Pre-IB Biology Exam Review

January 13, 2007 3rd Period Biology
Pre-IB Biology Exam Review

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS Organization and Cells The organization in a complex organism from smallest to largest is from atom to biological molecule to organelle to cell to tissue to organ to organ system to organism. Organ systems are made up of organs, structures that carry out specialized jobs. These are composed of tissues, groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all of lifes functions. It must be covered by a membrane, contain all genetic information necessary for replication, and be able to carry out all cell functions. Each cell has organelles, structures that carry out functions necessary for the cell to stay alive. These organelles contain biological molecules, chemical compounds that provide physical structure and bring about cellular functions. All biological molecules are made up of atoms, the simplest particle of an element that retains all of the properties of a certain element. Response to Stimuli Organisms must be able to respond and react to changes in their environment to stay alive. Responding to stimuli physical or chemical changes in the internal or external environment, is a characteristic of life. Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions even though environmental conditions are constantly changing. For example, some creatures will have several ways to maintain a constant body temperature in cold weather, such as an owl, which can trap an insulating layer of air next to the birds body to maintain its body temperature. Its cells can also burn fuel to produce body heat in such conditions. Metabolism Living organisms use energy to power all the life processes, such as repair, movement, and growth. This energy use depends on metabolism the sum of all metabolism, chemical reactions that take in and transform energy in the body. Growth and Development All living things grow and increase in size. Cell division is the formation of two new cells from an existing cell. In unicellular organisms, the primary change after cell division is cell growth. In multicellular organisms, cell division, cell enlargement, and cell development is how organisms mature.

Development is the process by which an organism becomes a mature adult by cell differentiation (specialization). As a result, an adult organism is composed of many cells specialized for different functions, such as carrying oxygen in blood or hearing. Reproduction All organisms produce new organisms like themselves in the process of reproduction, reproduction necessary for the survival of the species, but not for the survival of the individual organism. During reproduction, organisms transmit hereditary information to their offspring in the form of DNA in segments called genes Reproduction can be genes. sexual (two organisms) or asexual (one organism). Asexual reproduction is comparable to cloning. Change Through Time Populations of living things evolve or change through time. This ability is important for survival in a changing world, and explains the diversity of life-forms seen on Earth today. SCIENTIFIC METHOD Science is characterized by the scientific method an organized approach to method, learn how the natural world works. Steps of the Scientific Method observation, 1. The process begins with an observation the act of perceiving a natural occurrence that causes someone to pose a question. hypothesis, 2. One tries to answer the question by forming a hypothesis a proposed explanation for the way a particular aspect of the natural world functions. 3. A prediction is a statement that forecasts what would happen in a test situation if the hypothesis were true. 4. An experiment is used to test a hypothesis and the corresponding prediction. 5. Once the experiment is finished, the data are analyzed and used to draw conclusions. 6. After the data is analyzed, the data and conclusions are communicated to scientific peers and to the public

REACTION GRAPHS SHOWING THE ENERGY OF ACTIVATION Activation Energy For most chemical reactions to begin, energy must be added to the reactants. In many chemical reactions, the activation energy, energy required to energy start the reaction, is very large. Certain chemical substances, known as catalysts, catalysts reduce the amount of activation energy needed. An enzyme is a protein or RNA molecule that speeds up metabolic reactions without being permanently changed or destroyed.
ENZYMES Structure and Function Enzymes are RNA or protein molecules that act as biological catalysts. Enzyme reactions depend on a physical fit between the enzyme molecule and its specific substrate the reactant being catalyzed. The enzyme has folds, or an active substrate, site, site with a shape that allows the substrate to fit into the active site. The linkage of the enzyme and substrate causes a slight change in the enzymes shape, which weakens some chemical bonds in the substrate. After the reaction, the enzyme releases the products. An enzyme may not work if its environment is changed. For example, changes in temperature and pH may cause a change in the shape of an enzyme or substrate, causing the reaction the enzyme would have catalyzed to not occur. OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTIONS The reactions in which electrons are transferred between atoms are known as oxidation reduction reactions, or redox reactions In an oxidation reaction a reactant reactions. reaction, loses one or more electrons, thus becoming more positive in charge. When a reactant gains one or more electrons, it is in a reduction reaction and becomes more negative reaction, in charge. Redox reactions always occur together. There must always be a substance to accept an electron that another substance has lost.

pH SCALE Acids and Bases If the number of hydronium ions (H3O+) in a solution is greater than the number of hydroxide ions, the solution is an acid Acids tend to have a sour taste. Bases have acid. a greater number of hydroxide ions (OH-) ions and have a bitter taste. They also tend to feel slippery. pH Scale The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 14 being alkaline (basic) and 0 being acidic. 7 is neutral. A solutions pH is measured on a logarithmic scale the change of one pH unit reflects a 10-fold change in the acidity or alkalinity. Buffers Buffers are chemical substances that neutralize small amounts of either an acid or base that is added to a solution. Complex buffering systems maintain the pH values in a normal healthy body. PROPERTIES OF WATER Polarity The covalent bonds formed between an oxygen atom and hydrogen atoms in a water molecule do not share electrons equally. Thus, the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge while the hydrogen atoms have partial positive charges. The uneven distribution of charge results in water being a polar compound. Solubility of Water The polar nature of water allows it to dissolve polar substances, such as sugars, ionic compounds, and some proteins. Water does not dissolve nonpolar substances. Hydrogen Bonding The polar nature of water also causes water molecules to be attracted to one another. The positively charged regions in a water molecule are attracted to the negatively charged region in another water molecule. This attraction is called a bond, hydrogen bond the force of attraction between a hydrogen molecule with a partial positive charge to another atom or molecule with a partial or full negative charge.

Cohesion Water molecules stick to each other as a result of hydrogen bonding. An attractive force that holds molecules of a single substance together is known as cohesion Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to the cohesion. upward movement of water from plant roots to their leaves. Adhesion Adhesion is the attractive force between two particles of different substances. A related property is capillarity with is the attraction between capillarity, molecules that results in the rise of the surface of a liquid when in contact with a solid. Temperature Moderation Water has a high heat capacity, which means that it can absorb or release relatively large amounts of energy in the form of heat with only a slight change in temperature. Energy that water initially absorbs breaks hydrogen bonds between molecules. After these bonds are broken, the energy raises the temperature of the water. After the temperature of the water drops, the hydrogen bonds reform. Density of Ice The angle between the hydrogen atoms is wider in ice than in water, when some of the hydrogen bonds are broken. Therefore, ice is more dense than water. CONDENSATION/HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS Condensation Reaction In a condensation reaction monomers link to form polymers. Each time a reaction, monomer is added to a polymer, a water molecule is released. For example, when glucose and fructose combine to form sucrose, the two sugar monomers become linked by a bridge, and the glucose molecule releases a hydrogen ion and the fructose molecule releases a hydroxide ion. The hydroxide ion and hydrogen ion combine to make a water molecule. Hydrolysis Reaction In a hydrolysis reaction water is used to break down a polymer. When water is reaction, added, it breaks the bond linking each monomer, thus, it is the reverse of a condensation reaction.

MACROMOLECULES Simple molecules (monomers bond to form polymers molecules made of monomers) polymers, monomers repeated, linked, units. Large polymers are called macromolecules macromolecules. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of about one carbon atom to two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom. A monomer of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide a simple sugar. Two monosaccharides can combine to form a disaccharide A polysaccharide is a complex disaccharide. molecule composed of three or more monosaccharides. The polysaccharide glycogen is used by animals to store glucose, while plants use starch. Animals use the polysaccharide chitin as a structural carbohydrate, while plants use cellulose. Proteins Proteins are organic compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Proteins are formed from the linkage of monomers called amino acids acids. There are 20 different amino acids, and they all have a carboxyl group, an amino group, a single hydrogen atom, and an R group. The R group is what makes the difference between all the different amino acids. When amino acids bond to form a dipeptide, they form a peptide bond Amino acids form very long chains called bond. polypeptides. polypeptides Lipids Lipids are large, nonpolar organic molecules that do not dissolve in water. Fatty Acids Fatty acids are unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids. The carboxyl end of a fatty acid is polar and is hydrophilic, while the hydrocarbon end is hydrophobic. When a carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other atoms, it is said to be saturated. Triglycerides A triglyceride is composed of three molecules of fatty acid joined to one molecule of the alcohol glycerol. Phospholipids Phospholipids have two, rather than three, fatty acids attached to a molecule of glycerol. The cell membrane is made of two layers of

phospholipids, called the lipid bilayer. The hydrophobic tails face each other, forming a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell. Waxes A wax is a type of structural lipid consisting of a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain. Waxes are waterproof, and in plants, form a protective coating on the outer surfaces. Steroids Steroid molecules are composed of four fused carbon rings with various functional groups attached tot hem. Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are very large and complex organic molecules that store and transfer important information in the cell. There are two major types: deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. The monomers of DNA and RNA are nucleotides, made of a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar, and a ring-shaped nitrogenous base. SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIO FOR CELLS The size of a cell is limited by its surface area-to-volume ratio. As a cell grows, its volume increases much faster than its surface area, does. This is important because the materials needed by a cell and the wastes produced by a cell must pass into and out of the cell through its surface. If a cell were to become very large, its volume would increase much more than surface area. Therefore, materials would not be able to enter or leave the cell quickly enough. PROKARYOTE VERSUS EUKARYOTE Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane bound organelles. Additionally, eukaryotes have a true nucleus, even though prokaryotes have a specific region (nucleoid), where their genetic material is concentrated. Prokaryotes have naked DNA, meaning their DNA is not coiled around histones. Additionally, they have one circular DNA molecule versus in eukaryotes, where DNA is coiled into chromosomes during replication.

ORGANELLES: STRUCTURE/FUNCTION Nucleus The nucleus controls most of the functions of a eukaryotic cell, and protects the cells genetic information. The nucleus is filled with nucleoplasm, and is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. Most nuclei contain a envelope denser area, called the nucleolus and is where DNA is concentrated when in the nucleolus, process of making ribosomal RNA. Mitochondria Mitochondria are the tiny organelles that transfer energy from organic molecules to ATP in cells. ATP powers most of the cells chemical reactions. The more active a cell is, the more mitochondria it has. Mitochondria have their own DNA and can reproduce only by the division of pre-existing mitochondria. Ribosomes Ribosomes are small, roughly spherical organelles that are responsible for building protein. They do not have a membrane and are made of protein and RNA molecules. Ribosome assembly beings in the nucleolus and is completed in the cytoplasm. Some ribosomes are free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic Reticulum The ER is a system of membranous tubes and sacs called cisternae. It functions as a path along with molecules move from one cell to another. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes, and produces phospholipids and proteins. These proteins are later exported from the cell or inserted into one of the cells own membranes. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and builds lipids such as cholesterol. Golgi Apparatus The Golgi apparatus receive vesicles from the ER and modify vesicle contents as they move along the different parts of the Golgi apparatus. During this modification, the Golgi apparatus can add carbohydrate labels to proteins or alter lipids in new ways. Vesicles Lysosomes are vesicles that bud from the Golgi apparatus and that contain digestive enzymes. These enzymes are also responsible for breaking down cells when it is time for the cells to die. The digestion of damaged or extra cells by the

lysosomes is autolysis. Peroxisomes are not produced by the Golgi apparatus and contain different enzymes than lysosomes. Other vesicles such as glyoxysomes can be found in the seeds of some plants. PLASMA MEMBRANES AND TRANSPORT The plasma membrane allow sonly certain molecules to enter or leave the cell, separates internal metabolic reactions from the external environment, and allow the cell to excrete wastes and to interact with its environment. Simple Diffusion
Simple diffusion allows only certain molecules to pass through the membrane.
The simple diffusion of a molecule across a cell membrane depends on the size and type of molecule and on the chemical nature of the membrane. Molecules that can dissolve in lipids may pass directly through the membrane by diffusion, and molecules that are very small and not soluble in lipids may also move across the membrane. Osmosis The diffusion of water across a membrane depends on the relative concentration of solutes on two sides of the membrane. When the concentration of solute molecules outside the cell is lower then the concentration in the cytosol, the solution outside the cell is hypotonic to the cytosol. Water will then diffuse into the cell until equilibrium is reached. If too much water flows into the cell, the cell may experience cytolysis the bursting cytolysis, of cells. If the concentration of solute molecules outside the cell is higher than the concentration in the cytosol, water will flow out of the cell, and the cell will crenate When concentrations outside and inside the cell are equal, crenate. the outside solution is said to be isotonic to the cell. In plant cells, water molecules exert pressure against the cell wall pressure. cytolysis. turgor pressure Cell walls do not experience cytolysis In plants, when water leaves the cell, turgor pressure is lost, and the cell is in the condition of plasmolysis. plasmolysis Facilitated Diffusion In facilitated diffusion molecules that cannot readily diffuse through diffusion, cell membranes are moved across the cell membrane with the help of carrier proteins. A molecule binds to a specific carrier protein that transports it, the proteins protein then changes shape, and the molecule is transported through the cell membrane.

Diffusion Through Ion Channels Ion channels transport ions from higher to lower concentrations. Each type of ion channel is usually specific for one type of ion. Some ion channels are always open while others have gates that respond to three kinds of stimuli: stretching of the cell membrane, electrical signals, or chemicals in the cytosol or external environment. Active Transport Active transport involves the movement of materials up their concentration gradient, moving substances from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This movement requires a cell to expend energy. Cell Membrane Pumps One example of a cell membrane pump is the sodium-potassium pump. sodiumpump This protein transports 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell. Endocytosis Endocytosis is the process by which cells ingest external fluid, macromolecules, and large particles. Pinocytosis is the endocytosis of solutes or fluids, while phagocytosis is the movement of large particles or whole cells. Exocytosis Exocytosis is the process by which a substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to the cell surface then merges with the plasma membrane. ANIMAL CELLS VERSUS PLANT CELLS Plant cells have a central vacuole, plastids, and a cell wall, all of which animal cells lack. Plant cells have those in addition to the structures that animal cells have. MITOCHONDRION/CHLOROPLAST COMPARISON Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have a double membrane and possess DNA of their own. Mitochondria are found in both animals and plants, while animals do not have chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are also thought to be the descendants of ancient prokaryotic cells that were incorporated into plant cells mitochondria are thought to have been incorporated into ancient eukaryotic cells.

AUTOTROPH VERSUS HETEROTROPH Autotrophs use energy from sunlight or from chemical bonds in inorganic substances to make organic compounds, thus making their own food. Most autotrophs use the process of photosynthesis to convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds. Heterotrophs must get energy from food instead of directly from sunlight or inorganic substances. PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is divided into the stages of the light reactions and dark Cycle). reactions (Calvin Cycle) In the light reactions, light energy from the sun is converted to chemical energy, and is temporarily stored in ATP and NADPH. In the dark reactions, organic compounds are formed using carbon dioxide and the chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH. The Light Reactions Light energy forces electrons to enter a higher energy level in the two chlorophyll a molecules of photosystem II, exciting them. The excited electrons have enough energy to leave the photosystem, where they are accepted by the acceptor. primary electron acceptor The primary electron acceptor donates the electrons to the electron transport chain As they move from molecule to molecule, they lose chain. most of the energy they initially had. This energy is used to pump protons into the thylakoid. Light is absorbed by photosystem I, and the energy excites another pair of chlorophyll a molecule. The electrons move from the chlorophyll to another primary electron acceptor. The electrons go to another electron transport chain, and combines with a proton and NADP+, causing it to be reduced to NADPH. Water splitting replaces the electrons lost in photosystem II. Protons go toward establishing a concentration gradient of protein in the thylakoid, electrons replace the ones lost, and oxygen dissolves out of the cell. Chemiosmosis Chemiosmosis, Chemiosmosis the process of making ATP, relies on a concentration gradient of protons across the thylakoid membrane. When protons move out of ATP synthase, a phosphate group is added to ADP, which makes ATP.

The Calvin Cycle The Calvin Cycle is a series of enzyme-assisted chemical reactions that produces a three-carbon sugar. This incorporation of carbon molecules into organic molecules is called carbon fixation Carbon diffuses into the stroma from the fixation. surrounding cytosol. An enzyme combines each carbon dioxide molecule with ribulose biphosphate. The six-carbon molecule splits into two three-carbon moeclules , which are called 3-phosphoglycerate. Each molecule is converted in G3P in a two step process: 1) each 3-PGA molecule receives a phosphate group from an ATP, 2) the compound then receives a proton from NADPH and releases a phosphate group. The ADP, NADP+, and phosphate that are produced can be used again in the light reactions to make more ATP and NADPH. One of the G3P molecules is used to make organic compounds. The remaining G3P molecules are converted back into RuBP and enter the Calvin Cycle again. GLYCOLYSIS PROCESS AND EFFICIENCY Glycolysis Glycolysis is a biochemical pathway in which one six-carbon molecule of glucose is oxidized to produce two three-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid. Two phosphate groups are added to a glucose molecule, forming a new 6-carbon molecule with two phosphate groups. The phosphate groups are supplied by two molecules of ATP. Then, the 6-carbon molecule is split into two molecules of G3P. These molecules are oxidized, and each receives a new phosphate group. The oxidation of G3P is accompanied by the reduction of two molecules of NAD+ to NADH. The phosphate groups are now removed from the three-carbon molecules, which produces two molecules of pyruvic acid. The phosphate groups go toward making four molecules of ATP. Thus, glycolysis has a net ATP production of two. RESPIRATION Cellular respiration is the complex process in which cells make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by breaking down organic compounds. With the presence of oxygen, the reactions of the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and chemiosmosis can occur. Prior to the Krebs Cycle, pyruvic acid will react with acetyl coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA. The Krebs Cycle As acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle, it combines with oxaloacetic acid to oxaloacetic acid, produce the six-carbon compound, citric acid This reaction regenerates coenzyme A. acid. Citric acid then releases a carbon molecule and a hydrogen atom to form a five-

carbon compound. By losing a hydrogen atom with its electron, citric acid is oxidized. The electron in the hydrogen atom is transferred to NAD+, which is reduced to NADH. Next, the five-carbon compound releases another carbon molecule and a hydrogen atom, forming a four carbon compound. NAD+ is again reduced to NADH. In this step, a molecule of ATP is synthesized from ADP. The four-carbon compound now releases a hydrogen atom to form another four-carbon compound. This time, the electron goes to reducing FAD to FADH2. The four-carbon compound now releases a hydrogen atom to regenerate oxaloacetic acid. The 10 NADH molecules and two FADH2 molecules from the Krebs cycle and glycolysis drives the next stage of aerobic respiration. Electron Transport Chain The electrons from NADH and FADH2 are donated to the electron transport chain. These molecules also give up protons. The electrons are passed down the chain. As they lose energy, this energy is used to pump protons into the mitochondrial matrix to form a high concentration of protons between the inner and outer membranes. This also creates an electrical gradient, since the protons carry a positive charge. The concentration and electrical gradients of protons drive the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis, the same process used in photosynthesis to generate ATP. ATP is made from ADP and phosphate as the protons move through the ATP synthase. After the electrons pass through the electron transport chain, oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons. Oxygen also accepts protons that were part of the hydrogen atoms supplied by NADH and FADH2. The protons, electrons, and oxygen combine to form water. FERMENTATION In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis is followed by the process of fermentation fermentation, which recycles NAD+ from NADH so as to not use up all the NAD+ in the cell. Lactic Acid Fermentation Lactic acid fermentation converts pyruvic acid into another three-carbon compound called lactic acid. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscle cells during strenuous exercise, and is responsible for muscle cramps. Alcoholic Fermentation Alcoholic fermentation is used to convert pyruvic acid into ethyl alcohol, which is used by yeast cells.

MENDELIAN GENETICS Mendels Garden Peas Mendel observed seven characteristics of pea plants, which occurred in two contrasting traits. These characteristics were plant height, flower position along the stem, pod color, pod appearance, seed texture, seed color, and flower color. By self-pollinating for several generations, Mendel was able to produce plants that were true-breeding for each trait. He then called this generation the P generation. When he cross pollinated two plants that were pure-breeding for a different trait, he called the offspring the F1 generation. The plants that were selfpollinated from the F1 generation were the F2 generation. Mendel discovered that there were recessive and dominant traits, and a recessive trait would mask the dominant trait. Genotype and Phenotype An organisms genetic makeup is its genotype and an organisms appearance is its phenotype When both alleles of a pair are alike, the organism is said to be phenotype. homozygous, homozygous versus heterozygous when both alleles of a pair are different. Ratios When a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive are crossed the result is four heterozygous organisms. When two homozygous individuals are crossed, the resulting ratio is a dominant: recessive, 3:1. In a dihybrid cross where two characteristics are tracked and two heterozygous individuals are crossed, the resulting ratio is 9:3:3:1 for two dominant characteristics: one dominant and one recessive: one dominant and one recessive: two recessive characteristics. Laws Mendel concluded that the paired factors separate during the formation of reproductive cells. The law of segregation states that a pair of factors is segregated, or separated, during the formation of gametes. The law of independent assortment states that factors separate independently of one another during the formation of gametes. Punnett Squares A Punnett square is a diagram used to predict the probable distribution of inherited traits in the offspring.

DNA STRUCTURE/FUNCTION/REPLICATION DNA Structure DNA is a nucleic acid made of two long chains of repeating subunits called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The five-carbon sugar in DNA is called deoxyribose. The nitrogenous bases face toward the center of the DNA molecule. The bases on one strand of DNA form hydrogen bonds with the ones on the other strand. The nitrogenous bases are cytosine, adenine, thymine, and guanine. Guanine and adenine are purines while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. DNA Function DNA is the hereditary material that transmits hereditary material and directs cell function. DNA Replication DNA replication is the process by which DNA is copied in a cell before a cell divides by mitosis, meiosis, or binary fission. Enzymes called helicases separate the DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases. The Y-shaped region that results is called a replication fork Next, enzymes called DNA polymerases add fork. complementary nucleotides. Covalent bonds form between the deoxyribose sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next nucleotide. Hydrogen bonds form between complementary nitrogenous bases on the original and new strands. DNA polymerases then finish added nucleotides and fall off. In each new DNA double helix, one strand is from the original DNA and one is new, which is called semi-conservative semireplication. replication SCIENTISTS INVOLVED WITH DNA Griffiths Experiments Frederick Griffith determined that heat-killed virulent bacterial cells release a hereditary factor that transfers the disease-causing ability to live harmless cells in a process called transformation transformation. Averys Experiments Oswald Avery and his colleagues determined that the hereditary material in transformation was DNA.

Hershey-Chase Experiment Martha Chase and Alfred Hershey concluded that DNA is the hereditary molecule in virus. They worked with the bacteria E. coli. Watson/Crick/Wilkins/Franklin James Watson and Francis Crick determined that the structure of DNA is in the shape of the double helix. Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin provided X-ray diffraction photographs of DNA crystals to reach their conclusion. 3 TYPES OF RNA Messenger RNA mRNA is single-stranded and carries the instructions from a gene to make a protein. mRNA carries the genetic message from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytosol in eukaryotes. Ribosomal RNA rRNA is part of the structure of ribosomes, organelles in the cell where protein synthesis occurs. Transfer RNA tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosome to make a protein. TRANSCRIPTION promoter, RNA polymerase binds to a promoter a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA where RNA polymerase binds and initiates transcription. After RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, the DNA strands unwind and separate. RNA polymerase then adds free RNA nucleotides that are complementary to the nucleotides on one of the DNA strands. RNA is transcribed from the anti-sense strand of DNA. After the RNA polymerase reaches a termination signal RNA polymerase signal, releases both the DNA and the newly transcribed RNA. TRANSLATION In translation, two ribosomal subunits, tRNA, and an mRNA join together. Enzymes first attach a specific amino acid to one end of each tRNA according to the genetic code. The other end of each tRNA contains the anticodon three nucleotides anticodon don, on the RNA that are complementary to the sequence of a codon in mRNA.

The start codon, AUG, codes for methionine. The polypeptide chain continues being put together, and each tRNA comes according to the next codon on the mRNA. After each tRNA comes in, the amino acid chain bonds to it, and this keeps going until a stop codon is reached. At this point, the components of translation come apart and the translation machinery is now free to translate the same or another mRNA. LINKED GENES; SEX-LINKED GENES Linked genes are pairs of genes that tend to be inherited together because they are on the same chromosome. Sex-linked traits refers to a trait that is coded Sexfor by an allele on a sex chromosome. There are more X-linked traits than Y-linked traits because the X chromosome is much larger. MAPPING CHROMOSOMES A chromosome map is a diagram that shows the linear order of genes on a chromosome. One map unit is the frequency of crossing-over of one percent. MUTATIONS GermGerm-cell mutations occur in an organisms gametes, and affect the offspring of an organism. Somatic-cell mutations cannot be passed onto offspring, and affect Somaticthe organism since it takes place in an organisms body cells. Chromosome Mutations A deletion is the loss of a piece of chromosome due to breakage. In an inversion, inversion a chromosomal segment breaks off, flips around backward, and reattaches. In a translocation, a piece of a chromosome breaks off and reattaches to a nonhomologous chromosome. In a nondisjunction a chromosome fails to separate from nondisjunction, its homologue during meiosis. One gamete receives an additional copy while another gamete receives no copies. Genetic Disorders Some genetic disorders are Huntingtons disease, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Down syndrome, breast cancer, and hemophilia.

MULTIPLE ALLELES/CODOMINANCE/POLYGENIC TRAITS Multiple Alleles Genes with three or more alleles are said to have multiple alleles For alleles. example, the ABO blood types in humans are controlled by three alleles. Incomplete Dominance and Codominance In incomplete dominance an individual displays a trait intermediate between dominance, two parents. In codominance both alleles are expressed in the phenotype of a codominance, heterozygote. Polygenic Traits Polygenic traits are influenced by several genes. For example, skin color results from the additive effects of three to six genes. PEDIGREES A pedigree is a diagram that shows how a trait is inherited over several generations. Square stand for males and circles stand for females. A filled symbol indicates that the person has the trait or condition, and an empty symbol means that they do not. A horizontal line joining a male and a female indicates a mating. A vertical line indicates offspring arranged from left to right in order of their birth.

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January 13, 2007 3rd Period Biology