move out of open cell, across one cell wall, into neighboring cell,

which may pass substance along 2. Symplastic -requires only one crossing of plasma membrane -after entering one cell, solutes and water can move from cell to cell via plasmodesmata 3. Apoplastic =extracellular pathway consisting of cell walls and extracellular spaces -before entering cell, H2O and solutes can move from one location to another within root or other organ along byways provided by continuum of cell walls E. Long-distance -Bulk flow =the movement of fluid driven by pressure -how water and solutes move through xylem vessels and sieve tubes -Examples 1. in phloem, hydrostatic pressure generated at one end of sieve tube, forcing sap to opposite end of tube 2. in xylem, tension (negative pressure) drives long-distance transport. -Transpiration and evaportation of water from leaf reduces pressure in leaf xylem. -creates tension that drives xylem sap upward from roots D. Absorption of Water and Minerals By Roots Route: Epidermisroot cortexstelexylem vesselsshoot system IV. Hormones that control plant growth A. Auxin -phototropism --coleoptile (sheath enclosing sprouting grass seedlings) toward light -if dark or lit uniformly, grows straight up -if lit from one side, grows toward light due to different growth of cells on opposite sides of oleoptile -cells on darker side elongate faster than cells on brighter side