Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

All cells secrete material into their environment for three main functions
Protection Communication Feeding

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Types and functions of Secretions

Autocrine - secreted substance affects the secreting cell itself Paracrine - substance affects neighboring cells Endocrine - substance released into blood stream and affects distal target tissue Exocrine - substance that is released onto the surface of the animal and other internalized structures

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Cell communication through various pathways

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

It brings about changes via chemical messengers, hormones, released into the blood stream or hemolymph and carried to target organs.
Endocrinology - the study of hormones and the endocrine organs they control. Endoceine system - all of the glands that secrete hormones
Endocrine and exocrine glands

Exocrine glands - have ducts through which their nonhormonal products travel to the membrene

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Endocrine glands - release their substances into the surrounding fluid (ductless glands) They include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and the thymus glands. Also included are the pancreas and gonads. They hypothalamus is called a neuroendocrine organ.
Know Table 7.1

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Endocrine organs

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction Hormones - chemical messengers carried by the blood from endocrine glands to the cell upon which they act.
Are chemical messengers Secreted into the blood by endocrine cells or neurons Affect distal targets

Affect target cells by controlling

Rate of enzymatic reactions Transport of molecules across cell membrane Gene expression and protein synthesis

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Tropic hormones
Its primary function is to regulate the production and release of other hormones Stimulate and maintain their endocrine target tissue Eg., TSH maintains the structural integrity of the thyroid gland, but also cause it to secrete its hormones

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Nontropic hormone
Exerts its effects on nonendocrine target tissues Thyroid hormone increases the metabolic activity of almost every cell

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Complexity of Endocrine Function

A single endocrine gland may produce multiple hormones A single hormone may be secreted by more than one endocrine gland A single hormone may have more than one type of target cell and may induce more than one effect Secretory rate may vary considerably over time A single target cell may be affected by more than one hormone A single chemical messenger may be a hormone or a neurotransmitter Some organ are purely endocrine while other may have

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Classification of hormones
Peptide hormones - 3 or more amino acids
Hydrophilic

Steroid hormones - derived from cholesterol

Lipophilic

Amine hormones - single amino acids

Hydrophilic

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)

Nonnative hormonelike substances

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System Peptide hormone - eg: Insulin
Synthesis - RER, preprohormone Packaged in vescicles In Golgi apparatus, pre to pro hormone then to hormone and fragments Released into ECF when cell is signaled to do so Transported in blood, half-life - minutes Mechanism of action - bind to cell surface receptors. Many use cAMP and some use tyrosine kinase Action - open or close membrane channels or modulate metabolic enzymatic activity or transport Introduction

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Peptide hormone synthesis, packaging, and release

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Steroid hormones, eg: estradiol

Synthesis - SER, lipophilic, sythesized as needed Found bound (inactive) to protein carriers in blood Half-life - hours Mechanism - diffuses across cell membrane to cytoplasmic and nuclear receptors. Interact with DNA Slow response by cells - hours

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System Action of Steroid Hormones
Introduction

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System Steroidogenic pathways
Introduction

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System Amine hormones
Introduction
Nitrogen-containing Most derived from tryptophan or tyrosine like peptide hormones (catecholamines) or like steroid hormones (thyroid hormones) Thyroid hormones: produced by thyroid gland found in the lower part of the neck. It secretes 3 hormones:
Thyroxine - T4 Triiodothyromine - T3 Calcitonin

The first two are collectively known as thyroid hormones (TH) and contain iodine

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Amine hormone, Adrenal medullary hormones

The adrenal gland consists of a medullary and cortical section. The cortex secretes steroid hormones. The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones
Epinephrine (E) and Norepinephrine (NE)

These are also called catecholamines

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Mechanism of action of lipophilic hormones

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Second messenger mechanisms of amino acid-based hormones

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Hormonal Specificity
All major hormones circulate to virtually all tissues (target cells), but for these cells to respond to a hormone, they must have a specific protein receptor on their plasma membrane or in their interior.

Hormone-target interaction depends on:

Blood levels of the hormone The relative number of receptors for that hormone The affinity of the bond between the hormone and the receptor

Up-regulation and down-regulation

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Introduction

Onset, Duration, and Half-life

Onset varies greatly, from almost immediately to hours or days Duration can range from several minutes to several hours Half-life is the length of time the hormone concentration takes to drop by half
From a fraction of a minute to several hours

Concentration determined by its rate of release and the speed of deactivation and removal

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System Endocrine glands are stimulated by humoral, neural and hormonal means.
Humoral stimuli - changing levels of blood ions and nutrients. Example:- calcium parathyroid hormone Neural stimuli - nerve fiber stimulates hormonal release. Example:-nervous input to adrenal medulla release of catecholamines Hormonal stimuli (tropic hormones) - endocrine glands release their hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs. Example:- hypothalamic hormones anterior pituitary to release hormones other endocrine glands to produce even more hormones

Introduction

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Invertebrate Endocrinology

Hormone action in invertebrates

Prothoracicotropic hormone
Produced by neurosecretory cells of the brain

Juvenile hormone
Produced by non-neural cells near the brain

Ecdysone
Steroid-like hormone produced by glands in the thorax

Eclosion hormone
A peptide hormone produced by cells near the brain

Bursicon
Produced by neurosecretory cells of the brain and

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Invertebrate Endocrinology

Hormone production in an insect

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Invertebrate Endocrinology

Development sequence in the cecropia moth

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Invertebrate Endocrinology

Developmental hormones in insects

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Hypothalamic-Pituitary system
Pituitary gland (hypophysis) - lies just below hypothalamus, in pocket of bone at base of brain. Consists of two adjacent lobes - the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) Posterior pituitary hormones
Oxytocin and vasopressin are released Made in hypothalamus, move down the neural axons and accumulate in the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus also secretes hormones that control the secretion of ALL the anterior pituitary hormones. The basic pattern is as follows:
Secretion of a hypothalamic hormone, which controls secretion of An anterior pitiutary hormone, which controls the secretion of A hormone from some other endocrine organ/gland

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

At least eight secreted, six with well-established functions

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System Anatomy of the Pituitary gland
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System Hypothalamic-Pituitary system
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

The Intermediate Lobe

Rudimentary after birth in human fetus Secretes melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Secretion inhibited by hypothalamic dopamine MSH controls skin coloration via melanin MSH may help regulate food intake and suppress the immune system

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Posterior Pituitary
Receives input from supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei Stores and releases vasopressin and oxytocin A single neuron produces a single hormone

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Posterior Pituitary
Vasopressin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH); arginine vasotocin (AVT) in lower vertebrates Enhances water retention Stimulates arteriolar smooth muscle contractions Releases due to increased plasma osmolarity

Oxytocin
Stimulates uterine contraction in mammals Promotes milk ejection from mammary glands In nonmammals it is called mesotocin (MT)

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones (Table 72)

Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH) Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH) Somatostatin (SS) also called Growth hormone releasing Inhibitin Hormone (GIH) Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRH) Prolactin releasing Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Gonadotropic Hormones
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Growth Hormone (GH) Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Prolactin (PRL) AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone (ACTH) Tropic hormones
TSH, ACTH, FSH, AND LH

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Functions of Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Feedback control in the Endocrine System

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Vascular link between the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Physiological Effects of Four Major Categories
Metabolic and Developmental Hormones
Glucocorticoids and catecholamines Thyroid hormones Growth hormone Insulin and glucagon

Vertebrate Endocrinology

Hormones that Regulate Water and Electrolyte Balance

Vasopressin - prevents water loss Aldosterone - prevents sodium (and water) loss Atrial Natriuretic Peptide - increases sodium (and water) loss ParaThyroid Hormone - increases plasma Ca++ levels

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Physiological Effects of Four Major Categories

Reproductive Hormones
Estrogens - female characteristics and secretions Androgens - male characteristics and secretions Progesterone - supports estrogens

Prostoglandins
May be paracrine or endocrine in nature Act on smooth muscles of many tissues

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Hormonal action of Parathyroid hormone

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Hormonal action of Insulin and Glucagon

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Amine hormone, Adrenal medullary hormones

The adrenal gland consists of a medullary and cortical section. The cortex secretes steroid hormones. The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones
Epinephrine (E) and Norepinephrine (NE)

These are also called catecholamines

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Amine hormone, Adrenal medullary hormones

The adrenal gland consists of a medullary and cortical section. The cortex secretes steroid hormones. The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones
Epinephrine (E) and Norepinephrine (NE)

These are also called catecholamines

Principles of Animal Physiology

Endocrine System
Vertebrate Endocrinology

Amine hormone, Adrenal medullary hormones

The adrenal gland consists of a medullary and cortical section. The cortex secretes steroid hormones. The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones
Epinephrine (E) and Norepinephrine (NE)

These are also called catecholamines