WHYWELIE:TheEvolutionaryRootsofDeceptionandtheUnconsciousMind http://www.amazon.

com/WhyLieEvolutionaryDeceptionUnconscious/dp/0312310404

Preface
Ateverylevel,frombrutecamouflagetopoeticvision,thelinguisticcapacityto conceal,misinform,leaveambiguous,hypothesize,invent,isindispensabletotheequilibriumof humanconsciousness. GeorgeSteiner Thehumanmindisoneofthemostextraordinaryandmostpoorlyunderstoodcharactersin MotherNaturesgreatgalleryofcreations.Ittookmillionsofyearsforittoevolve.Overimmense expansesofprehistory,ourancestorsacquiredmindswithadistinctivelyhumancastarangeof passionsandemotions,theabilitytoexpresstheirthoughtsinwords,tocrafttools,toplanandtolie. Unfortunatelyornot,thegradualchangesinbrainstructurethateventuallyproducedthemodernmind didnotendowuswithmuchabilitytounderstandourselves.Selfunderstandingdoesnotcome naturallytohumanbeings,likeeating,drinking,andhavingsex.Pursuingthereasonsforthistakesusto theheartofhumannature. Evolutionarybiologyteachesusthatthetendencytodeceivehasanancientpedigree.Wefindit inmanyforms,atalllevels,throughoutthenaturalkingdom.Evenviruses,organismssosimplethatitis astruggletothinkofthemaslivingthings,havesubtlestrategiesfordeceivingtheimmunesystemsof theirhosts:natureisawashwithdeceit.ManyofthephenomenathatIamgoingtodescribewouldhave seemedwildlyimplausibleintheerabeforebiologistsgotdowntothedisciplined,scientificobservation ofanimalbehavior.Infact,eventodaytherearepeoplewhohaveneitherdirectexperienceobserving animalsnorknowledgeofthescientificliteraturewhoarepronetogreetthissortofmaterialwith statementssuchasAreyouputtingmeon?Themoralofthisstoryistocautionyouagainsthastily rejectingsomeoftheclaimsthatIwillmakeabouthumandeceptionjustbecausetheyseemfar fetched.Natureisfarfetched.Deceptivecreatureshaveanedgeovertheircompetitorsintherelentless struggletosurviveandreproducethatdrivestheengineofevolution.Aswellhonedsurvivalmachines, humanbeingsarealsonaturallydeceptive. DeceitistheCinderellaofhumannature;essentialtoourhumanitybutdisownedbyits perpetratorsateveryturn.Itisnormal,natural,andpervasive.Itisnot,aspopularopinionwouldhave it,reducibletomentalillnessormoralfailure.Humansocietyisanetworkofliesanddeceptions1that wouldcollapseundertheweightoftoomuchhonesty.Fromthefairytalesourparentstoldustothe propagandaourgovernmentsfeedus,humanbeingsspendtheirlivessurroundedbypretense. Sevenmillionyearsagoourancestorswereintelligentapesthatlivedincomplexsocialgroups dominatedbylinearhierarchies.Thesocialworldpresentedthemwithformidableintellectual challenges,andtheneedtocopewiththeseexigenciespushedprimatesdownthelongroadthat eventuallyledtotheevolutionofanatomicallymodernhumanbeings.Sheersocialcomplexity compelledourprehumanancestorstobecomeprogressivelymoreintelligent,andastheydidsothey alsobecameincreasinglyadeptatsocialgamesmanship;thewheeling,dealing,bluffing,andconniving thatIcallsocialpoker.Onceestablished,theneedtocopewithskilledsocialplayersbecamea selectionpressurethatescalatedcognitivedevelopmentevenfurther. Betweenaboutfiveandsevenmillionyearsagothehominidandchimpanzeelineswenttheir separateways.Theearliesthominidsweresmall,hairy,anddidnotlookmuchdifferentfrommodern apes.Overthemillennia,severalspeciesofhumanbeingscameintoexistenceandpassedawayinto extinction;thelastofthese,theNeanderthals,diedoutonlyaboutthirtythousandyearsago.Then;

sometimebetweenonehundredandonehundredfiftythousandyearsago,ourownkind,Homo sapiens(WiseMen)arrived.Atsomepoint,wedonotknowexactlywhen,ourprehistoricancestors learnedtospeak.Thismomentousstepalteredhumansocietyandthehumanmindforever.Itwas probablyonlyafterspokenlanguagearrivedthatWiseMenbecameabletolietothemselves. Whydidselfdeceptiontakerootinthehumanmind?Aswewillsee,thepropensityforself deceptionprobablybecamepartofournaturebecauseitwassohelpfultousinourdealingswithone another.Notonlydoeslyingtooneselfsoothemanyofthestressesoflife,but,moreimportantly,italso helpsonelietoothers.Oneofthemostimportantinsightsofmodernsociobiologyisthatselfdeception isthehandmaidenofdeceit:inhidingthetruthfromourselves,weareabletohideitmorefullyfrom others.Therefore,likedeceit,selfdeceptionliesatthecoreofourhumanity.Farfrombeingasignof emotionaldisturbance,asbothpopularandpsychiatricfolkloresuggest,itisprobablyvitalfor psychologicalequilibrium.Thefirstaimofthisbookistomakethedetailsofthisevolutionarytheoryof selfdeceptionavailabletoawideraudience. Theabilitytoharnessthemagicofwords,andthecapacityforselfdeceptionthatcameitits wake,reconfiguredthehumanpsyche.Inordertohidethetruthaboutourselvesfromourselves,we neededtoevolveanunconsciousmind.Evolutionarybiologyimpliesthatthereisaregionofourmind devotedtoourdealingswithotherpeoplethatneverdivulgesitssecretstoconsciousawareness.There isasideofourselvesthatwewereevolvednottoknow. ThegreatpsychologistandphilosopherWilliamJamescautionedoveracenturyagothattalkof theunconsciousisthesovereignmeansforbelievingwhatonelikesinpsychology,andofturningwhat mightbecomeascienceintoatumblinggroundforwhimsies.2Weneedtotreadcarefully,butdue cautionisnotthesameasintellectualmeeknessandlackofimagination.Ihavetriedtohugthe scientificcoastlineasmuchaspossible,whileatthesametimedoingjusticetothephenomena.Ihave madeaparticularlystrenuousefforttoavoidthealltoocommontendencytodenytheexistenceof somethingjustbecauseitdoesnotfitintotheprocrusteanbedofexistingknowledge.Notwithstanding theseefforts,Iamsurethatsomereaderswillregardthisbookparticularlyitslaterchaptersas unacceptablyreckless. Assoonaswebroachthetopicoftheunconsciousmind,wemustpayourrespectstoSigmund Freud.Freudsworkwascriticalforestablishingtheideaoftheunconsciousonourintellectual landscape.Itiscertain,though,thatmanyofFreudsideasabouttheunconsciousmindwerefaroffthe mark.Sincethe1950s,experimentalpsychologistshavedevelopedideasaboutunconsciousmental processingthatareverydifferentfromtheFreudianones,andnowadays,cognitivescientistspropose thatmostofourmentalprocesseshappenoutsideofawareness.However,somethinghasbeenlostin thistransformation.Intheirrushtocapturethequicksilverofmindinthenetsoflaboratorymethods andcomputationalmodels,psychologistshaveneglectedthemessydomainofhotcognition,of passionandconflict.Selfdeceptiondoesnotlenditselftoexperimentalinvestigation,andconsequently empiricalpsychologistshavehadlittletosayaboutit.Asecondaimofthisbookistoreconnect cognitivepsychologywiththekindsofquestionsthatFreudtriedunsuccessfullytoanswerandwhich evolutionarybiologyhasreintroducedtothescientificagenda. Thereseemstobelittledoubt,wrotethebiologistDavidBarash,thattheunconscious, althoughpoorlyunderstood,isrealandthatincertainobscurewaysitinfluencesourbehavior.Wecan, therefore,predictthatitisaproductofourevolution,and,especiallyinsofarasitiswidespreadand normal,thatitshouldbeanadaptiveproductaswell.3Thethirdtaskofthisbookistodescribesome oftheadaptivefunctionsoftheunconsciousmindimpliedbyanimportantbutwidelyoverlooked implicationofthemainevolutionarytheoryofselfdeception.Iwillarguethatunconsciousdeceivers mustalsobeunconsciousperceivers;itisnotpossibleforapersontohoodwinkanotherwithoutkeenly observingandinterpretingthereactionsoftheotherfromonemomenttothenext.So,ifthestandard evolutionarytheoryofselfdeceptioniscorrect,ifwedeceiveourselvesinordertodeceiveothers,

unconsciouslywemustallbenaturalpsychologists,carefullymonitoringoneanothersbehaviorand drawingsubtleinferencesabouteachothersmentalstateswithouthavingtheslightestideathatweare doingthis.Weareall,borrowingatermfrombiologistsJohnKrebsandRichardDawkins,unconscious mindreaders.4 Theabilitytoanalyzeunconsciouslythemeaningofthebehaviorofpeoplearoundusisan essentialaspectofourevolvedsocialintelligence.Aswewillsee,thereareseveralcompeting conceptionsoftheunconsciousminddescribedinthepsychologicalliterature,andthereisgood evidencethatverymany,ifnotall,mentalprocessesareattheircoreunconscious.Theconceptofthe unconsciousmindthatIpresentinthisbookisquitedifferentfromeithertheFreudianid,aseething cauldronofuntamedandirrationalurges,orthecoollymechanicalneurocomputationalprocesses nowadayscalledthecognitiveunconscious.Thesocialunconsciousmustbesmart,infactverysmart,as wellashighlyadaptive.Itmustalsobeagain,forreasonsthatwillemergelaterinthisbook sequesteredfromourconscioussocialperceptionsandjudgements.IcallittheMachiavellianmodule todistinguishitfromtheFreudianandstandardcognitivistmodels. Becausetherehasbeenlittleempiricalresearchintotheunconsciousdynamicsofsocial relations,weneedtoexploreavenuesthatcognitivescientistsusuallyneglect,beginningwiththe writingsofSigmundFreud.Unfortunately,anymentionofFreudislikelytoraiseeyebrowsamong membersofthepsychologicalfraternityunlessitispurelydismissive.However,thisprejudiceneednot deterus.ThereareseveraltantalizingremarksburiedinFreudswritingsthatpointtoanimmensely sophisticated,yetcompletelyunconscious,moduleforsocialintelligence.Moreover,justbeforehis deathin1932,FreudsHungariancolleagueSndorFerenczireportedobservationsthatseemtoshow thismentalmoduleinaction.Sketchyandimpressionisticthoughtheyare,theremarksbyFreudand Ferencziprovidevaluablecluesforunderstandinghowthehumanmindworks. Ferencziscommentssuggest,somewhatsurprisingly,thatraw,unconsciousperception influenceshowwecommunicatewithoneanother.Hethoughtthatunconsciousthoughtsare expressedinsomethinglikeaverbalcode,andthatthenarrativeimagesfoundinordinary conversationscanmanifestlyconveyonesetofmeaningswhilecovertlyexpressingquiteanother.This makesbiologicalsense.Thedeceptionsandmanipulationsthatweimposeononeanothermustbe concealedbehindashroudofsecrecyinordertowork,ashroudthatissoopaquethateventhe perpetratorremainslargelyunawareofhisorherownmaneuvers.Theideathatweareincorrigibly awareofthefullmeaningofwhatwesayisahangoverfromtheantiquated,Cartesianviewthatthe mindistransparent. Theseconsiderationsopenanextremelyimportant,butalltoooftenneglected,aspectof humaninteraction.Researchersontheevolutionoflanguagehavesofarbeenalmostentirely interestedintheliteraluseofwords,asthoughhominidshavealwayscalledaspadeaspade.However; ifoneofthebasicfunctionsoflanguageistodeceiveothers,agoodevolutionarytheoryshouldhave somethingtosayaboutitsintrinsicallyambiguous,nonliteraldimensions.Euphemisms,puns,double entendres,andotherkindsofcodedspeechusemetaphorandanalogytoexpressmeaningsindirectly. Unlikemanypsychologists,literaryscholarsarewellawareofthecentralityofsuchwordplayforhuman speech.WhenGeorgeSteinerlinkedpoeticvisionwiththelinguisticcapacitytoconcealinthe quotationatthebeginningofthispreface,hewasright.Thefourth,andbyfarthemostcontroversial, aimofthisbookistoarguethatmanyofourunconsciousperceptionsofoneanotheraredisguisedin thestoriesthatwetellineverydayconversation.Humanbeingsarecompulsivenarrators.Wespendthe bulkofourconversationtimetellingstories,usuallyofthekindderogativelycalledgossip.Information selfdeceptivelyexcludedfromconsciousnessseepsbetweenthesemanticcracksofordinaryspeech andmuchofoureverydaychitchathasapowerful,figurativedimensionthatportraystheunvarnished truthconcealedbehindthegenteelfacadeofordinarysocialinteraction.Theunconsciouspoetryof everydayconversationvoicesthoughtsthatwebarfromconsciousawareness.Iknowthatthiswill

soundoutrageoustosomereaders.Surely,theywillobject,youcannotmixupsciencewithpoetry!My responseisnotonlythatwecan,butalsothatwemustifwearetounderstandhumanbehavior;for poetry,too,ispartofnature. LudwigWittgensteindistinguishedbetweentwovarietiesoforiginality:thatbelongingtothe seedandthatbelongingtothesoil.5IwishthatIcouldlayclaimtooriginalityofthefirstkind.Theseeds thatgrewintothisbookweresownbymanyfinescholars.IhopethatIdonotdeceivemyselfinthinking thatitistheoriginalityofthesoil,thewaythatIhavedrawnoutimplicationsandmadeconnections betweenideasthatmight,atfirstglance,seemcompletelyunrelatedtooneanother,thatmakesthis bookworthreading. Abookpurportingtobescientific,butwhichbuildsargumentsonwhatmayseemtothemtobe theflimsiestoffoundations,isboundtodisappointsomereaders.Whereistheexperimentaldata?I pleadguiltyofnothavingprovidedadequateempiricalsupportforthedistinctiveviewsadvancedinthis book.Althoughimmenselypowerfulandvaluable,experimentalresearchisnotthebeallandendallof cognitivescience.Scienceisthedisciplinedpassiontofindout,tomakesenseofthepuzzlespresented bytheworldaroundusandwithinus,andtomakereasonedextrapolationsfromwhatwealready know,oratleastthinkthatweknow.Thisbookpointsthewaytoempiricalresearchintoselfdeception andunconsciouscommunication.Itshowsscientistsofthemindwheretheymightlook,andjustwhat phenomenatheyoughttolookfor. Youmightsaythatthisbookresidesontheborderlandbetweenscienceandscienceyettobe, inawildplacewheretherearefewpathsandthesignpostsarescarceanddifficulttoread.Ihopethat youenjoythejourney.

NaturalBornLiars
Lyingisuniversalwealldoit;weallmustdoit. MarkTwain Meldugfuriouslywithherbarehandstoextractthelargesucculentcormfromtherockhard Ethiopianground.Itwasthedryseasonandfoodwasscarce.Cormsareediblebulbsratherlikeonions, andareastapleduringtheselonghardmonths.LittlePaulsatnearbyandsurreptitiouslyobservedMels laborsoutofthecornerofhiseye.Paulsmotherwasoutofsight.Shehadlefthimtoplayinthelong grass;but,hewassecureintheknowledgethatshewouldremainwithinearshotincaseheneededher. Anyway,atthismomenthewasconcernedwithMelratherthanwiththeprecisewhereaboutsofhis mother.JustasMelmanaged,withafinalheave,toyankherprizeoutoftheearth,Paulsearsplitting cryshatteredthepeaceofthesavanna.Hismotherrushedtoherboy.Heartpoundingandadrenaline pumping,sheburstonthesceneandquicklysizedupthesituation:Melhadobviouslyharassedher darlingchild.Furiouslyshriekingabuse,shestormedafterthebewilderedMel,whodroppedthecorm andfled.NowPaulsschemewascomplete.Afterafurtiveglancetomakesurenobodywaslooking,he pickeduphisprizeandbegantoeat.Thetrickworkedsowellthatheuseditseveralmoretimesbefore anyonewisedup. Kidswillbekids,evenwhentheyareapes.TheanecdotethatIhavejustrecounteddescribes thebehaviorofajuvenilechacmababoonobservedbytheprimatologistRichardByrne.1Itillustrates thefact,whichhaslongbeenknowntobiologists,buthasmorerecentlybeenshowntohaveenormous consequencesforourconceptionofthehumanmind,thattherootsofdeceitliedeepinourbiological past.Althoughinmanywaysimpressive,thesocialmanipulationsofbaboons,chimpanzees,andother nonhumanspeciesareeasilyfinessedbyourowntalentfordeceit.Hamanbeingsaregrandmastersof mendacity.ItwouldnothavebeenoutofplacetonameourspeciesHomofallax,(deceptiveman),

insteadofHomosapiens(wiseman).Tounderstandwhy,weneedtoexploretheoriginsofthemodern humanmind.

TheStoneAgeMind
DarwinpredictedinTheOriginofSpecies(1859)thatevolutionarytheorywouldonedayprovide anewfoundationforthescienceofpsychology;butitwouldbemorethanacenturyuntilthetruthin hiswordswasborneout.Thechangecamewhenadvancesinourunderstandingofthegeneticsofsocial behaviorusheredinthecontroversialnewscienceofsociobiology,thebiologicalstudyofthesocial behaviorofhumansandotheranimals.2BeforethepioneeringworkoftheHarvardbiologistEdmond0. Wilson,thestudyofhumansocialbehaviorhadbeendominatedbythedogmaofculturaldeterminism. Accordingtothisview,whichremainsprevalentinthesocialandbehavioralsciences,theforcesof cultureareallpowerfulinshapinghumanbehavior.Cultureitselfissaidtobeautonomous,standing outsideofandrelativelyuntouchedbytheprimitiveforcesofnature.Primedbythestillfreshmemory ofNazieugenics,theefforttopurifythehumanracebykillingorsterilizingdefectives,manysocial scientistsweredeeplysuspiciousofanytheorypurportingtodescribethebiologicalfoundationsof humannature.SomeofthemluridlyportrayedsociobiologistsasdangerousneoFascists,hellbenton racism,sexism,andthepreservationofthepoliticalstatusquo.3Overthenextthreedecades,human sociobiologytransformeditselfintoevolutionarypsychology,anapproachtopsychologicalsciencethat studiesthemindfromthestandpointofitsprehistoricandevolutionaryorigins.Evolutionarypsychology isnotjustonemoreschoolofpsychology.Itisaperspectiveonthewholeofpsychologythatclaimsthat wearehumananimals,andthatourminds,nolessthanourbodies,areproductsoftheforcesofnature operatingonatimeframeofmillionsofyears;humannaturewasforgedfromourancestorsstruggleto surviveandreproduce.Itisdifficulttocomprehendthisexpanseoftimewithoutsomehelp.Considerit thisway:ifallthetimethathaselapsedsincetheemergenceofthefirsthominidswereasingleday,the wholeperiodofrecordedhistory,somefivethousandyears,wouldoccupyonlythefinaltwominutes. Remainsofprehistoricskullssuggestthatthehumanbrainattaineditspresentformaboutone hundredfiftythousandyearsago.Welivedinanenvironmentverydifferentfromthatofallbutavery fewhumanpopulationstoday,eventuallyemergingfromprehistoryequippedwithanarrayofpassions, skills,andmentalabilitiesspecificallyadaptedtolifeinthatprimevalhabitat.ThemindthatyouandI possessis,initsessentials,aStoneAgemind. Evolutionarybiologydoesnotendorsethepopularandreassuringconvictionthathumanminds aretoolsforselfknowledgeandthepursuitoftruth.Thehumanmindevolvedfortheverysamereason thatallofourotherorgansevolved;namely,becauseitcontributedtoitsownersreproductivesuccess. Natureselectedthosementalcapacitiesthathelpedtospreadourgenes,andthosethatproved unhelpfulwereineluctablysnuffedout.Asanyseducerknows,honestyandreproductivesuccessare notnecessarilygoodbedfellows.Becausedeceptionandselfdeceptionhelpedourspeciestosucceed intheneverendingstruggleforsurvival,naturalselectionmadethempartofournature.Weare deceptiveanimalsbecauseoftheadvantagesthatdishonestyreapedforourancestors,andwhichit continuestosecureforustoday.ButIamgettingaheadofmyself.Letmefirstsurveythelandscapeof humandeceitandleavethediscussionofitsevolutionforsubsequentchapters.

TheUbiquityofDeceit
Deceitisandprobablyalwayshasbeenamajorconcernofhumanculture.Thefoundingmythof theJudeoChristiantradition,thestoryofAdamandEve,revolvesaroundalie.Wehavebeentalking,

writing,andsingingaboutdeceptioneversinceEvetoldGodTheserpentdeceivedme,andIate.Our seeminglyinsatiableappetiteforstoriesofdeceptionspanstheextremesofculturefromKingLearto LittleRedRidingHood.Thesetalesaresoenthrallingbecausetheyspeaktosomethingfundamentalin thehumancondition.Deceptionisacrucialdimensionofallhumanassociations,lurkinginthe backgroundofrelationshipsbetweenparentsandchildren,husbandsandwives,employersand employees,professionalsandtheirpatients,governmentsandtheircitizens. Lyingisobligedbyitsverynaturetocoveritstraces,forinordertolieeffectivelywemustlie aboutlying.Thisposesaproblemforanyoneattemptingtoprovetheubiquityofdeception.Althoughit isallaroundus,deceptionisstrangelyelusive,hardtoexplain,althoughitissomethingwithwhichwe areallintimatelyfamiliar.4Wedonotneedthesurveysandexperimentsbelovedbypsychologiststo confirmthatpeopleoftenlietoeachother,althoughthese,too,haveproventobequiterevealing.To grapplewithdishonesty,wehavetoopenoureyestosomeunpleasanttruths.AsthebiologistWilliam Hamiltononceremarked,evolutionarythinkingabouthumanbehaviorisnotdifficultinthewaythat doingphysicsis.Itdoesnotrequirehighlysophisticatedmathematics,elaborateinstrumentation,or difficultchainsoflogic.ViewinghumanbehaviorthroughaDarwinianlensisdifficultbecauseitradically underminescherishedillusionsabouthumannature.Itleadsustoviolatementaltaboos,toenternogo areas,toopenthebookofforbiddenknowledge.Itissociallyunthinkable,exposingtherawnervesof ourrelationshipswithoneanotherandrevealingthecomplexmanipulativestrategiesthatoilthe wheelsofsociety.5Thinkingbiologicallyabouthumannaturemeansdismantlingsharedillusions. Althoughweclaimtovaluetruthaboveallelse,wearealsoatleastdimlyawarethatthereis somethingantisocialabouttoomuchhonesty.Thisdilemmahasoftenbeenportrayedinliteratureand film,fromDostoevskysPrinceMishkin,whoseinnocenceandhonestydestroythelivesofthosearound him,tothe1997filmLiar,Liar!inwhichalawyerwreakshavocwhenheisplacedunderaspell condemninghimtobetruthfulfortwentyfouragonizinghours.Evolutionarybiologysuggeststhatno normalpersonwouldbecapableofsuchafeat.Wearenaturalbornliars.

WhatisaLie?
Whenwethinkoflying,wetypicallythinkofexplicitverbalfalsehoods.ThephilosopherSissela Bok,whoisaspokespersonforthisview,definesalieasanyintentionallydeceptivestatement.6Isthis allthereistolying?MarkTwaindidntthinkso,andreckonedthatbyexaminationandmathematical computationIfindthattheproportionofthespokenlietotheothervarietiesis1to22,894.Therefore thespokenlieisofnoconsequence,anditisnotworthwhiletogoaroundfussingaboutitandtryingto makebelievethatitisanimportantmatter.7MyownsympathiesliewithTwainratherthanwithBok, becauseTwainsperspectiveisbothinclusiveandbiologicallyrealistic.AswesawwithPaulandMel,and wewillseeinchapter2,deceptionisnottheexclusiveprovinceofourspecies.Manyotherorganisms makeliberaluseofdeceptiontogettheirway.Ithereforedefinelyingasanyformofbehaviorthe functionofwhichistoprovideotherswithfalseinformationortodeprivethemoftrueinformation. Ipurposefullyusethetermfunctionratherthanintention.Inthevocabularyofevolutionary biology,thefunctionofsomethingisthatwhichithasbeenselected(metaphorically,designed)todo. Considerthebodiesofleafinsects,whichmimictheformandcoloroftheplantsthattheyinhabit. Thesebugsdonotintendtodeceivethecreaturesthatwanttomakeamealofthemandcannomore changetheirphysicalshapethanyouorIcan.Camouflage,aformofdeception,isnonethelessa functionoftheirbodilyform.Lying,inBoksrestrictedsenseoftheword,isbutonesmalldetailof Twainsvastandintricatetapestryofguile.8 Lyingcanbeconsciousorunconscious,verbalornonverbal,statedorunstated.Appreciating thisisvitalforanycomprehensiveunderstandingofdeceit,andisperhapsthemostimportantpoint

raisedinthischapter.Thinkforamomentofalltheformsofdishonestythatdonotrequiretheuseof explicitverbalfalsehoods.Breastimplants,hairpieces,feignedillnesses,fakedorgasms,andphony smilesarejustafewexamplesofnonverballying.Consideralsothecunninguseofinnuendo,strategic ambiguity,andcrucialomission,asepitomizedbyBillClintonsinfamousdeclarationthathedidnot havesexualrelationswiththatwoman...Ms.Lewinsky. Accordingtothefolkloreofdeception,ordinary,decentpeoplelieonlyoccasionallyand inconsequentiallyexceptinextreme,morallydefensiblecircumstances.Anythingmorethanthe occasionalwhitelieisconsideredasymptomofmadnessorbadness:thepenchantofthementallyill, criminals,lawyers,andpoliticians.Goodliars,sothemythgoes,alwaysknowwhattheyaredoing:they arecalculatingandexquisitelyawareoftheirdeceptions.Peoplewholiewithoutknowingthattheyare lyingarethoughttobeatbestconfusedandatworstinsane.Evolutionarypsychologyopposesthiscozy mythology.Lyingisnotexceptional;itisnormal,andmoreoftenspontaneousandunconsciousthan cynicalandcoldlyanalytical.Ourmindsandbodiessecretedeceit. Everybody,writessciencewriterandtelevisionproducerSanjidaOConnell,liesregularly. Undergraduateslietotheirmothersinhalfoftheirconversationsandtocompletestrangers eightypercentofthetime...usuallyforfinancialgain(thereisonepriceforbooksinthebookshopand anotherwhenparentsask),tomaketheirfriendsfeelbetteraboutthemselvesandtocontheirfamily intothinkingtheywerestudyingandnotinthepubthenightbefore.Peopletellfewerliestothosewho areclosetothem,butpartnersarelikelytobeliedtoathirdofthetime,whichismorethanpeoplelieto theirbestfriends.9 Theeverydaygameofstrategicimpressionmanagementseetheswithdeception.Infact,we takeourmendacitysocompletelyforgrantedthatwerarelyreflectonit.Pause,look,think,andyouwill emergewithanenhancedappreciationoftheenormousrangeofhumandishonesty.Universityof MassachusettspsychologistRobertFeldmanhadresearchsubjectsrecordtheirdailyconversationsand laterviewthetapestocountthenumberofliestheytold.Hefoundthatonaverage,peopletellthree liesforeverytenminutesofconversation.10Thissoundslikequitealotoflying,butconsideringthefact thathissubjectswereunlikelytohavebeenentirelytruthfulwithhimorwiththemselves,andalso bearinginmindthatthisresearchmeasuredonlythefrequencyofnarrow,explicitverballying,thereal rateofdeceptionmustbeconsiderablyhigher. Ourveryappearanceisoftencarefullyarrangedtopresentanottotallytruthfulimageof ourselvestotheworld.Why,inquiresthesociobiologistRichardAlexander,ifthetruthisourgoaland motto,dowebegintodeceivefromthemomentwearisefromourbedsinthemorning,withclothes thatmodifyourbodyshapesflatteringly,makeupandhairarrangementsthatimproveoureyelashesor faceshapesorcoverabaldspot? Whydowespendourwakinghoursbeforeandaftersleep,andwhileshaving...orshowering ordressing,buildingscenariosbywhichwemaydeceiveorbestinsomefashionthosewithwhomweare scheduledtointeractduringtheday?Whydoweexclaimenthusiasticallyuponmeetingsomeonewe wouldratherhaveavoided...?Whydoweconstantlydeceiveeveryone?11 Clothescanmagicallytransformabodybyartfullymanipulatingviewersattention.Padded shoulders,belovedofpowerdressers,createtheillusionofsizeandintimidatingstrength.Conversely, clothingcansayIamnotathreatbyemphasizingconformity.Highheeledshoes,pushupbras,and apparelthatexaggeratethecontrastbetweenhips,waist,andbosomcreatetheillusionof hypersexuality.Deckingoneselfoutinblackgivestheimpressionofslenderness,whilebrightcolors, patterns,oraccessoriesdrawtheeyeawayfromanunflatteringfeatureortowardaphysicalasset Skillfulvisualprestidigitationcanmakeaplumpwaistslender,alargebottomsmall,orsmallbreasts prominent.Clothingandjewelryarealsousedtocreateanimageofwealth,andhence,ofdesirability. Muchthesamecanbesaidofblatantlydeceptivecosmeticdevicessuchashairpiecesanddyes, ageconcealingmakeup,andhairremoval,allofwhichareusedtofalselysuggestthepromiseand

excitementofyouth.Themagicofcosmeticsanddressisnomoderninnovation.Archeologicalevidence revealsthatatleast70,000yearsagoourancestorsadornedtheirbodieswithochre,aredpowder whichhasbeenusedcontinuouslyforthatpurposeeversince.Pleistocenewomenmayhaveinitially usedthisforerunnerofrougetodeceivemalesbysimulatingmenstruation,orperhapstosimulatethe subtleblushthataccompaniesovulation.12AncientEgyptianwomenappliedagreenpaste,ratherlike moderndayeyeshadow,todefinetheirfeatures,darkenedtheireyebrowswithkohl,coloredtheir eyelidstomaketheireyesappearlarger,andbedeckedtheirheadswithelaboratewigs.Their Mesopotamiansistersadornedthemselveswithpainttoexaggeratethecolorandfullnessoftheirlips, whilefashionableGreekandRomanladiesdyedtheirhairblond,appliedmakeuptocoverblemishes, lightenedtheirskin,andusedpumicetoremoveunwantedbodyhair.13 Movingfromtheuniverseofvisiontothatofsmell,weapplydeodorantstodisguiseourscent anddouseourselvesinperfumetocreatealternativebodyodors.AncientEgyptianwomenattended dinnerpartieswithscentedwaxconesontheirheads.ThesultryheatoftheEgyptianeveningcaused themeltingwaxtodrenchtheirwigsinexoticperfumesimportedforthispurposefromsubSaharan Africa.Cleopatra,whoauthoredabookontheartofscentmaking,receivedherfutureloverMark AnthonydressedasAphrodite,thegoddessoflove,onabargeequippedwithfragrancedrenchedsails. Ancientperfumingpracticeswereincrediblyelaboratecomparedtothoseofthepresentday.AGreek womanwouldnotsimplysplashonsomeperfumebeforepoppingdowntotheagora.Thepoet AntiphanesinformsusthatsheanointedherfeetwithEgyptianscent,hercheeksandnippleswithpalm oil,oneofherarmswithbergamot,hereyebrowsandhairwithmarjoram,andherkneeandneckwith thyme,alldesignedtodeceivethemaleastohertruescent.14 Deceptionfollowsusfrombirthtodeath,andseepsintoeverycornerofourpublicandprivate lives.Mostofusclaimthatwetrytoteachourchildrennottolie.Whileitistruethatchildrenareoften toldnottolie,theyareactuallymorefrequentlytaughthowtolieinasociallyacceptablemanner.They areinstructed,onpainofpunishment,tofeignrespectfortheirelders,towriteheartfeltthankyou notesfordisappointingChristmaspresents,andtorefrainfromtellinggrandmathatherbreathstinks. Childrenlearntopracticethoseformsofdeceptionthatarepubliclyprohibitedbutcovertlysanctioned. Sociallyappropriatelyingisnotmerelytolerated,itismandatory.Thechildwhofailstomasterthisskill paystheheavypriceofdisapproval,punishment,andsocialostracism. Adultsalsoteachchildrendeceitbyexample,deceivingthembylullabies,promises,excuses, bedtimestories,andthreatsaboutdangersintheworld.15Althoughtoldthattheymustneverlieto theirparents,thesesameparentsdonothesitatetoregaletheiroffspringwithsupposedlytruthful narrativesofSantaClausandtheEasterBunny.Nonverbaldeceptionisprobablypartofaninfantshard wiredpsychologicalsurvivalkit,butexplicitverballyingisadevelopmentalacquisitionthatisdependent onahighlevelofcognitivesophistication.Childrenwhoareunabletolie,asGeorgeWashington reputedlywas(inyetanotherlieoftentoldtochildren),arenotgoodboysandgirls:theymayquite possiblybeautistic.16 Aswegrowolder,ourtalentfordissimulationbecomesmorefinelyhoned.Inonestudy,92 percentofcollegestudentsadmittedthattheyhadliedtoacurrentorprevioussexualpartner,andthe researchersendedupwonderingwhethertheremaining8percentwerelying.17Oneinthreejob applicantslieswhenseekingemployment.18Onceemployed,theyworkundermanagerswhoroutinely usedeceittomaximizeproductivity. Menarenotoriousforexaggeratingtheextentoftheirsexualexploits,butresearchshowsthat womensliesabouteroticencountersmoveintheoppositedirection.WhenpsychologistsTerriFisher andMichelleAlexanderaskedwomentofilloutquestionnairesontheirsexualbehaviorandattitudes, theyfoundthatthosewireduptoaphonyliedetectorreportedhavinghadtwiceasmanyloversas thosewhowerent.19Eveninmarriage,whichourcultureholdsupastheveryparagonofintimacyand trust,wefindthatpartnerskeepsecretsfromoneanotheraboutmoney,pastexperiences(particularly

sexualexperiences),currentflirtations,badhabits,aspirationsandworries,theirchildren,real opinionsaboutfriendsandrelatives,andsoon.20Quiteasubstantialnumberofmarriedpeopleinthe UnitedStateseitherhavehadorarecurrentlyconductingatleastoneclandestineaffair.21The sociologistsPhilipBlumsteinandPepperSchwartzinterpretthistomeanthatmarriagemakespeople moredeceptivethanwhentheyaresingle,butitsmorelikelythatitisjustoneofthemanyarenas wherewetrytohaveourcakeandeatittoo.22 Deceptionwouldappeartobethenormratherthantheexceptioninbusiness,anditisso commonplaceonMadisonAvenuethatanadvertisingindustrywithoutitishardtoimagine.23The almostreflexivedishonestyofpoliticiansislegendary.Noteventhefamilydoctoremergesuntarnished: 87percentofphysicianssurveyedfeltthatitisacceptabletodeceivetheirpatientsincertain circumstances(includingdeceivingthespouseofapatientwhohascontractedasexuallytransmitted diseaseinanextramaritalaffair).24 Deceptioniskeytosuccessincombat.TwothousandyearsagoSunTzuwroteinhishandbook forgeneralsthatAllwarfareisbasedondeception.25 Trueexcellenceistoplansecretly,tomovesurreptitiously,tofoiltheenemysintentionsandbalk hisschemes,sothatatlastthedaymaybewonwithoutsheddingadropofblood.26 ThestoryoftheTrojanHorse,ifnotliterallytrue,givesusametaphorfortheintimate relationshipbetweenwarfareanddeceit.FromtheBiblicalyarnofGideonandtheMidianitestomodern stealthaircraft,thehistoryofwarfareislargelyoneofcollectivedeceptionandcounterdeception.27The languageofwardistributedforpublicconsumptionisfullofeuphemismssuchasliquidation, collateraldamage,andtakeouttoconcealbrutalrealities.Themythofthenobleheroisoneofthe mostentrenchedliesofmodernwarfare.Formuchofthetwentiethcentury,violent,mentallyunstable individuals,andespeciallyexconvictswereseenasparticularlydesirablerecruits.AsoneWorldWarI militarypsychologistputit,thebestsoldierismoreorlessanaturalbutcher,amanwhocaneasily submittothedominationofintellectualinferiors.28Meninthefieldoftendidnothaveaveryhigh opinionofheroes,regardingthemasinhumanandunreliable.29Ontheindividuallevel,too,agood fighterneedstoknowhowtofeint.JoeTorres,aformerlightheavyweightboxingchampionofthe world,onceremarkedtoFloydPatterson,Afeintisanoutrightlie....Alefthookoffthejabisaclassy lie.30 Deceptionisexcusableinwarfare,butnotinscience.Nevertheless,someofourmostrevered scientificiconshavenotbeenaversetofudgingthedatawhenitsuitedtheirpurposes.SirIsaacNewton attemptedtomollifycriticsofhismasterpiece,thePrincipiaMathematica,bymodifyingdatatoagree preciselywithhistheory,eventuallyclaiminganimplausibledegreeofprecisioninhismeasurementsof physicalphenomena.31Intheyear1712,anacrimoniousprioritydisputebrokeoutbetweenNewton andtheGermanphilosopher/scientistGottfriedLeibnizovertheinventionofcalculus.Itwasresolvedin NewtonsfavorinareportpublishedbytheBritishRoyalSociety.Infact,theentirereport,which tendentiouslysupportedNewtonsclaim,wasclandestinelypennedbySirIsaachimself!32In1936,the distinguishedgeneticistSirRonaldFisherpointedoutthatGregorMendel,thescientifictitanwho discoveredthefundamentalprinciplesofgenetics,appearstohaveadjustedhisdatainmuchthe samemannerasNewton.Mendelsresultswerejusttoogoodtobetrue.33SigmundFreud,whohas longbeenregardedasaparagonofunflinchinghonesty,hasbeendevastatinglyportrayedinrecent scholarshipasaserialdeceiver.34Theelaborateprecautionstakenbymodernsciencecanconstrainbut notobliteratethealltoohumaninclinationtodeceive. Itisnottruethatlyingisusuallyconsciousandcalculating.Asaspecies,wearesowellpracticed intheartofdeceptionthatitcomestousalmostasnaturallyandeffortlesslyasbreathing.Justtry keepingtrackofthecountlessdeceptionsthatyou,andallofus,perpetrateonanordinarydayandyou willquicklydiscoverthatyourarelyhavetoworkatdeception.Evenverballiesslideoffthetongueso

effortlesslythattheyoftenremainunnoticedbytheirfabricator,whichleadsustothetopicofself deception.

ThePuzzleofSelfDeception
Notonlydowefinditalltooeasytodeceiveothers,butalsoweareequallyadeptatdeceiving ourselves.Asisthecasewithlying,Ipreferanexpansivedefinitiontoarestrictiveone:selfdeceptionis anymentalprocessorbehaviorthefunctionofwhichistoconcealinformationfromonesown consciousmind. Selfdeceptionhasbeenapuzzleforpsychologistsandphilosophersformorethantwo millennia.Thereseemstobesomethinginherentlyparadoxicalaboutapersonsimultaneouslydeceiving himselfandbeingavictimofhisorherowndeception.Thepopularviewofselfdeceptionisstrongly negative.Lyingtooneselfissupposedtoberootedinfear,guilt,ormentaldisorder.Somethinkersfind thewholeideasopreposterousthattheydenythatgenuineselfdeceptionexists.35Howisitpossiblefor boththedeceiverandthedeceivedtobethesameperson?Otherscompareselfdeceptiontoour deceptionofothers,suggestingthatselfdeceptionmustinvolveafragmentationofthepersonalityinto severalinteractingsubminds,andthatselfdeceptionhappenswhenoneofthesecomponentssucceeds infoolingtheothersinordertogetitsway.36 Wecanacceptthat,inspiteoftheapparentparadoxinvolved,selfdeceptionisperfectlyreal, andwedonothavetoswallowtheideaofsubpersonalitiesinordertocashitin.Themainobstacleto understandingselfdeceptionisasetoffalseandrestrictivecommonsensicalbeliefsaboutthenatureof thehumanmind.TheseconceptsarepartofwhatphilosopherscalltheCartesianworldview,because theyweremostpowerfullyandelegantlyformulatedbytheFrenchpolymathReneDescartesearlyin theseventeenthcentury.Descartesproposedthatthemindisallconsciousness.Inotherwords,weare immediatelyandautomaticallyawareofeverythinggoingoninourheads.Healsoassertedthatwe simplycannotbemistakenaboutwhatgoesoninourinnerworld:eachofusisthesole,infallible,and unimpeachableauthorityonourmentalstates.Ifthisistrue,itmeansthatsimpleintrospection,the practiceoflookingintoonesownmind,wouldbetheonlymethodrequiredforselfknowledge. Descartesalsopromotedtheideathatthemind,self,orsoulisaspiritualentitystandingoutsidethe messymaterialrealmofneurons,synapses,andneurotransmitters.Thisfullyconsciousselfis autonomous,capableoffreewilland,inthewordsofatwentiethcenturyCartesian,condemnedto freedom.37 Forthebetterpartof250years,Descartesstheoryanditslatervariantsdominatedattemptsto understandthemind.OneofthepeopleinstrumentalinwreckingtheCartesianmonopolywasayoung neurologistnamedSigmundFreud.Freudwaswellinformedaboutnewscientificinvestigationsinto hypnosis,dreams,mentalillness,andorganicdisordersofthebrainthatcalledtheCartesianconception ofthemindintoquestion.Herealizedthatthemindmustbeidenticaltothebrain,andthattheslimy ballofnervetissueinsideourskullsissomehowresponsibleforthetotalityofoursubjectivementallife: ourthoughts,hopes,dreams,fears,andfantasies. Freudarguedthatthebraincontainsanumberofmodules,functionalsystemsthatcarryout specificactivities.Mostcontroversially,heproposedthatthepartofthebrainthatthinksisentirely distinctfromthepartofthebrainthatisconscious.Inotherwords,allthinkingisessentially unconscious,aconceptwewilldelveintomorefullyinchapter5.Inordertoenterconsciousness, informationhastopassfromthethinkingparttotheconsciousnessproducingpartofthebrain.This flowofinformationtakestimeandiscontrolledbyasystemofcognitivefiltersthatdeterminewhich thoughtswillenterconsciousnessandwhichwillremainexcludedfromawareness.AccordingtoFreud, itispreciselythegapbetweencognitionandconsciousness,andthecognitivebouncerstanding betweenthem,thatmakesselfdeceptionpossible.InFreudsstory,theunified,Cartesianselfisamyth.

Itisnothingmorethananimageprojectedontothescreenofconsciousness,pureoutput,aseductive mirageproducedbyamassivelyinterconnectednetworkofelectrochemicalswitchesinthefleshand bloodmachinethatwecallthebrain. Introspectiondoesnotprovideinsightintotheworkingsoftheneuralmachinerythatgenerates itanymorethanthedisplayonacomputermonitorprovidesapictureoftheprocessestakingplace withintheprocessingunit.Furthermore,oursubjectiveaccountofourselvesishighlytendentious, becausetheinformationonwhichitisbasedhasbeencarefullyeditedbeforebeingpublishedasa consciousselfrepresentation.Theconsciousselfisfiction,acreationofthemindratherthanits underpinning.Thewellspringsofthought,emotion,andbehaviorarefoundinthatobscureregionofthe mindthatFreudcalledtheunconscious.38 MostofFreudscontemporariesweresteepedintheCartesiantraditionandregardedhis conceptionofthemindasabsurdifnotrepugnant.Manypresentdaypsychologistshavealsofoundit alltooeasytodismissFreudsviewsonconsciousnessandtheunconsciousasnothingmorethan dubious,pseudoscientificspeculations;and,althoughmanyofFreudsspecifichypothesesaboutthe humanmindhavebeenroundlydiscredited,researchcarriedoutbycognitivepsychologistsand neuroscientistsoverthelastfortyyearshasvindicatedmuchofhisgeneralconceptionofthe architectureofthehumanmind.Theideathatmentalprocessesconsistofnothingmorethan neurophysiologicalstateswasextremelyradicalin1895,butisnowadaysthecommonposition.A numberofpsychologistsnowacceptthatconsciousnessdisplaysratherthangeneratesinformation.39 Cognitivescientistsroutinelyspeakofnonconsciousorautomaticmentalprocesses,oftenavoiding thespecifictermunconscious,whichmeansthesamething,forfearofbeingtarredwiththeFreudian brush.Theliteratureonexperimentalsocialpsychologyhasrepeatedlyconfirmedtheclaimthatthe informationaboutourmentalprocessesprovidedbyintrospectionishighlyunreliable.40 Thenotionthathumanbeingsdeceivethemselvesabouttheirowndesiresistheleitmotifof Freudianpsychology,butFreudandhisfollowersremainedblithelyunconcernedaboutprovidingany scientificevidencefortheirclaims.Suchevidencewouldhavecertainlystrengthenedtheplausibilityof theirproposalthatconsciousnessisdrenchedinselfdeception.Fortunately,wedonothavefartolook forthiskindofresearchtoday.Thereisasmallbutnonethelesssuggestivescientificliteratureonself deception. Wishfulthinking,thetendencytobelievesomethingsimplybecauseyouwouldlikeittobetrue, isatypeofselfdeceptiontowhichweareallprone.AlargesurveyofAmericanhighschoolseniors revealedthatafull70percentthoughttheyhadhigherthanaverageleadershipability,whileamere2 percentjudgedthemselvestobebelowaverage.Alloftheonemillionstudentssurveyedthoughtthey hadanaboveaverageabilitytogetalongwithothers.Ofthese,60percentputthemselvesinthetop10 percent,while25percentconsideredthemselvestobeinthehighest1percent.Thesefigurescannot simplybeattributedtoyouthfulinexperience:asurveyofcollegeprofessorsrevealedthatallbut7 percentbelievedthattheywerebetterthanaverageattheirwork.41 Sexualityisarichrepositoryofselfdeceptivethinking.Inanamusingexperimentalstudythatis widelycitedintheliterature,twogroupsofheterosexualmenwereshownavarietyoferoticfilms.42 Onegroupconsistedofmenwhowerecomfortableinthepresenceofhomosexuals,whilethesecond consistedentirelyofhomophobicmen.Eachgroupviewedaselectionofgraphicfilmsdepicting homosexual,lesbian,andheterosexualerotica.Theywerealsoconnectedtoaplethysmograph,adevice thatmeasuressubtlechangesinthecircumferenceofthepenis.Theplethysmographicreadings demonstratedthatthelesbianandheterosexualfilmsexcitedbothgroupsofmen,butthatonlythe homophobicmenwerephysicallyarousedbythehomosexualfilms.However,whenexperimenters askedthem,allofthehomophobicmenflatlydeniedthatthesightofmenhavingsexwithoneanother hadstimulatedthem.Ofcourse,itispossiblethattheywerelying,butitisalsopossiblethattheywere

deceivingthemselvesabouttheirownsexualresponses.Ifthissuggestionseemsimplausiblenow,itwill seemlesssobythetimeyouhavefinishedreadingthisbook. MostofustendtoadheretotheoutdatedCartesianprinciplethatmotivationisfirstperson transparent:thatis,thatweallknowwhywedowhatwedo,despitetheconsiderableevidencethat thisisnotalwaystrue.Considerthebystanderphenomenonbelovedofsocialpsychologists.OnMarch 13,1964,awomannamedKittyGenovesewasbrutallyattackedandrepeatedlystabbedwhilewalking fromtheparkinglottoherNewYorkCityapartmentbuilding.Herattackerreturnedthreetimesduring thethirtyfiveminutesbetweenthefirstassaultandthefinal,deadlystab,andalthoughshescreamed, Oh,myGod,hestabbedme.Pleasehelpme!andlatercriedoutImdying!notoneofthethirty eightpeoplewhoobservedthescenefromtheirapartmentwindowsbotheredtocallthepolice.Later, eachofthewitnessessaidthattheyhadassumedsomeoneelsehadalreadycalled911.Inwhathas becomeaclassicstudyofhelpingbehavior,twosocialpsychologists,BibbLatanandJohnDarley,were inspiredbytheGenovesemurdertoinvestigatewhattheycalledthebystandereffect.Inone experiment,theyengineeredsituationsinwhichsubjectsontheirownwerefacedwithsomeonehaving a(simulated)epilepticseizure,whileinothercasesthishappenedinthepresenceofbystanders.Asit turnedout,subjectswerelessandlesslikelytocometothepersonsassistanceasthenumberof bystandersincreased,aneffectattributedtothediffusionofresponsibility,theassumptionthat someoneelsewillhelp.LatanandDarleyassumedthatthedecisionnottohelpwhenthereareothers aroundisaperfectlyconsciousone,andwereastonishedtodiscoverthattheirsubjectswerecompletely unawareoftheimpactofthepresenceofotherpeopleontheirbehavior.Weaskedthisquestionevery wayweknewhow:subtly,directly,tactfully,bluntly.Alwayswegotthesameanswer.Subjects persistentlyclaimedthattheotherpeoplepresentdidnotinfluencetheirbehavior.43Thedecisionto refrainfromhelpingwasbasedonunconsciousratherthanconsciousconsiderations.Althoughthese individualsbelievedthattheirbehaviorhadnothingtodowiththepresenceofothersaroundthem, theywereclearlyselfdeceived.Thesocialpsychologicalliteratureisfullofsimilarexamples. Manymentalhealthprofessionalspromotetheideathatdepressionandotheremotional disorderssteminlargemeasurefromirrationalthinking.Depressives,theyclaim,believefalseideas aboutthemselvesandothers.Theyareselfdeceivedandoutoftouchwithreality.Irrational,self deceptivethinkingisallegedtobeafactordistinguishingdepressedpeoplefromnormalones,butthis psychiatrichomilyturnsouttobebadlymistaken.44Scientificresearchleadstotheoppositeconclusion thatdepressivesseemtohaveabettergraspofrealitythanthenormalpsychiatriststreatingthem. LaurenAlloyofTempleUniversityinPhiladelphiaandLynAbramsonoftheUniversityofWisconsin designedanexperimentinwhichoneoftheinvestigatorssecretlymanipulatedtheoutcomeofaseries ofgames.Bothdepressedandnondepressedsubjectstookpartinthesefixedgames.Psychologistshave longknownthatnormalthinkinginvolvesanelementofgrandiosity:wetendtogiveourselvescredit wheneventsworkinourfavor,butdishouttheblametootherswhentheypanouttoourdisadvantage. Truetoform,thenondepressedsubjectsoverestimatedthedegreetowhichtheyhadpersonally influencedtheoutcomewhenthegamewasriggedsothattheydidwell,andunderestimatedtheirown contributiontotheoutcomewhentheydidpoorly.Turningtothedepressedsubjects,Alloyand Abramsonfoundthatdepressedindividualsassessedbothsituationsfarmorerealistically.Therather startlingconclusionisthatdepressivesmaysufferfromadeficitinselfdeception.Similarresultswere obtainedbythedistinguishedbehavioralpsychologistPeterLewinsohn,whofoundthatdepressed peopleareoftenabletojudgeothersimpressionsofthemmoreaccuratelythannondepressed subjectsare.Infact,thesepeoplesabilitytomakeaccurateinterpersonaljudgementsdegeneratedas theirdepressivesymptomsdiminishedinresponsetotreatment.45Othershavefoundthathighlevelsof selfdeceptionarestronglycorrelatedwithconventionalnotionsofmentalhealth,andthatsubjects withsocalledmentaldisordersevidencelowerlevelsofselfdeceptionthannormalpeople.46This researchsuggests(although,ofcourse,doesnotconclusivelyprove)thatnormalitywhateverthat

wordmeansmayrestonafoundationofselfdeception.Removeorunderminethefoundation,and depressionorotherformsofemotionaldifficultymayemerge.Ifmentalhealthdependsuponaliberal doseofselfdeceptionthenperhaps,asthephilosopherDavidNybergwrylyremarks,Selfknowledge isntallthatitscrackeduptobe.47 Ifitistruethatweareallnaturalbornliars,itfollowsthatthescientificinvestigationofhuman naturerunsagainstthegrainofhumannatureitself.Itistriplyparadoxicalthatalthoughwearetheonly animalthathasevolvedamindwiththeremarkablepowertoscientificallyanalyzeitsownnature,this samemindhasbeenconfiguredbytheforcesofnaturalselectiontoopposeanddismisstheoutcomeof thisinvestigation.Perhapsthebestplacetostartistolookattheroleofdishonestyinotherorganisms. Indoingthis,wecanbegintounderstandjusthownaturaldeceptionisandtogetasenseofthe strategiesthatwehaveinheritedfromourprehumanancestorsastheyslowlytrudgeddownthelong roadofevolution.

ManipulatorsandMindReaders
Butthereverseoftruthhasahundredthousandforms,andafieldindefinite,without boundorlimit. Montaigne Lyingisanaturalphenomenon.Thebiosphereteemswithmendacity.Deceptionisso widespreadamongstnonhumanspecies,soperfectlynormalandexpectable,thatanyattemptto catalogueitcomprehensivelywouldbefutile. Weshouldnotexpectanythingdifferentwhenwelookathumannature.Deceitispartofour nature,justasitispartoftheirs.Ifanything,ourbigbrains,intensesociality,andbehavioralflexibility implythatweshouldbecapableofdeceptivefeatsthatarefarmoreintricateanddeviousthananything thatcanbeobservedintherepertoireofnonhumanspecies.Withthislineagebehindus,itishardly surprisingthathumansocietyisinlargemeasureadenselywovenfabricoftrickeryanddissimulation. Thischapterhastwoaims(inadditiontoentertainingyouwithsomewondrousstoriesabout animalbehavior):toprovethatdeceitisnaturalandthatwearenotaloneinourdispositionto dishonesty;andtoshowthatevenverysimpleorganismsarecapableofimmenselysubtleformsof deceptionandmanipulation.Ifevenabrainlessorchidcanwrapawasparounditsmetaphoricallittle finger,thenthislendscredencetotheviewthatthehumancapacityfordeception,andtherelated phenomenaofdeceptiondetectionandunconsciouscommunication,mustbeformidableindeed. Fromthelowlyvirustothegreatapes,livingthingsexchangemeaningfulsignalsTheyengagein conversationsexpressedinlanguagesofformandcolor,chemicals,behavior,andsoundratherthan wordsandsentences.Themomentthatyoustepoutsideyourfrontdoor,youarebombardedbya cacophonyofmessagesexpressedinamillionlanguagesthatyoudonotunderstandandofwhichyou maynotevenbeaware.Thecoloroftheautumnleaves,thesongofamockingbird,theheadycocktail offlowerscents,thechemicaltrailcrossingthesidewalkalongwhichblackantsbusilymarch,allof theseandmorearepartofamassiveconversation. Onceuponatime,biologistsbelievedthatthefunctionofanimalandplantcommunicationisto transmittrueinformationfromsendertoreceiver.Thisreassuring,commonsensicalideaiswrong.It reflectsanidealizationofnature,afailuretoobservecloselyandtoabandondeeplyingrained prejudicesaboutthemoralorderoftheworld.Ofcourse,assoonasweadmitthatdeceptionisnatural, wearejustashortstepawayfromrecognizingthatlyingcomesnaturallytoourownspeciesaswell.For reasonsthatwillbecomeapparentinfuturechapters,thisisgenerallyverydifficultforustoavow Toflourish,livingthingsmustbeabletomakegooduseoftheresourcesaroundthem,and theseresourcesincludeotherorganisms.Ifacreaturecannotgetwhatitwantsfromothersby

exercisingforce,itmustdosobyusingguile.Someanimalsapplythesocalledpuppetmasterstrategy oftinkeringdirectlywithanothercreaturesbrain.Forexample,Euhaplorchiscaliforniensis,aparasitic flukethatinfectsbandedkillifishthatliveinthecoastalmarshesofCalifornia,causesitshosttoloseits normalsensitivitytodanger.Afterenteringthroughthegills,thistinyhijackerfollowsanervetothe littlefishsbrain,whereitsetsupalaboratorytomanufacturechemicalsthatplayhavocwiththefishs nervoussystem.Beforelong,theinfectedfishstartstobehavestrangely,spendingalotoftime shimmyingostentatiously,swimmingnearthesurfaceononeside,andexposingitsshinybellytothe glintofsunshine.Theserecklesslysuicidalbehaviorsadvertisethefishspresencetoshorebirdsonthe prowlforlunch.Infectedkillifishareconsequentlyfourtimesmorelikelythantheiruninfectedpeersto besnappedupbyhungrybirds.Thisisallpartoftheflukesdeviousplan.Ittamperswiththeneural mechanismsresponsibleforthekillifishsswimmingbehaviorbecauseitneedstogetintoashorebirds stomachtocompletethenextstageofitslifecycle.Adifferentspecies,Crassiphialabulgoglossa, accomplishesthesamegoalusingonlyslightlydifferentmeans.Itperformsneurosurgeryonthehapless fishtomakeitantisocial.Theinfectedkillifishdonotshoalwithothersoftheirkindinthepresenceofa predatorybird,whichmakesthemmuchmorelikelytobeeatenthanwouldotherwisebethecase.1 Forareallyintricateexampleofdirectphysiologicalmanipulation,itshardtobeattherat tapeworm.Theserepulsivecreaturesliveinsiderats,wheretheygrowtoaremarkablesize,andpass theireggsoutwiththeratsfeces.Theratdroppings,whichareseededwithtapewormeggs,arealso lacedwithchemicalsthatgivethemanaromathatscavengingbeetlesfindutterlyirresistible.Oncea beetleconsumeseggladenratdung,theinfantparasitesemergeandboretheirwayintoits bloodstream.Theimmaturetapewormsnextgettoworkproducingchemicalstomeddlewiththeir hostsmetabolism,preventingitfromusingitsbodyfattosupportthedevelopmentofitsownovaries, anddivertingthefattofeedtheravenousworms.Havingwaxedstrongonthebeetlesreservesand sterilizedthepoorcreatureintheprocess,thetapewormsneedtomakeanexit.Theyarrangethisby thesimpleexpedientofmanufacturingopiatesthatmakethebughigh.Theeuphoricbeetlesstumble aroundslowly,lackadaisically,andoblivioustoperil.Atthispoint,onlyonehurdlestandsbetweenthe tapewormsandtheirobjectiveofgettingintoaratsdigestivesystem.Thescavengerbeetlesare equippedwithapairofglandsthatsecreteanastysubstanceintothemouthofanyratthattriesto munchonthem.So,inordertomaximizethechancesofreachingtheirdestination,anotherrat,where thewholecyclewillbeginagain,therelentlesstapewormschemicallydisablethebeetlesfinaldefense againstpredation:theyknockoutitsdefensiveglands.2 Thiskindofinvasivephysiologicalinterventionis,inthegrandschemeofthings,arelatively uncommonapproachtobehavioralmanipulation.Itismoreusualforlivingthingstoexploitoneanother bysendingdishonestsignals.Manipulatingacreaturebysignalsisaverydifferentmatterfrom manipulatingitbyforce.Inordertomanipulateanotherbyforce,ananimalneedonlybestrongorfast enoughtogetwhatitwants.Themoresubtletechniquesofmanipulatingothersentirelybythe deceptiveuseofsignalsrequiresittofindawaytogettheanimaltomoveitselfinthedesired direction.3Justasanintuitiveunderstandingofthelawsofphysicsallowsachimpanzeetocracknuts withastone,soanunderstandingofthelawsofbehaviormakesitpossibleforoneorganismto convinceanothertodoitsbidding. Oneoptionistousetheartofseduction.Thepollinationstrategiesofthebeeorchidsof southernEuropeandNorthAfricaprovidesomeamazingexamples.Oneofthese,themirrororchid (Orphysspeculum)producessmallflowerswithnonectartoattractpotentialpollinators.Buttheorchids haveaspecialrusetoseducetheunwary:theyimpersonatefemalewaspsofthespeciesthatpollinates them. Thebluevioletcenteroftheflowerresemblesthereflectionsfromthehalfwaycrossedwingsof arestingfemale.Athicksetoflong,redhairsimitatesthehairsfoundontheinsectsabdomen.The

antennaeofthefemalewasparebeautifullyreproducedbytheupperpetalsoftheorchid,whichare darkandthreadlike.4 Ineffect,theorchidproducesinsectpornographytocapitalizeonthewaspssexualurges.5Asis thecaseinanyscam,timingiscrucial.Malesofthepollinatingspeciesmatureaboutamonthearlier thanthefemales,andduringthisperiod,theorchidsaretheonlyactionaround.Theflowersscheme beginswiththereleaseofastrongscentthatsimulatesthepheromones(sexuallyarousingchemicals) releasedbyfemalewasps.Theartificialwaspscentisactuallyhyperpotent:itissoeffectivethatmales aremoreattractedtothescentoftheorchidthantheyaretothatofrealfemales.Theintoxicating fragrance,combinedwiththebeguilingshapeoftheflower,luresthemalewaspintoanarousingyet ultimatelyfrustratingcrossspecieseroticentanglement. Inarealcopulation,malesusethehairsonthefemalesabdomentogetthemselvesintothe rightpositionformating.Thespecificstimulithatwouldbringaboutejaculationarenotpresent,sothe wasp,unabletoobtainsatisfaction,lingersontheflower,pickingupmoreandmorepolleninhis desperateattempttobreed.Bitingtheflowerinfrustration,heonlysucceedsinreleasingmore imitationwasppheromonestobewitchhissenses;and,whenhefinallyleaves,itisnotlongbeforehe fallsundertheseductivespellofanotherflower,depositingonitsomeofthepollenthatisstillclinging tohisbody,andpickingupsomemore,thusunwittinglyservingtheorchidsreproductiveinterests.

MindReading
Themirrororchidexploitsthewaspinamannerthatissimilartothetechniquesusedbyhuman scamartists,andjustlikeahumanconman,theorchidhastobeagoodpsychologistinordertopullit off.Ithastounderstandwhatmotivatesitsvictim,andusethisknowledgeforitsownends.Inthe lingointroducedbyzoologistsJohnKrebsandRichardDawkins,theorchidhastobeagoodmind reader.6Itmaysoundstrangetospeakofabrainlessplantbeingamindreaderandpossessing knowledge,butthismaybenothingmorethanareflectionofourparochialhumancenteredprejudices. Humanknowledgemaybejustaspecialcaseofthebroadercategoryofbiologicalknowledge,the wisdomexpressedintheinnumerablewaysthatorganismsareadaptedtotheirenvironments.All adaptations,writesUniversityofLondonpsychologistHenryPlotkin,areknowledge.Adaptations suchasthemirrororchidsuncannyabilitytomanipulateitspollinatorexpresstheaccumulatedwisdom ofmillionsofyearsoftrialanderrorexperimentation,millionsofyearsofevolution.7 Lifeisfulloftoughdecisions.Animalsareconstantlyconfrontedwithchoicesabouthowto avoidbeingsomeonesdinner,withwhomtomate,withwhomtofight,fromwhomtoflee,andsoon. Whatmakesachoicetherightonedependsontheanimalsassessmentofthelikelyoutcome.Foran animalthathasanykindofsociallifeorwhoisapredatororwhoispreyedupon,writeKrebsand Dawkins,theseprobableconsequenceswilldependcruciallyontheinternalmotivationalstateand probablefuturebehaviorofotheranimalsrivals,mates,parents,offspring,prey,predators,parasites, hosts.8Inotherwords,animalsmustbeabletopredictthebehaviorofothers. IrecentlywitnessedanimpressivedemonstrationofmindreadingwhenIdiscoveredafamilyof squirrelsnestinginmyattic.WhenIclambereduptoinvestigatethesourceofthescurryingsoundsthat werekeepingmywifeandmeawake,thealarmedmothersquirreldivedoutofaroofvent,buther threeadolescentoffspringhunkereddown.AsIscrambledprecariouslyoverthebeamstryingtocatch theseyoungsters,whiletryingtoavoidputtingmyfeetthroughthebedroomceiling,Ibecamepainfully awarethatevadingcapturewaschildsplayforthem.Therodentssizedmeup,anticipatedwhatIwas abouttodo,andchoseevasivetacticsthatfrustratedmyeveryattemptatcapture.Onlyananimal friendlysquirreltrapsecuredmyultimatetriumph.

Now,howdidtheselittlecreaturesconsistentlymanagetooutwitabigbrainedprimatelike me?Giventhefactthattheyhadnopriorcontactwithpredators(theywerebornandraisedinmy attic),howcouldtheypossiblyhaveacquiredtheseskills?Theanswerliesinthehistoryoftheirspecies. Thesquirrelsabilitytopredictmyactionswasrootedincognitiveadaptationshandeddownfrom ancestralsquirrelsdealingswithpredators.Theycouldintuitivelyreadmebecausethoseoftheir predecessorswhowereunabletodosoleftnodescendantstocreepintolofts.Itisonlybecause ancestralsquirrelsneverhadtograpplewithwiremeshtrapsfromthehardwarestorethattheir descendantsarevulnerabletothisdeceptivepredatorytactic. Mindreadingfacilitatesdeception,anddeceptionencouragesmindreading.Ifoneorganism knowswhatanotherisafter,ifitisabletodivineitsmoodandsecondguessitsreactions,thisopensthe doorforexploitationandmanipulation.Similarly,anabilitytoreadmindsgivesprotectionagainst manipulation.Mindreadingandmanipulationbounceoffeachotherinanintimatedialecticspiraling throughevolutionarytime.Youwilldiscovermoreaboutthisrelationshipinchapter3.

PokerFacedLiars
Onewaytofoolothersistobecomeinvisible.Camouflage,orcrypsisasbiologistscallit,isthe artofconcealment.Itenablesananimaltohideinplainsighteitherbyblendinginwithitsbackground orbydisguisingitselfassomeparticularobjectthatisofnointeresttothecreaturefromwhichitis hiding.Onecommontechniqueischangingcolortomatchthebackground,associatedinthepopular imaginationwithasurreallittleAfricanlizardcalledthechameleon.Infact,itisalsousedbyworms, mollusks,insects,spiders,fish,amphibians,andevenbirdsandmammals.Colorshiftingisnottheonly kindofquickchangeartistry.Somespeciesofcuttlefish,forexample,areabletomodifythetextureof theirbodysurfaceandcanevensproutnewappendagestobecomeindistinguishablefromtheir environment. Inmysteryfilms,thevictimoftennoticesaconcealedmurdererbytheshadowhecasts.This dramaticdeviceisbiologicallyrealistic:shadowscanbeadeadgiveawaytopredatorsandpreyalike. Someanimalshavedealtwiththisproblembyevolvingflattenedbodyformsthatdontcastmuchofa shadow.Others,suchasthedomesticcat,flattentheirbodyasmuchaspossiblewhenadvancingon theirprey.CountershadingprovidesyetanotherwrinkleoncolorcamouflageAcountershadedanimalis darkeronitsbackthanonitsbelly.Thisarrangementmakessenseifyouconsiderthefactthatlight almostalwaysstrikesananimalfromabove,sothatitsbackisusuallymorehighlyilluminatedthanits underside.Havingabackthatisdarkerthanitsundersidecompensatesforthisfactorandhelpsan animaltoblendinwithitsenvironmentmoreeffectively.Athirdtechnique,disruptivecoloration, exemplifiedbythewildpatternofazebrasstripes,isveryusefulforherdanimalsbecausethenitis difficultforapredatortotellwhereoneanimalendsandanotherbegins.9 Aproblemwithmostformsofcamouflageisthattheyareonlyeffectivewhentheanimalare standingstill.Nomatterhowperfectthedisguise,assoonastheanimaltakesastep,thespellisbroken anditstandsoutlikeasorethumb.Thispresentsaspecialproblemforpredatorsthatneedtostalktheir prey.Theusualsolutionistocreepupslowly,sothatyourvictimdoesnotnoticethatyouaremoving untilthefinalsprintatcloserange.Thezonetailedhawk(Buteoalbonotatus)hashitonanalternative approach:itusesaformofmovingcamouflage.Thehawkblendsinwithacrowdofturkeyvultures languidlycruisingalonginsearchofcarcasses.Beingscavengers,vulturesarenothreattothesmall birdsandmammalsuponwhichthehawkfeeds.Itisonlyafterthevultureshappentoglideneartothe prospectivepreythatthehawkbreakscoverandswoopsinforthekill.10

Theformsofspecificcamouflageareextraordinarilyvaried.Creaturesspecializeinresembling twigs,leaves,flowers,coral,pebbles,andevensplatteredbirddroppings.However,crypsisisarelatively simpleformofdeceitthatshadesoverintosomethingmuchmorecomplex:theartofmimicry.

Mimics,Models,andDupes
Analternativetoinvisibilityistoassumeadisguise,takeonafalseidentity,andbecomea mimic.Mimicryisacongameinvolvingthreeparties:themimic(whoperformsthedeception),the model(whomthemimicpretendstobe),andthedupe(whoishoodwinked).Biologistshaveidentified severalformsofmimicry,althoughthiscategorizationisprobablynotexhaustive.11 ThehistoryofthestudyofmimicrybeginswiththeVictoriannaturalistHenryW.Bates.While collectingspecimensdeepintheAmazonianrainforest,Batesnoticedastrongresemblancebetween twoentirelyunrelatedkindsofbutterflies.Heliconidbutterflieshaveanawfultastethatbirdsavoid,but thestrikinglysimilarPieridsareanaviandelicacy.BatesinferredthatthePieridbutterflieshadevolved toresembletheHeliconidsbecausethesimilarityprotectedthemfrombirds.Batesianmimicry,asit cametobecalled,occurswhenaninnocuouscreatureimitatesanastyone. Thelittlebushveldlizard(Helioboluslugubris)isnativetotheKalahariDesertofsouthernAfrica. Adultsarebuffcoloredandcamouflagewellagainstthedesertsurface.Theyoung,however,areblack tomimicthethoroughlyunpleasantoogpisterbeetle,whichdeploysanarsenalofpungentacids, aldehydes,andotherchemicalweaponsagainstpredators.Byimpersonatingoogpisters,thevulnerable littlelizardsbenefitfromthebeetlesdeservedlybadreputation.Theimpersonationshowscareful attentiontodetail.Notonlyaretheimmaturelizardsthesamecolorandsizeastheirmodel,butalso theyimitatethebeetlesjerky,stiffleggedroboticwalk.Itisonlyaftertheygrowtothesizeofthe largestoogpisters,beyondwhichpointthefraudwillnolongerwork,thattheyoungstersabandontheir beetlemannerismsandmetamorphoseintotheadultcolor.12 TheshowputonbytheNorthAmericanhognosesnake(Heterodonplatirhinos)isoneofthe worldsmostextravagantexamplesofBatesianmimicry.Whenapproachedbyanerstwhilepredator, suchasahumanbeing,thisnonpoisonoussnakepretendstobeangryanddangeroustobenear:it flattensitshead,spreadsoutahoodresemblingthatofacobra,andhissesviolently.Sometimesit pretendstostrike,withmaniacalaggression,allthewhilekeepingitsmouthdiscreetlyclosed.Ifthis tacticfallsshortofterrifyingtheinterloper,thesnakeperformsamelodramaticdeathscene,writhingin agonyandfinallyflippingoveronitsbackandexpiringwithmouthgapingandtonguelollingout pathetically.Foraddedpathositmayevendripbloodfromitseyesandemitadisgustingsmell apparentlytogivetheimpressionthatitisnotmerelydead,butisactuallyrotting!Ifonetriestospoil theeffectbyreachingdownandturningthesnakeover,itwillimmediatelyflipbackintothebellyup deadposition.13 ThegreatestBatesianimpersonatorisatwofootlongoctopusnativetothewatersoffSulawesi andBali,Indonesia.Themimicoctopus,whichatthetimeofwritinghasnotyetbeenassigneda scientificname,isatruemasterofdeception,withanastoundingrepertoireofimpersonationsoftoxic species.Sometimesitdisguisesitselfasthevenomoussole,aflatfishnativetothesewaters,by shootingthroughthewaterwithitsarmsarrangedinadisklikeconfigurationanditsbodyundulatingin afishlikeswimmingmotion.Atothertimes,theoctopusdonsthegarbofthespiky,noxiouslionfishby spreadingitsarmsinawonderfulimitationofthelionfishsfinsandfloatingalongjustabovethe bottom.Intheblinkofaneye,theoctopusdisguisesitselfastwoseasnakesbyburyingsixofits tentaclesinthemudandleavingtwofreetowaveinthecurrent.Thetentacleschangecolor,developing theblackandwhitebandscharacteristicoftheirmodel,thesnake.Thisversatiledeceivermayalsobe abletoimpersonatevariousotherseacreatures.14

AggressiveorPeckhamianmimicryusestheLittleRedRidingHoodmethod:apredator disguisesitselfassomethingattractivetoitsprey.Thealligatorsnappingturtle(Macrochelystemmincki) isalargeandextremelymenacinglookingreptilenativetotheAmericanSouth.Snappersaremassive reptiles,weighingupto250pounds.Obviously,theyarenotbuiltforhighspeedchases,nordothey havetobe.Thesnapperspendsitsdayslyinginertlyatthebottomofacreekorbayou,whereit resemblesarottenlog,withitslargemouthwideopen.Theliningoftheturtlesmouthisgray,butright atthebackthereisavibrantpinkimitationwormthatbeckonsinvitinglytopassingfish.Anyfishfoolish enoughtoinvestigateiseitherswallowedwholeorslicedinhalfbytheturtlesrazorsharpjaws.Some varietiesoftheextraordinarilybizarrefrogfish(familyAntennariidae)thatliveintheperpetualtwilight ofdeepwaterareequippedwithalongmovablespineattachedtotheheadthatactsasafishingrod festoonedwithglowinthedarkartificialbait.Justlikeanexpertangler,thedeepseafrogfishmoves thebioluminescentlureinapatterncalculatedtointerestitsprey,whilereleasingchemicalattractants intothewater.Whensomepoorcreatureapproachesforanibble,thefrogfishopensitsvastmouthand withunbelievablerapidity(onesixthousandthofasecond)devoursitspreyinonemagnificentgulp.15 SomefirefliesofthegenusPhoturisuseafemmefatalevarianttoleadmalesofotherspeciesto theirdemise.Firefliesusetheirluminousabdomenstoflirt.Flashingoutasexymessagethattheyknow willtitillatemalesofthetargetspecies,thesedeadlyladiesattacktheirsuitors,feastontheirflesh,and robthemofdefensivechemicals.16Bolasspiders(Mastophorahutchinsoni)churnoutimitationmoth pheromonestoattractameal.Thesesmallcreaturesspinasinglestrandofsilk,afishinglineattheend ofwhichisastickyhooksoakedwithsimulatedmothpheromones.Whenthespiderfeelsthewing beatsofanapproachingmoth,itwavesitssilktrapintheairratherlikeananglercastinghisline.Once snared,thespiderhasonlytoreelinthemoth.17 JumpingspidersofthegenusPortiaaretruevirtuososofdeception.Inthefirstplace,theydont looklikespidersatall:theyresemblepiecesofdebris,whichisagreatwaytodeceivebothpredators andprey.Unlikemostspiders,whichfeedoninsects,thebuttonsizedportiaspiderpreysonspidersup totwiceitssize.Tounderstanditsrefinedhuntingmethods,itisimportanttorealizethatmostspiders havelousyeyesightbutareexquisitelysensitivetothevibrationsoftheirwebandinterpretspecific patternswellenoughtodistinguishbetween,say,thequiveringproducedbyanensnaredgrasshopper strugglingtofreeitselfandthemovementsofadeadleafblownontothewebsstickysurface.Portia spidershaveunusuallysuperbeyesightand,aswewillsee,usetheireighteyesveryeffectivelywhen stalkingtheirkill. Oncethespiderzerosinonaspiderthatitfancieseating,itgingerlycreepsintothevictimsweb andadroitlyplucksatthethreadstosimulatetheeffectsproducedbyatrappedinsect.Now,eachtype ofspiderhasadifferentwayofinterpretingthevibrationsinitsweb,soinorderforthissleightofhand tobesuccessful,theportiaspidermustidentifythespeciesitishuntingandusethecorrectspecies specificpattern.Aninstinctiveknowledgeofmanyofthesepatternsishardwiredintotheportias minutebrain,soonceitmakesacorrectidentification,itcanadjustitseffortsaccordingly.Whatifthe spiderfindsitselfstalkingaspeciesforwhichitlacksapresetprogram?Noproblem.Ittriesout sequencesofrandomvariations,whilekeepingaclosewatchonitsquarry;and,assoonasthelatter respondsbyedgingcloser,ourprotagoniststopsgeneratingrandomvariationsandconcentrateson repeatingtheonepatternthatproducedthedesiredeffect.Thisisquiteadelicateoperation.Ifthe intendedvictimistoolargeandstrong,imitatingitspreycouldresultinarushedattack,turningthe tablesonthewouldbepredator.Thespiderpreemptsthisoutcomebycarefullyandsystematically controllingitsmarksbehavior.Itusesitssharpeyesighttoestimatethesizeofitsprospectivevictim, observesitsmovements,andusesthisinformationtofinetuneitstacticsinagameofcatandmouse thatcanlastforhours.Dangerouspreyaredrawninslowly,calmedbyhypnoticallymonotonousweb vibrations,andsteeredintoanorientationwhichgivesthepredatorthegreatestattackadvantage.The spidermayevenmakeelaboratestrategicdetours,includingthosethatrequireittomoveawayfrom

andtemporarilylosesightofitsprey.Sometimestheportiaspiderclimbsontoanoverhangingbranch andlowersitselfonasinglesilkthreadtowithinstrikingdistanceofitsunsuspectingquarry.Theother spider,feelingnovibrationsinitsweb,isoblivioustothepresenceofadeadlyassassin. Itisparticularlyadvantageousfortheportiaspidertoapproachinaroundaboutfashionwhen dealingwithspittingspiders,whichareabletospewtheirvenomatobjectsuptotenbodylengthsin frontofthem.InthePhilippines,whereportiaspiderspreyonspittingspiders,theymakeextensiveuse ofthedetourmethodtoapproachdangerouspreyfrombehind.Femalespittingspiderscarrytheiregg sacksaroundintheirmouthswhichpreventsthemfromsprayingpoisonatwouldbepredators.Portia takesaccountofthischinkinthesespidersarmor,andattackseggcarryingfemalesfromthefront. Whenthewindblowsorraindrops,twigs,orleavesfallontheweb,thepredatorcleverlyusesthe resultingvibrationsasasmokescreenforitsownmovementsandadvancesquicklytowarditsprey.In lesshospitablecircumstances,theportiaspidergeneratesitsownnoisebyshakingthewebin patternsthatmaskthetelltaleeffectsofitsownapproach.Notbadforananimalwithabrain considerablysmallerthantheheadofapin!18 Thestrategyknownassocialparasitismsometimesrequirestheperpetratortobeanexpert impersonator.Considerthelittlestaphylinidbeetle(Atemelespubicollis),whomanufactureschemicals todupetheantsoffwhomitsponges.Antsareordinarilyabletodiscriminatebetweentheirownkind andstrangersbydetectingspeciesspecificchemicalscalledallomones.Antsareoftenhighlyxenophobic anddealveryharshlywithunauthorizedvisitors.Togetpasttheborderpatrol,thebeetlemixesupa littlepotionofallomonesineffectforgesachemicalpassportandspraysitataguard.Thisinducesa delusionthatthebeetleisactuallyanantlarva(ababyant),andtheantgentlypickstheintruderupand depositsitinthecolonynursery.Onceinside,thebeetlelivesthelifeofRiley:theantscatertoitsevery whim,feeding,pampering,andprotectingit.Thebeetlehastherunofthecolony,whereitmooches foodfromtheantsaswellassnackingonanteggsandlarvaewithimpunity.19 Manyanimals,includinghumanbeings,arededicatedfollowersoffashionwholiketomimic othermembersoftheirownkind.Biologistscallthisbehaviorautomimicry.Therearethreeformsof automimicry:mimickingonesownbodyparts,mimickingonesentirebody,ormimickingother membersofonesspecies.TherearecreaturesliketheAfricantwoheadedsnake,whoserearendlooks justlikeasecondhead.Twoheadsarebetterthanonebecauseanattacktothefakeheadislesslikely tobelethalthananattacktotherealhead.Manylizardshavedetachabletails,whichcomeloosewhen graspedorareevensnappedoffatwill.Oncepartedfromthelizardsbody,thetailwrithesfrantically onthegroundasadecoy,impersonatingthewholelizard.20Sepiolidsquidalsomanufacturereplicasof theirwholebody.Whenthesquiddetectsapotentialpredator,itsfirstmoveistochangeitsappearance bydarkeningitsskin.Althoughthismayseemcounterproductivebecauseitmakesthecreaturestand outmorefromthesandyoceanfloor,thereismethodinthemollusksmadness.Thesquidnextsquirtsa billowofinkoutofitsrectum.Theinkiscomposedofmelanin,whichgivesitadarkcolor,andmucus, whichpreventsitfromdiffusingfreelythroughthewater.(Italsocontainstyrosinase,anirritantthat temporarilydisablesthepredatorssenseofsmell.)Thesquidreleasesjusttherightamountofinkto createacloudroughlythesamesizeandshapeasitself,andsimultaneouslychangestoalightercolor andslipsunobtrusivelyaway.Withthispseudomorph,theclevermolluskhaseffectivelyreducedits chancesofbeingcaughtandhaslefttheunluckypredatorwithonlyapuffofinktoeat.Becausethis inkyapproachtodeceptionwouldbeuselessinthedingyconditionsofdeepwater,sepiolidsthat inhabittheoceandepthsdischargealuminescentcloudtodistractpredators.21 Automimicrycanalsobehandyforattractingamatebypresentingoneselfasamoredesirable specimen.Malethreespinedsticklebacks(Gasterosteusaculeatus)showtheirmachismobyexhibitinga redpatchontheirsides.Thefishsdisplayismeaningfulbecausetheredpigmentcomesfrombeta carotenoids,avaluablenutrientinthesefishsdiet.Throwingawaybetacarotenoidsforthepurposeof displayisconspicuousconsumption,likelightingacigarwithafiftydollarbill:itisasignofhavingample

resourcesaimedatprospectivemateswhowanttheirspawntoinherithighqualitygenes.Female sticklebacksfinditirresistible.Thefemalesarequiterighttodoso:abrightredpatchadvertises dominance,health,andtheabilitytoprotectaclutchofeggsfromotherfish.Butthesesignalsarenot alwayswhattheyseem.Somelowerqualitymalesdisplayredcolorstomisleadfemales.These undernourishedRomeosareofteninsuchpoorshapethatiftheymanagetotrickafemaleintomating withthem,theyoftencannotresistgobblinguptheirownclutchofeggsinsteadofguardingthem againstpredators.Whenonedominantsticklebackspotsanother,itsnuptialpatchactslikethe proverbialredcapetoabull.So,whenconfrontedwiththegenuinearticle,theimpostorsmaketheir spotsfadetoavoidanastyconfrontationwiththemorevirilefish.22 Crossdressingisanotherformofautomimicryfoundinavarietyofspecies(including,ofcourse, ourown).Thegiantcuttlefish(Sepiaapama)isaheavybodiedsquidlikecreaturethatlivesinthe shallowcoastalwatersoffthecoastofsouthernAustralia.Duringthesummer,theseanimalscongregate inlargegroupstobreed.Competitionbetweenthemuscularyardlongmalesisintenseandoften violent.Duringthesesextournaments,smallmalesloiterinthevicinityofthebreedingpairs.These weaklingsarenotattackedbythebigbruisersbecausetheyarenotevenrecognizedasmales:thesmall malesmimicthecolorandpatternoffemales,andevenhidethefringesaroundtheirtentacles(a cuttlefishgendergiveaway).ItturnsoutthatwhenTarzanisoffbeatingupanothercuttlefish,thelittle guyrevertstohismalecolorsandhassexwithJane.Shouldthedominantmalereturnunexpectedlyand catchtheminflagrantedelicto,thesmalleranimalimmediatelyswitchesbacktohisfemalepersona.23 Aspeciesoftheparasiticwasp(Cotesiarubecula)hasanunusualvariationonthistheme.Sexual competitionamongmalewaspsisintense.Thisisaggravatedbythefactthatfemalewaspsremainin themoodforloveforashortperiodafterapriormating.Thus,awaspwhohasrecentlymatedmaywell endupbeingreproductivelytrumpedbyacompetitor.Toavoidthis,amalewaspthathasjust copulatedmaymimicanattractivefemaleinordertodistracttheothermalesfromhismateuntilher sexualreceptivitywanes.24 Anothergoodreasontoimpersonateafemaleistogetrichquick.Amongscorpionfliesofthe speciesHylobittacusapicalis,itisderigeurforamaletopresentafemalewithagourmetmeal consistingofafreshinsectcorpsebeforeshewillevenconsidermatingwithhim.Becausethefemaleis busyenjoyinghermealwhileheishavingintercoursewithher,thesizeoftheofferingisimportant.A goodsizedfeastcanleadtotwentyminutesormoreoflovemaking,whereassomethingmoremeageris goodonlyforaquickie,ifnotcompleterejection.Huntingfornuptialbribesishardanddangerouswork, andsomemalesoptforashortcut.Theydisguisethemselvesasfemales,andwhenanunsuspecting malesidlesuptoherwithajuicymorsel,themaleinfemalesclothingsnatchesitandfliesofftooffer ittoamateofhisown.25 Inaparticularlymindbogglingformofautomimicry,flyingdragonfliesimitatethemselves standingstill.Pictureanidyllicsummerscene,withdragonfliesflittingabovethecalmsurfaceofasun drenchedpond.Thisplacidsettingconcealsaviolentreality.Duringthebreedingseason,male dragonfliesarefiercelyterritorial.Allofthatdelicatehoveringanddartingisactuallythebehaviorof maleslockedinsavageaerialdogfightsoverprimerealestate.Theseinsectsuseequipmentofsuch sophisticationthatitputsourownstealthaircrafttoshame.Dragonfliesjudgewhetherornotanobject ismovingbasedonwhatiscalledopticflow,themovementofanimageacrosstheirretinaAkiko MizutanioftheCentreforVisualScienceattheAustralianNationalUniversityinCanberrahas demonstratedthatadragonflyinhotpursuitofarivalshadowsitintheairwithsuchaccuracythatthe aggressorappearstobestationaryinhisrivalsfieldofvision.Todothis,theattackingdragonflyhasto useultrapreciseflightadjustmentandpositioningtomaintainthesamepositioninitsvictimsvisual fieldfromonesplitsecondtothenext.Malehoverffiesusethesametacticwhentrackingmates.26 Finally,certainspeciesusecrossdressingtokeepthemwarm.Biologistsstudyingredsided gartersnake(Thamnophissirtalisparietalis)populationsinManitoba,Canada,foundthatsomemales

groggilyemergingfromeightlongmonthsofhibernationproduceafemalepheromonetoattractthe attentionofothermales.Theshemalesquicklybecomethecenterofhugematingballs,entwinedby dozensofamorousmales.Serpentinedragqueensarenotaftersex:theyareafterheat.Thegarter snakebreedingseasoncomesimmediatelyafterhibernationhasmadethemweak,cold,andvulnerable topredation.Whatbetterwayforthesesnakestothawoutthantohaveonehundredpassionatemale bodieswrappedaroundthem?Beingatthecenterofaserpentinesexscrumisenoughtoraisetheir bodytemperaturebyasmuchasthreedegreescentigrade.27 Althoughlesscommon,thereareexamplesoffemaletomalecrossdressinginnonhuman species.Insomeinsectspecies,thisappearstobeawayofavoidingsexualharassmentbyoverly enthusiasticmales.28

LieDetectionandConfusingtheEnemy
Beingagoodmindreaderisthebestprotectionagainstmanipulation.Aspeciesthatdevelops abilitiestopenetrateadeceptivefrontrendersthedeceptionobsolete.Theevolutionofincreasingly sophisticatedmindreadingabilitiesasadefenseagainstdeceptionhasbeenparticularlyimportantfor theevolutionofmind,somethingwewilldiscussmorefullyinchapter3. Mindreadingisnottheonlycountermeasureagainsthostilemanipulation.Espionageprovides anorganismwithinsideinformationaboutacompetitor.Variousbirdsandfishofbothsexessizeupthe prowessoftheirneighborsbysnoopingonthem.29Anotherwaytocounteractmanipulationistothrow sand(metaphorically,and,inthecaseofsomeoctopi,literally)inapredatorseyes.Wehavealready encounteredanexampleofthisinthebehavioroftheversatileportiaspider,whichgeneratesitsown noisetoserveasasmokescreenforitsmovementsacrossitspreysweb.Thetigermothprovides anotherfineexample.Batspreyupontigermoths,whichtheyhuntusingtheirwelldevelopedsonar system.Asthebatfliesalong,itemitshighfrequencysoundsandlistensforthereturningechoes,which itinterpretstodeterminethesizeandtrajectoryofobjectsinitsflightpath.Thetigermothsbodyis studdedwithearsthataretunedtojusttherightfrequencyrangetohearbatsonarsignalsfromasfar asfortymetersaway.Assoonasthemothdetectsabatheadeditsway,itfliesintheoppositedirection. Astheadvancingbatgoesintoafeedingbuzzsendingoutrapidfireecholocationsignalstohomein ontheprecisepositionofthemoth,themothtakesevasiveactionbyflyinginwild,spiralingloopsinan attempttooutmaneuvertheclumsierbat.Ifthebatssonarremainslockedonitstarget,themothslast resort,withonlymillisecondsbetweenitandcertaindeath,istojamthebatssonarbyemittingaseries ofclicksthatthebatcannotdistinguishfromitsownechoes.Increatingthesephantomechoes,the mothisoftenabletoconfusethebatandgetaway.Severalspeciesofbatshavedevelopedmethodsof outsmartingthemothsdetectionandjammingcapabilities.Theseincludehugeearsthatareableto detectthepresenceofmothsandotherinsectsontheground,soft,whisperingsonarthatthemoths canthear,orsignalsinfrequenciestoohighortoolowforthemothstodetect.30 Afinalwayofthrowingapredatorintoatizzyistobehaveinabizarre,erratic,orseemingly randommanner.Theaerialpyrotechnicsdisplayedbymoths,butterflies,andotherflyinginsectsto evadebirdsandbats;thezigzagtrajectoryofarabbitchasedbyafox;theunpredictablebackflipsmade bybrownshrimptoescapemaraudingcod;andtheweirdconvulsivemovementsoffrightened laboratoryratsandsalamandersareallexamplesoftheproteandefense.Thisstrategy,memorably portrayedinLukeRhinehartsfictionalDiceMan,wasusedbysubmarinecommandersduringWorld WarIIwhotriedtoconfusetheenemybysailingarandomcoursedeterminedbythrowingdice.31

AHierarchyofDeceptions

Itmaybeusefulatthispointtoconsidertherelationshipbetweenthedeceptivefeaturesof nonhumanspeciesandtheformsofdishonestyfavoredbyourown.Thereareobviouslysomestriking resonances,buttherearealsosomecleardistinctions:ahumangenderbenderisdoingsomething ratherdifferentthan,say,acrossdressinggartersnake,eventhoughbothareinstancesofautomimicry. Someorganismsuseadeceptivephysique.Mostformsofcamouflagefallintothiscategory,as doesagooddealofmimicry (forexample,themirrororchid).Othermodesofdeceitareswitchedonandoffby environmentalvariables.Whereasthecountershadingofagraysquirrelstaysthesamenomatterwhat thesquirrelisdoing,thetigermothssonarjammingmechanismsonlyswingintoactionwhenahungry batisclosingin.Inthecaseoftheportiaspider,wefindanimmenselymoreflexibledeceptive repertoire.Thespidersdeceptivebehaviorisnotanallornothingresponse:itvariessystematically withthespecificcircumstancesinwhichthespiderfindsitself.Althoughtheportiaspiderisaveryclever andflexibledeceiver,itcanonlyusethisabilitytohuntprey.Othercreatures,notablyhumanbeings andsomenonhumanprimates,candeceiveinavarietyofsituations.WeHomosapiensareabletolie acrosstheboard.Furthermore,weusethesegiftstomanipulateourownkind;enemiesandfriends, loversandrivals,parentsandchildren.Aswewillshortlysee,thispowerfulanddangerouscombination isoneofthefactorsthatgiveshumansociallifeitsdistinctivestamp,andhasbeenthedrivingforce behindtheevolutionofbothselfdeceptionandtheunconsciousmind.32

TheEvolutionofMachiavelli
Weareprimateswhoareexpertsindeceit,doubledealing,lying,cheating,conniving andconcealing. SanjidaOConnell Atthedawnofthenineteenthcentury,anAnglicanpastornamedWilliamPaleydescribedinhis influentialbookNaturalTheologyhowlivingcreaturesfittheirenvironmentswithbreathtaking precision.ForPaley,asformanythinkersbeforeandafterhim,thiswasproofthatamasterDesigner hadcraftedthenaturalworld.Inafamouspassage,Paleyinvitesthereadertoaccompanyhimonan imaginarycountrywalk.Suppose,heconjectures,Ipitchedmyfootagainstastone,andwereasked howthestonecametobethere:Imightpossiblyanswer,that,foranythingIknewtothecontrary,it hadlainthereforever....Hebeckonsustocontrastthiswiththeexperienceofnoticingapocket watchlyingontheground.Howmightthewatchhavecometobethere? IshouldhardlythinkoftheanswerwhichIhadbeforegiven,that,foranythingIknew,the watchmighthavealwaysbeenthere.Yetwhyshouldnotthisanswerserveforthewatchaswellasfor thestone?Whyisitnotasadmissibleinthesecondcase,asinthefirst?Forthisreason,andfornoother, viz.thatwhenwecometoinspectthewatch,weperceive...thatitsseveralpartsareframedandput