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Crushers in Cement Industry
Crushers in Cement Industry
Crushers in Cement Industry
A TO Z IN CEMENT INDUSTRY
UNIT THREE Crushing
3.0 Crushing
The technology of crushing is governed by the laws of physics involving mass, velocity, kinetic energy and gravity. Crusher selection even today is not a science but is still mainly a matter of personnel experience and testing. Field experience and tests conducted in a laboratory are the best method of indicating the reaction of a material to the various forces associated with reduction. From this the selection of the most economical crushing plant to produce the required product is made. In general the total number of crushing stages in a comminution plant is determined by the overall reduction ratio required. In the cement industry the abrasiveness of the rock to be crushed is the primary determining factor of the number of reduction stages required. The plant feed originating from a quarry usually contains large rocks and boulders. The size of the first or primary crusher is usually specified by the total capacity required or maximum lump size of the feed. For hard abrasive rocks such as Dolerite, a compression type jaw or gyratory crusher is used for the primary crushing duty. Product size of this type is normally about 80 % passing 1000 mm to 250 mm. Normally feed to a gyratory is not pre-screened but may be necessary when using a jaw crusher to increase throughput. For softer rocks such as limestone, an impact crusher will give the best results. They are designed for the crushing of non or low abrasive materials and have a high throughput and reduction ratio with a product containing a large percentage of fines. The power consumption of these machines is lower per ton throughput than for an equivalent size jaw or gyratory crusher. Because of their mechanical strength they are also suitable for the crushing of hard materials, but at a very much higher cost than for an equivalent compression crusher. Reduction ratios vary between 3 to 1 and 7 to 1 for compression crushers and up to 50 to 1 for impact crushers. To obtain the maximum reduction ratios from any crusher is not the most economic way of crushing a material as it results in hang-ups and increased power consumption which leads to excessive costs. To achieve the required reduction ratio it is usual to have two or more sets of crushing stages. These are then termed primary, secondary and tertiary stages of crushing. The type of crushers that suit a particular operation depend on several factors. These include: 1) The work index of the material 2) Abrasiveness 3) Stickiness 4) Throughput, tons per hour etc. 5) Size of feed 6) Power consumption 7) Reduction Ratios needed
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In crushing terminology, impact refers to the sharp, instantaneous collision of one moving object against another. Both objects may be moving, such as a baseball bat connecting with a fast ball, or one object may be motionless, such as a rock being struck by hammer blows. There are two variations of impact: gravity impact and dynamic impact. Coal dropped onto a hard surface such as a steel plate is an example of gravity impact. Gravity impact is most often used when it is necessary to separate two materials which have relatively different friability. The more friable material is broken, while the less friable material remains unbroken. Separation can then be done by screening. Material dropping in front of a moving hammer (both objects in motion), illustrates dynamic impact. When crushed by gravity impact, the free-falling material is momentarily stopped by the stationary object. But when crushed by dynamic impact, the material is unsupported and the force of impact accelerates movement of the reduced particles toward breaker blocks and/or other hammers. Dynamic impact has definite advantages for the reduction of many materials and it is specified under the following conditions: 1) When a cubical particle is needed. 2) When finished product must be well graded and must meet intermediate sizing specifications, as well as top and bottom specifications. 3) When ores must be broken along natural cleavage lines in order to free and separate undesirable inclusions (such as mica in feldspars). 4) When materials are too hard and abrasive for hammer mills, but where jaw crushers cannot be used because of particle shape requirements, high moisture content or capacity. (Fig-3.1) the bottom of the Impact crusher is open and the sized material passes through almost instantaneously. Liberal clearance between hammers and the breaker blocks eliminates attrition, and crushing is by impact only.
3.2.2 Attrition
Attrition is a term applied to the reduction of materials by scrubbing it between two hard surfaces. Hammermills operate with close clearances between the hammers and the screen bars and they reduce
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by attrition combined with shear and impact reduction. Though attrition consumes more power and exacts heavier wear on hammers and screen bars, it is practical for crushing the less abrasive materials such as pure limestone and coal. Attrition crushing is most useful in the following circumstances: 1) When material is friable or not too abrasive. 2) When a closed-circuit system is not desirable to control top size. (Fig-3.2) when a Non-Reversible Hammermill is used for reduction, material is broken first by impact between hammers and material and then by a scrubbing action (shear and attrition) of material against screen bars.
3.2.3 Shear
Shear consists of a trimming or cleaving action rather than the rubbing action associated with attrition. Shear is usually combined with other methods. For example, single roll crushers employ shear together with impact & compression. Shear crushing is normally called for under these conditions: 1) When material is somewhat friable and has relatively low silica content. 2) For primary crushing with a reduction ratio of 6 to 1. 3) When a relatively coarse product is desired, usually larger than (1 2) " or (38mm) top size. (Fig-3.3) single Roll Crushers reduce large input by a combination of shear, impact and compression. They are noted for low headroom requirements and large capacity.
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3.2.4 Compression
As the name implies, crushing by compression is done between two surfaces, with the work being done by one or both surfaces. Jaw crushers using this method of compression are suitable for reducing extremely hard and abrasive rock. However, some jaw crushers employ attrition as well as compression and are not as suitable for abrasive rock since the rubbing action accentuates the wear on crushing surfaces. As a mechanical reduction method, compression should be used as follows: 1) If the material is hard and tough. 2) If the material is abrasive. 3) If the material is not sticky. / 4) Where the finished product to be relatively coarse (i.e. 1 2" (38mm)) or larger top size. 5) When the material will break cubically. (Fig-3.4) the Jaw crushes by compression without rubbing. Hinged overhead and on the centreline of the crushing zone, the swinging jaw meets the material firmly and squarely. There is no rubbing action to reduce capacity, to generate fines or to cause excessive wear of jaw plates.
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3.3.4 Closed Circuit Crushing Closed-circuit crushing (fig-3.5) is a means of controlling product top size by screening the product and then returning oversize material to the feed end of the crusher for another pass through the machine. While it may be possible to obtain a specified top size from crushers without using a closed-circuit system, it is not always desirable. To control top size from a single crusher operating in an open circuit, material must remain in the crushing chamber until it is reduced. This results in over grinding a percentage of the product with a corresponding increase in fines and a loss of efficiency. In a typical multiple-stage crushing plant with the last stage operated in closed-circuit, the primary crusher operates at a setting which produces a satisfactory feed size for the secondary crusher, so that a balance exists for the work done by each crusher.
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FLOWABILITY
SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Material Alumina Aluminum Oxide Bagasse Barite Bark (wood refuse) Basalt (broken) Bauxite (crushed) Bentonite Brick Carbon Electrodes (baked) Carbon Electrodes (unbaked) Cement Clinker Cement Rock Charcoal Clay (dry) Calcined Clay Coal - Anthracite Coal - Bituminous Coal - Sub-bituminous Coke - Petroleum Cryolite Cullet - Glass
Class
(refer to table 3-1)
Material Lignite - Texas (ROM) Lignite - Dakota (ROM) Lime - Pebble Limestone - broken Manganese Ore Marble - broken Marl - raw & wet Middlings - Coal Phosphate Rock - Ore Potash Ore Potash Ore Compactor Flake Quartz - broken Refuse - household Sand - dry bank Sand - foundry Sandstone - broken Shale - broken Shells - Oyster Diacalcium Phosphate Dolomite Slag - Open Hearth Slag - Blast Furnace
Class
(refer to table 3-1)
3-5-G 3-G 1-6-C 3-5 2-6-G 3-G 3-5-F 2-5 3-F 2-G 1-F 3-5-F 2-5-F 2-5-D,F 3-5 3-5 1-4-D,E 1-5-C,D,E 1-5-C,D,E 2-5 1-5-F 3-5-E
1-5-D,E 1-6-D,F 1-5-E 2-5-F 3-5-G 2-5-F 2-6-E,H 2-5-G,F 2-5 1-E 1-E 3-5-E 2-G 3-5 3-5 3-F 2-5-F 2-5-E 2-5-E,H 2-5-F 3-G 3-4-F,E
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Diatomaceous Earth Dross - Aluminum Fluorspar Fullers Earth - raw Granite - broken Gravel Gypsum Rock
Slate Soapstone (talc) Superphosphate Traprock - broken Triple Superphosphate Trona Ore Tungsten Carbide
3.6.2 Cone Crusher This type of crusher (fig-3.8) is very commonly used as a secondary crusher and usually either of the supported head type or suspended head type. Cone crushers with supported heads and feed plates on top of the cone were originally developed by Symons in the USA (fig-3.9). They consist of an external fixed bowl and a moving internal cone with its axis running at an angle to the machine axis. The displacement of the cone at each stroke is at a speed that permits pieces of rock to fall freely by gravity and be caught further down the rising head on its return stroke. In the case of a machine with a suspended head, short stroke and lower speed, the rocks will slide down the crushing opening using the same principle as the
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gyratory crusher. Throughput capacities vary depending on the range of the feed size and the setting of the outlet. They are most suited as a secondary crusher. However as a tertiary crusher with a shallow angled cone the crusher is sensitive to the moisture content of the feed material.
Adjustment of the outlet setting is either by wedge or the fixed crusher member rotated on a threaded ring. The latter method has been refined by the use of hydraulic controls so that settings may be altered without stopping the feed to the crusher. Further advances in computerized automation has led to a more accurate forecast of product size and power consumption. At the lower end of the crushing chamber the two faces of the liners are shaped so as to be nearly parallel to each other. The effect of the parallel section of the liners is to ensure that the larger rocks have at least one dimension equal to, or less than, the setting and that all product will be less than twice this dimension. This setting is referred to as the close side setting. Reduction ratios of cone crushers are in the range of (6-8:1) if used as a secondary crusher and (2-3:1) if used as a tertiary crusher. Both crushing members are subjected to heavy abrasive action and must be fitted with substantial liners, usually made of manganese steel. As these types of crushers achieve the best results if the whole crushing cavity is utilized then they should be choke fed. A wide angle between the crushing liners will increase the reduction ratio and the capacity. A narrow angle has the opposite effect. A protection method installed on many cone crushers is a series of springs (fig-3.10) or hydraulic rams which allow the fixed cone jacket to rise up in the event of uncrushable material entering the chamber.
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3.6.3 Jaw Crusher Jaw crusher (fig-3.11) is rugged machine of simple design and easy to maintain. It consists of a fixed and a moveable jaw with massive side frames forming a wedge shaped crushing chamber. The cross section between the crushing faces decreases towards the discharge end, the side frames remaining a constant distance apart. Lining plates can have vertical serrations running their length. These assist with size reduction and moving material through the crusher. The reduction method in jaw crushers is compression. There are two groups of jaw crushers single and double toggle machines (fig-3.12). Jaw crusher crushes by compression without rubbing.
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3.6.3.1 Single Toggle Jaw Crusher Single toggle is a type of jaw crusher (fig-3.13) where the moveable crushing member is hung from an eccentric shaft the lower end being held in position by one toggle plate. The rear end of the toggle rests in a groove on the rigid back of the frame and the other end in the similar groove on the back of the swing jaw. The motion is the result of the circular action of the eccentric shaft at the top of the swing jaw combined with the rocker action of the toggle plate at the bottom of the jaw. When the swing jaw rises it is opening at the top in the first half of the stroke and closing during the second half. The bottom of the jaw is closing during the whole up stroke. Opposite motion of the swing jaw takes place during the down stroke.
3.6.3.2 Double Toggle Jaw Crusher Double toggle is a type of jaw crusher (fig-3.14) where the moving jaw is freely suspended from a shaft at its top edge and the jaw movement is transmitted through toggles near the lower edge. Maximum crushing force is applied at the inlet to the crushing chamber where the largest particles are found. The moving jaw is suspended from a cross shaft at its upper end, this shaft in turn being supported at each end in bearings at the top of the two sides of the crusher frame. The actuating mechanism consists of the eccentric shaft, supported in bearings, the pitman and the pair of toggles. The motion of the eccentric shaft is transmitted through the pitman to the inner ends of the toggle pair. The setting of the toggle plates alternatively increases and decreases the effective length of the toggles, imparting the horizontal crushing motion to the jaw. The motion is greatest at the discharge opening. The toggle is clamped in position by spring loaded bolts attached to the moving jaw, taking up the motion of the jaw. The crushing action is intermittent allowing the rock to fall further down the crushing chamber before being crushed again. This action can cause choking if overfeeding takes place and it is best to control the feed to this type of crusher. The single toggle crusher will not take such hard rock as the double toggle unit. With a rock of medium hardness the single unit will have a larger throughput, due to the travel of the jaw. Where the rock to be crushed is highly laminated the jaw crusher tends to produce slabs. This can make handling of feed material to secondary crushers difficult.
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3.6.4 Roller Crusher Roller crusher consists of a heavy cast frame supporting one or two rolls. Each roll comprises a shaft, a roll center made of cast steel and a shell. This shell can either be smooth or corrugated or have teeth (fig-3.15) of a wear resistant metal inserted into slots on the shell. Diameters of rolls can vary from 350 mm to 2.0 m and in width up to 2.0 m. Rolls are independently driven by a flywheel type multiple V-belt sheave. One set of bearings is made to slide horizontally on the frames. These moveable bearings are spring loaded to provide a safety relief for excessive pressures. Springs are pre-set to a working pressure for which the machine is designed. The bearings are drawn up against locating shims to establish the gap between either, a roll and breaking plate or two rolls. Speeds of roller crushers vary according to the material being crushed. Medium rotor speeds, a tip speed of 8.0 to 10.0 m/s are used with materials that are difficult to comminute. For materials of a plastic consistency a lower rotor speed preferred (4.0 to 8.0 m/s). Clay crushers (no longer in general use) had a tip speed of only 1 to 2 m/s. Metal used for the teeth can be manganese steel or a boron alloyed carbon steel as they are subject to high wear rates. Teeth have to be profiled by means of special welding materials at intervals depending on the abrasiveness of the material and how the maintenance is carried out. The interval can be six weeks or six months. Number and size of teeth on toothed roller crushers depend on the crushing requirements. A primary roller crusher will have larger teeth with fewer per row and less rows than a secondary crusher. Teeth of different heights are often used on primary crushers. The higher teeth are known as slugger teeth and the shorter ones as regular teeth. The slugger teeth are designed to grip the larger rocks dragging them between the crushing faces where they are sheared by the regular teeth. The crushing action of slugger teeth is termed sledging. Sledging is the breaking of material as a sharp stroke is delivered to a particle while it is prevented from moving by being in contact with an opposing surface either fixed or moving. In general the roll size of a crusher is governed by the feed size, crushing strength and friability of the feed rock. In choosing the appropriate crusher size the aim should be to have a one to one ratio between the maximum feed size and the roll diameter. Crusher throughput and product particle size are mainly governed by the distance between the rolls and their width. In these crushers three methods of reduction occur. Entering the crusher chamber the material is impacted by the teeth of the revolving roll. As the turning roll compresses the material against the breaker plates or other roll the teeth shear the material. Finally as the teeth of the roll come together the rock is compressed.
3.6.4.1 Single Roll Crusher The crushing is done between the roll and the back plate or anvils (fig-3.16) which are pivoted at the top edge and adjustable at the point of discharge. The adjusting bolts can be spring loaded if the roll is fixed so as to permit the passing of tramp metal. It is an effective breaker of soft to medium hard limestone and shale, but is not suited to blocky feeds unless of a friable nature. During the crushing process material will ride on the roll and there will be considerable slip between the material and the top of the teeth. This will lead to excessive wear if the material has other than low percentage silica. The machine will turn out a
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product with less percentage fines than either the jaw or gyratory crushers. Size of product is governed by the distance between the roll and the tip of the lower end of the anvil. This machine is essentially a primary crusher and works most efficiently when set for a medium or coarse product. Single roll crusher crushes by shearing action.
3.6.4.2 Double Roll Crusher The crushing action takes place between the two rolls. On large machines both rolls can be mounted on slides which can be adjusted to give the correct size product. In special cases these machines can be supplied with rotors running at different circumferential speeds. The shearing force due to this increases the comminuting effect. Crushers with medium rotor speeds have proved suitable for dealing with materials that are difficult to comminute, having compressive strengths up to 1500 kg/cm2. These crushers (fig-3.17) are successful in the reduction of moist sticky materials. They are especially suitable for crushing limestone, marl, clay and shale. Roller crushers are nearly always the first choice when there is a need to reduce wet and very sticky or plastic materials. The term Crushing Rolls applies to the double roll machine with smooth or corrugated shells. Crushing is entirely by compression of material between the surfaces of the roll faces. Although crushing rolls fitted with corrugated shells have been used in special applications they remain, essentially, a fine reduction crusher used in the secondary or tertiary reduction stage. One disadvantage of the double roll is that one set of rollers delivers product to the conveyor in the opposite direction to the belt travel. A curved chute can be fitted to reduce the effect but if the feed material is sticky or contains a percentage of clay then a build up of material in the chute can occur leading to clogging. The sticky material can also form boulders in the dead space between the rollers which ride on them and become such a size that when eventually discharged cause damage to the conveyor belts.
3.6.5 Impact Crusher Both swing hammer and fixed breaker bar machines may be classified under this heading. A characteristic of these breakers is the large quantity of fines produced and the high reduction ratios obtainable, up to 30 to 1. Run of quarry material can be reduced in one pass of the crusher and the product will be mill feed
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size. A percentage of slab oversize may however be present in the product which can be reduced by passing it in closed circuit back to the crusher. Impact crusher (fig-3.18) crushes by attrition action. There are a variety of shapes of hammers, swing for hammer crushers and fixed for impact crushers. They can be made to span the whole width of the machine hinged on two flanges or be installed individually on separate flanges in a row. There are usually two circles of these flange holes one a smaller radius than the other. When the hammers are new and their maximum length, the spindles are placed in the inner row of holes. When worn and shortened, they are then transferred to the outer row to restore the gap to the original size. Hammers are normally made out of manganese steel and are reversible to maximize their use before new ones have to be purchased. In impact crushers; feed is dropped into the central feed chute and cast by the hammers against breaker plates or blocks and shatters under the repeated impact. The symmetrical construction of the crusher permits the unit to work equally well with the rotor revolving in either direction. The advantages of this option are that wear can be evenly distributed over both sets of breaker plates and that hammers do not have to be turned during their working life. Speed has a definite influence on the reduction ratio of hammer crushers. The effect of a speed of about 60 meters per second on friable material is almost explosive the rock being pulverized. This results in a very high percentage of fines. A low speed crusher can result in a fairly uniform product with low percentage fines providing the feed not to strike too many times in the crushing chamber. The design of the crushing chamber will also effect on the fineness of the product. Machines which perform the majority of the work by plain impact action will have a more uniform product size with fewer fines. With all hammer crushers a means of controlling the feed rate is necessary and of screening out under size material before it enters the crusher. A constant degree of crushing can be maintained by having moveable breaker plates so that as the hammers wear the plates are moved inwards. A good practice which helps to reduce costs is to preserve hammer profile for as long as economically possible.
3.6.5.1 Single Roller Hammer Crusher This machine (fig-3.19) consists of a base frame and drum with a set of breaker plates or flanges mounted in one half, a horizontal rotating shaft on which the hammers are mounted, and a set of breaker bars or grates situated around the lower circumference of the frame. The rotor consists of a shaft carried in bearings on either side of the housing at the centre of the multi-flanged drum. The flanges are drilled near their outer edges for hinge pins to which the hammers can be attached. The speed or the rotor is such as to keep the hammers in position by centrifugal force. Rock entering the crusher is struck by the hammers and cast against the breaking plates. This action can be repeated several times in one pass through the crusher. Hammer crusher crushes by attrition action. A series of transversely arranged, tapered, wear resisting steel bars form a circular cross section just below the hammers path. The spacing of these bars is varied to suit the required product size. When a sticky feed is crushed in this type of breaker the grates soon become blocked and the crusher can eventually stall. The problem then arises that the product will leave the crusher at a high velocity and protection of the conveyor belt removing the product may be needed.
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3.6.5.2 Double Roller Hammer Crusher Material is fed by gravity into the center of a double rotor machine (fig-3.20) and is hit by the hammers. This impacting of feed material against two counter rotating sets of hammers is the primary means of size reduction. Other impactions further break the material on an anvil block situated between the rollers. A grid of bars parallel to the hammers path can be placed above the rollers. These act as a screen preventing oversize material falling between the rotors. The hammers path is between the grid bars and reduces these blocks so that they can fall into the crusher. Material is crushed in two ways, first by impact on the hammers and breaker plates. Then by attrition and shear where there is slight clearance between the hammers and the screen bars. This zone is the final sizing area for the product. Some makes of double roller hammer crushers use only the dynamic impacting action of one set of hammers to the other. The advantage of using this method is that in reducing wet sticky materials there is little for it to stick to in the crushing chamber and therefore power consumption will be relatively low.
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3.7.1 Mobile (Portable) Plant A mobile plant (fig-3.21, fig-3.22) is one that can move itself without assistance from outside forces. There are a variety of moving mechanisms available to suit different applications. Hydraulic walking pads are favoured in quarries with reasonably smooth floors. Their advantage is that the can turn on the spot. Crawler tracks can follow a face working over floors with poor load bearing qualities. Pneumatic tyred crushers move quickly compared to the other mechanisms and are suited to frequent movement.
3.7.2 Semi-Mobile Plant These plants (fig-3.23) have no independent means of movement and either has to be towed or lifted by special transporters. They are selected when a change of location is only necessary at long intervals. If the working face is straight and proceeds in one direction the crusher chassis can be rail mounted to ease movement. This is accomplished by means of a towing vehicle. Wheels are retracted when the crusher is in operation.
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c) Type of Crusher: Impact breakers have marginally lower power consumption than other types of crushers. d) Speed of Crusher: Energy consumption of impact breakers and rolls is less at higher speeds. e) Crushing Strength: The power required for crushing is almost directly proportional to the crushing strength of the material. 3.8.2.3 Work Index This is defined as the power per unit mass required to break an infinite particle size down to 80 % passing 100 microns. Units of measurement are usually kwh per ton. The higher the work index of a material the higher will be the required input work to obtain a given reduction ratio. (Table-3.3) lists the average work indices for materials associated with the cement industry. Material Chert Silica Sand Shale Clinker Limestone Dolomite Clay
Table-3.3: Average Work Indices
3.8.2.4 Typical Power Requirements A primary single roll crusher reducing run of quarry medium hard limestone to a 165 mm product will require about 400 watts per ton per hour. When this type of crusher is used to crush medium hard bituminous coal to the same specifications only about 65 watts per ton per hour is needed. Even with the hardest minerals single rolls use about 750 watts per ton per hour of power. Impact crushers (used as primary crushers) require about 760 watts per ton per hour of the gross load to drive them. This only increases slightly if the rotor speed is very high. A jaw crusher needs approximately 250 watts per ton per hour for its maximum size reduction. If the ratio of feed to product size is reduced then this will decrease. 3.8.2.5 Closed Circuit Crushing This is a means of controlling product top size by screening and returning oversize to the crusher. To control top size with an open circuit, material must remain in the crushing chamber until it is reduced to the required size. The result is that a proportion of the material is overground and the percentage fines in the product are high. Efficiencies are lowered with a corresponding increase in power costs. In a multi stage crushing plant with the final stage in closed circuit (fig-3.7), the primary crusher operates at a setting which produces a satisfactory feed size for the secondary so that a balance exists for the work done by each crusher and power consumption is minimized. The argument against a closed circuit system is that it reduces plant capacity, if the recirculated load gets too large efficiencies are markedly decreased. With both jaw and gyratory crushers there will be no increase in the product quantity produced since the increased portion will be offset exactly by the reduced final output. Impact breakers will show an increase as there will be a smaller average feed size. 3.8.2.6 Choke or Regulated Feed A completely filled crusher chamber or as full as the design will permit? Is there a sufficient head of material above the receiving opening to keep the crusher continuously full? This is particularly important with cone crushers as choke feeding gives higher reduction ratios and reduces wear on the crusher parts. Regulated feed is the throttling of the supply of material to the crusher to keep it below the capacity of the machine.
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3.10.3 Product Size A primary crusher should give the highest reduction ratio as is economically feasible. The crusher will be set at or near its minimum setting. This will reduce the throughput and the figures quoted for crusher performance should reflect this. Reduction ratio depends on the tip speed of the crusher if a rotary for 95 % of the measure of reduction. The higher the tip speed the greater the reduction ratio. However increased speed results in increased wear on the crusher and maintenance costs rise steeply. 3.10.4 Quarry Equipment Face loading and transporting equipment are all included in this. Usually the only surge capacity in the quarry is that loaded into the trucks. The distance that the material has to be moved as well as the number of trucks available will determine the actual peak capacity needed to maintain throughput and therefore the size of the primary crusher. All types of crusher work at their best efficiency if continuously fed at a rate close to designed throughput. A short transporting distance with relatively small trucks will approximate this condition. A surge bin ahead of the primary crusher capable of holding three or four trucks should take up any minor delays in feed supply. 3.10.5 Drilling and Blasting The size of the drillhole should be suitable for the physical properties of the material. If not then the average rock size to the crusher may be large. This becomes important when a new primary crusher is to be installed on an existing operation and the drilling equipment is not being replaced. Different types of explosives result in different muckpile characteristics and fragmentation analyze. ANFO is a common explosive found in quarries, it is cheap and easy to make on site. When it detonates there is a higher proportion of heave energy released. This result in a coarser muckpile than if an emulsion explosive was used. The number of holes and rows fired in a blast will also affect the muckpile fragmentation. Oversize is generated from the collar of holes and the backbreak from the final row. If large blasts are set off and a hang up occurs then it is possible that the crusher could stand for some considerable time. 3.10.6 Feeder Design At most plants there will be an intermediate stockpile between the primary and secondary crusher systems. A majority of quarries will be able to produce the required tonnage on one shift. The plant process is continuous and therefore enough material must be available to permit the operation to continue on the other shifts.
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primary crusher capable of taking two to three truck loads of material. Even with this addition if the truck fleet is not reliable throughput rates will suffer. 3.11.3 Surge Storage Where secondary crushing is necessary a decision has to be taken as to whether the secondary plant is to be operated as an extension of the plant (on a continuous process) or as part of the quarry. Run as part of the plant its size can be reduced but a surge stockpile is required between the primary and the secondary. The alternative means that the stockpile can be within the plant. With a wet feed or climate the stockpile should be under cover. If all crushing stages are direct feed from the previous the stage with the lowest capacity will govern the throughput and all other parts of the plant will operate at below optimum. Providing surge capacity between crushing stages eliminates this problem. The size of the surge stockpile should be such that the operation of the plant is not affected by breakdowns or stoppages further up the line (a truck breakdown or a blockage in the primary crusher) for instance. A stockpile will ensure a regular feed to the next crusher with the benefits of maximum utilization. 3.11.4 Overload Protection All machines driven by electric motors should have overload protection. In crushers it is either the transmission V belts or the springs which take the initial shock of an overload. Hydraulic systems have an advantage in that the crusher can open instantaneously if an overload occurs but with a steady return to normal operation without the chattering inherent in the steel spring system. 3.11.5 Metal Detectors or Magnets Occasional tramp metal is found in the material fed to the crusher. It will pass the primary easily but can cause damage to the finer crushing stages. Magnets sited on the product belt from the primary crusher to remove the metal. They are usually on a small belt which will lift the tramp metal clear and deposit it in a bin. Detectors on discerning tramp metal present will stop the belt so that it can be lifted off. 3.11.6 Automation There can be no doubt that automation of a plant increases throughput. The reaction of an automated crusher to changing feed rates is much more precise and quicker than that of a manual system. With the aid of electronic circuits to measure amperes on motors and mechanical loads, information and settings can be frequently adjusted to suit the incoming feed. If a hydraulic system is in use on the crusher the pressure in it can be measured to give the level of the crushing forces present in the machine. Manually controlled crushers under the control of a skilled operator seldom use more than 65% of the permissible power. An automated feeder/ crusher system can easily reach 90 %. Level monitors provide a basic form of automation. Such a monitor in a cone crusher provides an automatic choke feed to the machine. Monitors placed in the bottom and top of a surge bin can stop the crusher when there is insufficient feed or provide protection from overfilling the bin. Interlocking of the crushing system keeps spillage to a minimum by guaranteeing that the system starts in the right order. If a conveyor trips interlocking will stop all forgoing machines to prevent excessive spillage. 3.11.7 Pre-Planned Manganese Replacement A set of crusher liners will give full capacity output for a period of time and then wear will reduce output. At some stage in the wear it will be more economical to change plates than to operate at an increasingly reduced capacity.
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