The Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases

In 1887, Svanté Arrhenius published a theory to explain the nature of acids and bases. It is
called the Arrenhius theory of acids and bases:

• An acid is a substance that dissociates (breaks apart) in water to produce one or more
hydrogen ions, H+.

• A base is a substance that dissociates (breaks apart) in water to form one or more
hydroxide ions, OH-.

Arrhenius Acids:
1. HCl (aq)  H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
2. HBr (aq)  H+ (aq) + Br- (aq)
3. H2SO4 (aq)  2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
4. HClO4 (aq)  H+ (aq) + ClO4- (aq)

Arrhenius Bases:
1. NaOH (aq)  Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
2. LiOH (aq)  Li+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
3. KOH (aq)  K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
4. Ba(OH)2 (aq)  Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 1 OF 22

Questions for the Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases
1. Which of the following compounds is an acid according to the Arrhenius theory?
(a). H2O  acid or base (amphoteric)
(b). Ca(OH)2  base
(c). H3PO3  acid
(d). HF  acid

2. Which one of the following compounds is a base according to the Arrhenius theory?
(a). KOH  base
(b). Ba(OH)2  base
(c). HClO  acid
(d). H3PO4  acid

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 2 OF 22

The Brǿnsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases
In 1923, two chemists working independently of each other proposed a new theory of acids and
bases. Johannes Brǿnsted in Copenhagen, Denmark, and Thomas Lowry in London, England,
proposed what is called the Brǿnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases. This theory overcame
the limitations of the Arrhenius theory:

• An acid is a substance from which a proton (H+ ion) can be removed.

• A base is a substance that can remove a proton (H+ ion) from an acid.

Brǿnsted-Lowry Acids and Bases:

1. HCl (acid) + H2O (base)  Cl- + H3O+ (hydronium)
2. CH3COOH (acid) + H2O (base)  CH3COO- + H3O+
3. HBr (acid) + H2O (base)  Br- + H3O+
* 4. NH3 (base) + H2O (acid)  NH4+ + OH-

* indicates a special case question. Water, H2O, is amphoteric, meaning it can act as an acid or
a base; it can donate a proton (H+ ion), or accept a proton (H+ ion).

Things to Remember:
• Acids will always donate, while bases will always accept!

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 3 OF 22

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
1. Conjugate acid-base pair: an acid and a base that differ by one proton.

2. Conjugate acid of a base (gains H+ ion): the particle that remains when the base receives
a proton from an acid.

3. Conjugate base of an acid (loses an H+ ion): the particle that remains when a proton is
removed from an acid.

Things to Remember:
• Conjugate simply means “linked together”.
• Conjugate acids gain an H+ ion.
• Conjugate bases lose an H+ ion.

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 4 OF 22

Questions for Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
1. When perchloric acid dissolves in water:

HClO4 (acid) (aq) + H2O (base) (l)  CLO4- (conj. base) (aq) + H3O+ (conj. acid) (aq)

Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs:

2. Sodium acetate is a good electrolyte. In water, the acetate ion reacts as follows:

3. Name and write the formula of the conjugate base of each molecule or ion.
(a). HCl  Cl-
(b). HCO3-  CO3-2
(c). H2SO4  HSO4-
(d). N2H5+  N2H4

4. Name and write the formula of the conjugate acid of each molecule or ion.
(a). NO3-  HNO3
(b). OH-  H2O
(c). H2O  H3O+
(d). HCO3  H2CO3

5. Write the equations to show that hydrogen sulfide, HS-, can be classified as amphoteric. First
show the ion acting as an acid. Then show the ion acting as a base.
Acid: HS-  H+ + S-2
Base: HS- + H+  H2S

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 5 OF 22

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
1. Strong acid: an acid that dissociates (breaks apart) completely into ions in a solution.

2. Weak acid: an acid that dissociates (breaks apart) only slightly into ions in a solution.

3. Strong base: a base that dissociates (breaks apart) completely into ions in a solution.

4. Weak base: a base that dissociates (breaks apart) very slightly into ions in a solution.

Strong Acid:
HCl  H+ + Cl-
(1.0 mol/l) (1.0 mol/l) (1.0 mol/l)

Weak Acid:
1%
CH3COOH  H+ + CH3COO-
(1.0 mol/l) (> 1.0 mol/l) (> 1.0 mol/l)

Strong Base:
NaOH  Na+ + OH-
(1.0 mol/l) (1.0 mol/l) (1.0 mol/l)

Weak Base:
NH3 + H2O  NH4+ + OH-
(1.0 mol/l) (> 1.0 mol/l) (> 1.0 mol/l)

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 6 OF 22

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
Acid Base
HCl Cl-
H2SO4 HSO4-
HN03 NO3-
H3O+ H2O
HSO4- SO4-2
H2SO3 HSO3-
H3PO4 H2PO4-
HF F-
CH3COOH CH3COO-
H2CO3 HCO3-
H2S HS-
HSO3- SO3-2
H2PO4- HPO4-2
NH4+ NH3
HCO3- CO3-2
HPO4-2 PO4-3
H2O OH-
HS- S-2
OH- O-2

The strongest acids appear at the top of the list on the left, and the strongest bases appear at
the bottom of the list on the right. Stronger acids have a weaker conjugate base, and stronger
bases have a weaker conjugate acid.

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 7 OF 22

Strong Acids and Bases

Ionization for H2O:

H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Kw = [H3O+ (aq)][OH- (aq)]

OR:

Kw = [H+ (aq)][OH- (aq)]

1 x 10-14 = [H+ (aq)][OH- (aq)]

Acidic Solutions:
[H+] > [OH-]

Basic Solutions:
[OH-] > [H+]

Neutral Solutions:
[OH-] = [H+]

[H3O+] and [OH-] in Aqueous Solutions at 25°C:

In an acidic solution, [H3O+] is greater than 1.0 x 10-7 mol/l and [OH-] is less than 1.0 x 10-7
mol/l. In a basic solution, [H3O+] is less than 1.0 x 10-7 mol/l and [OH-] is greater than 1.0 x 10-7
mol/l. In a neutral solution, both [H3O+] and [OH-] are equal to 1.0 x 10-7 mol/l

Things to Remember:
• Kw stands for the ionization of water.
• Kw is always 1 x 10-14!

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 8 OF 22

Questions for Strong Acids and Bases
1. Find [H3O+] and [OH-] in each solution.
(a). 2.5 mol/l nitric acid.
(b). 0.16 mol/l barium hydroxide.

1(a). HNO3  H+ + NO3- [H+] = 2.5 mol/l

2.5 mol/l 2.5 mol/l 2.5 mol/l [OH-] = ?  4 x 10-5 mol/l

Kw = [H+][OH-]
1 x 10-14 = [2.5 mol/l][OH-]
1 x 10-14 ÷ [2.5 mol/l] = [OH-]
4 x 10-5 mol/l = [OH-]

1(b). HNO3  H+ + NO3- [H+] = ?  3.125 x 10-4 mol/l

0.16 mol/l 0.16 mol/l 0.32 mol/l [OH-] = 0.32 mol/l

Kw = [H+][OH-]
1 x 10-14 = [H+][0.32 mol/l]
1 x 10-14 ÷ [0.32 mol/l] = [H+]
3.125 x 10-4 mol/l = [H+]

2. [OH-] is 5.6 x 10-14 mol/l in a solution of hydrochloric acid. What is the molar concentration of
HCl (aq)?

HCl (aq)  H+ + Cl- [H+] = ?  0.18 mol/l

0.18 mol/l 0.18 mol/l 0.18 mol/l [OH-] = 5.6 x 10-14 mol/l

Kw = [H+][OH-]
1 x 10-14 = [H+][5.6 x 10-14 mol/l]
1 x 10-14 ÷ [5.6 x 10-14 mol/l] = [H+]
0.18 mol/l = [H+]

3. [H3O+] is 1.7 x 10-14 mol/l in a solution of calcium hydroxide. What is the molar concentration
of Ca(OH)2 (aq)?

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 9 OF 22

 Ca(OH)2  Ca+2 + 2OH- [H+] = 1.7 x 10-14 mol/l
0.295 mol/l 0.295 mol/l 0.59 mol/l [OH-] = ?  0.59 mol/l

Kw = [H+][OH-]
1 x 10-14 = [1.7 x 10-14 mol/l][OH-]
1 x 10-14 ÷ [1.7 x 10-14 mol/l] = [OH-]
0.59 mol/l = [OH-]

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 10 OF 22

pH Scale
0 . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . 14
<--------- | ---------->
acid neutral base

pH = -log[H+] [H+] = 10-pH

pOH = -log[OH-] [OH-] = 10-pOH

pH + pOH = 14.00

Things to Remember:
• The closer you get to zero, the stronger the acid.
• The closer you get to fourteen, the stronger the base.
• Everything else is weak or neutral (7).
• Round two places after the decimal.
• There is no unit for pH and pOH.
• [H+] = 10-pH and [OH-] = 10-pOH are sometimes referred to as “inverse logs.”

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 11 OF 22

Questions for pH Scale
1. Calculate the pH of each solution, given the hydronium ion concentration.
(a). [H30+] = 2.7 x 10-3 mol/l
(b). [H30+] = 7.28 x 10-8 mol/l
(c). [H30+] = 9.7 x 10-5 mol/l
(d). [H30+] = 8.27 x 10-12 mol/l

1(a). [H30+] = 2.7 x 10-3 mol/l pH = -log [H+]

pH = -log(2.7 x 10-3)
pH = 1.57 (acidic)

1(b). [H30+] = 7.28 x 10-8 mol/l pH = -log [H+]

pH = -log(7.28 x 10-8)
pH = 7.14 (basic)

1(c). [H30+] = 9.7 x 10-5 mol/l pH = -log [H+]

pH = -log(9.7 x 10-5)
pH = 4.04 (acidic)

1(d). [H30+] = 8.27 x 10-12 mol/l pH = -log [H+]

pH = -log(8.27 x 10-12)
pH = 11.08 (basic)

2. A liquid shampoo has a hydroxide ion concentration of 6.8 x 10-5 mol/l at 25°C.
(a). Is the shampoo acidic, basic, or neutral?
(b). Calculate the hydronium ion concentration.
(c). What is the pH and pOH of the shampoo?

[OH-] = 6.8 x 10-5 mol/l

pOH = -log(OH-) pH + pOH = 14.00

pOH = -log(6.8 x 10-5) pH = 14.00 – 4.17
pOH = 4.17 pH = 9.83 (basic)

[H+] = 10-pH
[H+] = 10-9.83

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 12 OF 22

 [H+] = 1.48 x 10-10 mol/l

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 13 OF 22

Questions for pH Scale Continued…
3. At normal body temperature, 37°C, the value of Kw for water is 2.5 x 10-14. Calculate [H30+]
and [OH-] at this temperature. Is pure water at 37°C acidic, neutral, or basic?

Kw = [H+][OH-]
2.5 x 10-14 = [H+][OH-]
2.5 x 10-14 = (x)(x)
2.5 x 10-14 = x2
√2.5 x 10-14 = √x2
+ 1.58 x 10-7 = x
+ 1.58 x 10-7 = x = [H+] mol/l = [OH-] mol/l
- 1.58 x 10-7 = x = [H+] mol/l = [OH-] mol/l

pH = -log[H+]
pH = -log(1.58 x 10-7)
pH = 6.8 (acidic or neutral)

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 14 OF 22

Dilutions of Acids and Bases
Ci Vi = Cf Vf

Ci = initial concentration
Vi = initial volume
Cf = final concentration
Vf = final volume

Things to Remember:
• Always use final concentration values when calculating pH and/or pOH; you should never
use initial concentration unless asked!

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 15 OF 22

Questions for Dilutions of Acids and Bases
1. A solution of lithium hydroxide is diluted from 3.25 x 10-3 mol/l to 3.25 x 10-6 mol/l. If the initial
volume was 36.0 ml, calculate the final volume of the solution.
(a). Calculate the pOH and the pH of the solution.

LiOH  Li+ + OH-

3.25 x 10-3 3.25 x 10-3 3.25 x 10-3
mol/l mol/l mol/l

Ci Vi = Cf Vf Ci = 3.25 x 10-3 mol/l

(3.25 x 10-3 mol/l)(3.60 ml) = (3.25 x 10-6 mol/l)(Vf) Vi = 36.0 ml
(0.117 ml) ÷ (3.25 x 10-6 mol/l) = (Vf) Cf = 3.25 x 10-6 mol/l
36,000 ml = Vf Vf = ?  36,000 ml

1(a). pOH = -log[OH-] pH + pOH = 14.00

pOH = -log(3.25 x 10-6) pH = 14.00 – 5.49
pOH = 5.49 pH = 8.51 (basic)

2. Calculate the volume of concentrated hydrochloric acid (12.4 mol/l) required to prepare 950.0
ml of a solution that has a pH of 1.50.
(a). What is the pOH and [OH-] of the solution?

HCl  H+ + Cl-
3.2 x 10-2 3.2 x 10-2 3.2 x 10-2
mol/l mol/l mol/l

[H+] = 10-pH
[H+] = 10-1.50
[H+] = 3.2 x 10-2 mol/l

Ci Vi = Cf Vf Ci = 12.4 mol/l
(12.4 mol/l)(Vi) = (3.2 x 10-2 mol/l)(950.0 ml) Vi = ?  2.45 ml
(Vi) = (30.4 ml) ÷ (12.4) Cf = ?  3.2 x 10-2 mol/l
Vi = 2.45 ml Vf = 950.0 ml

2(a). pH + pOH = 14.00 [OH-] = 10-pOH

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 16 OF 22

 pOH = 14.00 – 1.50 [OH-] = 10-12.5
pOH = 12.5 [OH-] = 3.16 x 10-13 mol/l

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 17 OF 22

Questions for Dilutions of Acids and Bases Continued…
3. Calculate the pOH of a solution that forms when 150.0 ml of 2.23 x 10-5 mol/l Ca(OH)2 (aq) is
diluted to 15.0 l.
(a). Calculate the pH of the final solution. Is the solution acidic or basic?
(b). Calculate the hydronium ion concentration of the final solution.

Ca(OH)2  Ca+2 + 2OH-

2.23 x 10-5 2.23 x 10-5 4.46 x 10-7
mol/l mol/l mol/l

pOH = -log[OH-]
pOH = -log(4.46 x 10-7)
pOH = 6.35

3(a). pH + pOH = 14.00

pH = 14.00 – 6.35
pH = 7.65 (basic)

3(b). Ci Vi = Cf Vf Ci = 2.23 x 10-5 mol/l

(2.23 x 10-5 mol/l)(0.15 l) = (Cf)(15.0 l) Vi = 150.0 ml (0.15 l)
(3.35 x 10-6 mol/l) ÷ (15.0) = (Cf) Cf = ?  2.23 x 10-7 mol/l
2.23 x 10 mol/l = Cf
-7 Vf = 15.0 l

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 18 OF 22

The Acid and Base Dissociation (Ka and Kb)
If [HA or HB] ÷ Ka or Kb > (greater than) 500, the change in the initial concentration, “x,” is
negligible and can be ignored; you do not use “x”!

If [HA or HB] ÷ Ka or Kb < (less than) 500, the change in the initial concentration, x, may not be
negligible; this means you use “x” in the equation.

Things to Remember:
• This is used only for weak acids and bases.

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 19 OF 22

Questions for The Acid Dissociation Constant, Ka (Weak Acids)
HA (aq) + H20 (l) H30+ (aq) + A- (aq)

Ka = [H3O+ (aq)][A- (aq)]

[HA (aq)]

Example: Hydrofluoric acid, HF (0.01 mol/l).

HF H+ + F-
0.01 mol/l X X
(weak acid)

Concentration (mol/l) HF H+ + F-

Initial 0.01 0 0

Change -x +x +x

Equilibrium 0.01 - x x x

7.74 x 10-3 2.26 x 10-3 2.26 x 10-3

Ka = 1.8 x 10-5 [weak acid] ÷ Ka = 0.010 ÷ 6.6 x 10-4 = 15.15

15.15 < 500 – therefore the change is significant (you use the “x” for the reactant(s)).

Ka = [H+][F-] 6.6 x 10-4 = (x)(x) 6.6 x 10-4 = x2

[HF] (0.01 – x) (0.01 – x)

x2 + 6.6 x 10-4x – 6.6 x 10-6 = 0 (a = 1, b = 6.6 x 10-4, c = - 6.6 x 10-6)

-b + √b22 – 4ac
x=
2a

-6.6 x 10-4 + √4.35 x 10-7 + 2.64 x 10-5

x=
2

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 20 OF 22

 -6.6 x 10-4 + 5.18 x 10-3
x=
2

Questions for The Acid Dissociation Constant, Ka (Weak Acids)

Continued…

x= 2.26 x 10-3

pH = -log[H+] pH + pOH = 14.00

pH = -log(2.26 x 10-3) pOH = 14.00 – 2.65
pH = 2.65 pOH = 11.35

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 21 OF 22

The Base Dissociation Constant, Ka (Weak Bases)
B (aq) + H20 (l) BH+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Kb = [BH+ (aq)][OH- (aq)]

[B (aq)]

Example: Ammonia, NH3 (0.100 mol/l).

NH3 (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

0.100 mol/l X X
(weak base)

Concentration (mol/l) NH3 NH4+ + OH-

Initial 0.100 0 0

Change -x +x +x

Equilibrium 0.100 - x x x

0.100 1.34 x 10-3 1.34 x 10-3

Kb = 1.8 x 10-5 [weak base] ÷ Kb = 0.100 ÷ 1.8 x 10-5 = 5555.55

5555.55 > 500 – therefore the change is insignificant (you do not use the “x” for the
reactant(s)).

Kb = [NH4+ (aq)][OH- (aq)] 1.8 x 10-5 = (x)(x) 1.8 x 10-5 = x2

[NH3 (aq)] (0.100) (0.100)

1.8 x 10-5(0.100) = x2 1.8 x 10-6 = x2 √1.8 x 10-6 = √x2 1.34 x 10-3 = x = [OH-]

pOH = -log[OH-] pH + pOH = 14.00

pOH = -log(1.34 x 10-3) pH = 14.00 – 2.87
pOH = 2.87 pH = 11.13

UNIT 6: ACIDS AND BASES PAGE 22 OF 22