1

Ministry of Science and Technology Department of Civil Engineering

CE 1022 Building Material and Construction Sample Questions and Solutions First Term Final Examination

February, 2009

Building Materials and Construction

Q. 1. Write a short note on the following: (a) coarse aggregate and fine aggregate (b) sand

A. 1.(a) Coarse Aggregate and Fine Aggregate Aggregate which are inert material and act as filler material in cement concrete can be divided into coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. Aggregate of size less than 4.75 mm are usually considered as fine aggregate and these larger than 4.75mm, as coarse aggregate. In concrete the aggregate occupy must of the volume of the hardened mass and the more densely the aggregate can be packed, the better are the strength, weather resistance and economy of concrete. For this reason the gradation of the particle sizes in the aggregate for producing close packing is of considerable importance. It is also, important that the aggregate has good strength, durability and weather resistance, that its surface be free from may weaken the bond with cement paste and that no unfavorable chemical reaction takes place between it and the cement. Aggregates shall not contain any harmful material such as pyrites, coal, lignite, mica, shale or similar. Laminated material, clay, alkali, soft fragments, sea shells and organic impurities in such quantity, as to affect the strength or durability of the concrete. Aggregates to be for concrete shall not contain any material liable to attack the steel reinforcement. Aggregates which are chemically reactive with alkalis of cement are harmful as cracking of concrete may take place. For favourable aggregate are separated by sieving into two or three size groups of sand (F.A) and several sizes groups of coarse aggregate. These can be combined according to grading charts to result in a densely packed aggregate. The maximum size of coarse aggregate depends on the nature of work. For reinforced concrete, the maximum size shall be such as to easily fit into the forms between reinforcement bars.

A.1.(b). Sand Sand is the result of natural disintegration of rock. Siliceous quartz sand is the most suitable fine aggregate. Sand may be obtained from pits, rivers, lakes or sea shores. When obtained from pits, it should be washed to free it from clay and silt. Sea shore sand may

3 contain chlorides, which may cause efflorescence and corrosion of reinforcement. It should therefore be thoroughly washed before use. Angular grained sand has good interlocking properties and is preferable to round grained sand. Sometimes, however, properly graded crushed sand, obtained from crushing of stones or gravels may also be used.

Q.2. Write a short note on the following: (a) influence of properties of aggregates on properties of concrete (b) properties of aggregate

A.2. (a). Influence of Properties of Aggregates on Properties of Concrete It is also important that the aggregate has good strength, durability and weather resistance, that its surface may be weaken the bond with cement paste, and that no unfavorable chemical reaction takes place between it and the cement. Aggregate shall not contain any harmful material such as pyrites, coal, lignite, mica, shale or similar laminated material, clay, alkali, soft fragments, sea shells and organic impurities in such quantity as to affect the strength and durability of the concrete. Aggregates to be used for concrete shall not contain any material liable to attack the steel reinforcement. Aggregates which are chemically reactive with alkalis of cement are harmful as cracking of concrete may take place. The maximum content of chloride should be 0.02% and that of sulphate 1% in the aggregate. Sugar is especially dangerous, as it hinders the binding of cement. Crushed stone and natural gravel are the common materials used as coarse aggregates for concrete. Various types of Granites, Schists, Gneisses, crystalline hard Limestone and good quality sand-stone may be crushed to obtain suitable type of coarse aggregates. Use of flaky materials obtained from laminated rock such as slate should be avoided. The shape and surface texture of aggregates have influence on the workability and binding properties of concrete. Round aggregates with smooth surface will make the mixing and compacting easier, while rough surface will increase the tension strength of concrete. The flexural (or tension) strength is more affected than compressing strength, and the effects of shape and texture are particularly significant in the case of high strength concrete.

A.2.(b). Properties of Aggregate Since at least three quarters of the volume of concrete is occupied by aggregate, it is not surprising that its quality is of considerable importance. Not only may the aggregate limit

4 the strength of concrete, as weak aggregate cannot produce strong concrete, but the properties of aggregate greatly affect the durability and structural performance of concrete. Aggregate is cheaper than cement and it is, therefore, economical to put into the mix much of the former and as little of the latter as possible. But economy is not the only season for using aggregate it confers considerable technical advantages and concrete, durability than the cement alone.

Q3. Write down the different types of cement and briefly explain them.

A3.

Different Types of Cement Portland cement may have several types, depending on the variations of the various

components in the cement. The different types of cement are(a) Normal Setting or Ordinary Cement (b) Rapid Hardening Cement (c) Low Heat Cement (d) Air Entraining Cement (e) Sulphate Resisting Cement (f) Portland and Blast Furnace Slag Cement (g) Portland and Pozzolona Cement (h) High Alumina Cements (i) Expansive Cement (j) Hydrophobic Cement (k) White and Coloured Cements

(a) Normal Setting or Ordinary Cement

(b) Rapid Hardening Cement It is ground fines and has more C3S and less C2S contents than ordinary cement. The main advantage of this type is that shuttering may be removed much earlier, thus saving considerable time and expenses.

(c) Low Heat Cement It has low C3A and C3S and relatively more C2S contents than ordinary cement. It has low rate or strength gain even though the ultimate strength remains the same.

(d) Air Entraining Cement It contains an air-entraining agent and is used in concrete exposed to severe frost action, especially for outdoor structures and pavements.

(e) Sulphate Resisting Cement In this type the quantity C3A is strictly limited and the cement is ground finer than ordinary cement.

(f) Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement It is an integrind of Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag with the addition of a small amount of gypsum to control the set. The amount of slag usually varies from 25 to 65 percent of the total cement.

(g) Portland Pozzolona Cement It is a blended mixture of Portland cement and pozzolona, which is a nature or artificial material containing silica in a reactive form. As a rule, pozzolona cements gain strength sorry slowly but their ultimate strength is approximately the same as ordinary Portland cement.

(h) High Alumina Cement Unlike other cement, the raw materials used for its manufacture are chalk and bouxite, which is a special clay of extremely high alumina content. This type attains high early strength and has high heat of hydration and resistance to chemical attack. It is more expensive to manufacture this cement than other cements.

(i) Expansive Cement Unlike ordinary cement, this type of cement expands while setting and is used in repair works of cracks. It contains an expanding medium and a stabilizing agent.

(j) Hydrophobic Cement It contains water repelling agents and its deterioration in storage in the presence of moisture is slower than in the case of ordinary cement.

6 (k) White and Coloured Cements To obtain white cement, the ingredients must contain lowest amount of oxide, which gives grey colour. Instead of limestone and clay, white chalk and china clay are used. Coloured cement is manufactured by adding 5 to 10 percent of ground mineral pigments to ordinary or white cements. Pigments usually used are Iron Oxide, Cobalt, Chromium Oxide, Carbon and Manganese Dioxide for various colours. The production cost is higher than ordinary cement and the strength is the same as that of ordinary cement.

Q.4. Briefly describes the following physical properties of cement: (a). fineness of cement (b). strength of cement (c). setting and hardening of cement

A.4 (a). Finess of Cement As the hydration starts at the surface of the cement particle the rate of hydration depends on the finess of the cement particle and for a rapid development of strength high finess is necessary. But the cause of binding to a higher finess is considerable and also the finer the cement the more rapidly. It deteriorates on exposure to the atmospheres amount of a paste of standard consistence is greater the finer the cement. Therefore British Standard Institution (B.S.I) limited the maximum residue on B.S.S sieve No. 110 after 15min shaking to 10% weight for ordinary and 5% for rapid highly Portland cement.

A.4 (b). Strength of Cement The mechanical strength of hardened cement is the property of the material that is required for structural use. Strength tests are not made on a cement paste because of difficulties of moulding. Cement and mortor of prescribed proportions with specified material under control conditions are used for the purpose of determining the strength of cement. There are several forms of strength test, direct tension test, direct compression and flexure since cement paste is considerably stronger in compression than in tension. The tensile strength of cement is often of lesser interest than its compressive strength.

A.4 (c). Setting and Hardening of Cement When Portland cement is mixed with water a paste is formed which passes, that is became firm and then harden. Therefore, setting is known as solidification and hardening as

7 increase of strength. The setting and hardening are due to a chemical reaction call a hydration between the cement and water. The period of setting divided into two parts the beginning and setting are called the initial and final set. The setting accomplished by temperature changes in the cement paste. Initial set corresponds to a rapid raise in temperature and final set to the peak temperature. The abnormal premature, stiffening of cement within in a few minute of mixing with water is called false set. It is usually due to dehydration of gypsum when inderground with too hot clinker. After the cement paste has attained final set if further increase rigidity in strength. This last process is for hardening. Setting usually takes places in a few hours (or) even minute. Whereas hardening may proceed for months (or) years.

Q.5. Write a short note on the following: (a). Determination of normal consistency of Portland cement. (b). Determination of setting time of Portland cement.

A.5. (a). Determination of normal consistency of Portland cement The objective of this testing of cement is to determine the amount of mixing water to make cement of a given consistency. The cement past is of normal consistency when the amount of mixing water is 0.78 of the required to give a paste which will permit the Vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7 mm, from the bottom of the Vicat mould. Firstly, cement 400 gms with 28% of water were mixed in the following manner. The cement was placed on a non absorbent surface, which has not been moistened. From a crater and the water was poured in to it, the material was turned on the outer edge towards the center with the trowel. After an interval for the absorption of the water the operation was complete and continuous vigorous mixing squeezing and kneading with the hands. From the paste quickly into a ball with the hands with the ball resting in the plam of one hand. The paste was pressed into the larger end of the mould hold in the other hand. The mould was placed with plate and the excess paste was removed at the smaller end with a single stroke of the trowel. Smooth the top of necessary. The elapsed time from the moment of adding water to the dry cement to completing the filling of the mould shall not be more than 5 min.

8 The sample was placed under the plunger. The plunger was brought into contact whit the surface of the paste and relapsed quickly, allowing it to sink into the sample. If the first trial does not give the desired penetration, the test was repeated using now batch of cement with a different amount of mixing water. It was repeated until desired consistency is obtained

A.5. (b). Determination of setting time The objective of this testing of cement is the rate of setting of a neat cement paste. For purpose of testing, this is determined at two arbitrary points, the first know as initial set the second as final set. The required apparatus are pan, beaker, trowel, graduated cylinder, balance and weights, Moist closet, Vicat apparatus and mould, glass plate 4 in2, watch. The procedure is in the following: (1). A paste of 0.85 standard consistency, using 400 gm of cement was prepared. The mould was filled with the paste. (2). The specimen was placed in a moist closet immediately after the molding. (3). At the end of 30 min the specimen was removed from the moist closet and placed under the Vicat apparatus, the needle was brought into contact with the surface of the paste and released quickly. Initial set occurs when needle does not pierce it by about 5 mm from the bottom of the mould. This should not occur in less than 30 min. (4). After reasonable interval, it is tried for final set. The Vicat needle was replaced with one with an annular attachment. This final set occurs when the needle makes an impression while the attachment fails to do so. This should take place within 10 hours.

Q.6. Write down the anatomy of exogenous trees.

A.6. Anatomy of Exogenous Trees If a cross section of the stem of an exogenous tree is examined the following is noticeable in most woods without the aid of a magnesia fying glass. (a) Heartwood (b) Sapwood (c) Medullary rays (d) Annual rings (e) Cambium layer

9 (f) Bark or cortex e c d f

a b

Fig. Cross section of a tree

(a). Pith The soft portion in the center of a tree, varying size and shape according to the species, is called the pith. Usually, young stems and twigs have a proportionately larger pith than mature trees.

(b). Heartwood and sapwood The central portion surrounding the path, which is usually dark coloured in most woods, is the heartwood. The heartwood, in reality, is dead and does not take an active part in the life of a tree, except to give it rigidity. The portion, however, is more durable. In some woods, heartwoods contains gums and resins which serve as preservatives of the wood. It is also called duramen. Sap wood is of more recent growth and contains sap. It is usually lighter in colour and reaches as far as the bark. It is also known as laburnum.

(c). Bark or cortex This is the outermost protective layer outside the sapwood consisting of tissues dead living. The outer bark often shows fissures and cracks.

(d). Medullary rays These are groups of horizontally arranged cells radiating from the centre towards the band. Their function is to store and conduct food materials from the sap to the vessels in the interior of the tree radially.

10 (e). Annual rings These are approximately concentric, innumerable rings consisting of closed cells (and not longitudinal tubes) of wood firbre and cellular tissue, indicating the grown of the tree. These are called annual because each one of then shows a years increase or growth. As a general rule, the number of rings in a tree may be taken as indicating its age in years. But this is not strictly true as the recurrence of exceptionally warm of moist weather may produce a second ring in the same year. (f). Cambium layer Cambium layer is the soft ring surrounding the outermost ring of sapwood and is protected by the inner living and outer dead bark.

Q.7. Briefly describes the seasoning of timber. A.7. Seasoning of Timber By the term Seasoning is meant the drying of wood to a moisture content which is in equilibrium with the atmospheric conditions of the locality where is to be used. Freshly felled trees contain a large amount of moisture part of which if free water hold in the cavities of the cells and another part is hold as absorbed by the cell walls. It may be compress to a tube of plotting paper filled with water with both ends closed. It is comparatively easy to remove the free water in the cavities, but to remove the water absorbed by the cell walls by evaporation is difficult and takes a long time. The limit at which all the free water is removed and only the absorbed water remains inside is called fiber saturation point. Wood starts shrinking rapidly only after the point is reached. Further, the strength and other mechanical properties do not vary up to that point, but there is a rapid increase in strength as the moisture content goes below this point. Soon after a tree is felled, evaporation of moisture starts from whatever surface is exposed. If the bark is not immediately removed, and the end sections only are exposed, it is possible that excessive shrinkage there might result in heart and cup shakes. Even removing of the bark is not sufficient. The best method is to convert the log as soon as possible after felling and stack the sawn timber under shelter for airing. Air Seasoning The method of natural seasoning consists in stacking the sawn timber in a dry place, about a foot above floor level with longitudinal and cross pieces arranged one upon another, leaving a space of a few inches between, for free circulation of air. The stack should be protected from the direct sun by a roof and form drying winds by some screens or wells.

11 There are some species which are liable to excessive splitting and cracking such as sal , sain (Ain) etc, which required to be stacked in a room closed on all sides. Such timbers take a longer time to season. It is the practice in Myanmar to take a cut round the trees to be felled at the bottom, about 6 in wide and 2 to 3 in. deep, and the tree is left standing in that condition for 2 or 3 years. During the interval, the tree dies and the moisture is slowly expelled before the tree is felled. This process is called girdling and is applied only to teak and such other trees which are resistant to the attack of fungi. The timber of such girdled trees also requires to be seasoned, though for a short time. Kiln Seasonings For this, the stack of timber is made just in the same way as for air seasoning, but it is done inside a chamber. Air, fully saturated with moisture and heated to a little above 100F is forced inside by means of fans kept at the bottom and allowed to circulate freely round the pieces. Since full humidity is maintained, evaporation from the surface of timber is prevented in spite of heat which gradually reaches inside the timbers. After this the humidity is gradually reduced and the temperature raised till the desired moisture content is left in them. Since the temperature, humidity and the circulating air are all under control, the seasoning is done thoroughly well and in the shortest time. However, it is very costly.

Q.8. Describe the defects in timber: (a). defects due to abnormal growth. (b). defects due to rupture of tissues.

A. 8. (a) Defects due to abnormal growth (I) Knots are portions at the base of branches enclosed or embedded in the wood of the stem. When a branch dies or is lopped the portion receives for several years nourishment from the stem until it is completely covered by layers of wood which from a knot. Knots in conifers not only make the sawing and planning very difficult but also they weaken the scantlings. A knot is a serious defect in a railway sleeper, especially in portions where spikes are driven. (II) Twisted fibers: This defect is due to the tree being twisted when young by the force of wind. This causes unequal deposit of tissues to be made inside the trunk. If a plank is cut straight from end to of such a tree, it has layers of different age density direction of grain and the result is that even while being sawn it warp and twist. Twisted fibers makes the wood

12 suitable only for fuel purpose, unless it is used as masts or pole in unsown condition on which case the twisted fibers give them even extra strength.

Fig. (I) Knot

Fig. (II) Twist fiber

A.8. (b). Defect due to rupture of tissue Wood shrinks when it dries and this shrinking causes a rupture of wood tissues resulting in splits and cracks. These ruptures known as shakes are classified under the following heads. (I). Heart and star shakes (II) Radial shakes (III). Cup shakes (I). Heartshake is a crack in the center starting from the pith and extending in the direction of the medullary rays in one or opposite directions. If there is more than one such crack, radiating from the pith it is called a star shake. There are found mostly in trees past maturity but sometimes they may be caused by quick drying of the central part of the tree, if a tree nearing maturity is felled left unbarked for a long time. (II). A radial shake starts at the outside of a stem and runs radially towards the center and is caused by shrinkage of outer tissues drying faster than the inner ones. Radial shakes may be caused during seasoning by sudden and excessive heat of a hot sun. (III). Cup and ring shake: these are formed by the rupture of tissues in a circular direction across the cross section of a log, usually along annual rings. When the rupture extends only a part round it is called a cup shake and when the whole way round or almost so a ring shake.

Q. 9. Write a shirt note on the following: (a). Constituents of earth for god bricks (b). Characteristics of good bricks (c). Two types of bricks (i) Cement bricks (ii) Clay bricks

13 A.9. (a). Constituents of earth for good bricks 1. Alumina 25% - 30% 2. Silica 50% - 75% (free and combined silica) 3. Lime small portion 4. Iron Oxide 5. Magnesia Alumina gives the plasticity of earth for moulding but excess of it because the raw brick to shrink and warp while drying. Silica, if free, prevents the raw brick from shrinking, warping and cracking that is at pressure the edges and shaped of the bricks. Sand stone influsible but in the presence of lime and iron oxide, it slightly fuse and service as hard cementing material in burnt brick. The durability of the brick is due to the silica but excess of silica causes the brick brittle. Lime helps preventing the shrinking of the raw brick as sand does it also act as a flux and causes the sand to fuse and bind the particles together but excess of lime cause the brick to melt and run out of shape lumps of lime become quick lime after burning and when the brick is in water or absorbs moisture from air, the quick lime slakes, expands and causes the brick to split into pieces. A very small percentage of iron oxide is helpful in causing the sand to fuse slightly at low temperature and giving a good colour to the burnt brick. Magnesia in small quantition gives the brick a yellow colour but in excess it cause the brick to decay.

A.9.(b). Characteristics of good brick Good brick should be truly rectangular in shape, hard, sound, well burnt and compact in texture. They should give a metallic sound when struck. They should be free from holes, lump stones and particles of uncombined lime. A good brick should not break when struck against another, brick or when dropped flat from height of 3 ft from the ground. It should not absorb more than 20% of its own weight of water.

A.9.(c). Two Type of bricks (i). Cement bricks Cement bricks are made from Portland cement, selected aggregates, and water by a process similar to that used for concrete blocks. There are two types of cement bricks. Like concrete blocks, type I is moisture controlled and type II is not moisture controlled. There

14 are also two grades: grade N is an all purpose quality, whereas grade S is less resistant to moisture penetration, resulting in less of a freeze thaw challenge. Both types I and II are available in grades N and S. (ii). Clay bricks Clay bricks must be laid in place with care to obtain a secure bond with the mortar. These bricks, unlike concrete masonry units, are not delivered at the job site conditioned to the humidity of the surroundings. They absorb water from the mortar by capillary attraction and, thus, dehydrate the mortar. To avoid this problem, the bricks are soaked with water and lift to dry to the ambient humidity conditions. If the surface is still wet, the bricks will float and fail to form an acceptable bond. Over time clay bricks will expand, while under the same conditions, concrete will shrink. Both of these stress conditions can result in crack or poor bonding. The solution is to provide expansion joints for brick structures.

Q.10. Briefly describes the manufacture of bricks; (a). Preparation of raw materials (b). Making processes (c). Drying (d). Burning and cooling

A.10. Manufacture of bricks (a)Preparation of raw materials From the storage bins, clay passes to crusher which reduce it to relatively small pieces 2" & smaller. It them passes to grinder where it is ground very fine and thoroughly mixed. The ground clay passes over vibrating screen which pauses only the material which have been enough. The coarse particles are returned to the grinder for further processing, while the fine material is elevated to storage.

(b) Making processes The first step in the forming process is tempering, the mixing of clay with water in a pug mill. The amount of water use depends on the method being used to form units. There are three principle methods in use. (1) Stiff mud process (2) Soft mud process (3)Dry-press process

15 In the stiff mud process, only enough water is used to produce plasticity, usually from 12% to 15% by weight. The clay is then forced by an anger through the die, producing a continuous column of clay of the desired size and shape. The column passes through an automatic cutter which cut off units of proper length. The soft mud process is used for making brick only and is employed with clay which contain too mud natural water for the stiff mud process 20% to 30% of water is used in tempering and the bricks are formed in moulds. The dry press process use the least water in tempering the maximum being about 10%. The relative dry mix is fed to machine which the bricks in steel moulds under high pressure.

(c) Drying When the units come from the forming machine, they contain 7% to 30% of water, most of which is removed in drier kilns. Drier Kilns temperature range from 100F to 400F and the drying time range from 24 to 48 hours depending on the type of clay. Heat is usually provided by the exhaust heat form the burning kiln. Heat and humidity are carefully regulated to too rapid shrinkage. Which cause excessive cracking. When bricks are to be glazed it is usually done at the end of the drying process.

(d) Burning and Cooling Burning is a very importance step in manufacture of brick. The time required varies from 40 to 150 hours depending on the type of clay, type of glazed if any, type of kiln and other variables. Mainly two different type of Kiln are in use. They are tunnel Kiln dried brick pass through various temperature zones and special ears. In periodic Kiln the temperature is carried periodically. Bricks are set on the Kiln ears or in the Kiln in a presented pattern which allow free circulation of hot Kiln gas. Fuel may be natural gas, oil or coal. Cooling taken 48 hours to 72 hours depending on the type of Kiln, it must be carefully controlled because the rate of cooling has a direct effect on colour and because too rapid cooling will cause cracking in the brick.

Q.11. Write a short note on the following. (a) Lime

16 (b) Mortar (a) Plaster

A.11. (a) Lime Lime is a general term referring to calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, or even hydraulic lime. These forms of lime have distinctly different properties. Calcium oxide (CaO) is known as quicklime or unslaked lime. Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH2)] is known as slaked lime or hydrated lime. Hydraulic lime, and impure form of calcium oxide, is obtained by burning hydraulic limestone. Calcium oxide chemically combines with water to form

calcium hydroxide with the evolution of considerable heat. Each one of these limes is irritating to the skin, but calcium oxide is classified as strong irritant. Therefore calcium hydroxide should be used, whenever possible, to avoid the danger of using calcium oxide. Hydrated lime provides the needed plasticity to improve workability of mortar.

(b) Mortars Mixture in varying proportions of binding materials like cement, lime and an inert material like sand. Use as (1) A binding material in stone brick and concrete (2) A coasering material to walls in the form of plaster to provide a smooth hard and decorative surface. (c) Plaster Plaster, applied by hand or by machinery, refers to the finished cementitious coating used on the exterior and interior walls of building to provide a smooth, finished appearance. This section is concerned with Portland cement plaster, although lime or gypsum is sometimes used as the cementitious base of a plaster for wood structures. Composed of cement and a plaster grade aggregate and, as an option, slaked lime plaster should have a consistency appropriate to its method of application, have good durability, and withstand most kinds of weather. As in mortar, the slaked lime provides plasticity and the needed workability. To avoid cracks, the plaster must contain and aggregate of sand with a particle size less than 0.32 cm (1/8 inch) in diameter. The gradation in size of the sand is also important. An external cement plaster, called stucco, is much used in mild climates. Plaster is as strong and durable as concrete and can be considered a modified form of concrete mortar. If

17 used to cover wood, a metal screen or lath is attached to the wood surface to hold the plaster coating in place. To avoid the need for papering to painting, the plaster may contain a mineral pigment or have a textured surface.

Q.12. Write a short note on the following: (a) Different types of lime (b) Physical properties of mortar.

A.12. (a) Different types of lime The different types of lime are in the following. (1) Agricultural lime either ground quicklime or hydrated lime whose calcium and magnesium content is capable of neutralizing soil acidity. (2) Air- slake lime the product containing various proportions of the oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates of calcium and magnesium which results from the exposure of quicklime to the air in sufficient quantity to show physical signs of hydration ( difficult to determine visually in pulverized quicklime). (3) Available lime those constituents of a lime which enter into a desired reaction under the conditions of a specific method or process. (4) Building or construction lime a lime whose chemical and physical characteristics and method of processing make it suitable for the ordinary or special construction uses of the product. (5) Chemical lime a quicklime or hydrated lime whose chemical and physical characteristics and method of processing make it suitable for one or more of the many and varied chemical and industrial uses of the product. (6) Finishing hydrated lime hydrated lime suitable for use in the finish coat of plaster. (7) Fluxing lime a term referring to quicklime used as an agent in the manufacture of steel or glass etc..

(b) Physical properties of mortar In some ways the properties of mortar are more critical than those for concrete. Compressive strength is one of the main affects of cured concrete. In addition to compressive strength, mortar must have adequate bond strength, shear strength, and durability. Successful performance depends on its workability and its skillful application.

18 Workability, one of the most essential properties of mortar, determines the success of its application. This is provided by slaked lime, careful gradation of aggregates, and the proper amount of water. Slaked lime provides water retention, elasticity, and workability, and in its absence the mortar is stiff and difficult to use. Because of the subjective nature of workability, it is challenging to define but is easily recognized by a skilled mason. Mortar must have a strong bonding strength, which requires that the mortar be able to flow into crevices and small voids. For the mortar to set properly, it needs water retention to avoid too much water being sucked out of the mortar gel by the porosity of the masonry unit. These essential properties are usually provided by the slaked lime. Such inorganic materials as mortar can contain several forms of water, such as water of hydration, water contained in a gel-like paste, and free water. Water of hydration is part of the compound. Partially Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) is an example of such a compound. Partially dehydrated gypsum (plaster of paris) is often used in patching grout and mortar. An example of bound water is the gel-like structure formed by the hydration of cement. An example of excess (free) water is the water that can be squeezed from mortar to float the masonry unit. This excess water is to be avoided as it reduces the bond strength holding the masonry unit in place. Mortar should have just enough water to form a workable paste.

Q. 13. Briefly describe the mixing of concrete. A. 13. Mixing of Concrete The principal purpose of mixing is to produce an intimate mixture of cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates, and possible admixtures, of uniform consistency throughout each batch. This is achieved in machine mixers of the revolving drum type. Mixing for less than 1 min produces an appreciably more variable concrete, but prolonging the mixing time beyond these values results in no significant improvement in uniformity. The average strength of concrete increases also with an increase in mixing time. The rate of increase falls rapidly beyond about one minute and is not significant beyond two minutes. Within the first minute, however, the influence of mixing time on strength is of considerable importance. Batches of 1 cu.yd. or less should be mixed for not less than 1 min. The mixing time shall be increased 15 sec for each cubic yard or fraction there of additional capacity. At least three quarters of the required mixing time all take place after the last of the mixing water has been added. The mixing time is reckoned from the time when all the solid materials have been put in the mixer. In high speed pan mixers the mixing time can be as short as 35sec. On the other hand, when lightweight aggregate is used the mixing time should not be continued for at least

19 1 min. after all materials are in the drum. Mixer blades shall be replaced when they have lost 10 percent of their original height. Concrete shall be mixed only in quantities for immediate use. Concrete which has not be retempered, i.e. adding water to restore workability, but shall be discarded. When concrete arrives at the project with slump below that suitable for placing, water may be added only if neither the maximum permissible water cement ratio nor the maximum slump is exceeded. The water shall be incorporated by additional mixing equal to at least half of the total mixing required. An addition of water above that permitted by the limitation on water cement ratio shall be accompanied by a quantity of cement sufficient to maintain the proper water cement ratio. Mixing can be continued for considerable time without adverse effect. Intermittent remixing up to about 3 hours, and in some cases upto 6 hours, is harmless as far as strength and durability are concerned, but the workability falls off with time unless loss of moisture from the mixer is prevented. Adding water to restore workability, known as retempering, will lower the strength of concrete. Tilting drum mixers are preferable for mixes of low workability and those containing large size aggregates. Pan mixers are particularly efficient with stiff and cohesive mixers and are, therefore, often used in the manufacturing of precast concrete. They are also suitable, because of the scraping arrangement, for mixing very small quantities of concrete, such as in the laboratory. In the drum type mixers, no scraping of the sides takes place during mixing so that at the beginning of concreting the first mix would leave a large portion of its mortar behind and this initial batch should be discarded. As an alternative, a certain amount of mortar may be introduced into the mixer prior to the commencement of concreting a procedure known as buttering the mixer. A convenient and simple way is to charge the mixer with the usual quantities of cement, water and fine aggregate, simply omitting the coarse material. The mix in excess of that stuck in the mixer may be used elsewhere. The necessity of buttering should not be forgotten in laboratory work. If the quantity mixed represents only a small fraction of the capacity of the mixer the resulting mix may not be uniform. No general rules on the order of feeding the ingredients into the mixer can be given as they depended on the properties of the mix and of the mixer. Generally, a small amount of water should be fed first followed by all the solid materials, preferably fed uniformly and simultaneously into the mixer. If possible, the greater part of the water should also be fed during the same time, the remainder of the water being added after the solids. With some

20 drum mixes, however, where a very dry mix is used it is necessary to feed first some water and the coarse aggregate, as otherwise its surface does not become sufficiently wetted. With small laboratory pan mixes and very stiff mixes it has been found convenient to feed first sand, a part of the coarse aggregate, cement, then the water the finally the remainder of the coarse aggregate so as to break up any modules of mortar. There may be occasions when concrete has to be mixed by hand and, because in this case uniformity is more difficult to achieve, particular care and effort and necessary. The aggregate should be spread in a uniform layer on a hard, clean and non-porous base; cement is then spread over the aggregate, and the dry materials are mixed by turning from one end of the tray to another and cutting with a shovel until the mix appears uniform. Turning three times is usually required. Water is then gradually added so that neither water by itself nor with cement can escape. The mix is turned over again, usually three times, until it appears uniform in colour and consistency.

Q.14. Write a short note on the following: (a) Field control of concrete (b) Advantages of quality control

A.14.(a) Field control of concrete The field control, i.e. inspection and testing, play a vital role in the overall quality control plan. Inspection could be of two types, quality control inspection and acceptance inspection. For repeated operations early inspection is vital, and once the plant has stabilized, occasional checks may be sufficient to ensure continued satisfactory results. The operations which are not of repetitive type would require, on the other hand, more constant scrutiny. Apart from the tests on concrete materials, concrete can be tested both in the fresh and hardened stages. Of these two, the tests on fresh concrete offer some opportunity for necessary corrective actions to be taken before it is too late. These include test on workability, unit weight or air content (where air-entrained concrete is used), etc. Accelerated strength tests by which a reliable idea about the potential 28 day strength can be obtained within few hours, are effective quality control tools. In contrast to this, the usual 28 day strength test is in fact a post modern of concrete which has become history by then. It is, therefore, only acceptance tests, which help the decision-maker decide whether to accept or reject the concrete.

21 A.14. (b) Advantages of quality control The general feeling the quality control means extra cost is not correct, the advantage due to quality control offset the extra-cost. Some of the advantages of quality control are: (i) Quality control means a rational use of the available resources after testing their characteristics and reduction in the materials costs. (ii) In the absence of quality control there is no guarantee that over-spending in one-area will compensate for the weakness in another, e.g. an extra bag of cement will not compensate for incomplete compaction or inadequate curing. Proper control at all the stages is the only guarantee. (iii) In the absence of quality control at the site, the designer is tempted to overdesign, so as to minimize the risks. This adds to the overall cost. (iv) Checks at every stage of the production of concrete and rectification of the faults at the right time expedites completion and reduces delay. (v) Quality control reduces the maintenance cost. It should be realized that if the good quality concrete is made with cement, aggregates and water, the ingredients of bad concrete are exactly the same. The difference lies in the few essential steps collectively known as quality control.

Q.15. Write a short note on curing of concrete: (a) curing period (b) curing methods

A.15. Curing of concrete (a) The curing period The last step, and exceedingly important one in the manufacture of concrete, is the curing. As hydration of cement takes place only in the presence of moisture and at favorable temperatures, these conditions must be maintained for a suitable time interval allowed the curing period. At the time concrete is mixed, sufficient water is added to give workability. The amount of mixing water actually used is ordinarily in excess of 50 percent of the weight of the cement, while the amount of water required for reasonably complete hydration of the cement is considerably less than 50 percent. Therefore, if the original water can be retained, there is more than sufficient for curing purposes. Curing may be said to consist of preventing the evaporation of the mixing water.

22 Concrete gains strength most rapidly at early ages, so that the greatest benefit from curing is secured during this period, and each additional day is of lesser importance than the proceeding one. The desired strength of concrete is usually not developed with the curing period specified for most concrete Jobs, but it is not generally considered worth the cost to keep the concrete wet for longer periods. Furthermore, since it requires many days for partially hardened concrete of ordinary thickness to lose its water by evaporation, considerable hydration will occur after the stated curing period. Specifications usually require that the surfaces of concrete be protected to prevent loss of moisture for at least 7 days where normal cement is used, and some specifications require curing for 14 days or more. Where high-early-strength cements are used, the curing period may be reduced about half, while for slow-hardening cements the time should be longer than for normal cements.

(b) Curing methods A common method of preventing loss of moisture from exposed surfaces of concrete is to keep the surfaces continually damp by frequent sprinkling, ponding with water, or covering with continuously wetted burlap or its equivalent. Other methods for preventing loss of moisture involve the use of liquid seal coats, or tight covers such as light-colored water proof paper or an impervious plastic film. The rapid drying of exposed surfaces before they have hardened sufficiently to stand sprinkling with water or covering with damp burlap may result in serious checking and crazing of the concrete. To prevent such rapid drying some specifications require that concrete be protected from drying winds and direct rays of the sun for the first day after placement, until adequate curing is begun. Plastic-shrinkage cracks may occur even before a surface is finished. In this case covering of surfaces with plastic films during the interval between placing and finishing is helpful. Alternate drying with rewetting of slabs during curing must be avoided as to results in hairline cracking of the surface. Forms, if used on structures in which the concrete will not be cured after removal of the forms, should be left in place as long as possible to protect the surface and aid in delaying the loss of moisture in the concrete. Such protection is desirable, as other types of curing are not always applicable to structures using forms. Wetting wooden forms periodically serves to prevent their shrinkage and opening of cracks between boards, and thus further aids the retention of moisture in the concrete. Ordinarily, buildings are not kept wet after removal of the forms because of the difficulty involved and the inconvenience to workers, although the

23 quality of concrete is unquestionably lower than it might otherwise be, because of the resulting lack of moisture. If the concrete surface can be cured properly after removal of the forms, then it is desirable to remove them as soon as possible, as forms made of narrow boards are not fully effective in preventing loss of moisture form the concrete. Furthermore, early form removal permits better repairs, if any patching or other repairs are necessary, as then the concrete is still green, i.e., in the early stage of hydration, so that repairs bond to it more readily.

Q.16. Write down the properties of cast iron.

A.16. The properties of cast iron It is a brittle non-malleable and non-castile metal which cannot be forged rolled drawn or welded under a hammer. It cracks when subjected to shocks. It can be cast into moulds. The carbon (2 to 5 percent) present in it may be partially free (graphitic) and partially combined with it. When the percentage of free or graphite carbon is high its fracture shows a coarse crystalline texture grey in colour and it is then called grey cast iron, which is softer and suitable for machine. When, on the other hand, the percentage of combined carbon is high, the fracture shown a finer grained texture and the colour is white. It is known as white cast iron. The latter is much harder. The hardness and white colour are also due to the excess of manganese present in it. Grey cast iron is a very important engineering material. Its use in industry is second only to steel. It gives properties many of which are not obtainable in other materials, at the same cost. Thus it is superior to steel in cheapness and the case with which it can be cast into moulds of intricate shapes. It offers good rigidity, high compressive strength, and excellent machinability. The normal grey cast iron has rather a low tensile strength but it can increase by certain processes to as high as 60000 lb/sq.in. All gray irons retain their tensile strength at temperatures up to 235F and some upto 315F. They respond very well to heat treatment, and also be welded, provided the parts are preheated. Their compressive strength is better than that of any non-ferrous alloy, greater than that of the usual normallised cast steel, on par with alloy steel that has not been heat treated. This property makes it very suitable for bodies of machines which should be free from vibrations and have high rigidity. Low cost of production and case of casting into moulds of any desired shapes are the two great advantages which cast iron possesses over steel. But it is weak in tension and shock

24 absorbing power. However, by certain processes it can be made hard and malleable, any by alloying with nickel and chromium, it can also be made as strong as steel.

Q.17. Write a short note on the following: (a) wrought iron (b) properties of wrought iron

A.17. (a) Wrought Iron Wrought iron is the purest iron and is produced by removing most of the carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and sulphut from pig iron by the process of what is called piddling in a reverberate furnace. The maximum quality of carbon present in wrought iron does not exceed 0.15 per cent. The reverberate furnace is rectangular in shape and has a chimney stack on one side. The fuel may be soft coal or coke, but is burnt in a grating situated on the side, opposite to that of the chimney stack, and only the flames of the producer gas (CO) heat the metal in the shallow hearth. The bottom of the hearth consists of cast iron plate 1 in. thick, supported on dwarf brick walls which allows which allows free circulation of air below the plates. The latter are in consequence cooled. In addition to this hollow casting are provided on sides through which water is circulated. A lining of molten slag is given with a top layer of rich iron ore before the charge of high grade pig iron is fed through the door. The hearth is shaped like a saucer.

(b) properties of wrought iron Wrought iron is a very malleable and ductile material and can also be forged. Above 900C, it becomes soft and can be easily welded under hammer, but not by fusion, except at a very high (about 1650C) temperature. The melting point of pure iron is 1535C and wrought iron melts just below that temperature. A fracture shows a fibrous structure due to about two percent slag still remaining. It resists corrosion or rusting better than mild steel. It can not be hardened or tempered like high carbon steel, but can be case-hardened. It has a tensile strength of 18 to 20 tons per sq.in and compressive strength of 20 to 30 tons. It stretches about 20 percent before it breaks. It buckles and twists, if subjected to great heat as in a con flagration. Its greatest disadvantages is that it is costly. It cannot be melted and cast into moulds like cast iron or cast steel, but can forged or rolled.

25 Q.18. Explain the rules for bonding.

A.18. Rule for bonding To ensure good bonding the following rules should be observed.

(i) The amount by which the bricks in one course overlap the bricks in the course below should be minimum brick along the length of the wall and brick across the thickness of the wall. (ii) The vertical joints in the alternate courses should fall in plumb (vertical) line from the top of the wall to its base whether on the face or in the interior of wall. (iii) Bats should be used as sparingly as possible. (iv) The bricks should be uniform in size and the proportion of length to breadth be such that length equals twice the width plus one joint. Good bond is impossible other wise the lap would not be uniform. (v) The bricks in the interior thickness of the wall should be laid with their length across the wall, as it is termed header-wise. (vi) It is also recommended that every sixth course on both sides of the wall should be a header course or there should be at least on full header every 510 sq.cm. of wall. In walls 1 brick thick or more header shall overlap headers to provide continuous tie throughout the wall.

Q.19. (a) Explain the double Flemish bond and to draw the 20 cm thick wall. (b) Explain the single Flemish bond and to draw the 30 cm thick brick wall.

A.19. (a) Double Flemish Bond This is made up of alternate header and stretcher in the same course (see fig). The entire course for facing, backing and hearting or filling is laid in this style. The following point about this bond are worth mentioning: (a) The headers and stretchers appear in the same course alternately on the front and the back faces. (b) A header in any course is in the center of a stretcher in the course above or below it. (c) Closers are inserted in alternate courses next to the quoin header for breading the vertical joints in successive courses.

26

HEADER

STRETCHER

20 cms

Fig. Plan of alternate courses of one brick (Double Flemish bond)

(b) Single Flemish Bond: This consists of a facing of Flemish bond with a backing of English bond is each course (see fig). The advantages of this are: (a) The strength of English bond as well as the appearance of Flemish bond is partly attained. (b) Cheaper bricks can be used as a backing, whereas good bricks can be employed for face work which is to be done in Flemish bond. The disadvantages of this bond are: (a) This cannot be used for walls less than 1 brick in thickness. (b) A long continuous joint occurs in the vertical direction for some portions and thus weakens the wall.

30 cms

Fig. Plan of alternate courses of 1-1/2 brick (Single Flemish bond)

Q.20. Define the following terms: (a) Chamfer (b) Bevel (c) Moulding (d) Rebating (e) Mitring

27 A.20. (a) Chamfer: Arris (edge) of timber plained off flat to form an angle usually 45. (b) Bevel: If the angle of chamfer is not 45. It is called bevel. (c) Moulding: Process of shaping various units of construction by hand or machine to produce a moulded section. (d) Rebating: cutting rectangular portion from a plank to receive another plank similarly out. (e) Mitring: Joining two boards at an angle.

Q.21. Define the following terms: (a) Notching (b) Cogging (c) Halving (d) Dove tailing (e) Housing (f) Mortice and Tenon.

A.21 (a) Notching: One member may be cut and the other fitted with it. The shoulders thus created help in the prevention of any displacement of the joint. If both the members are cut, double notching is formed. (b) Cogging: When the entire depth of the timber is to be utilized, the members are to be connected. (c) Halving: Timbers that cross each other and are required to be flush on one or two faces are cut to meet. (d) Dove-tailing: Wedge shaped pieces are cut from members and the timbers are fitted into the projections of each other. (e) Housing: When the entire end or thickness of a member fits into the notch of another a housed joint is formed. (f) Mortice and Tenon: In the ordinary type of this joint, the end of timber is cut so as to form a projection which is called Tenon. The other member is morticed to correspond to the dimensions of the tenon and the latter fitted into the former. This joint is commonly used. The two members may further be prevented from displacement by driving wedges or pins into the joint.

Q.22. (a) Explain the combined footing. (b) Explain the cantilever footing.

28 A.22. (a) Combined footing Combined footings are essential whenever the projections of columns are not possible on one side due to limited available space. In such a case, the footing of the exterior column can be combined with the footing of the interior column. This enables very small projections to be provided for the footing of the exterior column. Combined footings are proportioned in a manner that the center of gravity of the resultant area is in line with the center of gravity of the loads. Hence these footings have a trapezoidal shape. Footings of two or three columns may be combined with the exterior column. These can also have rectangular shape if the load on the interior column is heavier than the other and the inward projection of the footings can be adjusted. Combined footings are built of reinforced concrete.

... .. .

........

... .. .

... .. ..... .. .

. .. . ... ....

... .. ... .. .. .

. .. . ... ....

Fig. Combined R.C.C footing

(b) Cantilever footings This type of the foundation is useful when it is impossible to place a footing directly beneath a column of other load because of limitations of adjacent buildings or eccentric loading conditions. A load from the outer column is balanced by the load from the inner column acting about a fulcrum. The product of the load in the interior column multiplied by its corresponding level arm should be at least 50% greater than the load on the exterior column multiplied by its level arm under all types of loading conditions. In case the interior column load is not available a suitable huge concrete block can be built to act as an anchorage. The foundation of the interior column has to be built as strong as possible and must have suitable connecting reinforcement with its base.

29

Fig. Cantilever footing

Q.23. Explain pile and pier foundation.

A.23. Pile and Pier Foundation Pile and Pier foundation is intended to transmit structural loads through the upper zone of poor soil to a depth where the earth is capable of providing the desired support. This type of foundation is utilized where it is necessary to provide resistance to uplift or where there is a possible loss of ground or erosion due to flowing water. Piles are slender foundation units driven into place. Pier units are formed in place by excavating an opening to the desired depth where concrete is poured. Naturally, such foundations are large enough to allow an individual to enter and inspect the exposed earth layer. A clear distinction between pile and pier type foundation is not definite because of the change and innovations in construction or installation methods. The developing practice classify all deep slender foundation units simply as pile type foundation with term such as driven, bored, or drilled and pre-cast or cast in place to indicate the method of installation and construction.

Q.24. Explain quality and durability of piles.

A.24. Quality and Durability of Piles Piles must be in good condition with the following resistive quality: (1) To resist crushing under vertical load (2) To resist crushing during the process of driving

30 Timber piles does not have the capability to withstand high stresses caused by hard driving which requires a desirable penetration on a highly resistive layer. In driving piles, it is important to consider the selection of the right type of hammer and the number of blows to prevent breakage and damage on the pile head. Piles driven by steam hammer at 15,000 ft pound (20,340 joules) energy should not exceed three to four blows per inch penetration to prevent breakage or brooming of the piles. The normal resistance of pile is form 6 to 8 blows per inch which is commonly specified. (3) To resist handling stresses. Timber piles shall be capable of resisting breakage or other damages that may result from handing, hauling and impact in loading and unloading. (4) To resist tension from uplift forces, heaving of soil or rebound in the process of driving. Timber pile should be strong enough to counteract the uplift forces and expansion of soil including the rebound action received in the process of driving. (5) To resist horizontal and eccentric forces that may cause bending when applied on it. (6) To resist curvature bending and column action for the portions not receiving lateral support from the ground when freely standing in air, water or a very liquid mud.

Q.25. Write down about the following boards. (a) Fiber boards (b) Gypsum wall boards (c) Hard boards (d) Asbestos cement boards A.25 (a) Fiber boards Fiber boards are made from masses of cane or wood fibbers by pressing them into sheets or boards with thicknesses from 1/4 in. to 1in. or more. The usual widths are 4ft., and lengths up to 12ft are available. The fibbers are rather loosely compressed. The surface is usually fibrous, but boards are available veneered with walnut. mahogany. or other woods. Others have and imitation wood finishes. Some boards are divided into tile or given other surface design by bevel scoring. Strips called plans are made 6in. to 16in. wide and up to 12ft. long. Sheets are cut into individual tile of many sizes, with a variety of colours. The large unfinished sheets are sometimes called building boards. Fiberboards are used for

31 exposed interior wall and ceiling surfaces, for outside wall sheathing, and for heat insulation and sound absorption. They may be obtained coated with asphalt for production against moisture when used for sheathing. Boards of any thickness are made by cementing thinner boards together with special cement. Some boards have an aluminum-coated back to serve as reflective insulation.

(b) Gypsum Wallboard Gypsum wallboard or gypsum board consists of a gypsum core to the surfaces of which are bonded sheets of heavy paper and is intended for use without plaster coatings. The boards are usually 4ft. wide, 6 to 12ft. long, and 1/4 to 5/8 in. thick. They are fastened to wood studs, furring strips over masonry and ceiling joists with flat head nails which penetrate the supports at least one inch. Gypsum wallboard is the most widely used interior wall covering used in dry wall construction. Which is often used for residences. The Joints may be covered with panel strips battens or beads or they may be concealed. In the latter case, boards with tapered edges are used. The depressions made available in this manner are filled with cement in which a tape is embedded. The surface of the cement covering the joint is made flush with wallboard surfaces. After this cement has set the joint is finished by sanding. Nail head depressions are filled with cement and sanded. The exposed surface may be painted or covered with wallpaper; and boards are available with wood-grain patterns and other decorative treatments so that no additional decoration is required. Gypsum board is also used for sheathing.

(c) Hard boards Standard hardboard is made by subjecting masses of specially treated and separated wood fibers to heat and very high pressure to form a dense, and impervious board. Other materials may be added during manufacture to improve certain of its properties. Many species of wood are used depending of their availability to the manufacturer. Tempered hardboard is made form standard hardboard by the addition of certain chemicals and further heat treatment to increase its strength and abrasion resistance and decrease its rate of water absorption. Hardboard is manufactured with both surfaces smooth or one surface smooth and the other with screen back or reverse impression of a screen, on the back. It is also available with

32 special finishes such as striated or rigid, grooved embossed, or marked into tiles, as well as prefinished, prime-coated and wood-grained patterns. The color varies for blond to dark brown depending on the process used. The width of the sheets or panels is usually 4ft., although sheets 5ft. wide are available in some types. The maximum length is 16ft. The thicknesses vary from 1/12 to 3/4 in. Hardboard is used for interior and exterior wall panels, ceilings, siding, table and counter tops, underlayment for resilient floor coverings, concrete forms, and many other purposes.

(d) Asbestos-cement board This type of board is made from asbestos fiber and Portland cement molded under pressure to form a dense hard-surfaced sheet usually 1/8, 3/16, and 1/4 in. thick, 4ft. wide, and up to 8ft. long. The exposed surface is finished smooth. One type is made in the natural cement color and other decorative colors, which extend through the sheet. The sheets may be paling or scored resemble tile 4 in square. Other boards are available with various backed on colored and marbleized surface finishes divided into tile. The tile joints may be cut with a narrow abrasive wheel or be molded. The joints and edges are usually covered with specially designed chromium, aluminium or stainless-steel moldings. The sheets can be cut with a wood saw, and other operations can be performed with woodworking tools.

Q. 26. Explain in detail about the plywood.

A.26. Plywood Plywood consists of thin layers or plies of wood glued and presses together, with the grain direction of adjacent plies at right angles to each other, to for large rigid panels commonly form 3/16 in. to 13/16 in. thick with widths up to 4ft. and lengths up to 8 and 10ft. The number of piles is 3, 5, or 7, the odd number being necessary to avoid warping. The outside piles are called faces or face and back. The intermediate piles with grain parallel to the grain of the faces are called cores, and those with grain at right angles to that of the faces are called crossbands. The plies are made by softening logs, steaming and placing them in lathes, which are arranged with a cutter to slice off, or rotary-cut sheets of veneer in a manner similar to unrolling paper. Douglas fir plywood is available in the moisture-resistant type, the

33 exterior type, and the highly moisture-resistant type, depending upon the moisture resistance of the glue used. Plywood is made from many different species of wood, the most common being Douglas fir Plywood is available with faces of Douglas fir, gum, birch, and whit oak. Philippine mahogany, African mahogany, black walnut, and many other woods. The faces of plywood may be good, which means practically clear, all-heart veneer: the faces may be sound, having neatly made patches, sapwood, and stain, but must be smooth and suitable for painting or natural finish: or the faces may be classed as utility, and contain knots, splits, pitch pockets. etc. Which will not interfere with the use of the panels. A sheet may have two good faces, designated G2S: one good face and one sound face, G1S: or two sound faces, S2S. Plywood with highly water-resistant glue is used for concrete forms, which can be reused 10 to 15 times. Exterior plywood is made by the hot-pressed synthetic-resin-bonded process and is intended for permanent exterior use. It is generally considered to have a waterproof, rather than water-resistant glue bond. It is used for outside paneling and siding of buildings. Some of the thicker plywood, with a lumber core rather than the thin piles, are available, for use as cupboard doors, table tops, counter fronts, etc. Either the separate veneers themselves or two-ply panels 1/8in. thick can be furnished for bending to form curved surfaces. For decorative effects, the surface of plywood may be finished natural, stained, or painted Wallpaper may be applied to plywood over building felt or muslin. Various moldings are available for covering the joints of interior plywood, or a Vjoint can be made by beveling the edges. Some of the advantages of plywood are the large sizes available; its freedom form warping shrinking, or cracking; and the availability of decorative hardwood and plastic face veneers. Plywood is available with one surface veneered with various species of decorative woods and with a variety of colored plastics.

Q.27. Write down about the following. (a) Steel Beams (b) Open Web Beams (c) Beam to Beam Connection

34 (d) Columns (e) Column and Beam Connection

A.27 (a) Steel Beams Beams include girders, lintels, etc. A simplest beam would consist of a single rolled steel joint section or an angle section for carrying little loads. Whenever a beam has to take greater loads, compound sections are used. Compound beams consist of two or more single steel joists connected together through bolts and separator which hold them in position. Separators are placed at 1 to 2 m, apart. For still heavier beams or girders, two channels may be used back to back or spaced apart and their flange area increased by the addition of one or more plates at top and bottom. Plate girders are used when very large loads have to be carried. A plate girder is a built up beam consisting of top and bottom flanges made up of angles and plates. The web consists of one or more steel plates. All the individual pieces are rivetted or welded together.

(b) Open Web Beams Beams carrying light loads and where the shearing forces are not excessive open web beams are used. These consist of small T-sections acting as flanges connected together by a bent iron bar to keep them at the desired distance apart. The following points should be noted about steel beams: (i) It is always economical to use as deep beams as possible since they can take higher loads. (ii) The cost of the beam may increase while economizing in weight, e.g., if lattice girder is used for a solid section plate girder, the cost of fabrication, etc., may be more in the case of the lattice type. (iii) The deflection of steel beams under the usual loads should not exceed 1/360th of the span or in exceptional cases 1/240th of the span. (iv) Stiffness of the web is essential wherever excessive forces on account of compression in flanges are created due to the lesser widths of the flanges. (v) To distribute the concentrated loads of the beams on the bearing walls, suitable bed plates of stones or concrete should be used.

35 (c) Beam to Beam Connection It is necessary to transfer the loads from one beam to the other in a framed building or from beams to girders in the usual cases. The various types of connections, generally adopted, are: Undergirder flange: In this case the beam is accommodated below the top flange of the girder. Small iron angle cleats are rivetted to the beams as well as to the girder so as to form a strong connection. Top-flush: In this type of connection the top flange of the beam and a portion of the web is cut off so as to accommodate the top flange of the girder. Angle cleats are rivetted to the beam and girder for making the joint. Blocked connections: This is used when a beam at a lower level is to be connected to a girder at a higher level. The lower flange of the beam is cut off to accommodate the lower flange of the girder, the webs of the two being connected with angle cleats. Blocked and elevated: This type of connection is suitable for beams meeting at higher levels with the girders. A suitable recess to fit in the top flange of the girder is cut from the beam and the beam is rested on an angle cleat which in turn is bolted to the girder. Hanger connections: These are used to connect beams and girders at different levels. The connection is made with the aid of a plate and angle cleats or bolts and rods may be used.

(d) Columns Individual small columns may consist of rolled steel joist or a rolled steel joist with two flange plates. Bigger columns can be made by rivetting together two or three rolled steel joists so as to form a compound column. Other forms of compound columns commonly used are a combination of rolled steel joists and channels, two angles, channels with flange plates or lattice bracing, four angles and a web plate and four angles joined together with lattice braces. Whenever angles or channels or joists more than one in number are used without flange plates, it is necessary to inter connect them with the help of lacings and batten plates which make the column to act as a combined unit. The types of lacings used are: (a) Single Lacing: These consist of small flat iron rivetted to the column components in a zigzag manner. (b) Batten Plates: These are thin plates or flat sections rivetted at suitable intervals at right angles to the axis of the columns.

36 (c) Double Lacing: This consists of small flat iron riveted to the column components in a cross manner. (d) Z- Type Lacing: This consists of small angle sections rivetted to the column, one in the horizontal position and the other inclined. Generally for light loads, four small angles with proper lacings are used, but for heavier loads single I-Beam or compound I-Beam sections are used.

(e) Column and Beam Connections Generally two types of connections are used, the framed connection type and the seated type. In the framed connection type, two angles are rivetted to the beam and column. These angles are connected to the web of the girder or beam and the flange of the column. A small angle may be added at the bottom of the beam to seat the same on the column while erecting it. In the seated type of connection, two more angle sections are used to connect the beams with the columns. They are riveted to the top and bottom flange of the girders. For bigger column sections stiffners in the form of two small angles rivetted to the column flange are fitted beneath the beams.

Q.28. Explain in detail about the fabrication of steel work.

A. 28. Fabrication of Steel Work This means preparing steel work for erection and includes all work necessary to layout, cut, drill, rivet or weld the steel sections. Most of the work is carried out in the fabrication shop and the work at field is to be reduced as much as possible. The first stage is to prepare the template according to the shape of the final job. Templates may be made of wooden strips showing location of all holes and cuts. For gusset plates, card board, templates may be used. As steel is procured from the mill, it is stored in a stock-yard. All materials should be straight and if necessary they are straightened by pressure unless they have to be curvilinear forme. Cutting is affected by shearing cropping or sawing. Gas cutting by mechanically controlled area is also used for mild steel. For high tensile steel, gas cutting is permitted under special care so as to remove all hardened material later on by machining. Plates and angles are cut in one stroke by shearing. Beams and channels are usually cut to the desired lengths in factories but if shearing is to be resorted to at least 2.5cm. of the material is wasted.

37 A better method is to cut the beams with saws or in exceptional cases, gas cutting may be resorted to. The next step is to lay out all the material which includes marking the steel either with the aid of templates or directly. The centres of the holes to be drilled are marked with a punch. Holes are drilled, punched or bored. All holes should generally be drilled for better work as they are true circles are accurately centered and cause less damage to the surrounding metal. Holes are always drilled whenever thick sections are encountered. Drilled holes are generally not more than 2mm, larger than the nominal diameter of the rivet or the bolt when punching is resorted to the holes should be punched 6mm, less in diameter than the final desired value and pneumatic reamers are used for making the holes to proper size. When the components of a member are ready, they are assembled and held in position temporarily by shop bolts. These are longer than necessary and have packing washers to save time in tightening. At least two bolts should be put in one part of a member. All parts assembled should be in close contact and all bearing stiffners should beat tightly at top and bottom. No drifting should be permitted except to draw the parts together and no drift should be larger than the normal diameter of the rivet. Drifting should not distort the metal or enlarge the holes. The assembled parts are then rivetted. All rivetting should be done by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure. Bigger rivets are heated. Heaters commonly used in the fabrication shops burn oil and give a steady flame. Electric heaters are also sometimes used. Rivets of diameter less than 10mm may be driven cold. Each rivet should completely fill the hole and form a head of standard size. All loose, burnt or badly formed rivets should be cut out and replaced. Column splices, butt-joints of struts and compression members depending upon contact and stress transmission should be accurately machined and close butted over the whole section. Whenever sufficient gussets and rivets are provided to transmit the entire load, the column ends need not be machined. The whole steel work with the exception of rivets, bolts, nuts and machine face after being thoroughly cleaned should be given one coat of red lead paint. All machined faces should be coated with a mixture of while lead and tallow. Surfaces which are to be held in contact by rivetting or bolting should be painted before assembly and the parts brought together while they are still wet. All portions of steel work which are inaccessible after rivetting should be given two coasts of red lead paint. The steel work should be temporarily shop erected so that accuracy of fitness may be checked before despatch. All parts are inspected for defects, if any.

38 BY TU (Meikhtila) ttunwin8@gmail.com 064-23900/23888 09-2200650