UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

PSYCHOLOGY

PROJECT REPORT

PRESENTED TO

MAM KOMAL FAISAL

PERCEPTION
Perception is the process of gathering information through our senses, organizing and making sense of it. OR Perception is the process by which we attach meaning to the world around us.

Human beings may differ because of their differences and uniqueness. People often see the same situation differently within the organization and outside the organization. For example when there is an accident in a factory, the supervisor may treat it as carelessness of worker while the worker may treat it as lack of adequate provision of security measures. In order to understand why people see the same situations differently one has to understand perception and its different aspects. Our world consists of people, experiences, and objects that influence us. We become aware of the world around us through our senses Sight Sound Smell Taste Touch

Perception is unique to each person. No two people view the world exactly the same. No one can perceive 100 % of all things at all times.

PERCEPTION PROCESS
The perception process consists of three stages Selection Organization Interpretation

SELECTION Selection is the first stage in the perception process. In this stage we select stimuli to which we attend. We select the stimuli through our senses i.e. sight, sound, smell, taste and touch.

ORGANIZATION Organization is the second stage in the perception process. In this stage we mentally arrange the information so we can understand or make sense out of it.

INTERPRETATION The third stage in the perception process is interpretation. In this stage we attach meaning to the stimuli. Our interpretations are subjective and are based on our values, needs, beliefs, experiences, expectations and other personal factors.

TYPES OF PERCEPTION FIGURE GROUND PERCEPTION

Figure ground perception is the tendency to discriminate between target and background stimuli. The stimulus we perceive as being the target is referred to as the figure. The other stimuli that we do not perceive as the target make up the background, or ground. The vase seen at right can be perceived in two different ways. If the black is perceived as the background, you will see a vase. However, if you perceive the vase as the background, you will see two faces.

GROUPING AND CLOSURE

We tend to perceive the world in the simplest form possible. There are two major parts to this law: closure and grouping. Closure is the tendency to fill in missing portions from a perceptual array, or to fill in the gaps. Grouping occurs when similar or proximal stimuli are perceived as belonging together in a group. A common example used to illustrate closure is the perception of a complete triangle from three lines. This can be observed at right. If you look closely you can actually see two triangles in the figure. Grouping can be observed by looking at the collection of black dots below. Your brain groups the dots together and allows you to see the figure of a dog.

 PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
Human perception also has remarkable stability. The size of a man does not appear to change as he walks towards you even though his image on the eye grows larger. When you stand in front of a window its image on the eye is a rectangular, when you move to the side its image becomes a trapezoid yet you continue to see it as a rectangular. So a person recognizes the objects for what he has learned that it is its appearance remains constant in perception despite differences in physical stimulations. This kind of stability is known as perceptual constancy. SHAPE CONSTANCY If you know what an object is, its shape remains constant no matter how you view it. SIZE CONSTANCY The size of the eye image of an object grows smaller as the object moves farther away. Yet people normally perceive the object as remaining the same size. This is size constancy. The center circles are actually both the same size, yet they appear to different because of their relationship to the surrounding circles. Our brain perceives the circle surrounded by larger circles as smaller, because it is smaller in relation to the surrounding circles. The opposite is true for the circle surrounded by smaller circles.

DEPTH PERCEPTION
Human beings can judge the relative distance of objects, and more than that can see objects in three dimensional space. The fact is that people utilize a large number of cues or features of the environment which are related to depth. Many of these cues require one eye and are called monocular cues. Other are supplied by the use of two eyes , these are binocular cues to depth. We only use monocular cues when we view two-dimensional images, such as paintings and drawings. Binocular cues such as convergence and binocular disparity, on the other hand, are information gained from real three-dimensional objects such as sculptures. 1. MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES Depth cues that can be perceived by only one eye Types of cues Interposition When one object partly blocks your view of another, you perceive the partially blocked object as farther away

 Linear perspective Parallel lines that are known to be the same distance apart appear to grow closer together, or converge, as they recede into the distance Relative size Larger objects are perceived as being closer to the viewer, and smaller objects as being farther away Texture gradient Near objects appear to have sharply defined textures, while similar objects appear progressively smoother and fuzzier as they recede into the distance Motion parallax When you ride in a moving vehicle and look out the side window, the objects you see outside appear to be moving in the opposite direction. Objects seem to be moving at different speeds those closest to you appear to be moving faster than those in the distance. Objects very far away, such as the moon and the sun, appear to move in the same direction as the viewer 2. BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES Depth cues that depend on two eyes working together Convergence Occurs when the eyes turn inward to focus on nearby objects the closer the object, the greater the convergence Binocular disparity (or retinal disparity) Difference between the two retinal images formed by the eyes slightly different views of the objects focused on

FORM PERCEPTION
We see images as a whole rather then in parts. However, images can be broken down into their visual elements: line, shape, texture, and color. These elements are to images as grammar is to language. Together they allow our eyes to see images and our brain to recognize them. Line A line is the path made by a pointed instrument, such as a pen, a crayon, or a stick. A line implies action because work needs to be done to make it. Moreover, the impression

of movement suggests sequence, direction, or force. In other words, a line can be seen as a distinct series of points. Line is believed to be the most expressive of the visual elements because of several reasons. First, it outlines things and the outlines are key to their identity. Most of the time, we recognize objects or images only from their outlines. Second, line is important because it is a primary element in writing and drawing, and because writing and drawing are universal. Third, unlike texture, shape and form, line is unambiguous. We know exactly when it starts and ends. Finally, line leads our eyes by suggesting direction and movement. Shape Shape is related to line. Closed lines become the boundaries of shapes. The shapes that artists create are inspired by many different sources, such as nature and manmade objects. Like with lines, there are many ways of categorizing shapes. We can use their dimensions, for example, distinguishing between two-dimensional shape and three-dimensional shape. Or we can use their style (realism, abstraction, etc), or their origin (organic or geometric)to classify them. Texture Texture is an element of art that refers to the way things feel, or look as though they might feel, if touched. For example, sandpaper looks and feels rough; a cotton ball looks and feels soft. The connection between visual and tactile sensation is very well developed. Color What we perceive as color is primarily the wavelength the light stimulation. The shortest viewable wavelength (about 380 nm) is what we see as blue and the longest wavelength (about 760 nm) is what we see as red. The other wavelengths that fall between them are what we see as other colors,

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

Internal Factors Influencing the Perception Process The internal set factors are as under: a) Habit b) Motivation and interest c) Learning

d) Economic and social background e) Personality

Habit: Habits die hard and therefore individuals perceive objects, situations and conditions differently according to their habits. A Hindu will bow and do Namaskar when he sees a temple while walking on road, because of his well-established habit. These are several instances in life settings where individuals tend to react with the right response to the wrong signals. Thus a retired soldier may throw himself on the ground when he hears a sudden burst of car tyre.

Motivation and interest: Two examples of motivational factors are hunger and thirst. Motivational factors increase the individual's sensitivity to those stimuli which he considers as relevant to the satisfaction of his needs in view of his past experience with them. A thirsty individual has a perceptual set to seek a water fountain or a hotel to quench his thirst, which increases for him likelihood of perceiving restaurant signs and decreases the likelihood of visualizing other objects at that moment in time. A worker who has a strong need for affiliation, when walks into the lunchroom, the table where several coworkers are sitting tends to be perceived and the empty table or the table where only one person is sitting will attract no attention.

Learning: The state of learning influences and plays a crucial role in the perception process. However, it should be recognized that the role of learning is more pronounced in respect of complex forms of perception where the symbolic content creeps into the process. Although interrelated with motivation and personality, learning may play the single biggest role in developing perceptual set. People perceive as per their levels of learning. it is therefore essential for the organization to make its employees knowledgeable and educated for their effective performance and behaviour. The learning of managers and workers is a twin requirement.

Economic and social background: The employee perceptions are based on economic and social backgrounds. Socially and economically developed employees

have a more positive attitude towards development rather than less developed employees.

External factors influencing the perception process The external attention factors a) Intensity b) Size c) Contrast d) Repetition e) Motion f) Novelty and familiarity g) Situations Intensity: The intensity of stimulus implies that the more intense the stimulus audio or visual, the more is the likelihood it will be perceived. A loud noise, strong odour or bright light or bright colours will be more readily perceived than soft sound, weak odour or dim light. It is because of this advantage that advertisers employ intensity to draw the consumers' attention. Size: The size of the object or stimulus has a greater impact on the perception process because the size influences attention and recognition in a more effective manner. A Great Den dog which is tall attracts the attention. At the same time a pocket dog also attracts attention because of its size. However, generally the larger the object the more likely it will be perceived. The amount of attention enhances with the size of the newspaper advertisement exposed to the individuals although the increase in attention may not be directly proportional to the increase in size. Contrast: Contrasting objects have more impact on behavior. The contrast principle states that external stimuli, which stand out against the background or which, are not what the people expect will receive attention. Plant safety signs, which have black lettering on a yellow background or white lettering on a red background, are attentions getting. Any change in the accustomed atmosphere attracts attraction. His if one or more of the machines should come suddenly to a half, the supervisor would immediately notice the

difference in noise level. Also a person who has fallen asleep in a bus because of the drone of the engine wakes up immediately the engine stops. Repetition: Repeated stimuli have more impact on performances than a single statement. Repetition has the advantage of being attention catching. Perhaps, it is because of this that supervisors tend to repeat directions regarding job instructions several times for even simple tasks to hold the attention of their workers. Advertisers while putting T.V. or radio advertisements repeat the brand name they are advertising. Motion: The factor of motion implies that the individuals attend to changing objects in their field of vision than to static objects. It is because of this advantage that advertisers involve signs, which include moving objects in their campaigns. At an unconscious level the animals in the jungles make use of this principle. A tiger lying in wait is motionless until his prey is nearer him and then jumps at an appropriate moment. Novelty and familiarity: A novel object in the familiar situation or a familiar object in a novel situation tends to attract attention. Thus a white person or a black person in India catches attention faster. Job rotation is an example of this principle. Recent research indicates that job rotation not only increased attention but also employees' acquisition of new skills. Situations: Situations have a great influence on people's perceptions. A favorable work environment develops a positive attitude and work culture because the perception process is easily channelized and rightly directed. Personality: The personality of the perceiver as well as the stimulator has an impact on the perception process. The age, sex, race, dress, etc of both the persons have a direct influence on the perception process.

APPLICATION IN BUSINESS FIELD

The perception plays a very important role in organization. In organizations people actions are based on their perception of what truth is, not on the truth itself. Their decision might be biased or might be taken under pressure. For example Assessment of workers effort is a judgment subject to perceptual bias. STEREOTYPING Stereotyping refers to the generalization of the characteristics of all members belonging to a certain group. People judge others based on the perception they have about the group to which these individuals belong and do not consider the unique characteristics

of the person in question.For instance, politicians are considered to be manipulative and corrupt. In the organizational context, stereotyping often takes place based upon gender, race,ethnicity, etc.

THE HALO EFFECT In the halo effect, the perceiver tends to judge a person depending upon a dominant trait which can be either positive or negative. The various traits could be intelligence, sociability, aggressiveness, etc. The halo effect is generally found in performance appraisal. Often appraisers rate the performance of employees based on one particular trait rather than by taking all aspects into consideration. EMPLYEMENT INTERVIEW Evidences show that interviewers make perceptual judgments while interviewing candidates. These judgments are inaccurate. Different interviewers see different things in the same candidate. Interviewers get an impression about the candidate in the first four or five minutes and rarely change their view after that. PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS Individuals try to support their perceptions of reality, even when they are not appropriate. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION An employees performance appraisal depends on the perceptual process. Appraisal can both objective and subjective. The perception of an evaluator about the characteristics or behavior of the employees affects the result of the appraisal. EMPLOYEE EFFORT An individual future in an organization does not only depend on its performance. The evaluation of an individuals effort is a subjective judgment which can be biased.

CONCLUSION
Successful managers understand the importance of perception as an influencing factor on behavior, and they act accordingly. They are aware of perceptual distortion and they

know that perceptual differences are likely to exist in any situation. And the end result is that they make decisions and take appropriate action as and when required.