Chapter 3 DC to DC CONVERTER (CHOPPER)

General Buck converter Boost converter Buck-Boost converter Switched-mode power supply Bridge converter Notes on electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and solutions.

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DC-DC Converter (Chopper)

DEFINITION: Converting the unregulated DC input to a controlled DC output with a desired voltage level. General block diagram:
DC supply (from rectifierfilter, battery, fuel cell etc.)

DC output

LOAD

Vcontrol (derived from feedback circuit)

APPLICATIONS:
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC motor control, battery chargers

Linear regulator
Transistor is operated in linear (active) mode. Output voltage
Vin
IL + RL Vo

+ VCEce

Vo = Vin Vce
LINEAR REGULATOR

The transistor can be conveniently modelled by an equivalent variable resistor, as shown. Power loss is high at high current due to:

+ Vce RT

IL + RL Vo

Vin

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Po = I L 2 RT or Po = Vce I L
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Switching Regulator
Transistor is operated in switched-mode:
+ Vce IL +

Switch closed: Fully on (saturated) Switch opened: Fully off (cut-off)

Vin

RL

Vo

When switch is open, no current flow in it When switch is closed no voltage drop across it.

SWITCHING REGULATOR
IL SWITCH + Vo

Vin

RL

Since P=V.I, no losses occurs in the switch.

Power is 100% transferred from source to load. Power loss is zero (for ideal switch):
Vo

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Vin (ON) (OFF) (ON) closed open closed DT T

Switching regulator is the basis of all DC-DC converters

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

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Buck (step-down) converter

S Vd D L C RL + Vo CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER iL S Vd D + vL RL + Vo CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED S iL + Vd D vL RL + Vo CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED
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Switch is turned on (closed)

Diode is reversed biased. Switch conducts inductor current This results in positive inductor voltage, i.e:
Vd + vL S + VD iL C RL + Vo

vL Vd Vo
closed opened closed opened

v L = Vd Vo
It causes linear increase in the inductor current
Vo
iL

di vL = L L dt 1 iL = v L dt L

iLmax IL iLmin t

DT
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Switch turned off (opened)

Because of inductive energy storage, iL continues to flow. Diode is forward biased Current now flows (freewheeling) through the diode. The inductor voltage can be derived as:
+ vL S Vd D iL C RL + Vo

vL VdVo
closed opened closed opened

Vo

iL

vL = Vo

iLmax IL iLmin
(1-D)T

DT

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Analysis
When the switch is closed (on) : di v L = Vd Vo = L L dt diL Vd Vo = dt L Derivative of i L is a positive constant.Therefore iL must increased linearly. From Figure diL iL iL Vd Vo = = = t DT dt L V V (iL )closed = d o DT L For switch opened, di v L = Vo = L L dt diL Vo = dt L Vo di i iL L= L= = dt t (1 D)T L
IL iL min DT T t

vL Vd Vo

closed t

iL iL max

i L

(iL )opened =

Vo (1 D)T L
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Steady-state operation
iL t iL t iL t Steady-state current Decaying current Unstable current

Steady - state operation requires that iL at the end of switching cycle is the same at the begining of the next cycle. That is the change of iL over one period is zero, i.e : (iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0 Vd Vo Vo DTs (1 D)Ts = 0 L L Vo = DVd
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Average, Maximum and Minimum Inductor Current

iL Imax IL Imin t

iL

Average inductor current = Average current in R L V IL = IR = o R Maximum current : I max = I L + = Vo iL Vo 1 Vo = + (1 D )T 2 R 2 L

1 (1 D ) + R 2 Lf i L 1 (1 D ) = Vo 2 R 2 Lf

Minimum current : I min = I L

Inductor current ripple : iL = I max I min

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Continuous Current Mode (CCM)

iL Imax

Imin

From previous analysis, I min = I L 1 (1 D ) i L = Vo 2 R 2 Lf

For continuous operation, I min 0, 1 (1 D) Vo 0 R 2 Lf (1 D ) R 2f This is the minimum inductor current to L Lmin = ensure continous mode of operation. Normally L is chosen b be >> Lmin
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Output voltage ripple

KCL, Capacitor current : ic = iL + iR The charge can be witten as : Q = CVo Q = CV Q C Use triangle area formula :
o
L

iL
iC

iR + Vo

Vo = 1 T 2 2

iL

i m ax

Q =

i L 2

i L= IR
V o/R 0 iC i m in

T i L = 8 0 Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak) Vo = TiL (1 D ) = 8C 8 LCf 2 So, the ripple factor, r= Vo (1 D ) = Vo 8 LCf 2 Note : Ripple can be reduced by :

1) Increasing switching frequency 2) Increasing inductor size 3) Increasing capacitor size.

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Basic design procedures

SWITCH L Lmin= ? L = 10Lmin C ripple ? RL Po = ? Io = ? Vd (input spec.) D

f=? D=? TYPE ?

Calculate D to obtain required output voltage. Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device
preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses. Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink. Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can reach MHz range.

Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.

Capacitor ratings: must withstand peak output voltage must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given by iL/2. ECAPs can be used

Wire size consideration: Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value for iL is given as:

i L 2 I L, RMS = I L + 3
2

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Examples
A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4. Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and minimum inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple. A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of 25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is 125W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value of L to limit the peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%. Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V when the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter such that it will be in continuous current mode. The output voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the frequency and the values of each component. Suggest the power switch also.

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Boost (step-up) converter

L D

Vd

C RL

+ Vo

CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER iL L + vL Vd S C + RL Vo D

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED L + vL Vd S C RL D + Vo CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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Boost analysis:switch closed

iL L + vL Vd S C D + vo

v L = Vd di =L L v dt diL Vd = dt L diL iL iL i = = dt t DT V diL = d dt L V DT (iL )closed = d L

Vd

CLOSED t Vd Vo

iL

DT

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Switch opened
iL + vL Vd S C + vo D

v L = Vd Vo diL =L dt diL Vd Vo = dt L diL iL = dt t i L = (1 D )T diL Vd Vo = dt L

Vd vL

OPENED t Vd Vo

iL

iL

( 1-D )T DT T t

(iL )opened =

(Vd Vo )(1 DT )
L
17

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Steady-state operation
(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0 Vd DT (Vd Vo )(1 D )T
L + L Vd Vo = 1 D
Boost converter produces output voltage that is greater or equal to the input voltage. Alternative explanation: when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus output is isolated. The input supplies energy to inductor. When switch is opened, the output stage receives energy from the input as well as from the inductor. Hence output is large. Output voltage is maintained constant by virtue of large C.

=0

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Average, Maximum, Minimum Inductor Current

Input power = Output power Vo 2 Vd I d = R Vd (1 D ) Vd I L = R Vd
2

(1 D ) 2 R Average inductor current : (1 D ) 2 R Maximum inductor current : IL =

Vd 2

Vd V DT i L = + d 2 2L (1 D) 2 R Minimum inductor current : I max = I L + I min = I L Vd V DT i L = d 2 2L (1 D ) 2 R

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L and C values
For CCM, I min 0 V DT d 0 2 2L (1 D) R D(1 D )2 TR Lmin = 2 D(1 D )2 R = 2f Ripple factor Vo DT = CVo R Vo DT Vo D Vo = = RCf RCf V D r= o = Vo RCf Q =
iL Imin

Vd

vL

Vd

V d V o

Imax

iD

Imax Imin Io=Vo / R

ic

Q
DT T

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Examples
The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V, D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine (a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple. Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.

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Buck-Boost converter
S Vd L D C RL + Vo

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER S + Vd iL vL D

+ Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED S + Vd iL vL D

+ Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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Buck-boost analysis
Switch closed di v L = Vd = L L dt diL Vd = dt L iL iL Vd = = t DT L
vL Vd

VdVo Imax iL Imin

V DT (iL ) closed = d L iD Switch opened di v L = Vo = L L dt diL Vo i = dt L Vo iL iL = = t (1 D )T L Vo (1 D)T (iL ) opened = L

c

Imax Imin Io=Vo / R

Q
DT T

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Output voltage
Steady state operation : iL (closed ) + iL (opened ) = 0 Vd DT Vo (1 D)T + =0 L L Output voltage : D Vo = Vs 1 D
NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be higher or lower than input. If D>0.5, output is higher than input If D<0.5, output is lower input Output voltage is always negative. Note that output is never directly connected to load. Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed and transferred to load when switch is opened.
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Average inductor current

Assuming no power loss in the converter, power absorbed by the load must equal power supplied the by source, i.e. Po = Ps Vo2 = Vd I s R But average source current is related to average inductor current as : Is = ILD Vo2 = Vd I L D R Substituting for Vo , Vo2 Po Vd D IL = = = Vd RD Vd D R(1 D ) 2

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L and C values
Max and min inductor current, Vd D Vd DT i L I max = I L + = + 2 2 2L R (1 D ) I min = I L For CCM V DT + d =0 2 2L R(1 D ) (1 D) 2 R Lmin = 2f Output voltage ripple, Vo Q = DT = CVo R Vo DT Vo D Vo = = RC RCf V D r= o = Vo RCf Vd D Vd D V DT i L = d 2 2L R (1 D ) 2

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Converters in CCM: Summary

S V
d

L D C RL

+ Vo

Buck Vo =D Vd Vo 1 D = Vo 8 LCf 2 (1 D ) R Lmin = 2f

Boost

L V
d

D C RL + Vo

Vo 1 = Vd 1 D Vo D = Vo RCf D(1 D ) 2 R Lmin = 2f

S V
d

D L C RL

+ Vo

Buck Boost Vo D = Vd 1 D Vo D = Vo RCf (1 D) 2 R Lmin = 2f

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Control of DC-DC converter: pulse width modulation (PWM)

Vo (desired) Vo (actual)

+ -

Vcontrol Comparator Sawtooth Waveform

Switch control signal

Sawtooth Waveform Vcontrol 1 Vcontrol 2

ton 2 ton 1 T

Switch control signal

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Isolated DC-DC Converter

Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer Two types: Linear and Switched-mode Advantages of switched mode over linear power supply -Efficient (70-95%) -Weight and size reduction Disadvantages -Complex design -EMI problems However above certain ratings, SMPS is the only feasible choice Types of SMPS -Flyback -forward -Push-pull -Bridge (half and full)

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Linear and SMPS block diagram

Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
Vce=Vd-Vo DC Unregulated + Line Input 1 / 3 50/60 Hz Isolation Transformer Vd Rectifier/ Filter C E +Vo DC Regulated + RL Vo Vo -

B Base/gate Drive Error Amp.

Vref

Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC Unregulated
EMI FILTER RECTIFIER AND FILTER

DC-DC CONVERSITION AND ISOLATION

High Frequency rectifier and filter

DC Regulated
Vo

Vref
Base/ gate drive PWM Controller error Amp

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High frequency transformer

Basic function : 1) Input - output electrical isolation 2) step up/down time - varying voltage Basic input - output relationship v1 N1 = ; v2 N 2 i1 N 2 = i2 N1 Models :
i1
+

N1

N2

i2
+ V2

V1 i1
+

Ideal model

N1 N2 i2
+

V1

Lm

V2

Model used for most PE application

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Flyback Converter
C R + Vo

Vd

LM

Flyback converter circuit

iS Vd + vSW

i 1 N1 iLM + v1

N2 v2

iD + iC iR Vo

+ vD
i2

Model with magnetising inductance

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Operation: switch closed

is=iLM Vd iLM 0 N1 + v1 N2 v2 + 0

+ Vo

v1=Vs

diLm v1 = Vd = Lm dt diLm iLm iLm Vd = = = dt dt DT Lm

Vd DT iLm = closed Lm N2 N2 = Vd N1 N1 N2 < 0, i.e. diode turned off N1

On the load side of the transformer, v2 = v1

v D = Vo Vd Therefore, i2 = 0 and i1 = 0

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Switch opened
iLM + vSW N1 + v1 N2 v 2 = VS + iD + Vo

Vs

v1 = Vo But v1 = v2 v1 = Lm diL m dt =

N1 N2 v2 = Vo N N1 = Vo 1 N2 N2 dt = Vo = N1 N2 = Vo N1 Lm N 2 N1 N2

diL m i L m dt

(1 D )T

iL m

(iL m )open = Vo (1 D)T

Lm Voltage across the switch : vSW = Vd + Vo N1 N2

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Output voltage

For steady - state operation, iLm + iLm =0

)closed (

)opened

Vd DT Vo (1 D )T N1 =0 Lm Lm N2 D Vo = Vd 1 D N2 N1

Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost converter. Output can be greater of less than input,depending upon D. Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.

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Flyback waveforms
Ps = P0 V0 2 Vd I s = R I s is related to I Lm as : I Lm DT Is = = I Lm D T Solving for I Lm
v1 Vs

-V(N 1 /N 2 )

( )

i Lm

iLM

V02 Vd I Lm D = R

( )

is

I Lm =

V0 Vd DR Vd D
2

t iD

I Lm can written as : N2 I Lm = (1 D ) 2 R N1 V0 N2 = (1 D ) R N1
iC

DT

V o/ R

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Max, Min inductor current

I Lm =
,max

= I Lm +

iLm 2
2

V DT N2 + d 2 Lm (1 D ) 2 R N1 iLm I Lm ,min = I Lm 2 Vd D
2

Vd D

Vd DT N2 = 2 2 Lm (1 D ) R N1 For CCM, I Lm , min = 0 N2 (1 D ) 2 R N1 Vd D

2

Vd DT Vd D = = 2 Lm 2 Lm f
2 2

Vd (1 D) R N1 2f N2 Ripple calculation is similar to boost,

(Lm )min =

V0 D r= = V0 RCf
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Example
The Flyback converter has these specifications: DC input voltage: 40V Output voltage: 25V Duty cycle: 0.5 Rated load: 62.5W Max peak-peak inductor current ripple: 25% of the average inductor current. Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V Switching frequency: 75kHz Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine a) Transformer turns ratio b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm. c) Maximum and minimum inductor current. d) Value of capacitor C.

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Full-bridge converter
SW1 SW3 + VS vp NS NS + vx Lx

+ Vo

SW4 SW1,SW2 SW2

SW3,SW4

DT

VP VS

T 2

T + DT 2

-VS Vx
VS NS NP

DT

T 2

T + DT 2

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Full bridge: basic operation

Switch pair: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4]. Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The other pair is off. AC voltage is developed across the primary. Then transferred to secondary via high frequency transformers. On secondary side, diode pair is high frequency full wave rectification. The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the buck converter circuit. Output Voltage

Ns Vo = 2Vs D Np
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