Introduction to Radar

Information in this presentation can be found in a number of texts on radar.

Introduction to Radar Systems, Skolnick, ISBN 0-07-290980-3 Principles of Modern Radar, Eaves and Reedy, ISBN 0-442-22104-5
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Introduction to Radar
Table of Contents
Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Radar Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Spectral Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Doppler Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Matched Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Detecting Signals in Noise . . . . . . . . . . . 50 CW Radars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Radar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
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Introduction to Radar
Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such as aircraft, ships, spacecraft, vehicles, people and the natural environment. Radar can perform its function at long or short distances and under conditions impervious to optical and infrared sensors. It can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain, and snow. Its ability to measure distance with high accuracy and in all weather is one of its most important attributes. The range of radars can exceed hundreds of miles and they can be placed on mobile platforms greatly increasing their effectivity.
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Introduction to Radar
The simplest radar system transmits a pulse of high frequency energy and listens for the echo of that pulse. Given that EM energy travels at 3 X 108 m/s, the time it takes for a pulse to travel to a target and the echo to travel back will tell us the range.
R = cTR/2
where R = range in meters c = the speed of the EM pulse TR = the round trip transit time

Introduction to Radar

EM wave is Reflected off Of target

Introduction to Radar
It becomes obvious that we cannot send out another pulse until a time window has passed, in which we expect to see a return echo. Through estimations, we can assume that an echo pulse that returns after that time window, will be too small to detect due to the distance it would have to travel and the noise in the receiver. Therefore we can calculate the maximum unambiguous range as:
Run = cTp/2 = c/2fp
where Tp = pulse repetition period fp = pulse repetition frequency

Introduction to Radar

Introduction to Radar
Looking at this simple waveform, we can determine:
What the maximum unambiguous range is How much power (heat) we will have to cool. This will be the average power which implies: the lower the duty cycle, the larger the peak power can be without a significant heat increase. What is the smallest target we can detect based on the peak power transmitted. What the range resolution (r) is based on
r = c/2
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Introduction to Radar
Throughout the years since the inception of radar, designers have found numerous ways to transmit more complicated waveforms to gather more information from the target. EX:
Pulse Doppler FMCW Pulse Compression

These will be discussed in detail later.

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The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

When EM energy is transmitted, it follows the laws of spherical spreading. That is, the power spreads isotropically (in all directions). Since the surface area of a sphere is defined by 4R2, the power per unit area, as the power radiated from the antenna, is defined by
Pdensity = Pt/4R2
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The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

However, by using an antenna that can direct the energy in a certain geometric space (direction) as opposed to the true isotropic broadcasting, we can modify the power density equation by adding a term for the antenna gain:
(max power density radiated by a directive antenna)

Antenna gain =
(power density radiated by a lossless isotropic antenna with the same power)

Note: We cannot get more power out of an antenna than what we put in. We can however, get more power/area than that of an isotropic radiator. 11

The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

PtGA Power Density at range R = 4R2 Next, when the radiated power reaches the target, a certain amount of it will be reflected back to the transmitter. The amount reflected back is determined by the radar cross section (rcs) designated by . As the transmitted energy is reflected back to the transmitter, it will once again undergo spherical spreading. Thus our equation is growing in terms and it is beginning to represent the power level of the signal we will have to detect at the receiver. PtGA Reradiated power density = 4R2 x 4R2
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The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

Were almost done in determining the return power level at the radar receiver. However, we have one more term to add. Up to this point, the equation is giving us watts/area. We need to multiply this term by the effective aperture of the receiving antenna in order to get watts. The aperture is a published parameter of the antenna and we will designate it as Ae.
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The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

This brings the simple form of the radar equation to :
PtGA Preceived = 4R2 Preceived = PtGAAe (4)2R4 x 4R2 x Ae

If we can define the minimum amount of Preceived that we can have and still detect the signal, then based on this minimum value, we can define our maximum range as: 1/4 PtGAAe Rmax = where Smin = min Preceived 2S (4) min
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The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

This is the fundamental form, or simple form of the Radar Equation 1/4

PtGAAe Rmax = (4)2Smin

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The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

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The Simple Form of the Radar Equation

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Spectral Evaluation

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Time Domain Evaluation

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Spectral Evaluation

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Time Domain Evaluation

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Spectral Evaluation

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Time Domain Evaluation

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Doppler Radars
One of the golden rules of RF signal processing is
change in phase with respect to time = frequency

d dt

= frequency

Because the change in phase vs. time must be calculated, the transmitted Signal must have a stable phase signal that can be measured. This is called a

phase coherent system.

Lets examine this in detail
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Doppler Radars

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Doppler Radars

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Doppler Radars

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Doppler Spectrum
Due to the Fourier property that all real functions in time have double-sided and symmetrical spectra in frequency, we need an I-Q (aka Quadrature) receiver to fully discriminate positive Doppler shifts from negative Doppler shifts.
Lets examine this.
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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)
Spectrum of transmitted CW signal at 1GHz

-1GHz

+1GHz

A target approaching the transmitter creates a plus 1KHz Doppler Shift

-1.0001GHz

+1.0001GHz 29

Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)
When the signal is down-converted to baseband (carrier removed), the frequency component leftover is the Doppler component.

-1KHz

DC

+1KHz

Remember this spectrum and lets see what happens when we have a negative 1KHz Doppler shift created by a target moving away from the transmitter.

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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

A target moving away from the transmitter creates a minus 1KHz Doppler Shift

-999.9MHz

+999.9MHz

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Doppler Spectrum (cont.)

The down-conversion process for this particular hypothetical radar is designed to down-convert a 1GHz signal to DC. In the case of the positive Doppler shift, the echo signal was 1Khz above 1GHz, and hence after down-conversion we had a 1KHz component leftover. Simple math will show that when we down-convert 999.9MHz to DC, we will have a NEGATIVE 1KHz component. However, our spectrum is double-sided symmetrical. For this reason, our 999.9MHz signal shows up as a negative 1KHz, however our MINUS 999.9MHz signal passes through the DC point of the spectrum and comes to rest as a POSITIVE 1KHz component.

-1KHz

DC

+1KHz

Hence, there is no way to distinguish between a positive Doppler shift, or a negative Doppler shift. Resolving this could be the difference between life and death.

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Doppler Time Domain

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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

We will examine how we resolve positive and negative Doppler shifts after we look at the Doppler Spectrum of a pulse radar.

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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.) RF Band

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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.) IF Band

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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.)

As you can see, this is duplicated in the IF spectrum. However, the baseband (video) response is slightly different, because it is centered around DC, and the symmetry of the spectrum must hold true according to Fourier. This is because for any real time function:
For f(t) REAL, the magnitude of its Fourier spectrum is symmetrical about 0 frequency, DC

F(-j) = F(j)
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Doppler Spectrum
(cont.) Baseband

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Video Pulse Train

with no Doppler Shift
If we have a radar pulse train at 50% duty cycle, the down-converted baseband video (with carrier removed), will look like the following:

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Video Pulse Train

with Doppler Shift

This may look useless, as if all the information has been distorted. However, if We expand it, we will see the Doppler Frequency show up (next slide). 41

Doppler Time Domain

video pulse train with Doppler Shift

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Doppler Shift
Quadrature Receiver
In order to resolve this, we can create a time domain function which is NOT all REAL, by using and I and Q, or Quadrature Receiver.

This receiver will resolve the Doppler shift in the time domain OR the frequency domain.
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Doppler Shift
Resolved in Time Domain with I/Q Receiver

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Doppler Shift
Resolved in Frequency Domain with I/Q Receiver

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Matched Filtering
A matched filter is a filter whose response maximizes the S/N ratio for a given signal. That signal is unique to the matched filter. We can quantify the design of the matched filter if we know the characteristics of the signal we are attempting to recover from the noise. The matched filter will have an impulse response which is the time reversed version of the signal.
h(t)filter = f(-t)signal
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Matched Filtering
(cont.)

Generally, matched filtering is performed at the IF or video (baseband) stage. Matched Filtering does NOT preserve the fidelity of the signal, but does maximize the S/N ratio for maximum likelihood of detection.

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Matched Filtering
(cont.)

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Matched Filtering

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Detection of Signals in Noise

Noise is a random statistical process. The exact value cannot be predicted at a future time, as with a periodic function. For this reason, noise must be described by its statistical characteristics (mean, standard deviation, PDF, etc.) Noise can have any number of PDFs (uniform, Rayleigh, Gaussian, etc.) For the sake of this presentation, we will concentrate on noise with a Gaussian PDF.
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Detection of Signals in Noise

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Detection of Signals in Noise

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Detection of Signals in Noise

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CW Radars
(continuous wave radars)

A CW radar works by providing some type of time stamp on a CW signal. The easiest way to do this is to change the frequency with respect to time. If we know exactly how the frequency is changing, then the frequency 9of the return echo tells us how much time has elapsed and hence we can determine the range. This is designated as an FMCW (frequency modulated continuous wave ) radar and the range accuracy can be very high (inches)
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CW Radars
(cont.)

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CW Radars
(cont.)
Xmit Return Echo

Frequency Difference

Time
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CW Radars
resolving doppler frequencies

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CW Radars
resolving doppler frequencies

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CW Radars
(cont.)

CW radars are very useful for highly accurate distance mesurement: Autonomous landing of aircraft/spacecraft
Underground location of objects

Their resolution can be defined by: FM Landing Radar on The

Lunar Module

Range Resolution = c/2B c = speed of light B = sweepable bandwidth

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Radar Systems
Fundamental concerns for shipboard systems
A ship is a very crowded environment from an electromagnetic viewpoint. A ship can easily have 100 or more antennas on board
These include transmit and receive for communications Multiple radars phased arrays and parabolic dishes Low Frequency transceivers which use the entire ship as an antenna. GPS equipment Many of these systems can be 10s of thousands of watts this creates a concern for the interference between systems, possible radiation hazards for personnel, possible radiation hazards for other vessels nearby. Many times there are not only electrical issues in placing radars on ship platforms, but structural and thermal issues as well. Typically CW radars are lower peak power than pulse radars due to thermal issues.

This created problems for steel ships, it creates even bigger problems for composite ships.
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Radar Systems
Electronic Signatures

Much information can be derived from the electronic observation of a transmitted radar signal. FMCW, pulse, pulse Doppler, etc. all have a unique spectrum. Many radars can perform in more than one mode.

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Radar Systems
Spectral Signature of a Simple Pulse Radar

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Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures

A pulse Doppler radar may only be interested in velocity information and not range. Therefore, the harmonic spacing in the spectrum may be very large (less ambiguity) but the pulses may be spaced very closely in the time domain. It is not uncommon that a radar may switch between long pulse repetitions and short pulse repetitions in order to obtain both range and velocity information at critical times.
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Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures

An FMCW radar would have a much more complex spectrum. Basically this can be modeled as an FM signal. Spectra of FM signals are determined by: the amount of frequency deviation, the rate of frequency deviation, and Bessel Functions. For an FMCW radar, there may be many harmonics present, but typically they would not follow the simple sinc envelope weve seen in pulse radars up to this point. When observing the spectrum from a distance, this would be a clue as to what type of system it is.
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Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures

Pulse compression, or chirp radars have an even more elaborate spectrum. This si a pulsed system that is also frequency modulated.

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Radar Systems
Spectral Signatures
After processing the chirp through a matched filter, the long pulses are converted to short pulses with a larger amplitude. These short pulses take on the shape of a sinc function in the time domain and exhibit an amplitude gain due to the matched filtering process.

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