Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2012 May PMP Slides Print
2012 May PMP Slides Print
2012 May PMP Slides Print
Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
Course Outline
Examining Project Management Framework Initiating a Project Planning Project Work
Part 1: Baselines Part 2: Management Plans
Executing Project Work Monitoring and Controlling Project Work Closing the Project
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CEO, CertSchool, iTroop Consulting 18+ Years IT Program / Project Management 5 Years CSC, 8 years for Sun Micro Systems 5 Years at HCL India
Engineer, Architect, Developer Team Manager, Maintenance Manager Sr. Manager
Applications:
Sun Download Center Sun Store E-Commerce Utilities ERP Implementation Utilities Large Redistricting Project (Construction, Telecom, & IT)
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Team Introduction
Name, Education, # Years of experience What is your role How PMP can help you?
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About CertSchool
CertSchool is accredited by PMI as a Global Registered Education Provider As a part of Registered Education Providers qualification process CertSchool passed a rigorous review of content, material, design and delivery of education products by PMI CertSchool was founded in 2003 to train project managers to effectively manage projects CertSchools wide range of trainers include project managers, functional manager and general managers and industry experts from fortune 10 companies.
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Education
PM Experience
7500 Hours of Project Management Practice
PM Education
High School
35 Hours
Degree
35 Hours
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Education
PM Education OR
23 Hours
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Yes
No
MEMBER
Exam Fee: $405 ReExam Fee: $275
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Yes
No
MEMBER
Exam Fee: $225 ReExam Fee: $150
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CertSchool suggests that you should secure at least 70% (123/175) or more. 4 Hours Maximum Time Allowed - 1 m 12 Sec. per Q
Domain
Initiation Planning Execution Monitoring and control Closing Total
% of Questions
13%
# of Questions
23
70%
16
24% 30%
25% 8% 100%
42 52
44 14 175
29 36
31 10 123
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4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Integration Management
Scope Management Time Management Cost Management Quality Management HR Management Communications Management Risk Procurement
11%
11% 11% 9% 7% 7% 7% 11% 7%
15
15 15 12 9 9 9 15 9
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Round 2
(Harder questions)
Question Formats
The exam uses a number of question formats. Some of the questions use multiple formats. Understanding of the formats helps you dissect the question and the available answers. Here are some formats: Select questions Chicken or the egg (sequence) Select NOT/EXCEPT questions All (or a combination of) the answers None of the answers
Question Format Select Description This is likely the most straight-forward question format on the exam. It simply asks you to select the best answer. Be aware, however, because it can also include other question formats, including the Chicken or the Egg format questions. Example A milestone has what duration? A. 1 day B. 0 (no duration) (Correct) C. 1 hour D. 8 hours
Situational Calculation
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Select NOT/EXCEPT
For this the type of question, you must select the answer that does not apply. Generally, this question type is not a big deal unless you have already hit "the wall" that we discussed in the exam environment part of this book. The key to handling this type of question is to determine which three answer selections have something in common. The fourth answer selection is the exception and the answer to choose.
With this question format, all -- or a combination -- of the answers are acceptable. The main thing to consider is that there isn't a bad choice. The odds are that if two of the answers (other than All the answers") look good, so will the third.
Which of the following are areas of risk management? A. Identify Risk B. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis C. Plan Risk Responses D. All the answers (Correct)
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With this format, more than one answer is acceptable. The key is to understand their order -- what comes first (last, before, or after something depending on what the question is asking). In this case, look at what the question is asking and determine the best answer based on the timeline of the answers.
What comes before Estimate Activity Durations? A. Sequence Activities B. Estimate Activity Costs C. Define Activities (Correct) D. Project Plan Development
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Processes - 42
Initiation - 2 Planning - 20 Execution - 8 Monitoring and Control - 10 Closing - 2
PMBOK Guide was adopted by ANSI (1999) as an American Standard for Project Management. The Fourth Edition was issued in 2008.
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TT
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Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. Project Management Body PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc. of Knowledge (PMBOK )Guide Fourth Edition Page 6
Phase-to-Phase Relationships
Sequential: For instance, phase two starts after the completion of phase one Overlapping: For instance, phase two can begin while phase one is still in process Iterative: This approach is typically used in an environment characterized by a constantly evolving environment or uncertainty, such as research
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P1
P2
Overlapping
P3
P1 P2
P3
P3
Phase Gate
A review process undertaken to determine if a project is likely to succeed. At the end of a program or project phase, an authorized group reviews the work of the phase and either approves to continue the project or makes the decision to stop future work on the initiative Projects that are not likely to succeed are killed early. Can also be called kill point
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4 Life Cycles
Corporate or Business Life Cycle
Policy Identify Planning Needs Project Realization Conception Product In Service Dispose
Concept
Develop
Implement
Closeout
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Reading Exercise
Process Group Definitions
Initiation Planning Execution Monitoring and Control Closing
Refer PMBOK Guide Page: 39
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Reading Exercise
Nine Knowledge Areas
Integration
Scope
Time Cost Quality
Refer PMBOK Guide Page: 411 - 415
Human Resource
Communications Risk Procurement
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Reading Exercise
Process Chart
42 project management processes are mapped in to a 2 dimensional chart with 5 Process groups as columns and 9 knowledge areas as rows. Mastering process chart is key towards the exam
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Project Framework
Project, Programs, Portfolios, PMOs, and Organizational Structures Professional Responsibilities Interpersonal Skills
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Project Definition
A project is an initiative that has the following characteristics:
Has a specific purpose and creates specific results Has definite start and finish dates
Could be progressively elaborated A project could occur as a result of a business opportunity or market need
Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. Reference Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ) Guide Fourth Edition Page: PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
Operations Mgmt.
Maintenance or support activities which are needed to manage the developed project are know as Operations. Operations activities are repetitive and ongoing.
Operations management deals with the ongoing repetitive day-to-day activities of running the business. In contrast, Project management deals with the creation of unique Objective, in a stipulated timeframe.
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Project Management
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements.
Project management is accomplished through the appropriate application and integration of the 42 project management processes
Managing projects typically involves managing all constraints
Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. Reference Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ) Guide Fourth Edition Page: PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
6
Portfolio
Strategy
Program
Projects
Project
- Organizations are build on a mission. Several strategies are developed to achieve that mission. To achieve each strategy several project are initiated. - A Portfolio is created to achieve each strategy
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Program B
Portfolio Sub Program
Project B2
Project C1
Portfolio management involves a group of projects (and/or) programs that have some degree of interactivity related to an overall strategic business goal. The interactivity could be related to funding, performing organization, or type of project.
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A program encompasses:
Projects of similar work (or) Correlated activities managed in a coordinated way to attain benefits that could not be achieved separately.
This could also involve the program interacting with operations as a result of the integration of a program (and its project) into operations.
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Project Stakeholders
Any person or organization who has a business interest in the outcome of a project is a stakeholder There are 2 Categories of stakeholders:
Positive Stakeholders are those whose interests are positively impacted by the project Negative Stakeholders are those whose interests are negatively impacted by the project
Example: The New York Yankees proposed $800 million Bronx stadium, 2006. Stakeholders include: Staff, management, owners, Major League Baseball, Chambers of commerce, Engineers, architects, and construction workers, Fans, Local residents, Local and statewide elected officials,
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Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. Impact of Variable Based on Project Time image from Project Management PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc. Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ) Guide Fourth Edition Page 17
Progressive Elaboration
Project requirements are developed over the period of the time. High level scope is created in the early stages which will be detailed in later stages of the project The concept of adding more details to the initial requirements as project progresses is called Progressive elaboration
Detail is added to plans in progressive elaboration Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
Examples: process definitions templates organization communication needs criteria to complete (close) projects financial infrastructure issue management change control processes risk management
work authorization
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http://www.pmi.org/en/About-Us/Ethics/~/media/PDF/Ethics/ap_pmicodeofethics.ashx
Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. Based on PMI Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct At: http://www.pmi.org/en/About-Us/Ethics/~/media/PDF/Ethics/ap_pmicodeofethics.ashx PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
1. Responsibility
Responsibility is Practitioners duty to take ownership for the decisions they make or fail to make, the actions they take or fail to take, and the consequences that result Standards considered are: Practitioners should make decisions in the best interests of society, public safety, and the environment Practitioners accepts only those assignments that are consistent with their background, experience, skills, and qualifications Practitioners fulfill the commitments that they undertake Practitioners will do exactly as what they say that they will do When errors or omissions are made, Practitioners will take ownership and make corrections promptly Practitioners protect proprietary or confidential information Practitioners report unethical or illegal conduct to appropriate management
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2. Respect
It is Practitioners duty to show high regard to themselves and resources entrusted to them. Resources may include people, money, reputation, the safety of others, and natural or environmental resources. Standards Include
Practitioners listen to others points of view, seeking to understand them Practitioners approach directly those persons with whom they have a conflict or disagreement Practitioners conduct their normal business in a professional manner, even when it is not reciprocated
Practitioners avoid themselves engaging in gossip and avoid making negative remarks to undermine another persons reputation
Practitioner negotiate in a good faith and do not exercise the power of their expertise or position to influence the decisions or actions of others in order to benefit them personally at others expense
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3. Fairness
Fairness is Practitioners duty to make decisions and act impartially and objectively. Their conduct must be free from competing self interest, prejudice, and favoritism Standards include:
Practitioners demonstrate transparency in their decision-making process Practitioners provide equal access to information to those who are authorized to have that information Practitioners proactively and fully disclose any real or potential conflicts of interest to the appropriate stakeholders Practitioners refrain from decision making process when there is a real conflict of interest until they made full disclosure of the conflict of interest Practitioners do not hire or fire, reward or punish, or award or deny contracts based on personal considerations, including but not limited to, favoritism, nepotism, or bribery Practitioners do not discriminate against others based on, but not limited to, gender, race, age, religion, disability, nationality, or sexual orientation
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4. Honesty
Honesty is Practitioners duty to understand the truth and act in a truthful manner both in their communications and in their conduct Standards Include:
Practitioners should be truthful in their communications and in their conduct Practitioners should provide accurate information in a timely manner Practitioners make commitments and promises, implied or explicit, in good faith Practitioners strive to create an environment in which others feel safe to tell the truth Practitioners do not engage in or condone behavior that is designed to deceive others Practitioners do not engage in dishonest behavior with the intention of personal gain or at the expense of another
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Interpersonal Skills
Ability to work harmoniously and efficiently. Interpersonal skills include:
Leadership. Team building. Motivation. Communication. Influencing. Decision making. Political and cultural awareness. Negotiation.
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Leadership Skills
According to the idea an effective leader is a person who does the following:
Creates an inspiring vision of the future. Motivates and inspires people to engage with that vision. Manages delivery of the vision. Coaches and builds a team, so that it is more effective at achieving the vision.
Leadership capabilities are critical at the beginning of a project or phase. Motivate and inspire team members for higher project performance.
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And Processes
interpersonal behavior with emphasis on communication conflict management motivation leadership
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Motivation Skills
When people are not motivated, it's unlikely that they'll achieve their true potential. On the other hand, when people are motivated, work seems easy. Motivated people have a positive outlook, they're excited about what they're doing, and they know that they're investing their time in something that's truly worthwhile In short, motivated people enjoy their jobs and perform well Project Managers goal is to keep the team feeling motivated and inspired Although there are literally hundreds of tactics that can motivate the team, it's important to realize that there are only two main types of motivation - extrinsic and intrinsic.
Extrinsic motivation is when you use external factors to encourage your team to do what you want. Pay raises, time off, bonus checks, and, on the negative side, the threat of job loss, are all examples of extrinsic motivators. Intrinsic motivation is internal. It's about having a personal desire to overcome a challenge, produce high quality work, or be on a team with people you like and trust. People who are intrinsically motivated by their work get a great deal of satisfaction and enjoyment from what they're doing.
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Communication Skills
Effective communication within the project team and between the project manager, team members, and all external stakeholders is essential. Openness in communication is a gateway to teamwork and high performance. It improves relationships among project team members and creates mutual trust Ensure everyone is kept informed, knows exactly what to do, and has all of the information to do their jobs Project managers should identify various communication channels, understand what information they need to provide, what information they need to receive, and which interpersonal skills will help them communicate effectively with various project stakeholders Effective communication is the ability to:
Motivate. Delegate. Organize. Solve problems. Obtain information.
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Influencing Skills
Influencing is a strategy of sharing power and relying on interpersonal skills to get others to cooperate towards common goals. Using the following guidelines can influence team members:
Lead by example, and follow through with commitments Clarify how a decision will be made Use a flexible interpersonal style, adjust the style to the audience Apply your power skillfully and cautiously. Think of long-term collaboration
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There are four major factors that affect the decision style: time constraints, trust, quality, and acceptance.
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Problem Definition
Problem Solution Generation (Finding alternatives) Ideas to Action (Choose an alternative)
Involve key participants to gain acceptance and commitment to making the solution work.
Post-implementation analysis, evaluation, and lessons learned. Evaluating how well the problem was solved and project goals achieved. (Extension of previous phase)
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Negotiation Skills
Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties, intended to reach an understanding, resolve point of difference, or gain advantage in outcome of dialogue, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests of two people/parties involved in negotiation process Approaches to negotiation
Win-Win Negotiation or Finding a fair compromise Distributive Negotiation the term distributive means, there is a giving out. By its mere nature, there is a limit in the thing being distributed or divided amongst the people involved. Integrative negotiation The word integrative means to join several parts into a whole. Conceptually, this implies some cooperation, or a joining of forces to achieve something together. The advocate's approach In the advocacy approach, a skilled negotiator usually serves as advocate for one party to the negotiation and attempts to obtain the most favorable outcomes possible for that party.
Bad faith negotiation: is a concept in negotiation theory whereby parties pretend to reason to reach settlement, but have no intention to do so, for example, one political party may pretend to negotiate, with no intention to compromise, for political effect.
Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. Appendix G from PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project ManagementProject Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ) Guide Fourth Edition 417 - 421 Institute, Inc.
Organizational Structure
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Functional Organization
A FO is a hierarchy where each employee has one clear superior. Staff members are grouped by specialty, such as production, marketing, engineering at the top level. Specialties may be further subdivided into functional organizations, such as mechanical and electrical engineering. Each department in a functional organization will do its project work independent of other departments.
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Projectized Organization
In a projectized organization, team members are often co-located, most of the organizations resources are involved in project work, and project managers have a great deal of independence and authority. Projectized organizations often have organizational units called departments, but these groups either report directly to the project manager or provide support services to the various projects.
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Matrix Organization
Matrix organizations are a blend of functional and projectized characteristics.
Weak matrices maintain many of the characteristics of a functional organization, and the project manager role is more of a coordinator or expediter than that of a true project manager. Strong matrices have many of the characteristics of the projectized organization, and can have full-time project managers with considerable authority and full-time project administrative staff. While the balanced matrix organization recognizes the need for a project manager, it does not provide the project manager with the full authority over the project and project funding.
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Functional Organization
Other organizational Hierarchy
30%
Elaborated Functional manager organization. - Blue color: Other work in the department - Green Color Project work - Staff can be part time on the Project - Project Management and Coordination is done by Functional manager
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30%
Elaborated Functional manager organization. - Blue color: Other work in the department - Green Color Project work - Staff can be part time on the Project - Functional manager manages the project - Project coordination is done by the staff
Coordinator
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50%
Elaborated Functional manager organization. - Blue color: Other work in the department - Green Color Project work - Functional manager shares the management authorities with PM - One of the staff of Functional Manager manages the project and shares authority with functional manager - Project coordination is done by the staff
Coordinator
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Manager of PMs
Elaborated Functional manager organization. - Blue color: Other work in the department - Green Color Project work - Staff mostly full time on the Project - Functional manager involvement in the project is very minimal. - Project manager manages the project and will have greater independence over the project - Project coordination is done by the staff - Project staff now start reporting to PM and dotted line to FM
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Projectized Organization
Other organizational Hierarchy
Elaborated Functional manager organization. - Blue color: Other work in the department - Green Color Project work - Most of the organization is Project organizations - Project manager manages the project
Coordinator
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Initiation Objectives
Project Assessment and Feasibility Study Define High-Level Scope Identify Project Stakeholders, Perform key stakeholder analysis Develop Project Charter Identify and document high-level risks, assumptions, and constraints Obtain Sponsor and/or Client Approvals
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This feasibility study is different from Project Selection feasibility study. Here Project Manager evaluated Possibilities to complete the project
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Project Selection
Project Selection Criteria: The act of choosing a project from among competing proposals. Project Selection Methods: Any systematic approach used to analyze the value of a proposed project in order to choose among competing proposals. Decision Models: 2 major categories
Description
Analyze the predicted value of the completed projects in different ways. May present the value in terms of: Weighted Scoring Models BCR Benefits Cost Ratio Payback Period NPV Net Present Value & IRR Internal Rate of Return ROI (Return on Investment) EVA (Economic Value Add) Use different types of mathematical formulas and algorithms to determine the optimal course of action. Models in this section are Linear Programming Nonlinear Programming Dynamic Programming Integer Programming Multi objective programming
System
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High-Level Scope
Project sponsors, Customers identify Project high level scope and provide to Project Management team. Which will be included in Project Charter
High Level scope statements help establish the boundaries of the project High-level scope can be derived from defined Project Objectives High-level scope also includes List of Deliverables High-level scope also identifies out-of-scope conditions by describing what deliverables will not be created It is a good practice to provide a list of organizations those are in scope and organizations those are out of scope
Based on high level project scope, Project team develops detailed Scope statement in Planning phase of the project. Gradual detailing of the scope is called Progressive Elaboration During Progressive elaboration, high level scope will be explained in detail but new items will not be added and no changes are made
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High-Level Risk
Project sponsors, Customers must provide External Project Risks, Constraints. According to PMI, Risks are documented and managed in a document called Risk Register. Risk Register will be initiated in early stages of the project and updated, maintained throughout the Project lifecycle.
High Level Risk Identification help establish implementation approach By looking in to historical data, and previous experiences to identify High level Risks High Level Risk Identification also helps to understand current environment
Project team will conduct detailed Risk Identification process to add every risk to the Risk Register. Later Project team will perform Qualitative and Quantitative analysis to filter risks and provide Risk Response strategies By identifying High Level Risks and Response strategies during the early phases of project, allows project team to take GO/ NO GO decisions
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Contract Project Statement of Work Business Case EEF, OPA Expert Judgment Project Charter
I I
I I TT O
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Requirement or idea
Initiate Process
Propose alternatives
Transition to support
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Support Managers, Project Team
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Project purpose and justification Measurable project objectives High level requirements
Summary Mile Stone Schedule Summary Budget Approval Requirements Project Manager Signing Authority
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Customers / Users
Project
Sponsor
Project Management Team
Project Manager
Team Members
Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. Reference Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ) Guide Fourth Edition Page: PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
24
Stakeholder Analysis
Stakeholder analysis is a technique of systematically gathering and analyzing quantitative and qualitative information to determine whose interests should be taken into account throughout the project. Stakeholder analysis generally follows the steps described below..
1. Identify Stakeholders 2. Classify Stakeholders using one of below models
Power/interest Power/influence Influence / Impact Others .
Assessment of Impact
By adding above ROWS to the stakeholder Register, Stakeholder Analysis Matrix is generated
The stakeholder management strategy defines an approach to increase the support and minimize negative impacts of stakeholders throughout the entire project life cycle. Stakeholder
Planning Objectives
Assess detailed project requirements, constraints, and assumptions with stakeholders based on the project charter, lessons learned from previous projects, and the use of requirement-gathering techniques Create the work breakdown structure with the team by deconstructing the scope Develop a budget plan based on the project scope using estimating techniques Develop a project schedule based on the project timeline, scope, and resource plan Develop a human resource management plan by defining the roles and responsibilities Develop a communication plan Develop a procurement plan Develop a quality management plan Develop a change management plan Develop a risk management plan Present the project plan to the key stakeholders Conduct a kick-off meeting with all stakeholders
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Baselines
Scope Baseline
(Scope Statement, WBS, WBSD)
Schedule Baseline
HR MP, Staffing MP
Communications MP Risk MP Procurement MP Configuration MP, Change MP In Planning Part 2 above management plans will be completed.
Cost Baseline
Combination of above 3 baselines is called Performance Measurement Baseline
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Facilitated Workshops
Requirements gathering workshops with cross functional teams. Below are 2 classic examples of these workshops:
Quality function deployment (QFD) is a method to transform user demands into design quality, to deploy the functions forming quality, and ultimately to specific elements of the manufacturing process. as described by Dr. Yoji Akao, who originally developed QFD JAD is a process used in the prototyping life cycle to collect business requirements while developing new information systems for a company.
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NGT is a decision making method to make decisions quickly, as by a vote, but want everyone's opinions taken into account
the experts answer questionnaires in two or more rounds. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of the experts forecasts from the previous round as well as the reasons they provided for their judgments. Thus, experts are encouraged to revise their earlier answers in light of the replies of other members of their panel
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Diagramming Techniques
Diagramming Technique (Group Creativity Technique) Idea or mind mapping Description Ideas created through brainstorming are consolidated into a map that reflects the commonality, differences in understanding, and generation of new ideas.
Affinity diagram
Enables the sorting of a large number of ideas collected during brainstorming into distinct categories for review and analysis.
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Description
Everyone in the group agrees on a single course of action. Requires support from more than 50% of the members of the group to indicate the selected decision. The largest batch in the group decides for the group even if a majority is not achieved. One individual makes the decision for an entire group.
Majority
Plurality
Dictatorship
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Requirements Documentation
Collected requirements are presented as Requirements documentation. Which will be to verify the product at the end of phase or project. The requirements documented must be unambiguous, and acceptable to key stakeholders Components of requirements documentation:
Business Need Project objectives Functional and non-functional requirements Quality requirements Acceptance criteria Support and training needs Assumptions and Constraints.
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110
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Project Charter Requirements Documentation OPA Product Analysis Alternatives Identification Facilitated workshop Expert Judgment
Functional analysis Value engineering and value analysis Quality function deployment Systems engineering
Analyzing all of the things that a product does, including primary and related functions to identify unnecessary functions that might drive up cost on a product.
Identifying and developing the cost versus benefits ratio for each function of a product. Identifying what the customer's needs are, and translating those needs into technical requirements. Analyzing products holistically, integrating factors such as users, usage environment, and related hardware or software with which the product must function.
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Decomposition
Work Breakdown Structure WBS Dictionary Scope Baseline Project document updates
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Work Package
Lowest-level component of the work breakdown structure is called Work Package Work packages are at level where Cost and Durations can be estimated.
Maps to project scope statement
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WBS Styles
Deliverables Based Functional Groups Geographical Time Phased Mixed
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Scope Baseline
The scope baseline is a component of the project management plan. Components of the scope baseline include:
Project scope statement. The project scope statement includes the product scope description, and the project deliverables, and defines the product user acceptance criteria. WBS. The WBS defines each deliverable and the decomposition of the deliverables into work packages. WBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary has a detailed description of work and technical documentation for each WBS element.
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Scope Baseline EEF, OPA Decomposition Rolling Wave Planning Templates Expert Judgment
Decomposition refers to the process of breaking down the WBS element into smaller pieces called activities. Project manager should work collaboratively with the project team and functional managers to appropriately break the WBS into manageable and measurable activities.
Rolling Wave Planning refers to a method of project planning where near term activities are planned in details and the mid term to long term activities are planned in lesser detailed. This method assumes that the near term future is more predictable and there are little known facts about the longer term future.
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Activities
Element of project work that requires an action to produce a deliverable. Have an expected duration. Consume budget and/or human resources. Are named in verb-noun format. Example: Activities in a company project.
Revise user manual. Make a sales presentation. Develop code
Verb (Action) Noun (Deliverable)
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Activity List: (a) Its a list of all activities that need to be performed to successfully execute the project. (b) Each activity in the activity list should have adequate and clear information.
Milestone List: a) Milestone are of Zero Duration b) Milestone list represent s completion of a set of key activity. c) Milestones are generally deliverable driven, occasionally they can be time driven. d) Eg: Design, Build, Test, Deploy.
Activity Attribute: Any additional information about an activity is considered activity attribute. Eg: Person Responsible, Activity Dependency, Activity location, etc..
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Finish to Finish
Start to Start
Start to Finish
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Lead
A change in a logical relationship that allows the successor activity to start before the predecessor activity ends in an FS relationship. Implemented when a successor activity needs to be accelerated in order to shorten the overall project schedule.
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Lag
A delay in a logical relationship that causes the successor activity to start after the lag time is completed in an FS relationship. Example: Curing period after Cement road is paved is a lag. Successor activity cant start immediately.
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GERT
Activity A
Activity B
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A project schedule network diagram using the precedence diagramming method Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
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Project Resources
List of all Resources required to perform the project Include labor, equipment, consultants, services, materials, facilities, supplies, and utilities There are 3 categories of resources:
Work Resources (Scheduled) Ex: Human Resources, Equipment Material Resources (Consumables) Ex: Wood, Iron Cost Resources
Fixed Costs (Lump sum and same in all situations, irrespective of usage) Variable Costs (Depends on amount of usage. Different in different situations Ex: Travel)
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Material
Labor
Equipment
Supplies
Grade
Skill Level
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Bottom Up
In this method duration of each package is estimated and aggregated to the upper level. The total aggregated duration values is Project Schedule.
Advantages: Its more detailed as all activities are estimated. Its more accurate. Gains buy in from team members as they are involved in the estimation process. Limitations: It requires a lot of time and effort to estimate. Requires that the team has knowledge of all activities. It results in inconsistency as various team members may use different padding assumptions.
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Three Point
The accuracy of single-point activity duration estimates can be improved by considering estimation uncertainty and risk.
Advantages: Based on age old Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) O+ 4ML + P 6 Limitations: . For smaller variance the end result will be closer to most likely value.
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Activity List Schedule Network Diagrams Activity Resources Requirements Activity Duration Estimates
Project Schedule
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I, TT, O
Schedule Network Analysis , Apply leads and lags Critical path method, Critical Chain Method Resource Leveling, What-If Scenario Analysis Schedule Compression, Scheduling tool
Project Schedule, Schedule Baseline, Schedule data, Project Document updates
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Float
The amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the successor activities start date or project finish date is called Float Any activity would have 2 types of Floats
Total float: Amount of time that particular activity can be delayed without impacting Project finish date
Can be calculated as (Successor activity Late start date) (Current activity Early finish date)
Free float: Amount of time that particular activity can be delayed without impacting all successor activities start date
Can be calculated as (Successor activity Late start date) (Current activity Early finish date)
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Free Float
The amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the start date of any activity that immediately follows it.
A network diagram with FREE FLOAT Activity Days Dependency
A
A B C 10 5 3 A,B
Float: 5 Days
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Total Float
A type of float where the total amount of time an activity requires can be delayed without delaying the project finish date.
Days 10 7 3 5 4 Dependency Start A B, E Start A,D C A 10d A network diagram with total float Activity A B C D E Finish
B -7d
S
D 5d E - 4d
C 3d
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Float: 3 Days
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ES LS
ES Early Start EF Early Finish D - Duration
D Activity F
EF LF
LS Late Start LF Late Finish F- Float
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S
B
End
E
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7
A
8
C
5
D
3
F
4
B
5
E
End
Path1 Start A C D F End =23 Path2 Start B E End = 9 Path3 Start A C E End = 20
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7 A
8 C
15
15
5 D
20
20
3 F
23
4 B
End
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7 A
15
20
20
23
4 B
5 E
End
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7 A
8 C
15
15
5 D
20
20
3 F
23
15
15
20
20
23
4 B
15
5
E
20
End
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Start with critical path duration as Late Finish for all last activities on non critical paths Then calculate Late Start = Late Finish - Duration As non-critical activities ES and LS are normally not same, You have 2 options to define the Late Finish of predecessor activity. In the backward pass, You can transfer LS or ES of next activity to predecessor. If you transfer Late Start of next activity to predecessor Late Finish, you can get Total Float. Then calculate Late Start = Late Finish - Duration Likewise repeat transferring LS of successors to Predecessors LF for all other activates Finally calculate the Total Float = LF EF
7 8 C 15 15 15 5 D 20 20 3 F 23
15
20
20
23
4 B
15 18
5 E 3
20 23
End
14
14 18
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7 A
8 C
15
15
5 D
20
20
3 F
23
15
15
20
20
23
4 B
15 18
5 E 3
20
End
11
11 15
23
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A project schedule allows you to consider resource limitations and adjust the schedule Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
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Resource Leveling
Resource leveling is a schedule network analysis technique to fix resource over allocation. Objective is to ensure that resources are not over-allocated or over-burdened, and that there are not significant ups and downs in the resource schedule. Over Allocations are looked as
Individual resources Demand for Entire Project By delaying the tasks By splitting the task and part of it works in the future
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120
100 80
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Project Schedules
The plan for starting and finishing activities on specific dates and in a certain sequence. Used to:
Coordinate activities into a master plan. Track schedule performance.
A project schedule for a website design project (deliverable categories in bold) Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
Schedule Formats
Bar chart:
Shows start and end dates, duration, order. Can show precedence relationships. Can show percentage completion; actual progress. Used to present project status to management.
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Schedule Compression
Schedule compression is the concept that shortens the project schedule without changing the project scope Two techniques are available:
Fast-tracking: is a technique to shorten the duration by performing sequential activities is parallel.
Crashing: is a technique to shorten the duration by bringing in additional resources or approving overtime. Crashing only works for activities where additional resources will shorten the duration. +
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Schedule Baselines
The management-approved version of the project schedule. Drawn from the schedule network analysis. Provides basis for measuring and reporting schedule performance.
A chart showing a schedule baseline Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
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Lifecycle costing
It refers to the concept of looking at the cost of a particular product through out the life of the product vs. just the project cost. Its similar to the concept of total cost of ownership. Example:
Option:01 Build a software Project cost of building the software: 100K Maintaining the software: 5K / year Option:02 Buy off the shelve product Project Cost of buying the software: 75K Project cost of maintaining the software: 35K
Based on the example option:02 is cheaper to buy. However as per the concept of Life cycle costing, total cost of ownership for option1 is significantly lower than other. So Option:01 should be the right choice for the organization.
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Developed without basis of detailed data and often based on very high level historical data, expert judgment, or a costing model. Accuracy: -50 percent to +50 percent.
Often used for appropriation purposes. Accuracy: -10 to +10 percent. Developed by estimating the cost for each work package in the WBS. Accuracy: - 5 percent to + 5 percent. Allows the use of ROM or approximate estimates for some later parts of the work. Accuracy: 5 percent to 15 percent.
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Bottom Up
In this method duration of each package is estimated and aggregated to the upper level. The total aggregated duration values is Project Schedule.
Advantages: Its more detailed as all activities are estimated. Its more accurate. Gains buy in from team members as they are involved in the estimation process. Limitations: It requires a lot of time and effort to estimate. Requires that the team has knowledge of all activities. It results in inconsistency as various team members may use different padding assumptions.
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Three Point
The accuracy of single-point activity duration estimates can be improved by considering estimation uncertainty and risk.
Advantages: Based on age old Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) O+4ML+P 6 Limitations: . For smaller variance the end result will be closer to most likely value.
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Example: A customer wants to spread project costs over two quarters. $250,000 during Q1. $350,000 during Q2.
Q1: $250,000 Q2: $350,000
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Cost Aggregation
Project Cost Baseline Project Costs + + Management Reserve Contingency Reserve Project Costs
Control Accounts Costs Control Accounts Costs
= =
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Cost Baselines
A time-phased budget monitors and measures cost performance throughout the project life cycle. Developed by adding the estimated costs of project components by period.
A generic cost baseline shown as an S-curve Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
Wks Costs in '000 Cumilative Wk1 3 3 Wk2 10 13 Wk3 10 23 Wk4 20 43 Wk5 35 78 Wk6 35 113 Wk7 20 133 Wk8 10 143 Wk9 5 148 Wk10 2 150
20 10 0 3 10 10
20
20 10 5 2
Wk1 Wk2 Wk3 Wk4 Wk5 Wk6 Wk7 Wk8 Wk9 Wk10
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Review CertSchool Poster #1; Identify 20 planning processes; Identify processes that develop baselines and identify processes that develop management plans
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Quality
Totality of features and characteristics of a product or services that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. Other definition: The degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements Other definition: Quality is conformance to requirements or specifications Quality is providing what CUSTOMER wants Quality and Grade
Fulfilling customer requirements as they wish is Quality Grade is same functional use, but different technical characteristics
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Customer Satisfaction
Quality product is developed for customer satisfaction
Continuous improvement
Quality cant be achieved overnight. It has to be achieved over the period one step at a time. KAIZEN is the word states that continuous improvement is much better than sudden change or growth. KAI Change, ZEN Good.
Management Responsibility
Management needs to participate and recognize the requirements of Quality in the project.
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Regulations:
Compliance-mandatory characteristics for specific products, services, or processes. Example: 2007 U.S. recall of toys with lead-based paint.
Cost of Quality
The concept of quality costs is a means to quantify the total cost of quality-related efforts and deficiencies. It was first described by Armand V. Feigenbaum in a 1956 Harvard Business Review article
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Flowchart
A diagram that shows the relationships of various elements in a system or process. Two flowcharting techniques:
Cause-and-effect diagram. Process or system flowchart.
Helps identify potential quality problems and possible effects of the problems.
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Process Flowchart
Shows the sequence of events and flow of inputs and outputs between elements in a process or system. Has a definite beginning and end.
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Cause-and-Effect Diagram
A diagram that shows the relationships of various elements in a system or process.
Men
Mother Nature
A cause-and-effect diagram 6 M s
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Control Charts
A graph used to analyze and communicate the variability of a process or project activity over time. Shows the potential capability of the process. Suggests the range of variability in the process.
USL Upper specification Limit UCL Upper Control Limit Mean LCL - Control Limit
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Benchmarking
A method of addressing the evaluation of a groups business or project practices in comparison to those of other groups. Used to identify best practices in order to meet or exceed them. Example: Benchmarking the espresso-based beverages based on the performance of Seattle-based Starbucks Corp.
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Checklists
A job aid that prompts employees to perform activities quality standard according to a consistent
Obtain a printout of the image specifications from the graphics database. Use this checklist to ensure that the images are ready to be handed off to the programmer. # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Item Does the image match the description in the database? Does the style meet the specifications for the course or lesson? Does the quality of the image meet the standards set for the course? Is the image size correct? Is the correct border on the image? Is the image in the correct palette? Is the opacity correct (transparent or opaque)? Is the bit-depth correct? Y/N
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Metric
A metric is a verifiable measure stated in either quantitative or qualitative terms.
95 percent inventory accuracy as evaluated by our customers, we are providing above-average service
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Activity Resource Requirements EEF, OPA Organization Charts and Position Descriptions Organizational Theory Networking Human Resource Plan
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Organizational Charts
Organizational Charts can be represented in 3 formats
Hierarchical OBS, RBS, Matrix Resource Assignment Matrix (Ex: RACI) Text-oriented
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220
RACI Chart
A chart that links key project stakeholders to specific project deliverables or activities by assigning responsibility to an individual stakeholder for each element of work. RACI Chart is an example of RAM Chart
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HR Plan
The human resource plan, a part of the project management plan, provides guidance on how project human resources should be defined, staffed, managed, controlled, and eventually released. Components include:
Roles Responsibilities Authority Competency Project Organizational Charts Staffing Management Plan
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Stakeholder Register Stakeholder Management Strategy EEF, OPA Communication Requirements Analysis Communication Technology Communication Models Communication Methods
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Potential Channels
n(n-1) 2 n = number of people
2(1)/2 = 1 Channel
4(3)/2 = 6 Channels
*As the number of people involved in the communication increases the number of communication channels increases geometrically.
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Communication Models
A basic model of communication demonstrates how information is sent and received between two parties, defined as the sender and the receiver. The key components of the model include:
Encode: To translate thoughts or ideas into a language that is understood by others Message and Feedback message: The output of encoding Medium: The method used to convey the message Noise: Anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of the message Decode: To translate the message back into meaningful thoughts or ideas
Encode
Decode
3 levels of problems in this model: The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior? Project Manager needs to resolve these issues case by case
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255
Communication Methods
Interactive Communication
Between 2 or more partied, multidirectional
Push Communication
Sent to specific recipients
Pull Communication
Very large information for very large audience. Intranet website is an example
The technologies used for communications planning: websites, email, instant messaging, phones, video conferencing.
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Identify Risks
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Project Scope Statement Cost Management Plan Schedule Management Plan Communications Management Plan EEF, OPA
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Methodology Roles and responsibilities Budgeting Timing Risk categories Definitions of risk probability and impact Probability and impact matrix Reporting formats Tracking
RMP
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The Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS) is a hierarchically organized representation of the identified risks arranged by risk categories and subcategories RBS helps project team to identify Risk and provide details at a consistent level RBS allows Project team to provide high level response strategies at category level
Project Risks
Category A
Category B
Category C
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Information-Gathering Techniques
Technique Description Used to identify overall project risks or may focus in on the risks within a particular project segment or work package. Generates a consensus among project risk experts who anonymously submit their risk list to a facilitator. Used to get information from people with a wide experience across many projects.
Brainstorming
Delphi technique Interviewing Root cause analysis
Used to identify problems, discover the root cause, and develop corrective actions.
Risk identification checklists can be developed to make sure all aspects are covered. The lowest level of the RBS can also be used as a risk checklist. While a checklist can be quick and simple. Every project and every identified project risk is conceived and developed based on a set of hypotheses, scenarios, or assumptions. Assumptions analysis identifies risks to the project from inaccuracy, instability, inconsistency, or incompleteness of assumptions
Checklist Analysis
Assumption Analysis
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Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
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Risk Registers
Identifies and categorizes risks, potential risk responses, triggers. Updated as risk categories change. Risk responses from the initial risk register are used in the risk response planning process. Updated risk register is provided to the project team members.
ID 1 Source PMO Date 1/5 Description Project Management practices unable to deliver the project Shortage of technical resources Probab ility High Impact High Trigger Schedule Delay Delay in previous project Response Strategy Clear PM Structure in place with more authority Hire external contractors Status Identified
RM
1/12
Low
Med
Identified
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Triggering Events
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Risk Probability and Impact Assessment Risk Data Quality Assessment Risk Categorization Risk Urgency Assessment Risk Register Updates
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0.9 0.8
0.09 0.18 0.27 0.36 0.45 0.54 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72
0.7
0.6
Probability
Legend: - Red: Close Monitor - Amber: Monitor - Green: Watchlists - White: Skip - Blue: SCALE
0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
0.1
Impact
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Risk Score
Identify Risks process lists all possible risks, that include High-Impact risks, LowImpact risks, High Probability risks and Low Probability risks Qualitative Risk Analysis process ranks those risks based on Probability and Impact Risk Rating Matrix defined. Risk Score = Probability * Impact
Risk Risk 1
Risk 2 Risk 3 Risk 4
Rank 1
3 2 4
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Description Probability Impact Score Risk 10 Risk 8 Risk 6 Risk 3 Risk 1 Risk 2 Risk 5 Risk 7 Risk 4 Risk 9
Will be analyzed quantitatively
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Risk Management Plan Data Gathering and Representation Techniques Quantitative Risk Analysis and Modeling Techniques Risk Register (Updates)
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Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting the projects competing demands. Analysis is used to assign a numerical rating to those risks individually or to evaluate the aggregate effect of all risks affecting the project. It also presents a quantitative approach to making decisions in the presence of uncertainty Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed several times even after Risk responses are provided or on regular intervals of monitor and controlling to measure the overall project Risk and see if it is reduced or not. Data Gathering and Representation Techniques like Interviewing and Probability distribution are used to represent the uncertainty numerically
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Contingency Reserve
This Cumulative Chart developed by a simulation using the Data and Triangular distributions, predicts that the project is only 12% likely to meet the $41m estimate. If management wants 75% likelihood of success, a budget of $50m is required. Then Contingency is ($50-$41)/$41 = 22%
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Decision Tree
Decision Trees are excellent tools for helping you to choose between several courses of action. They provide a highly effective structure within which you can lay out options and investigate the possible outcomes of choosing those option Steps to arrive at a decision
Drawing a Decision Tree Evaluating Your Decision Tree Calculating Tree Values Calculating The Value of Uncertain Outcome Nodes Calculating the Value of Decision Nodes Arrive at a decision
For example, consider your company is in a situation to take a decision to implement new product or consolidate existing ones. By following the decision tree process you can suggest a solution
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Calculations
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Simulations
Uses computer models and estimates of risk. Translates uncertainties into potential impact. Involves calculating multiple project durations using varying sets of assumptions. Example: The project team for the multimedia campaign decides which printing contractor to use and chooses between two vendors.
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Example: Monte Carlo analysis for a project that has three tasks with inexperienced resources.
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Description Probability Impact Score Risk 1 Risk 2 Risk 3 Risk 4 Risk 5 Risk 6 Risk 7 Risk 8 Risk 9 Risk 10 Risk 10 Risk 8 Risk 6 Risk 3 Risk 1 Risk 2 Risk 5 Risk 7 Risk 4 Risk 9
Risk 10 Risk 8 Risk 6 Risk 3 Risk 1 Risk 2 Risk 5 Risk 7 Risk 4 Risk 9
EMV
Requi red Conti ngency Res erve
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Strategies for Negative Risk or Threats Strategies for Positive Risks or Opportunities Contingent Response Strategy Risk Register (Updates) Risk-related Contract Decisions
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Risk Strategies
Negative Risks (Threats)
Strategy Risk avoidance Risk transference Risk mitigation Description
Involves changing the project plan to prevent a potentially detrimental risk condition or event from happening.
Shifts the impact of a risk event and ownership of the risk response to a third party. Attempts to reduce the probability or impact of a potential risk event to an acceptable level. Involves accepting that a risk exists. The acceptance may be passive or active.
Risk acceptance
Strategy
Description Often used when a project team wants to make sure that a positive risk is fully realized. Entails partnering up with another party in an effort to give your team the best chance of seizing the opportunity. Attempts to increase the probability that an opportunity will occur. Involves accepting the risk and actively responding to it as it comes, but not through pursuit.
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Mitigation
Compatibility issues between two interfaces is the risk. Developing detailed design plans or allocating more time to resolve the compatibility issues Add buffers to the critical path to reduce the risk
Transference
Subcontract the work to suppliers with demonstrated expertise
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Sharing Examples
Vendor identified to secure a large order. Vendor partnering with another sub vendors to fulfill the needs
Enhancing
An Airline company enhances its opportunities by Adding additional flights during holiday season
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Fallback plan
Something to which one can resort or retreat. When the contingency plan for a risk is not fully effective, team should implement fallback plan.
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Secondary
New risks that emerge as a result of applying risk response strategies. For example: Fevers caused by Flu vaccines
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4 Procurement Processes
Planning Execution Monitor & Control Closing
Plan Procurement
Make or Buy Decision Procurement Management Plan Procurement Docs
Conduct Procurement
Search Vendors List vendors Select a vendor
Administer Procurement
Close Procurement
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Decentralized Procurement
refers to project / organization specific procurement where the procurement manager reports to the project manager
Advantages
Procurement manager will gain more experience and hence will gain higher degree of expertise Lessons learned from one procurement can be applied to other procurement(s) Standard corporate policies and practices can be followed
Limitations
Lack of adequate attention from procurement manager due to conflicting priorities.
Advantages
Project Manager will have better access and control over the procurement manager.
Limitations
Lack of opportunity to continuously improve the process.
Duplication of efforts
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Make-or-Buy Analysis
A technique used to determine whether it is more cost-effective to produce a product or service in-house or to procure it from an outside seller. Impacts project time, cost, and quality. Consider if a product needs to be purchased, leased, or rented, in case of a buy decision. Consider
Direct & Indirect costs Technical ability Trade secrets?
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Teaming Agreements
A legal contractual agreement between two or more parties to form a joint venture. Parties can be internal or external to the organization executing the project. Significantly impacts the planning processes for the project. Predefines issues such as scope of work and competition requirements. Example: A teaming agreement between OGC Corporation and Janrex Inc.
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Contracts
Mutually binding agreements that detail the obligations of both parties in terms of procuring work. Customized for each agreement. Contract types:
Fixed price. Cost-reimbursable. Time and Material (T&M) contracts.
Example: A fixed-price contract used by the project team procuring the manufacturing unit for its new line of footwear.
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Types of Contracts
Contract Type Description It establishes a total price for a product or service. The seller agrees to perform the work at the negotiated contract value. This value is based on anticipated costs and profit, as well as a premium to cover unforeseen problems. This contract provides sellers a refund of the expenses incurred while providing a service, plus a fee representing seller profit. This type of contract includes aspects of both fixed-price and costreimbursable contracts. The buyer pays the seller a negotiated hourly rate and full reimbursement for materials used to complete the project.
Fixed price
Cost-reimbursable
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Contract Types
Fixed Price, FP Incentive Fee, FP Award Fee, FP Economic Price Adjustment Time and Material Cost plus, CP Incentive Fee, CP Award Fee, CP Fixed Fee, CP Percent of Costs Copyright 2012 CertSchool.com. All rights reserved. PMP, CAPM, PMBOK, PMI are Registered Marks of Project Management Institute, Inc.
Example: An advertising agency procuring contracts from external sources for some of their work that is beyond its core capabilities.
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Procurement Documents
Documents that are submitted to prospective sellers and service providers to solicit their proposals for the work needed. Document type used will depend on the type of project and the product or service being procured. Example: A request for proposal is a specific type of procurement document.
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Work
Known
Docs
RFB
Risk Seller
T&M
Short
Functional PSOW
RFQ
Both
CR
Long
Performance PSOW
RFP
Buyer
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Subjective Criteria
Experienced laboratory chemist with strong analytical skills. Ample square foot storage area near DallasFort Worth Airport.
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Goal of 20 Planning processes is to develop Project Management Plan and its subsidiary components.
Note: Microsoft Project Plan is a Project Schedule or a Schedule Baseline, which is a subset of Project Management Plan.
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Key Components of a Project Management Plan Subsidiary Management Plans (MP) Requirements MP Scope MP, Schedule MP, Cost MP Quality MP, Process Improvement Plan HR MP, Staffing MP Communications MP Risk MP Procurement MP Configuration MP, Change MP
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Schedule Baseline Cost Baseline Combination of above 3 baselines is called Performance Measurement Baseline
Subsidiary Plan Scope management plan Requirements management plan Schedule management plan
Description Provides guidance on the project scope. Specifies the planning for requirements of the project. Describes the plan to control the project schedule.
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Change Control Procedures (How and Who) Change Control Board (constitution and operations) Tools to track changes Processes to submit, review, approve If required roles of sub committees
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Project Documents
Documents other than Project Management Plan, created by PM and need not be approved by Sponsor Examples
Charter SOW Contracts Quality Metrics, Action Items, Activity Lists, Risk Register, Issue log, Changes log
Tip: Updates to these documents is done throughout and by many processes. (i.e. Output of many processes)
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Differences
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The cost management plan may be formal or informal, highly detailed or broadly framed, based upon the needs of the project
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Execution Objectives
Obtain and manage project resources including outsourced deliverables by following the procurement plan Execute the tasks as defined in the project plan Implement the quality management plan using the appropriate tools and techniques Implement approved changes according to the change management plan Implement approved actions (e.g. workarounds) by following the risk management plan Maximize team performance through leading, mentoring, training, and motivating team members.
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Project Management Plan Approved Change Requests Project Management Information System Deliverables Work Performance Information Change Requests
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Example: Microsoft Share point and Project Server creates a PMIS environment
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A tool used to communicate official permission to begin working on an activity or work package. Ensures that work is done:
At the appropriate time. By the appropriate individual or group. Within a specific time. In the proper sequence.
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Status report
Status report
Approved Changes
Status report
Need Change
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Preventive Actions
Long term cost / risk weighted action taken to prevent a problem from occurring, based on an understanding of the product or process. Preventive action will address inadequate "conditions" which may produce non conformance
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Project Management Plan Quality Metrics Work Performance Information Quality Control Measurements Quality Audits Process Analysis Change Requests
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Quality Audit
Quality Assurance is part of quality management, focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled The main objective of quality assurance activity is to build quality into the product and/or service during the upstream design and planning processes and in this way give confidence to a customer that a product and/or service performs as they expect. A quality audit is a structured, independent evaluation, inspection, or review to determine whether project activities comply with organizational and project policies, processes, and procedures. The objectives of a quality audit are:
Identify all the good/best practices being implemented Identify all the gaps/shortcomings Proactively offer assistance in a positive manner to improve implementation of processes to help the team raise productivity Highlight contributions of each audit in the lessons learned repository of the organization
Quality audits may be scheduled or random and may be conducted by internal or external auditors Quality audits can confirm the implementation of approved change requests
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Product Audit
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May be evaluated to determine how well management uses quality data and how well others in the organization understand how the data is being used.
May be evaluated to determine how well the project team is collecting, distributing, and using quality data. May be evaluated to determine if the best analytical methods are being used consistently and how well their results are being used. May be evaluated to determine the most effective proportion between prevention, inspection, and costs of repair or rework. May be evaluated to determine how process design, process analysis, and statistical process control should be used to establish and improve the capability of a process.
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Pre-assignment Negotiation Project Management Plan Acquisition EEF, OPA Virtual teams Project staff assignments Resource calendars
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Negotiation: Staff assignments are negotiated on many projects. Must negotiate with
Functional Managers Other Project management teams External organizations
Acquisition: When the performing organization lacks the in-house staff needed to complete a project, the required services may be acquired from outside sources Virtual Teams
Teams that are distributed among multiple physical locations. May be more difficult because:
Bonding and team identity may be hard to develop. Various forms of communications technology used. Difficult to monitor individual performance/progress.
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Interpersonal skills Training Team-building activities Ground rules Co-location Recognition and rewards Team performance assessments
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Training
An activity to acquire skills, knowledge, or attitudes. Provided to teams, small groups, or individuals. Covers management, technical, or administrative topics. Types:
Multi-day, formal workshop. Five-minute, informal on-the-job training.
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Team-Building Activities
Specific functions or actions taken to develop a mature, productive team. Activities can be:
Formal or informal. Brief or extended. Conducted by the project manager or a facilitator.
Example: An outdoor team-building activity was initiated by the manager, which involves all day, offsite rope climbing exercise facilitated by a coach.
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Co-location
Positioning team members in the same physical location:
Makes communication easier. Enhance team performance. Improves team spirit.
Example: A team member being awarded a gift certificate by the manager for an outstanding performance in mentoring new colleagues. Giving pay increases or promotions to individuals based on merit. Example: 10% salary increase to sales representatives who exceed quota by 25% for the year.
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Project staff assignments Team performance assessments Performance reports Observation and conversation Project performance appraisals Conflict management Issue log Interpersonal skills
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Conflict Management
Application of one or more strategies to deal with disagreements. Effective conflict management leads to improved understanding, performance, and productivity. Ineffective conflict management leads to:
Destructive behavior. Animosity. Poor performance. Reduced productivity. Resources (people) Cost estimates Technical opinions Trade-off decisions Priorities Administrative procedures Scheduling Assignment of responsibilities Personality clashes
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Withdrawing/Avoiding. Retreating from an actual or potential conflict situation. The problem and the resulting conflict can come up again and again Smoothing/Accommodating. Emphasizing areas of agreement rather than areas of difference. In smoothing, one may sacrifice one's own goals in order to satisfy the needs of the other party. Compromising. Searching for solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to all parties. To compromise is to bargain which leads to a "win-win" position Forcing. Pushing ones viewpoint at the expense of others; offers only win-lose solutions. Collaborating. Incorporating multiple viewpoints and insights from differing perspectives; leads to consensus and commitment. This approach is integration where both parties need to win. Confronting/Problem Solving. Treating conflict as a problem to be solved by examining alternatives; requires a give-and-take attitude and open dialogue
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Leadership Styles
Supporting Praise, Listen and facilitate For people who have High competence Variable Commitment Empowering Turn over responsibility For people who have High Competence High Commitment
Competence
Coaching Direct and Support For people who have Low Competence Low Commitment
Directing Structure, Control and Supervise For people who have Low Competence High Commitment
Commitment
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Motivational Theories
Maslows Hierarchy of needs Herzbergs 2 Factor Theory McGregors Theory of X and Y Ouchis Theory Z Clayton Alderfer ERG Theory David McClelland 3 Need Theory
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Self-Esteem
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Motivation
Achievement Recognition Growth/advancement Interest in Job
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Theory of X and Y
From Douglas McGregors book The Human side of Enterprise 1960
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Ouchis Theory Z
From Japanese Management, contrary to Theory of X-Y. Focus on Loyalty
Long-term employment Collective responsibility Implicit, informal control with explicit, formalized measures Collective decision-making Slow evaluation and promotion Moderately specialized careers Concern for a total person, including their family
Performance reports Communication methods Information distribution tools Organizational process assets updates
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Distribute Information
Distribute Information is the communications process of making project information available to project stakeholders, as determined and documented in the Communications Management Plan. Information distribution methods should be appropriate to the project, the timeliness required and the culture of the organization that you are working in. It is important to be mindful that communication is not complete until the sender is confident that the receiver understands the information, as intended. Communication methods Distribution tools
Hard-copy documents Electronic communication tools, conferencing tools, websites Project Management software, meeting and virtual office software, collaborative work management tools
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Stakeholder register Stakeholder management strategy Communication methods Interpersonal skills Management skills
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Management Skills
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Searching Sellers
Advertising: By placing advertisements in general circulation publications such as selected newspapers or in specialty trade publications Project team secures attention of sellers. Some government jurisdictions require public advertising Internet Search: The internet search provides great databases of suppliers. Bidder Conferences: Bidder conferences (sometimes called contractor conferences, vendor conferences, and pre-bid conferences) are meetings between the buyer and all prospective sellers prior to submittal of a bid or proposal.
They are used to ensure that all prospective sellers have a clear and common understanding of the procurement (both technical and contractual requirements). Responses to questions can be incorporated into the procurement documents as amendments. To be fair, buyers must take great care to ensure that all prospective sellers hear every question from any individual prospective seller and every answer from the buyer All responses are well documented and distributed to all prospective sellers.
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Weighting Systems
The method for quantifying qualitative data to minimize the influence of personal bias on source selection. Each organization would have a separate list of criteria to select the seller . All criteria are not same in the preference, there will be some variance preference. Those can be divided on a 100% scale. Assign numerical weights per seller to evaluation criteria. These qualifications are particular seller's ability meet the criteria. In the below example the sellers ability is measured on the scale of 1-10.
Seller 1 Criteria Preferences
Qualification against criteria Score
Seller 2
Qualification against criteria Score
Seller 3
Qualification against criteria Score
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
8 6 8 4 4
8 4 4 8 6
8 7 6 6 6
Total
100%
6.30
5.40
6.55
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Qualified Sellers
Sellers who are qualified to deliver products, services, or results based on the procurement requirements identified for a project. List of qualified sellers can be obtained from historical information about different sellers. If the required resources are new to the organization, some research should be done in collaboration with the Purchasing Department.
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334
Procurement Negotiations
The process of bargaining to come to a mutual agreement regarding the terms and conditions of a contract.
Stage Description All parties become acquainted and the overall attitude of the negotiation is established; this tone is largely set by the buyers team leader - normally, the person with authority to sign the contract will lead the contract negotiation team. Each side attempts to learn more about the others real position. Give and take discussions take place to arrive at the best possible agreement for all. The tentative agreement is revised and everyone has an opportunity to tweak the results. The team tries to ensure that all parties clearly understand and agree to all terms and conditions of the contract.
Introduction
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5.5 Control the Project Scope 6.6 Control the Project Schedule 7.3 Control Project Costs 8.3 Perform Quality Control 10.5 Report on Project Performance 11.6 Monitor and Control Project Risk 12.4 Administer Project Procurements
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Project control is the process of keeping/the project on plan using the progress data supplied by project monitoring
Acknowledges progress Request corrective actions on significant differences between actual and planned results. Optimizes resource utilization Analyze the differences to determine their root causes. Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement of the process or product.
Monitoring and Control Prerequisites A baseline that is dependable, approved and documented Established and enforced reporting procedures Planned control procedures at the project start
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Monitoring Considerations
What is to be monitored? Why is it to be monitored? What data and associated procedures are required to produce relevant reports to determine project progress? How do we determine how to track actual performance against project plans and objectives?
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Control Considerations
How are potential deviations identified and corrected before they occur? At what point in the project should control be exerted? How much deviation will be tolerated? What kinds of intervention should be used? How are process issues identified and resolved? What is the basis for incorporating measurement into future processes?
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ITTO Reading Exercise Elements of 4.4 Monitor and control project work
I, TT, O
Project Management Plan Performance Reports Change Requests Project Management Plan updates Project documents updates
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Project Management Plan Work Performance Information Change Requests Change Control Meetings Change Requests status updates
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Execution
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 4.3 Direct & Manage Project Execution 8.2 Perform Quality Assurance 9.4 Manage Project Team 10.4 Manage Stakeholder Expectations 12.2 Conduct Procurements
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Notify
Approve
Reject
requests and approving or rejecting those change requests. All change control board decisions are documented and communicated to the stakeholders for information and follow-up actions.
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Project management plan Requirements documentation Requirements traceability matrix Validated deliverables Inspection Accepted deliverables Change requests
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4.2
4.3
Quality Control
Verify Scope
4.6
Inspection: includes activities such as measuring, examining, and verifying to determine whether work and deliverables meet requirements and product acceptance criteria. Inspections are sometimes called reviews, product reviews, audits, and walkthroughs Inspection Involves:
Comparing the baseline specifications and approved changes to the actual project results. Determining the likelihood that remaining deliverables will be completed as projected. Identifying actions needed to ensure work results will meet specifications, scope, schedule, and budget goals.
Prevention over inspection. One of the fundamental tenets of modern quality management states that quality is planned, designed, and built innot inspected in. The cost of preventing mistakes is generally much less than the cost of correcting them when they are found by inspection
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Project management plan Work performance information Requirements documentation Requirements traceability matrix Variance Analysis Work performance measurements Change requests
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Monitor Scope
What deliverables were called for in the plan to date? What does the customer expect to date? What does the customer expect at the conclusion? Will we be able to deliver what the customer expects?
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Variance Analysis
A quantifiable deviation away from a baseline
Schedule Variance - compares planned and actual performance, not including cost Cost Variance compares deviations from the budget Others Variances include scope, resources, quality, risk
Identify variance
Formal status review Earned value management (EVM)
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Earned Value
Earned Value:
In simple terms EV represents the value earned for every dollar spend on the project. It assumes that all costs on the project are incurred to create additional value EV is defined as a project management technique for measuring project progress in an objective way
EV promises to
Improve the definition of project scope Prevent scope creep Communicate objective progress to stakeholders Keep the project team focused on achieving progress
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PV (Planned Value)
BCWS (Budgeted Cost of Work Schedule) BCWP (Budgeted Cost of Work Performed)
Amount of work budgeted till to status date Budgeted value of work completed till to status date
EV (Earned Value)
AC (Actual Cost)
ACWP (Actual Cost of Work Amount of money spend Performed) till to status date
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Example
Module A B C Monthly Burn Rate Plan Months Scheduled Activities Budget Requirements Jan 5 $5,000 Feb 10 $10,000 Mar 5 $5,000 Apr 5 $5,000 Activities 10 10 5 Schedule Jan-Feb Feb-Mar Apr Cost $10,000 $10,000 $5,000
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Example (Cont )
Months Scheduled Activities Budget Requirements Jan 5 $5,000 Feb 10 $10,000 Mar 5 $5,000 Apr 5 $5,000
Status Date Work Performance Information Completed Activities Timesheets & Expenses Jan 5/5 Feb 9/10 Jan - $5,500 Feb - $9,000
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Example (Cont )
Months Scheduled Activities Budget Requirements Jan 5 $5,000 Feb 10 $10,000 Mar 5 $5,000
Status Date
Apr 5 $5,000
Completed Activities
Timesheets & Expenses
Term PV $15,000
AC
EV
$14,500
$14,000
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Formula
SV = EV PV CV = EV AC SPI = EV / PV
What is it?
Negative values means schedule overrun Negative values means cost overrun >1 is good
CPI = EV / AC
>1 is good
Shortcuts to remember these formulas: - For all 4 formulas, right hand side of = starts with EV - Variance means and Index means / - PV is associated with schedule formulas and AC is associated with cost formulas
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Example (Cont )
Work Performance Information Months Scheduled Activities Budget Requirements Jan 5 $5,000 Feb 10 $10,000 Mar 5 $5,000
Status Date
Apr 5 $5,000
CPI = EV/AC
$14000/$14500
0.965
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4 Scenarios of FORECASTING
Aspirants are asked to provide Forecast in the exam, based on a Scenarios presented in the question. There are 4 possible scenarios to provide forecast: Start Finish. Original plan BAC
Status Date Work Completed = EV, Money spend = AC
Need to Provide forecast for this remaining of work Original plan for the project was BAC. (Budget at Completion) New forecasted value is EAC. (Estimate At Completion)
1. 2. 3. 4.
Re-Estimate the remaining work. Remaining work can be performed as per original plan Remaining work can be completed at same Cost Performance Index (CPI) Remaining work can be completed at same Cost and Schedule Performance Indices (CPI * SPI)
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Re-estimation Example
You are an IT Project manager for a project worth of $25,000 budget. You have planned $15,000 work for a particular period. After completing the planned period you have completed certain portion of the work worth of $14,000 by spending $14,500. You have calculated CPI as .965 and SPI as .93. With more than 7% of variance in the schedule you lost confidence in your original estimation and secured your sponsor approval for a re-estimation. Your engineering team has provided an estimation of $12,000 for the remaining work. In this scenario what would be the total cost of the project when it is completed? Understand the problem scenario. Solutions are in 4 slides from here
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= RW
ETC =
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Example (Forecasting)
Months Scheduled Activities Budget Requirements Jan 5 $5,000 Feb 10 $10,000 Mar 5 $5,000
Status Date
Apr 5 $5,000
Work Performance Information Completed Activities Timesheets & Expenses A 5/5 B 9/10 Jan - $5,500 Feb - $9,000
Current Reporting Status PV = $15,000 AC = $14,500 EV = $14,000 SV= $-1000, SPI= 0.93 CV = $-500 CPI = 0.965
Scenario 1
Estimation At Completion (EAC) AC + New estimate for remaining work = 14,500 + assuming new est. is 12,000 = 26,500
2
3 4
AC + BAC - EV
BAC / CPI AC + [ (BAC EV) / CPI x SPI ]
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Problem 1: Solution
Given BAC = 1,200,000, PV = 600,000, SPI = 1.08, CPI = 0.89
1.
2. 3.
4.
6.
5.3 EAC (Scenario 4) = AC + (BAC-EV) / CPI * SPI 729,000 + 552,000/ (.89*1.08) = 729K + 552k/.9612 729,000 + 574,000 = 1,303,000 VAC = BAC EAC; (-81K, -148K, -103K are respective variances)
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Problem 2: Solution
Solution to Problem 2
Given: BAC = 100,000, PV = 20,000; EV =25K, AC = 25K
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.1 Scenario 2 EAC = AC + (BAC-EV) = 25k + 100k-25k = 100,000 5.2 Scenario 3 EAC = BAC/CPI = 100k/1 = 100,000 5.3 Scenario 4 EAC = AC + (BAC-EV) / CPI*SPI = 25k + (75k/1.25) = 25K + 60K = 85,000 VAC = BAC-EAC 6.1 Variance as per scenario 5.1 shown above = 0 6.2 Variance as per scenario 5.2 shown above = 0 6.3 Variance as per scenario 5.3 shown above = 15,000
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Technique
Description
Variance analysis
Trend analysis Earned value performance
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Reading Exercise
8.3 Perform Quality Control
ITTO ITTO
Project management plan Quality metrics Quality checklists Work performance measurements Approved change requests Deliverables Cause and effect diagrams Control charts Flowcharting
Histogram Pareto chart Run chart Scatter diagram Statistical sampling Inspection Approved change requests review Quality control measurements Validated changes Validated deliverables Change requests
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Usually, it is not the job of a quality control team or professional to correct quality issues. Typically, other individuals are involved in the process of discovering the cause of quality issues and fixing them. Once such problems are overcome, the product, service, or process continues production or implementation as usual.
Often, quality control is confused with quality assurance. Quality Control involves evaluating a product, activity, process, or service. By contrast, quality assurance is designed to make sure processes are sufficient to meet objectives. Quality Control measurements are key inputs for Quality Assurance to implement the suggestions
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1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7.
Cause & Effect Diagram Control Charts Flowcharting Histogram Pareto Charts Run Charts Scatter Diagram
Other 3 QC tools in PMBOK Guide Statistical Sampling Inspection Approved Change Requests Review
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Result of some unexpected circumstance. Not caused by a flaw in the overall production process.
Random causes: Weather and traffic conditions. Special cause: Minor traffic accident.
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Control Charts
Control charts provide a running record of a process. They help you decide when a process is running smoothly and when it needs attention. Specifically, control charts can help you determine whether the variation occurring in a process is caused by common or special causes The allowed range for process instances are between Upper Control Limit (UCL), and Lower Control Limit (LCL). The UCL is set at 3G and LCL is set at -3G
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197
LCL
LCL
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Histogram
A histogram is a type of frequency plot to visually display how often something occurs. The data is collected in consecutive order of occurrence in a process and plotted on a graph with the y-axis labeled frequency or count and the x-axis marked in the unit of measure for the variable of interest
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210
Pareto Diagrams
The Pareto chart is used to prioritize which contributors make the biggest impact on a problem, or which represent the largest areas of opportunity. These diagrams communicate the 80/20 rule, which states that 80% of an effect comes from 20% of the causes.
Cumulative Percentage of Failures
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Run Chart
Similar to a control chart without displayed limits, a run chart shows the history and pattern of variation. A run chart is a line graph that shows data points plotted in the order in which they occur. Run charts show trends in a process over time, variation over time, or declines or improvements in a process over time. Trend analysis is performed using run charts and involves mathematical techniques to forecast future outcomes based on historical results. Trend analysis is often used to monitor
Technical performance. How many errors or defects have been identified, and how many remain uncorrected? Cost and schedule performance. How many activities per period were completed with significant variances?
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211
Scatter Diagram
A Scatter diagram is a graphic display of a set of ordered pairs of numerical data points (X and Y). By convention, the first variable in the pair is the independent factor (X) plotted along the horizontal axis, and the second is the dependent variable (Y) plotted on the vertical axis
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212
Statistical Sampling
A technique used to determine characteristics of an entire population based on actual measurement of its representative sample. Produces a process that does not require inspection of every item. Example: Polling organizations.
Ask questions of a small, random sample. Answers given by the sample group suggest how an entire group may feel regarding an issue.
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QC Outputs
Quality Control Measurements: Quality control measurements are the documented results of quality control activities which are key inputs of Quality Assurance measurements Validated Changes: Any changed or repaired items are inspected and will be either accepted or rejected before notification of the decision is provided. Rejected items may require rework. Validated Deliverables: A goal of quality control is to determine the correctness of deliverables. The results of the execution quality control processes are validated deliverables. Validated deliverables are an input to Verify Scope (5.4) for formalized acceptance.
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Project management plan Work performance information Work performance measurements Budget forecasts Variance analysis Forecasting methods Communication methods Reporting systems Performance reports Change requests
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Variance Analysis
Variance analysis is an after-the-fact look at what caused a difference between the baseline and the actual performance. Common steps are:
Verify the quality of the information collected to ensure that it is complete, consistent with past data, and credible when comparing with other project or status information, Determine variances, comparing the actual information with the project baseline and noting all differences both favorable and unfavorable to the project outcome. Determine the impact of the variances in the project cost and schedule as well as in other areas of the project If applicable, analyze the trends of the variances and document any findings about the sources of variation and the impact area
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Forecasting Methods
Forecasting Methods Category Time series methods Casual or econometric methods Judgmental methods
Description Estimation of future outcomes are based on historical data. Forecasting the factors that may influence the identified variables, by combining economic theories and statistical information. Forecasting by intuitive methods and probability estimates.
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Performance reports
Performance reports organize and summarize the information gathered, and present the results of any analysis as compared to the performance measurement baseline. Reports should provide the status and progress information, at the level of detail required by various stakeholders, as documented in the communications management plan.
Performance reports are issued periodically and their format may range from a simple status report to more elaborate reports. A simple status report might show only performance information such as percent complete, or status dashboards for each area (e.g., scope, schedule, cost, and quality)
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271
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Administer Procurements
This process focuses on managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract performance, and making changes and corrections as needed. Both the buyer and the seller will administer the procurement contract to ensure that both parties meet their contractual obligations and that their own legal rights are protected. The Administer Procurements process ensures that the sellers performance meets procurement requirements and that the buyer performs according to the terms of the legal contract. Many organizations treat contract administration as an administrative function separate from the project organization. While a procurement administrator may be on the project team, this individual typically reports to a supervisor from a different department.
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Change Administrative changes Contract modification Supplemental agreement Constructive changes Termination of contract
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Inspections and audits: can be conducted by the buyer during execution of the project to verify compliance in the sellers work processes or deliverables. Performance Reporting: Performance reporting provides management with information about how effectively the seller is achieving the contractual objectives
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Claims Administration:
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Correspondence:
Contract terms and conditions often require written documentation of certain aspects of buyer/seller communications, such as the need for warnings of unsatisfactory performance and requests for contract changes or clarification.
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Project management plan Procurement documentation Procurement audits Negotiated settlements Records management system Closed procurements
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Procurement Audits
A formal evaluation of both the seller's performance of the contract, and the effectiveness of the procurement process itself. Establishes a record that may be used to shape procurement practices in other contracts for projects. Example: Evaluating the second grade phonics textbook sellers. Negotiated Settlements:
In all procurement relationships the final equitable settlement of all outstanding issues, claims, and disputes by negotiation is a primary goal. Whenever settlement cannot be achieved through direct negotiation, some form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) including mediation or arbitration may be explored. When all else fails, litigation in the courts is the least desirable option.
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Closure Documentation
Procurement file. A complete set of indexed contract documentation, including the closed contract, is prepared for inclusion with the final project files. Deliverable acceptance. The buyer, usually through its authorized procurement administrator, provides the seller with formal written notice that the deliverables have been accepted or rejected. Requirements for formal deliverable acceptance, and how to address non-conforming deliverables, are usually defined in the contract. Lessons learned documentation. Lessons learned, what has been experienced, and process improvement recommendations should be developed for the project fi le to improve future procurements.
Can provide useful information for future contracts. Helps others in the organization apply the learning to their situations
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Project Management Plan Accepted Deliverables Organizational Process Assets Expert Judgment Final Products, service, or Result transition
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Administrative Closure
Involves:
Verifying and documenting project results to formalize project or phase completion. Gathering and updating project documentation and relevant records and reports. Ensuring that the phase or project requirements were met and formal acceptance was granted.
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Closeout Meetings
Sessions held at end of project or phase. Involves:
Discussing the work. Capturing lessons.
May include stakeholders, team members, project resources, and customers. Example: Closeout meetings for fire safety equipment inspections. The stakeholders, project team members, and representatives from the fire marshal's office will:
Review records. Complete and sign inspection certificates. Review, approve, and sign plans for evacuation procedures. Document inspections and testing of fire safety equipment.
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