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EA-452 Chap9
EA-452 Chap9
=
t 2
At n=0
Pure ALOHA
(9.11)
67
In slotted ALOHA, time is divided into equal time slots of
length greater than the packet duration . The subscribers have
a synchronized time clock and transmit only at the beginning of
the time slot.
t
The vulnerable period for slotted ALOHA is only one
packet duration.
The probability that no other packets will be generated
during the vulnerable period is .
R
e
The throughput:
R
T
=Re
Slotted ALOHA
(9.12)
68
Fig(9.10) shows how ALOHA and slotted ALOHA systems trade-off
throughput for delay
Fig(8.10)
ALOHA Vs. Slotted ALOHA
69
Example 9.6
Determine the maximum throughput that can be achieved using ALOHA and
slotted ALOHA protocols.
Solution:The rate of arrival which maximizes the throughput for ALOHA is found
by taking the derivative of Eq(9.11) and equating it to zero.
Maximum throughput achieved by using the ALOHA protocol is found by
substituting in Eq(9.11), and this value can be seen as the maximum
throughput in Fig(9.10)
2
1
0 Re 2
max
2 2
=
= =
R
e
dR
dT
R R
R
T
2
Re
=
For ALOHA
Throughput = 0.5 exp (-1) = 18. 4%
70
Thus the best traffic utilization one can hope for using ALOHA is 0.184 Erlangs.
Maximum throughput is found by substituting in Eq(9.12), and this value can
be seen as the maximum throughput in Fig 9.10.
Notice that slotted ALOHA provides a maximum channel utilization of 0.368
Erlangs, double that of ALOHA.
The maximum throughput for slotted ALOHA is found by taking the derivative of
Eq(9.12) and equating it to zero.
3679 . 0
1
= =
e T
1
0 Re
max
=
= =
R
e
dR
dT
R R
1839 . 0
2
1
1
= =
e T
Example 9.6 (Contd)
71
CSMA protocols are based on the fact that each terminal on the
network is able to monitor the status of the channel before
transmitting information. If the channel is idle, then the user is
allowed to transmit a packet based on a particular algorithm which
is common to all transmitters on the network.
There are two important parameters for CSMA protocol:
1. Detection delay
2. Propagation delay
Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)
72
Detection delay: a function of the receiver hardware and is the
time required for a terminal to sense whether or not the channel
is idle.
Propagation delay: a relative measure of how fast it takes for a
packet to travel from a base station to a mobile terminal.
m
R t
t
b p
d
=
: the propagation time in seconds
: the channel bit rate
: the expected number of bits in a data packet
: propagation delay in packet transmission units
d
t
p
t
b
R
m
Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)
73
There are several variations of the CSMA strategy:
1-persistent CSMA: the terminal listens to the channel, and as soon as it
finds channel idle it transmits its message
Non-persistent CSMA: When a terminal receives a nack, it waits for a
random period of time before retransmission. Popular in wireless
applications, where packet transmission interval is much greater than the
propagation delay to the farthest user
p-persistent CSMA: used in slotted ALOHA. IF channel is detected to be
idle, the packet is transmitted in first available slot with prob p, or in the next
slot with prob (1-p)
CSMA/CD: The user monitors its transmission for collisions. If 2 or more
terminals start the transmission at the same time, a collision is detected and
transmission aborted. This can be done if receiver has the capability of listen
while you transmit
DSMAData Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
74
1. Reservation ALOHA: a packet access scheme based
on time division multiplexing. In this protocol, certain
packet slots are assigned with priority, and it is
possible for users to reserve slots for the transmission
of packets.
2. Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA): it uses
a discrete packet time techniques similar to
reservation ALOHA and combines the cyclical frame
structure of TDMA in a manner that allows each
TDMA time slot to carry either voice or data, where
voice is given priority.
Reservation Protocols
75
Capture Effect in Packet Radio
Capture Effect in Packet Radio -------Near-far effect
Advantage: a particular transmitter may capture an intended
receiver, many packets may survive despite collision on the
channel
Disadvantage: a stronger transmitter which is attempting to
communicate to the same receiver.
A useful parameter in analyzing the capture effects in packet
radio protocols is the minimum power ratio of an arriving
packet, relative to the other colliding packets. This radio is
called the capture ratio, and is dependent upon the receiver and
the modulation used.
76
Reference:
1. Wireless CommunicationsTheodore S.Rappaport
2. Introduction to Wireless systemP.Mohana Shankar
77
Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems.
Consequently, the symbol(chip) duration is very short and
usually much less than the channel delay spread. Since PN
sequences have low autocorrelation, multipath which is
delayed by more than a chip will appear as noise. A RAKE
receiver can be used to improve reception by collecting time
delayed versions of the required signal
back
78
Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can
simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more
base stations. The MSC may chose the best version of the
signal at any time without switching frequencies.
back
79
Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-
jamming arises from the fact that the spreading sequences
of different users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the
despreading of a particular PN code, non-zero
contributions to the receiver decision statistic for a desired
user arise from the transmissions of other users in the
system.
back
80
Capacity of Cellular Systems
81
Introduction
Co-channel Interference
Capacity of cellular system
Comparison of the capacity of analog
cellular system and digital cellular system
Capacity of Cellular CDMA
Power Control in CDMA
82
Definition of Channel capacity
Channel capacity: Radio capacity, the maximum number of
channels or users that can be provided in a fixed frequency band.
This parameter is determined by the required carrier-to-interference
ratio (C/I) and the channel bandwidth (B
c
)
The radio capacity of a cellular system is defined as:
N B
B
m
c
t
=
radio channels/cell
(9.19)
Where m is the radio capacity metric, B
t
is the total allocated
spectrum for the system, B
c
is the channel bandwidth, and N
is the number of cells in a frequency reuse pattern. N is related
to the co-channel reuse factor (Q).
83
Co-channel Interference
Reverse channel interference: interference at a base station receiver
comes from the subscriber units in the surrounding cells.
Forward channel interference: interference from the surrounding
co-channel base stations to a particular subscriber unit.
Co-channel reuse ratio:
R
D
Q =
(9.14)
The minimum ratio of D/R is required to provide a tolerable level of
co-channel interference.
N Q 3 = For a hexagonal geometry:
N is the number of cells in a frequency reuse pattern
(9.20)
84
Carrier-to-Interference Ratio
85
min
6
1
|
.
|
\
|
>
|
.
|
\
|
I
C
D
R
n
n
0
: path loss exponent in the desired cell
D
0
: distance from the desired base station to the mobile
D
k
: distance of the kth cell from the mobile
n
k
: path loss exponent to the kth interfering base station
=
M
k
n
k
n
k
D
D
I
C
1
0
0
(9.15)
n
n
D
D
I
C
=
6
0
(9.16)
When D
0
=R, and for acceptable performance:
n
I
C
Q
/ 1
min
6
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
>
Co-channel Interference
86
n
n
c
t
c
t
I
C
B
B
Q
B
B
m
/ 2
min
2 /
2
3
6
3
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
n
I
C
Q
/ 1
min
6
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Radio capacity
When n=4:
min
3
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
I
C
B
B
m
c
t
(9.22)
87
Comparison of different system
B
c
: bandwidth of a particular system
(C/I)
min
: tolerable value for the same system
B
c
: channel bandwidth for a different system
(C/I)
eq
: minimum C/I value for the different system
2
'
min
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
eq
B
B
I
C
I
C
(9.23)
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
'
min
log 20 ) ( ) (
c
c
eq
B
B
dB
I
C
dB
I
C
Let Bc= 6.25, C/I=9 dB for Bc=12.5 , C/I eq=3dB so more capacity
88
Example 9.7
Evaluate four different cellular radio standards, and choose the
one with the maximum radio capacity.
dB I C kHz B A System
c
18 ) / ( , 30 : _
min
= =
dB I C kHz B B System
c
14 ) / ( , 25 : _
min
= =
dB I C kHz B C System
c
12 ) / ( , 5 . 12 : _
min
= =
dB I C kHz B D System
c
9 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _
min
= =
Solution to Example 9.7:
Consider each system for 6.25kHz bandwidth, and use Eq.(9.23)
Based on comparison, the smallest value of (C/I)eq should be selected for
maximum capacity in Eq.(9.22). System D offers the best capacity.
dB I C kHz B A System
eq c
62 . 31 ) 25 . 6 / 30 log( 20 18 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
dB I C kHz B B System
eq c
25 ) 25 . 6 / 25 log( 20 14 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
dB I C kHz B D System
eq c
9 ) 25 . 6 / 25 . 6 log( 20 9 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
dB I C kHz B C System
eq c
15 ) 25 . 6 / 5 . 12 log( 20 12 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
89
Digital cellular system
R
b
: channel bit rate E
b
: energy per bit
R
c
: rate of the channel code E
c
: energy per code symbol
I
R E
I
R E
I
C
c c b b
= =
(9.24)
2
'
' '
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c c
c c
eq
B
B
I
R E
I
R E
I
C
I
C
(9.25)
R
c
and B
c
is always linear, if the I is the same in the mobile
environment for two different digital systems, then
3
'
'
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
c
c
B
B
E
E
(9.26)
90
Comparison between FDMA and TDMA
b b
R E C=
c
B I I
0
=
FDMA:
' '
b b
R E C= ' '
0 c
B I I =
TDMA:
|
.
|
\
|
=
I
C
M
B
B
m
t
t
3
2
Radio capacity for FDMA:
E
b
: Energy per bit, I
0
: interference power per Herz
R
b
: radio transmission rates B
c
: Channel bandwidth
91
Example 9.8
Consider an FDMA system with three channels, each having a bandwidth of 10kHz
and a transmission rate of 10kbps. A TDMA system has three time slots, channel
bandwidth of 30kHz, and a transmission rate of 30 kbps. For the TDMA scheme, the
received carrier-to-interference ration for a single user is measured for 1/3 of the time
the channel is in use. For example, C/I can be measured in 333.3 ms in one second.
Thus C/I is given by:
I kHz I B I I
C E R
s
bits E
R E C
c
b b
b
b b
3 30 ' '
3 3
333 . 0
10
'
0 0
4
= = =
= = = =
It can be seen that the received carrier-to-interference ratio for a user in this TDMA
system C/I is the same as C/I for a user in the FDMA system. Therefore, for this
example, FDMA and TDMA have the same radio capacity and consequently the
same spectrum efficiency. However, the required peak power for TDMA is 10logk
higher than FDMA, where k is the number of time slots in a TDMA system of equal
bandwidth.
92
Capacity of Digital Cellular TDMA
In practice, TDMA systems improve capacity by a factor of 3 to
6 times as compared to analog cellular radio system.
1. Powerful error control
2. Speech coding
3. Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)
4. Adaptive channel allocation (ACA)
How to improve capacity in digital cellular TDMA
93
Table 9. 3 Comparison of AMPS with Digital TDMA based Cellular Systems[Rai91]
Parameter AMPS GSM USDC PDC
Bandwidth(MHz) 25 25 25 25
Voice Channels 833 1000 2500 3000
Frequency Reuse(Cluster
sizes)
7 4 or 3 7 or 4 7 or4
Channels/Site 119 250 or 333 357 or 625 429 or 750
Traffic(Erlangs/sq.km) 11.9 27.7 or 40 41 or 74.8 50 or 90.8
Capacity Gain 1.0 2.3 or 3.4 3.5 or 6.3 4.2 or 7.6
94
Capacity of Cellular CDMA
How to reduce interference in CDMA:
- Use multi-sectorized antennas
- Operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTX)
In DTX, the transmitter is turned off during the periods of
silence in speech.
1. The capacity of CDMA system is interference limited,
while it is bandwidth limited in TDMA/FDMA.
2. The capacity of CDMA system is soft while the capacity
of TDMA/FDMA system is hard.
3. While TDMA/FDMA reuse frequencies depending on the
isolation between cells provided by the path loss in
terrestrial radio propagation, CDMA can reuse the entire
spectrum for all cells, and this results in a increase of
capacity by a large percentage over the normal frequency
reuse factor.
95
Start by considering a single cell with N users who share the cell:
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
=
=
N S N
S
SNR
Signal-to-Noise Ratio:
Bit energy-to-noise ratio:
1
/
) / )( 1 (
/
0
=
=
N
R W
W S N
R S
N
E
b
R: base-band information bit rate; W: total RF bandwidth
Considering the background thermal noise in the spread bandwidth
) / ( ) 1 (
/
0
S N
R W
N
E
b
q +
=
) / (
/
/
1
0
S
N E
R W
N
b
q + =
The number of users:
W/R: processing gain
Capacity of Cellular CDMA (Contd)
96
How to increase the capacity in CDMA
Antenna sectorization
Incorporate a voice activity monitor
Monitoring of voice activity such that each transmitter is switched
off during periods of no voice activity.
Using these two technique, the new E
b
/N
0
within a sector is:
) / ( ) 1 (
/
'
0
S N
R W
N
E
s
b
q o+
=
The number of users:
(
(
(
(
+ =
'
/ 1
1
0
N
E
R W
N
b
s
o
97
Antenna sectorization
N
0
=1/3N
0
N=3N
N
0
is the interference
N is the number of user
98
Incorporate a voice activity monitor
Monitor voice activity and switch off transmitter during periods
of no voice activity.
When we speak, we normally use pauses between words, and by
turning off the transmitter when no voice activity is detected, we
can reduce the effective number of interfering users.
It is known that speakers are active only 35-40% of the time.
Designate as the voice activity factor, the interference term
becomes (N
s
-1) , where N
s
is the number of users per sector.
The typical value of voice activity factor is assumed to be 3/8.
99
Example 9.9
If W=1.25MHz, R=9600bps, and a minimum acceptable
is found to be 10dB, determine the maximum number of users that
can be supported in a single-cell CDMA system using (a) omni-
directional base station antennas and no voice activity detection,
and (b) 3-sectors at the base station and activity detection with
o=3/8. Assume the system is interference limited.
0
/ N E
b
Solution to Example 9.9
(a) using Eq. (9.31)
14 02 . 13 1
10
9600 / 10 25 . 1
1
6
= + =
+ = N
(b) Using Eq. (9.33) for each sector we can find N
s
7 . 35
10
9600 / 10 25 . 1
375 . 0
1
1
6
=
(
+ =
s
N
The total number of users is given by 3N
s
, since three sectors exist
Within a cell; therefore N=3*35.7=107users/cell.
100
CDMA Power Control
Why use power control?
Since all the mobile users transmit over the same frequency band,
power control is essential to overcome near-far problems.
In CDMA, the system capacity is maximized if each mobile
transmitter power level is controlled so that its signal arrives at the
cell site with the minimum required signal-to-interference ratio.
Power control also plays a role in conserving transmitted signal
power, thereby increasing the battery recharge cycle.
How to implement power control?
forward power control-sampling the RSSI levels
open-loop method
closed-loop method
Power control is a key technique in CDMA system
101
Reference
1. Wireless communications principles &
practice, Theodore S. Rappaport
2. Introduction to wireless communication
systems, P. Mohana Shankar
3. Mobile Communications Enginnering
Theory and Applications, Willian C. Y.
Lee
4. http://www.anlian.com/trainingonline.htm
102
Capacity of CDMA with Multiple
Cells
103
1. CDMA
2. Capacity of Cellular Systems
3. Capacity of Cellular CDMA
4. Compare single cell CDMA with Multiple cell
CDMA
5. Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells
(i) Frequency reuse factor, f
(ii) Impact of Propagation Pathloss on
Frequency reuse of CDMA systems
(iii) Weighing Factor
(iv) CDMA Capacity
1. Conclusions
2. References
Contents
104
CDMA
CDMA : is a spread spectrum technology, which spreads
the information contained in a particular signal of interest
over a much greater bandwidth than the original signal.
This is achieved by multiplying the signal by a very large
bandwidth signal called the spreading signal.
105
1. All The users in CDMA share the same carrier
frequency and may transmit simultaneously
1. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword
which is approximately orthogonal to all other
codewords.
1. The receiver needs to know this codeword used by
the transmitter and it performs time correlation to
detect only the specific desired signal.
Features
106
4. The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an
undesired user has a high detected power as compared to
the desired user. To combat the near-far problem a power
control is used in most CDMA implementations.
5. Capacity: There is no absolute limit on the number of
users in CDMA. But as the number of users in the CDMA
system increase the system performance decreases. The
system performance increases as the number of users dec-
rease.
Features
107
Capacity of Cellular Systems
Channel Capacity: of a radio system is defined as
the maximum number of channels or users that can
be provided in a fixed frequency band.
Spectrum efficiency of a wireless system is determined
by its radio capacity, which depends on the required
Carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) and the channel band-
width (B
c
).
108
Interference
Interference in a cellular system can be due to the surroun-
ding base stations or due tothe surrounding subscriber units.
That is there are two kinds of interferences:
1. Forward channel interference: This is the interference
due to the surrounding co-channel base stations.
2. Reverse channel interference: This is the interference
due to the surrounding subscriber units.
Interference damages the performance of the system, it can
be tolerated to a certain extent that is given by the co-
channel reuse ratio.
109
Capacity of Cellular CDMA
There is no absolute limit on the capacity of CDMA, but
there is a tradeoff between the capacity and performance.
The capacity of CDMA is interference limited, which is
unlike that TDMA and FDMA, which are bandwidth
limited. So to increase the capacity of CDMA we should
reduce the interference.
Interference reducing techniques:
1. Using Multisectorized antenna
2. Operating in discontinues transmission mode
110
1. Using Multisectorized antenna: In this technique we
reduce the interference by using a directional antenna
which spatially isolates the users by receiving signals
from only a fraction of the current users.
1. Discontinues Transmission Mode(DTX): This techn-
ique takes advantage of the intermittent nature of speech.
Here the transmitter is turned off during the period of
silence. If the voice activity factor is , then the
average bit-energy to noise density ratio, without apply-
DTX is
Interference Reduction Technique
o
111
Where
q is the background noise, B is the bandwidth, R
R is the information bit rate.
With the application of the sectorization, DTX techniques
the bit energy to noise density ratio
) / ( ) 1 (
/
/
0
S N
R W
N E
b
q +
=
That is reduces the interference term from (N-1) to
This increases the bit energy ratio by almost a factor of 8
o ) 1 ( N
) / ( ) 1 (
/
/
0
S N
R W
N E
b
q o+
=
112
Single Cell CDMA vs Multicell CDMA
Multicell Single cell
1. All the base stations The base stations are inde-
are interconnected by pendent.
the mobile switching
center.
1. The weighting factors of The weighting factors of all
all the users are not equal. the users are equal.
3. We need power control In the forward link no power in
both the forward and control is required. Since for
reverse links. a subscriber any interference
caused by the other subscriber
remains at the same level as
desired signal.
113
Capacity of CDMA With Multiple Cells
In CDMA cellular system each base station can only cont-
rol the transmit power of each of its own in-cell users, but it
can not control the power of users in the neighboring cells.
These neighboring users add to the noise floor and decrease
the capacity of the particular cell of interest.
114
Frequency reuse factor
Frequency reuse factor (f): is determined by the amount
of out-of-cell interference. It is defined as
+
=
i
ai i
N U N
N
f
0
0
Where
N
0
: is the total interference power received from
the N-1 users
U
i
: is the number of users in the i th adjacent cell
N
ai
: is the average received power from users in the adjacent
cells
115
Frequency reuse efficiency
Frequency reuse efficiency (F): is the percentage of frequ-
ency reuse factor
F= f x 100%
Average received power (N
ai
): is defined as follows
=
j
i
ij
ai
U
N
N
Where N
iJ
is the power received at the base station of int-
erest from the j th user in the i th cell.
Each adjacent cell may have different number of users and
hence may receive different levels of interference. Therefore
N
ai
is different for each cell user
116
Impact of propagation path loss on the frequency
reuse
Recursive geometric technique: This technique is also
called concentric circle cellular geometry. It considers
that
1. All cells have equal geographic area.
2. Cell of interest is circular and located at the center of
all the surrounding cells.
1. Interference cells are wedged shaped and are arranged
in layers around the center cell of interest.
117
Concentric circle cellular geometry
Fig
118
1. R: is the radius of the cell of interest
2. d
0
: is the minimum distance, such that users in the
center are located no closer than this distance
1. d: is the distance from the base station at which all
the users in the center cell of interest are located, such
that
R d d s s
0
Capacity of CDMA
119
First layer of adjacent interfering cells is found on
R d R 3 s s
Second layer is located on
R d R 5 3 s s
The i th interfering layer is located on
R i d R i ) 1 2 ( ) 1 2 ( + s s
The area A of the cell of interest is
2
2
0
2
R d R A t t t ~ =
120
If A
1
denotes the entire area of the region. If each cell have
the same area A, then there should be M
1
cells that each
span a particular angle ( ), such that:
1
u
1
1
2
M
t
u =
Solving the above equations gives M
1
=8 and
0
1
45 = u
In general:
A
i
=M
i
A=i. M
i
A= i.8A
1 > i
i i 4
1
1
t u
u = =
=
A M R R A
1
2 2
1
) 3 ( = = t t
121
Sectors
Interfering layers can be broken into two sublayers,
an inner sublayer which is on
outer sublayer which is on
0
2 ) 1 2 ( d iR d R i s s
R i d d iR ) 1 2 ( 2
0
+ s s +
Partitioning of layers provide two sectors within each
Wedge shaped cell in a given layer
Inner sector: Which contain a small fraction of area of
The area of the cell and hence fewer users
Outer sector: Which contain much greater fraction of
the area of the cell and hence more users
122
Weighing Factors
Weighing Factors: are used to redistribute the users in the
inner and outer sectors of an adjacent cell, since there is a
wide range of user distributions in the interfering layers.
If K is the user density then the number of users (U) within
the center cell is given be
U=KA.
In the first surrounding layer, the inner and outer sectors of
each cell have areas given by
Inner sector:
8 / 3 8 / ) ) 2 ( ( /
2 2
1 1
A R M A
in
= = t t t
123
Outer sector:
8 / 5 8 / ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ( /
2 2
1 1
A R M A
out
= = t t t
For each first layer cell to possess U=KA users, weighing
factors for the user densities within the inner (W
1in
) and
outer (W
1out
) sectors may be applied such that
1 1 1 1 1 1
/ ) ( / ) ( M A KW M A KW KA U
out out in in
+ = =
) 8 / 5 8 / 3 (
1 1 out in
W W KA KA U + = =
124
Conditions
Optimistic conditions: for frequency reuse (or upper
bound) is seen when W
1in
=1 and W
1out
=1, then 3/8 of the
users will be in the inner sectors and 5/8 of the users will
be in the outer sector and will offer smaller levels of interf-
erence to the center cell.
Worst case: In this case all the users in each of the first
layer cells would be located in the inner sector. The weigh
factors in this case are W
1in
=8/3 and W
1out
=0
125
Concentric circle geometry to find CDMA Capacity
To find the capacity of a multicell CDMA system, the con-
centric circle geometry is used along with a propagation
path loss model to determine the interference from the
adjacent cell users.
We can find the frequency reuse factor from
+
=
i
ai i
N U N
N
f
0
0
Where N
0
is given by
KA P U P U P N
0 0 0 0
) 1 ( = ~ =
Where P
0
is the power received from any of the users in the
center cell
126
In the adjacent cells, each subscriber is power controlled
within its own cell and at a distance d
from its own base
station .
Since propagation path loss are based on all distances greater
Than d
0
, a small forbidden zone having a width 2d
0
is assu-
med to exist in all surrounding rings.
This forbidden zone occupies negligible area and provides
virtually the same interference results as of the case when
there is no forbidden region
127
Interference Power
Interference Power ( ): At the center of the cell from the
the j th user in the i th interfering cell is given by
n n
j i j i
d d d d P N d r P ) / ( ) / ( ) , , (
0 0
'
0 , 0 , , 0
= = u
j i
P
, , 0
To evaluate this expression we need to calculate d
128
Fig
129
Using the law of cosines it can be shown that, within any
cell in the i th layer
Evaluating d
2
0
2 2 '
) cos 2 ( sin u u d d Ri d d + =
0
2 ) 1 2 ( d iR d R i s s For
2
0
2 2 '
) cos 2 ( sin u u d d Ri d d + + = For
R i d d iR ) 1 2 ( 2
0
+ s s +
Inner sublayer:
Outer sublayer:
130
Using d
=
j i
ij
ai
U
N
N
Using which we can evaluate the frequency reuse factor (f)
+
=
i
ai i
N U N
N
f
0
0
131
Conclusions
1. The two factors, voice activity and spatial isolation thro-
ugh the use of multibeam or multisectorized antennas, are
sufficient to render CDMA capacity atleast double that
of FDMA and TDMA under similar assumptions.
1. CDMA can reuse the same (entire) spectrum for all the
cells, thereby increasing the capacity by a large percent-
age of the normal frequency reuse factor. The net increase
in capacity due to the above factors in CDMA over
digital TDMA or FDMA is of the order of 4 to 6 and cu-
rrent analog FM/FDMA it is nearly a factor of 20.
132
Space Division Multiple Access
133
Directional Programmable Antenna
134
135
References
1. Theodore S.Rappaport, Wireless Communications,
Principles and Practice.
1. Jerry D.Gibson, Mobile Communications, Handbook,
second edition.
1. T.S. Rappoport, Effect of Radio Propagation Path Loss
on DS-CDMA Cellular Frequency Reuse Efficiency for
the Reverse Channel, IEEE Vehicular Technology,
Vol.41, Aug 1992
1. Klien S. Gilhousen, On the capacity of a cellular CDMA
system, IEEE Vehicular Technology,Vol.40, May 1991.