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1n Inquiry intc thc Lrieins c! Cutura Chanec
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Copyright ! David Harvey 1989
First published 1990
Reprinted 1990 (three times), 1991, 1992 (twice)
Blackwell Publishers
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8ritis/Lbrs Csts/cuininPub/icstionDsts
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
LibrscfConressCsts/oininPub/icsticnDsts
Harvey, David, 1935-
The condition of post modernity /David Harvey
p. cm.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-631-16292-5-ISBN 0-'31-16294-1 (pbk.):
1. Civilization. Modern-1950- 2. Capitalism. 3. Space and time.
4. Postmodernism. 1. Title.
CB428.H38 1989
909.82.-dc19 88-39135
CIP
Typeset in !U/: on 12pt Garamond by Setrite
Printed in the USA
This book is printed on acid-free paper
Contents
Jheargument
!reIace
cknowledgements
Part I Jhe assage Irom modernity to ostmodernity in
contemorary culture
I !ntroduction
2 Modernity and modernism
5 !ostmodernism
+ !ostmodernism in the city. architecture and urban
design
5 Modernization
6 vcs|modern1s: or ost:cotvNism?
Part II Jhe olitical-economic transIormation oI late
twentieth-century caitalism
/ !ntroduction
8 !ordism
9 !rom !ordism to llexible accumulation
I 0 Jheorizing the transition
I I !lexible accumulation - solid transIormation or
tem oraryhx?
Part II I Jhe exerience oI sace and time
I 2 !ntroduction
I 5 !ndividual saces and times in social liIe
I + Jime and sace as sources OIsocial ower
I 5 Jhe time and sace oI the nlightenment roject
n
VII
VIII
x
5
I 0
59
66
99
I I 5
I 2I
I 25
I +I
I /5
I 89
20I
2 I I
226
2+0
VI
Contents
I 6 Jime-sace comression and the rise oI modernism
as a cultural Iorce 260
I7 Jime-sace comression and the ostmodern
condition 28+
I 8 Jime and sace inthe ostmodern cinema 508
Part IV Jhecondition oIostmodernity
I 9 !ostmodernity as a historical condition
20 conomics with mirrors
2I !ostmodernism as the mirror oI mirrors
22 !ordist modernismversus llexible ostmodernism,
or the interenetration oI oosed tendencies in
caitalism as a whole
25 Jhe transIormative and seculative logic oI caital
2+ Jhe work oI art in an age oIelectronic reroduction
and image banks
25 Kesonses to time-sace comression
26 Jhe crisis oIhistorical materialism
2/ Cracks inthe mirrors, Iusions at the edges
KeIerences
!ndex
52/
529
556
558
5+5
5+6
550
555
556
560
568
The argument
Jhere has been a sea-change in cultural as well as in ol itical-
economicractices since around I 9/2.
Jhis sea-changeis boundu with the emergence oInewdominant
ways in which we exerience sace and time.
While simultaneity inthe shiIting dimensions oItime and sace is
no rooI oInecessary orcausal connection, strong ariorigrounds
can be adduced Ior the roosition that there is some kind oI
necessaryrelationbetweentheriseoIostmodernistculturalIorms,the
emergenceoImore exible modes oIcaitalaccumulation,andanew
roundoI'time-sacecomression` intheorganizationoIcaitalism.
8ut these changes, when set against the basic rules oI caitalistic
accumulation, aearmore as shiItsinsurIaceaearanceratherthan
as signs oIthe emergence oIsome entirelynewostcaitalist or even
ostindustrial society.
Preface
! cannot remember exactlywhen ! hrst encountered the term ost-
modernism. ! robzblyreacted to itinmuchthesamewayas ! did
to th various other 'isms` thathave come and gone over the ast
coule oI decades,hoingthat it would disaearunder the weight
oIits ownincoherence or simly lose itsallureas a Iashionable setoI
'new ideas.`
8ut it seemed as iIthe clamour oI ostmodernist arguments in-
creased rather than diminished with time. Cnce connected with
oststructuralism, ostindustrialism, and a whole arsenal oI other
'new ideas,` ostmodernism aeared more and more as a owerIul
conhguration oI new sentiments and thoughts. !t seemed set Iair to
lay a crucial role in dehning the trajectory oI social and olitical
develoment simly by virtue ol the way it dehned standards oI
social critique andoliticalractice. !n recent years ithas determined
the standards oI debate, dehned the manner oI 'discourse,` and set
arameters on cultural, olitical, and intellectual criticism.
!t thereIore seemed aroriate to enquire more closely into the
nature oI ostmodernism, not so much as a set oI ideas but as a
historical condition that required elucidation. ! had, however, to
undertake a survey oIthe dominant ideas and, since ostmodernism
turns out to be a mine-held oI conllicting notions, that roject
turnedoutto be by no means easytoundertake. Jhe results oI that
enquiry, set out in !art !, have been boil ed down to the bare
minimum, though I hoe not unreasonabl yso. Jhe rest oI the work
examines the olitical -economic background |again, in a somewhat
simlihedway) beIore looking much more closely at the exerience
olsace andtimeasone singularly imortant mediating linkbetween
the dynamism oI caital ism's historical -geograhical develoment
and comlex rocesses oI cultural roduction and ideological trans-
Iormation. !n this way it roves ossible to make sense oI some oI
Preface
ix
the wholly new discourses that have arsen m the Western world
over the ast Iew decades.
Jhere are signs, these days, that the cultural hegemony oI ost-
modernsm is
.
weakening in th

e West. Wheneventhe develoers tell

an architect Ike Moshe SaIdie that they are tired oI it, then can
hilosohical thinking be Iar behind? !n a sense it does not matter
whetherostmodernism is oris noton theway out, sincemuchcan
belearnedIroma historical enquiryinto theroots oIwhathas beena
quiteun
'
ttling
.
haseineconomic,olitical,andculturaldeveloment.
!nwr

mgthis bookI hav

.
ehadalotoIhel andcriticalencourage-
ment. Vicent

avarro, rca Schoenberger, eil Smith, and Lick

Walker r

vided a host oI comments either on the manuscrit or

uon the ideas I was devel oing. Jhe Koland !ark Collective
rovided a grandIorumIorintellectual discussion and debate. !twas
also my good Iortune to work with an extremel ytalented grou oI
graduate students atthe|ohns Hokins Lniversity, and! wouldlike
to thanKevinrcher,!atrick8ond, Michael|ohns, !hilSchmandt,
and rc Swyngedouw Ior the tremendous intellectual stimulation
theyrovided during my last years there. |an 8arkinitiated me into
th
.
e joys oIhaving some

edotheword-rocessingcometently and
with good humour while undertaking much oI the burden oI con-
structing

he index. ngelaewmandrewthediagrams,Jony Lee

h

d with the hotog

rahy, Sohie Hartley sought out the er

missi
.
ons, and |son Lickens and|ohn Lavey, oI 8asil 8lackwell,
rovided many helIul editorial comments and suggestions. nd
Haydee was a wonderIul source oI insiration.
Acknowledgements
The author and publisher are grateful to the following for their kind
permission to reproduce plates: Alcatel 3.2; Archives N ationales de France
3.3, 3.8; The Art Institute of Chicago, Joseph Winterbotham Collection,
' The Art Institute of Chicago. All Rights Reserved. 'DACS 1988 3.9;
Associated Press 1.21; A. Aubrey Bodine Collection, courtesy of the Peale
Museum, Baltimore. 1.22; Jean-Franois Batellier 1.4; Bildarchiv Photo
Marburg 1. 20; British Architectural Library /RIBA 3.6; The British
Library 3.4; Leo Castelli Gallery, New York, ' Robert Rauschenberg, '
DACS 1988 (photograph by Rudolph Burckhardt) 1.9; Deutsches
Architekturmusuem, Frankfurt am Main, 1.28; P. Dicken, Global Shift
3.1; Equitable Life Assurance Collection of the U.S. 1.5; Fondation Le
Corbusier, Paris, ' DACS 1988 1.1a; Galerie Bruno Bischofberger,
Zurich, 1.6; Lintas Limited, London, 1.10; Lloyds Bank PIc, London,
4.1; Lloyd's of London (photograph by Janet Gill) 1.19; Los Angeles
Times 1.18; Mansell Collection 1.7; Metro Pictures, New York, 1.2;
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Archives, New York, 1.1 b; Musee
National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, ' ADAGP,
Paris, and DACS, London 1988 3.11,3.12; Musee d'Orsay, Cliche des
Musees Nationaux, Paris, 1.8; The Museum of Modern Art, New York,
Purchase Fund, ' ADAGP, Paris, and DACS, London 1989 3.10;
National Portrait Gallery, London 3.5; Roger-Viollet 1.3. All other
photographs were kindly provided by the author.
The author and publisher would also like to thank the estate of T.S.
Eliot, and the publishers of the ouru:rtets,Faber and Faber Ltd and
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, for permission to reproduce the extract from
8utNorton, and Heinrich Klotz, RecisionderModee: lostnodee
Arcliteltur1960-1980,Prestel VerlagMunchen, 1984, for the catalogue
description of Charles Moore's li:zz:d`|t:li:.
or/
The passage from modernity to
postmodernity in contemporary
culture
The fate of an epoch that has eaten of the tree of knowledge is that it
must . . . recognize that general views of life and the universe can
never be the products of increasing empirical knowledge, and that the
highest ideals, which move us most forcefully, are always formed only
in the struggle with other ideals which are just as sacred to others as
ours are to us. Max Weber
1
Introduction
jonathan Kaban's Soft city, a highly ersonalizeJ accountoILonJon
liIe in the early I 9/0s, was ublisheJ in I 9/+. !t receiveJ a Iair
amount oI Iavourable comment at the time. 8ut its interest to me
here is as a historical marker, because it was written at a moment
whenacertainshiItingcanbeJetecteJin thewayinwhichroblems
oI urban liIewere being talkeJ about in both oular anJ acaJemic
circles. !tresageJ anewkinJ oIJiscourse thatwoulJlatergenerate
terms like 'gentrihcation' anJ 'yuie' as common Jescritors oI
urban living. !t was also written at that cus in intellectual anJ
cultural history when something calleJ 'ostmoJernism' emergeJ
Irom its chrVsalis oI the anti-moJern to establish itselI as a cultural
aesthetic in its own right.
\nlike most oIthe critical anJ oositional writing about urban
liIe in the I 960s |anJ I here thinkrimarily oIjane |acobs, whose
book on The death and life of great American cities came out in
I96I , butalso JheoJore Koszak), KabanJeictsas bothvibrantanJ
resent whatmany earlier writers haJ Ielt as a chronic absence. Jo
the thesis that the city was Ialling victim to a rationalizeJ anJ
automateJ system oI mass roJuction anJ mass consumtion oI
material gooJs, Kaban relieJ that it was in ractice mainly about
theroJuction oI signs anJ images. He rejecteJ the thesis oI a city
tightly stratiheJ by occuation anJ class, Jeicting insteaJ a wiJe-
sreaJ inJiviJualism anJ entrereneurialism in which the marks oI
socialJistinctionwerebroaJlyconIerreJ byossessionsanJaear-
ances. Jo the suoseJ Jomination oI rational lanning |see late
I . I ) Kaban ooseJ the image oI the city as an 'encycloaeJia' or
'emorium oIstyles'inwhich all sense oI hierarchy orevenhomo-
geneity oIvalues was in thecourse oIJissolution. Jhe city Jweller
was not, he argueJ, someone necessarily given over to calculating
rationality |as manysociologistsresumeJ).Jhecitywas morelike
Plte 1. 1 (above) Le Corbusier's Dream for Paris of the 1920s and (below)
the achieved design for Stuyvesant Town, New York
Introduction 5
theatre, a series oI stages uon which inJiviJuals coulJ work their
own Jistinctive magic while exIorming a multilicity oI roles. Jo
the iJeology oI the city as some lost but longeJ-Ior community,
Kaban resonJeJ with a icture oI th city as labyrinth, honey-
combeJwith such JiversenetworksoI social interaction orienteJ to
such Jiverse goals that ' the encycloaeJia becomes a maniacal scra-
book hlleJ with colourIul entries which have no relation to each
other, no Jetermining, rational or economic scheme. `
Myurose here i s not to criticize this articular reresentation
|though itvouIJ not, I think, be harJ to show that itwas a rather
articular ercetion oImatters on the art oIa young roIessional
newlyarriveJin LonJon). I Jo wish to concentrate onhowsuch an
interretation coulJ be so conhJently asserteJ anJ so well receiveJ.
!or there are a number oI things going on in Soft city that Jeserve
close attention.
Jo beginwith, the book oIIersmore than alittle comIortto those
wholeareJthat the citywas Iallingvictim to the totalitarianism oI
lanners,bureaucrats, anJcororateelites.Jhecity,Kabaninsists, is
muchtoo comlicateJ alaceeverto be soJiscilineJ. labyrinth,
3 encycloaeJia, an emorium, a theatre, the city is somewhere
whereIact anJimagination simlyhave toIuse. Kaban also aealeJ
unbasheJly to notions oI subjective inJiviJualism which haJ so
oIten been IorceJ unJergrounJ by the collectivist rhetoric oI the
I 960s social movements. !or the city was also a lace where eole
were relatively lree to act as, anJ become what, they leaseJ. '!er-
sonal iJentity haJ been renJereJ soIt, lluiJ, enJlessly oen' to the
exercise oI the will anJ the imagination.
!or better or worse, the city| invites you to remake it, to
consoIiJate it into a shae you can live in. You, too. LeciJe
who you are, anJ the city will again assume a hxeJ Iorm
arounJ you. LeciJe what it is, anJ your own iJentity will be
revealeJ,like amahxeJbytriangulation. Cities,unlikevillages
anJ small towns, are lastic by nature. We moulJ them m our
images . they, intheirturn, shaeus bytheresistance theyoIIer
whenwetry toimose ourownersonalIorm on them. !n this
sense, itseems to me that Iiving in acity is an art, anJweneeJ
thevocabulary oIart, oIstyle, to Jescribe the eculiarrelation
between man anJ material that exists in the continual creative
liy oI urban living. Jhe city as we imagine it, the solt city oI
illusion, myth, asiration, nightmare, is as real, maybe more
real,thanthe harJcityone can locate in mas anJ statistics, in
monograhs onurban sociologyanJ Jemograhy anJ architec-
ture. |. 9 -I 0)
6
The passage from modernity to postmodernity
While aIhrmative in this sense, Kaban JiJ not retenJ that all was
well withurbanliIe. Joo manyeolelosttheirwayinthelabyrinth,
itwas simly too easyIor us to lose each otheras well as ourselves.
nJiI there was something liberating about the ossibility oI lay
ingmany Jiverserolestherewas alsosomethingstressIul anJJeely
unsettling about it. 8eneath all that, lay the grumbling threat oI
inexlicable violence, the inevitable comanion oIthat omni-resent
tenJency Ior social liIe to Jissolve into total chaos. !nexlicable
killings anJ ranJom urbanviolence in IactIorm the oening gambit
in Kaban's account. Jhe cityma\ be a theatre, but that meant there
wereoortunitiesIorvillainsanJIools tostrutthereanJturnsocial
liIe into tragi-comeJy, even violent meloJrama, articularly iI we
IaileJto reaJ thecoJes right. lthoughweare'necessarilyJeenJent
on surIaces anJ aearances' itwas not always clear howwe coulJ
learn to attenJ to these surIaces with the requisite symathy anJ
seriousness. Jhis task was renJereJ Joubly JiIhcult by the way
creative entrereneurialism haJ been harnesseJ to the task oI ro
JucingIantasyanJJisguise, whilebehinJ all the churnings oI coJes
anJIashionslurkeJ a certain 'imerialism oI taste' that stooJ to re-
create in new ways the very hierarchy oI values anJ signihcations
that changing Iashions otherwise unJermineJ.
Signals, styles, systems oI raiJ, highlyconventionalizeJ com
munication, are the liIeblooJ oI the big city. !t is when these
systemsbreakJown- whenweloseourgrasonthegrammar
oI urban liIe - that violence| takes over. Jhe city, our great
moJern Iorm, is soIt, amenable to the Jazzling anJ libiJinous
variety oI lives, Jreams, interretations . 8ut the very lastic
qualities which make the great city the liberator oI human
iJentity also cause it to be esecially vulnerable to sychosis
anJ totalitariannightmare.
Jhere is more than a touch oI the !rench literary critic KolanJ
8arthes's inlluence in this assage, anJ sure enough that writer's
classic text Writing degree zero turnsu Ior Iavourale mention on
morethanoneoccasion.JotheJegreethatLeCorbusier'smoJernist
style oI architecture |late I . I ) is the bete noire in Kaban's scheme
oI things, Soft city recorJs a moment oI herce tension between one
oI the great heroes oI the moJernist movement anJ someone like
8arthes, who was shortly to become one oI the central hgures oI
ostmoJernism. Soft city, written at that moment, is a rescient text
thatshoulJ itselI be reaJ not as an anti-moJernist argument but as a
vital aIhrmation that the ostmoJernist moment has arriveJ.
Introduction /
! was recently reminJeJ oI Kaban's evocative Jescritions while
visiting an exhibition oI CinJy Sherman's !otograhs |late I .2).
Jhe hotograhs Jeict seemingly JiIIerent women Jrawn Irom
many walks oI liIe. !t takes a little while to realize, with a certain
shock, that these are ortraits oIthe samewomaninJiIIerentguises.
Cnly the catalogue tells you that it is the artistherselIwho is that
woman. Jhe arallel with Kaban's insistence uon the lasticity oI
humanersonality through the malleability oI aearances anJ sur-
Iaces is striking, as is theselI-reIerentialositioning oIthe authors to
themselves as subjects. CinJy Sherman is consiJereJ a major hgure
in theostmoJernmovement.
So what is this ostmoJernism oI which many now seak? Has
social liIe so changeJ since the early I9/0s that we can reasonably
talk aboutliving in a ostmoJern culture, a ostmoJern age? Cr is
itsimlythattrenJsinhighculturehavetaken, as is theirwont,yet
another twist, anJ that acaJemic Iashions have also changeJ with
scarcelya rile oI eIIect or an echo oI corresonJence in the Jaily
liIeoIorJinarycitizens? Kaban's booksuggeststhatthereismore to
matters than the latest intellectual IaJ imorteJ Irom !aris or the
latest twirl in the ew York art market. Jhere is more to it, too,
thantheshiItinarchitecturalstylethat|encks | I 98+)recorJs, though
herewearoacharealmthathas theotential to bringhighcultural
concerns closer to Jaily liIe through the roJuction oI built Iorm.
Major changes have inJeeJ occureJ in the qualities oI urban liIe
since I 9/0 or so. 8ut whether such shiIts Jeserve the aellation oI
'ostmoJern'isanotherquestion. JheanswerJeenJsratherJirectly,
oI course, on exactly what we might mean by that term. nJ here
we Johave to gralewiththe latest intellectual IaJs imorteJ Irom
!aris anJ twists in the ew York art market, because it is out oI
those Ierments that theconcet oI the 'ostmoJern' has emergeJ.
o one exactly agrees as to what is meant by the term, excet,
erhas, that 'ostmoJernism' reresents some kinJ oI reaction to,
or JeartureIrom, 'moJernism' . Since the meaning oI moJernimis
alsoveryconIuseJ,thereactionorJeartureknownas'ostmoJern-
ism' is Joubly so. Jhe literary criticJerry agleton | I 98/) tries to
Jehne the term as Iollows .
Jhere is, erhas, a Jegree oI consensus that the tyical ost-
moJernist arteIact is layIul, selI-ironizing anJ even schizoiJ,
anJ that it reacts to the austere autonomy oIhigh moJernism
by imuJently embracing the language oI commerce anJ the
commoJitv. !ts stance towarJs cultural traJition is one oI
irreverent

astiche, anJ its contriveJ Jethlessness unJermines

8
The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1. 2 Cindy Sherman, Untitled, 1983 and Untitled #92, 1981.
Postmodernism and the mask: Cindy Sherman's photographic art uses herself
as a subject in multiple disguises, many ofwhich make overt reference to flm
or media images.
allmetahysicalsolemnities, sometimesbya brutal aesthetics oI
squalor anJ shock.
!n more ositive vein, the eJitors oI the architectural journal
PRECIS 6 | I98/, /-2+) see ostmoJernism as a legitimate reaction
Introduction 9
to t!e 'monotomy' oI universal moJernism's vision oI the worlJ.
' Generally erceiveJ as ositivistic, technocentric, anJ rationalistic,
universal moJernism has been iJentiheJ with the blieI in linear
rogress, absolutetruths, therationallanningoIiJeal so.ial orJers,
anJ the stanJarJization oI knowleJge anJ roJuc:i on. ' !ost-
moJernism, by way oI contrast, rivileges 'heterogeneity anJ JiI-
Ierence as liberative Iorces in the reJehnition oI cultural Jiscourse. `
!ragmentation, inJeterminacy, anJintenseJistrustoIalluniversalor
'totalizing' Jiscourses |to use theIavoureJ hrase) arethehallmark
oI ostmoJernist thought. Jhe reJiscovery oI ragmatism in hilo
sohy |e. g. Korty, I 9/9), the shiIt oI iJeas about the hilosohy
oIsciencewroughtbyKuhn| I 962)anJ!eyerabenJ| I 9/5),!oucault's
emhasis uon Jiscontinuity anJ JiIIerence in history anJ his ri-
vilegingoI'olymorhouscorrelationsinlaceoIsimleorcomlex
casuality,' new Jeveloments in mathematics emhasizing inJeter-
minacy |catastrohe anJ chaos theory, Iractal geometry), the re-
emergence oI concern in ethics, olitics, anJ anthroology Ior the
valiJity anJ Jignity oI 'the other,` all inJicate a wiJesreaJ anJ
roIounJ shiIt in 'the structure oIIeeling. ' What all these examles
have in commonis a rejection oI'meta-narratives` |large-scale theor-
etical interretations urorteJly oI universal alication), which
leaJs agleton to comlete his Jescrition oIostmoJernism thus.
!ost-moJernism signals the Jeath oI such 'metanarratives'
whose secretlyterroristicIunctionwas togrounJanJlegitimate
the illusion oI a 'universal' human history. We are now in the
rocess oIwakening Irom the nightmare oImoJernity,withits
maniulative reason anJIetish oIthe totality, intothelaiJ-back
luralismoIthe ost-moJern, that heterogeneous range oI liIe-
styles anJ language games which has renounceJ the nostalgic
urge to totalize anJlegitimate itselI. . . . ScienceanJhilosohy
mustjettisontheirgranJiosemetahysicalclaimsanJviewthem-
selves more moJestly as just another set oInarratives.
!I these Jeictions are correct, then it woulJ certainly seem as iI
Kaban`s Soft city is suIIuseJ with ostmoJernist sentiment. 8ut the
real imort oI that has still to be establisheJ. Since the only agreeJ
oint oI Jearture Ior unJerstanJing the ostmoJern is in its ur-
orteJ relation to the moJern, itis to the meaning oI the latter term
that ! shall hrst attenJ.
Z
Modernity and modernism
'MoJernity,` wrote 8auJelaire in his seminal essay 'Jhe ainter oI
moJern liIe` |ublisheJ in I 865), 'is the transient, the lIeeting, the
contingent, it is the one halI oI art, the other being the eternal anJ
the immutable. `
!wanttoayverycloseattentiontothiscon|oiningoItheehemeral
anJ the lleeting with the eternal anJ the immutable. Jhe history oI
moJernism as an aesthetic movement has wavereJ Irom one siJe to
the otheroIthisJualIormulation,oItenmakingitaearasiIitcan,
as Lionel Jrilling |I 966) once observeJ, swing arounJ in meaning
until itis Iacing in the oosite Jirection. rmeJ with 8auJelaire`s
sense oI tension we can, ! think, better unJerstanJ some oI the
conlIicting meanings attributeJ tomoJernism, anJ some oI the ex-
traorJinarily Jiverse currents oI artistic ractice, as welI as aesthetic
anJ hilosohical juJgements oIIereJ u in its name.
! shall leave asiJe, Ior the moment, the question why moJern liIe
might be characterizeJ by so much ehemerality anJ change. 8ut
that the conJition oI moJernity is so characterizeJ is not generally
JisuteJ. Here, Ior examle, is 8erman`s | I982, I5) Jescrition.
Jhere is a moJe oIvital exerience - exerience oI sace anJ
time, oI the selI anJ others, oI liIe`s ossibilities anJ erils -
that is shareJ by men anJ women all over the worlJ toJay. !
wiIl call this boJy oI exerience ' moJernity`. Jo be moJern is
to hnJ ourselves in an environment that romises aJventure,
ower, j oy, growth, transIormation oI ourselves anJ the worlJ
- anJ, at the same time, that threatens to Jestroy everything
we have, everything we know, everything we are. MoJern
environments anJexeriencescutacross all bounJaries oI geo-
grahy anJ ethnicity, oI class anJ nationality, oI reIigion anJ
iJeology, in ths sense, moJernity can be saiJ to unite all
Modernity and modernism
mankinJ. 8u: it is a araJoxical unity, a unity oI Jisunity, it
ours us all into a maelstrom oI eretual Jisintegration anJ
renewal,oIstruggleanJcontraJiction,oIamIiguityanJanguish.
JobemoJernis to beartoIauniverseinwhich,as MarxsaiJ,
'allthatis soIiJmeltsinto air.`
I I
8erman goes on to show how a variety oI writers in JiIIerent
laces anJatJiIIerent times |Goethe, Marx, 8auJelaire,Lostoevsky,
anJ 8iely, among others) conIronteJ anJ trieJ to Jeal with this
overwhelming sense oI Iragmentation, ehemerality, anJ chaotic
change. Jhis same theme has recentlybeen echoeJ by !risby |I 985)
who i na stuJy oIthree moJern thinkers - Simmel, Kracauer, anJ
8enjamin - emhasizes that 'their central concern was with a Jis
tinctive exerience oItime,saceanJcausalityastransitory, lIeeting,
anJIortuitousanJ arbitrary.` Whileit may be truethatboth8erman
anJ !risby are reaJing into the ast a very strong contemorary
sensitivitytoehemeralityanJIragmentation,anJthereIore,erhas,
overemhasizing that siJe oI8auJelaire`s JualIormulation, there is
abunJant eviJence to suggest that most 'moJern` writers have re-
cognizeJthattheonlysecurethingaboutmoJernityisitsinsecurity,
itsenchant, even, Ior 'totalizing chaos. ` JhehistorianCarlSchorske
| I98I. xix) notes, Ior examle, that infn de siece Vienna.
High culture entereJ a whirl oIinhnite innovation, with each
helJ roclaiming inJeenJence oI the whole, each art in turn
Ialling into arts. !nto the ruthless centriIuge oI change were
Jrawn the very concets by which cultural henomena might
be hxeJin thought. ot onlytheroJucersoIculture, butalso
its analysts anJcriticsIellvictim to the Iragmentation.
Jhe oet W. 8. Yeats caught this same mooJ in the lines.
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world.
!ImoJern liIe is inJeeJ so suIIuseJwith the sense oI the lIeeting,
the ehemeral, the Iragmentary, anJ the contingent, then a number
oI roIounJ consequences Iollow. Jo begin with, moJernity can
have no resect even Ior its own ast, let alone that oI any re-
moJern social orJer. Jhe transitoriness oIthingsmakes itJiIhcultto
reserveany senseoIhistorical continuity. !I there is any meaningto
history, then that meaning has to be JiscovereJ anJ JehneJ Irom
within the maelstrom oI change, a maelstrom that aIIects the terms
I 2
The passage from modernity to postmoderniy
ol Jiscussion 3 well 3 whatever it v that v being JiscusseJ. MoJ
ernity, therelore, not only entails a ruthless break with any or all
receJing historical conJitions, but is characterizeJ by a never-
enJing rocess olinternal rutures anJ lragmentations within itsell.
n avant-garJe has usually layeJ, as !oggioli | I 968) anJ 8urger
| I 98+) recorJ, avital role in thehistory ol moJernism, interruting
any sense olcontinuity by raJical surges, recuerations, anJ reres-
sions. How to interret this, how to Jiscover the 'eternal anJ
immutable'elementsinthemiJstolsuchraJicalJisrutions,becomes
a serious roblem. venil moJernism always remaineJ committeJ
to Jiscover, as theainter !aul Kleeut it, 'the essential character ol
the acciJental,'itnowhaJ to Jo so in a helJ olcontinually changing
meanings that olten seemeJ to 'contraJict the rational exerience ol
yesterJay. ' esthetic ractices anJ juJgements lragmenteJ into that
kinJol'maniacalscrabookhlleJwithcolourlul entries thathaveno
relationtoeachother,noJetermining,rational,oreconomicscheme,'
whichKaban Jescribes as an essential asect olurban lile.
Where, in all olthis, coulJ we looklor some sense olcoherence,
let alone say something cogent about the 'eternal anJ immutable'
that was suoseJ to lurkwithinthis maelstrom ol social change in
sace anJ time? nlightenment thinkers generateJ a hilosohical
anJ even a ractical answer to that question. Since this answer has
JominateJ much ol the subsequent Jebate over the meaning ol
moJernity, it merits some closer scrutiny.
lthough the term 'moJern' has a rather more ancient history,
what Habermas | I 985, 9) calls the project ol moJernity came into
locus Juring the eighteenth century. Jhat roject amounteJ to an
extraorJinaryintellectualellortontheart olnlightenmentthinkers
'to Jevelo objective science, universal morality anJ law, anJ auto-
nomous art accorJing to their inner logic.' Jhe iJea was to use the
accumulation olknowleJge generateJ by many inJiviJuals working
lreely anJ creatively lor the ursuit ol human emanciation anJ the
enrichmentolJailylile.JhescientihcJominationolnatureromiseJ
lreeJom lrom scarcity, want, anJ the arbitrariness ol natural cal
amity.JheJevelomentolrationallormsolsocialorganizationanJ
rationalmoJesolthoughtromiseJliberationlromtheirrationalities
ol myth, religion, suerstition, release lrom the arbitrary use ol
ower as well as lrom the Jark siJe ol our own human natures.
Cnly through such a roject coulJ the universal, eternal, anJ the
immutable qualities ol all ol humanity be revealeJ.
nlightenment thought |anJ ! here rely on Cassirer's, I 95I , ac-
count) embraceJ the iJeaol rogress, anJactivelysoughtthatbreak
with history anJ traJition which moJernity esouses. !twas, above
Modernity and modernism I 5
all, a secularmovementthatsought the Jemystihcation anJ Jesacra-
lization ol knowleJge anJ social organization in orJer to liberate
humanbeingslromtheirchains. !ttooklexanuer!oe'sinjunction,
'theroerstuJy olmankinJis man,' wihgreat seriousness. Jo the
Jegree that it also lauJeJ human creativity, scientihc Jiscovery,
anJ the ursuit ol inJiviJual excellence in the name ol human ro-
gress, nlightenment thinkers welcomeJ the maelstrom ol change
anJ saw the transitoriness, the eeting, anJ the lragmentary as a
necessaryconJition throughwhichthemoJernizingrojectcoulJ be
achieveJ. Loctrines ol equality, liberty, laith in human intelligence
|once alloweJ the benehts ol eJucation), anJ universal reason
abounJeJ. ' gooJ law must be gooJ lor everyone,' ronounceJ
ConJorcet in the throes ol the Irench Kevolution, 'in exactly the
same way that a true roosition is true lor all. ' Such a vision was
increJibly otimistic. Writers like ConJorcet, Habermas | I 985, 9)
notes, were ossesseJ 'ol the extravagant exectation that the arts
anJ sciences woulJ romote not only the control ol natural lorces
but also understanJing ol the worlJ anJ olthe sell, moral rogress,
the iustice ol institutions anJ even the hainess olhuman beings. '
Jhe twentieth century - with its Jeath cams anJ Jeath squaJs,
its militarism anJtwoworlJwars, its threat olnuclearannihilation
anJ its exerience olHiroshima anJ agasaki - has certainly shat-
tereJ this otimism. Worse still, the susicion lurks that the n-
lightenment roject was JoomeJ toturn against itsell anJ translorm
theq

estlorhuman emanciation into a system oluniversal ores-

sion m the name ol human liberat:on. Jhis was the Jaring thesis
aJv

nceJ by Horkheimer anJ Jorno in their The dialetic of

Enlzghtenment | I 9/2). Writing in the shaJow ol Hitler's Germany
anJ Stalin's Kussia, they argueJ that the logic that hiJes behinJ
nlightenment rationality is a logic ol Jomination anJ oression.
JhelusttoJominatenatureentaileJtheJominationolhumanbeings,
anJ that coulJ only leaJ, in the enJ, to 'a nightmare conJition ol
sell-Jomnation' |8ernstein, I 985, 9). Jhe revolt ol nature, which
tey os)teJ as the only way out ol the imasse, haJ then to be
conceiveJ ol as a revolt ol human nature against the oressive
ower olureIy instrumental reason over culture anJ ersonality.
Whetheror not the nlightenment roject was JoomeJ lrom the
start to lunge us into a Kalkaesque worlJ, whether or not it was
bounJ to leaJ
.
to uschwi

z a

J Hiroshima, anJ whether it has any

ower Ielt to mlorm anJ msire contemorary thought anJ action
are crucial questions. Jhere are those, like Habermas, who continu
t

suort the roject, albeit with a strong Jose ol sceticism over

air::s, a lot ol anguishing over the relation between means anJ
I+ The passage from modernity to postmodernity
enJs, anJ a certainessimism 3 to te ossibiIt
'
oIreali

ngsuch a
roj ect unJer contemorary e

om:c anJ olucal conJitions. nJ

thenthere are those - anJ thisis, as we shall see, the core oI ost-
moJernisthilosohicalthought - whoinsisttha
.
twe shoulJ,in

the
name oI human emanciation, abanJon the nIghtenment
P

roject
entirely. Whichosition we take JeenJs uon how

we exla

the
'JarksiJe' oIourrecenthistory anJthe Jegreetowhichwe attbute
it to the JeIects oInlightenment reason rather than to a lack oIits
roer alication.
.
nlightenment thought, oI course, iriternaIzeJ a whole o

t oI
JiIhcultroblemsanJossesseJnotaIewtroublesomecontraJictions.
Jo beginwith, the questionoIthe relationbetween means anJ

nJs
wasomni-resent, whilethegoalsthemselvescoulJneverbeseciheJ
recisely excet in terms oIsome utoian lan that oIten lookeJ as
oressive to some as it lookeJ emanciatory to o

hers. !urth

r-
more, the question oI exactly who ossesseJ the claim to s

eror
reasonanJunJerwhatconJitionsthatreasonshoulJbeexerciseJas
owerhaJ to be squarely IaceJ. MankinJwill have to be IorceJ

to
be Iree, saiJ Kousseau, anJ the |acobins oI the !rench Kevolution
took over in their olitical ractice where Kousseau's hilosohical
thought haJ leIt oII. !rancis 8acon, one oI the recursors oI n
lightenment thought, envisageJ in his utoian tract New Atlantis a
house oI wise sages who woulJ be the guarJians oI knowleJge, the
ethical juJges, anJ the true scientists, while living outsiJe the Jaily
liIeoIthecommunitytheywoulJexerciseextraorJinarymoralower
over it. Jo this vision oIan elite butcollective male, white wisJom,
others ooseJ the image oI the unbriJleinJiviJualism oI gre

t
thinkers, the great beneIactors oI humankinJ, who thro
.
u
-
teir
singular eIIorts anJ struggles woulJ
)
us- reason anJ civiz

tion
willy-nilly to the oint oI true emanciation. Cthers argueJ either
that there was some inherent teleology at work |even, erhas,
JivinelyinsireJ), to whichthehumansiritwas bounJ to res

nJ,
or that there existeJ some socialmechanism, such as Jam Smith's
celebrateJ hiJJen hanJ oI the market, that woulJ converteventhe
most Jubious oI moral sentimentsinto a result aJvantageous to all.
Marx,whoin manyresects was achilJoInlightenment thou

ht,
sought to convertutoian thinking - the struggle Ior human bemgs
torealizetheir'seciesbeing' asheutitinhisearlyworks - into a
materialist science by showing how universal human emanciation
might emerge Irom the class-bounJanJ eviJently rer
.
essive, though
contraJictory, logicoIcaitalistJeveloment. !nsoJoirgheIocuseJ
on the working class as the agent oI human liberation anJ eman-
ciation recisely because it was the JominateJ class oI moJern
Modernity and modernism
I 5
caitalist society. Cnlywhenthe JirectroJucerswerei ncontrol oI
theirown Jestinies, heargueJ, coulJwe hoeto relacedomination
anJ reression by a realm oI social IreeJom. 8ut iI 'the realm oI
IreeJom begins onlywhentherealmoInecessity isleItbehinJ,' then
therogressive siJe oI bourgeois history |articularly its creation oI
enormousroJuctive owers) haJto beIully acknowleJgeJ anJ the
ositive outcomes oI

lightenment ration

lityI

llya
lP
roriateJ.
JherojectoImoJermtyhasneverbeenwithoutitscrtics.JmunJ
8urke maJe no eIIort to hiJe his Joubts anJ Jisgust at the excesses
oIthe!renchKevolution.Malthus,rebuttingConJorcet's otimism,
argueJtheimossibilityoIeverescaingthechainsoInaturalscarcity
anJ want. Le SaJe likewise showeJ that there might be quite an
other Jimension to human liberation aart Irom that envisageJ in
conventional nlightenment thought. nJ by the early twentieth
century two major, yet quite JiIIerently ositioneJ, critics haJ ut
their stam uon the Jebatc. !irst, there was Max Weber whose
overall argument is summarizeJ by 8ernstein, a key rotagonist in
the Jebate over moJernity anJ its meanings, thus.
Weber argueJ that the hoe anJ exectation oI the nlighten-
mentthinkers was a bitter anJironic illusion. Jhey maintaineJ
a strong necessary linkage between the growth oI science, ra-
tionality, anJ universal human IreeJom. 8ut when unmaskeJ
anJutJerstooJ,thelegacyoIthenlightenmentwasthetriumh
oI

. . urosive-instrumental rationality. JhisIorm oIration-

ality aIIects anJ inIects the entire range oI social anJ cultur

l
liIe encomassing economic structures, law, bureaucratic
aJministration, anJ even the arts. Jhe growth oI uros-
ive-instrumental rationality| Joes not leaJ to the concrete
realization oI universal IreeJom but to the creation oI an
'iron cage' oI bureaucratic rationality Irom which there is no
escae. |8ernstein, I 985, 5)
! I Weber's 'soberwarning'reaJsliketheeitahoInlightenment
reason, then ietzsche's earlier attack uon its very remises must
surely be regarJeJ as its nemesis. !t was rater as iI ie

zsce
lungeJ totally into the other siJe oI 8auJelaire's Iormulation m
orJerto show that the moJern was nothing more thanavital energy,
the vill to live anJ to ower, swimming in a sea oI JisorJer,
anarchy, Jestruction,inJiviJualalienation, anJ Jesair. ' 8e

eath the
surIace oI moJern liIe, JominateJ by knowleJge anJ science, he
JiscerneJ vital energies that were wilJ, rimitive anJ comletely
merciless |8raJbury anJ Mc!arlane, I 9/6, ++6). ll the nlighten-
16 The passage from modernity to post modernity
mentimageryaboutcivilization,reason,universalrights,anJmoralit

was Ior naught. Jhe eternal anJ immutable essence oI humanity

IounJ its roer reresentation in the mythical hgure oI ionysus
'to be at one anJthe same time "Jestructivelycreative" |i.e. to lrn
the temoral worlJ oI inJiviJualization anJ becoming, a rocess
Jestructive oI unity) anJ "creatively Jestructive" |i.e. to Jevour th
illusory universe oIinJiviJualization,arocrssinvolvingthereact: o
olunity) |loc. cit. ). Jhe only ath to alhrmation oI selI was to ac,

tomaniIestwill,inthismaelstromoIJestructivecreation anJcreat:vc
Jestruction even iI the outcome was bounJ to be tragic.
Jhe image oI 'creative Jestruction` is very imortant to uner-
stanJing moJernity recisely because it JeriveJ Irom the ractical
Jilemmas that IaceJ the imlementation oI the moJernist roject

How coulJ a new worlJ be createJ, aIter all, without Jestroying

much that haJ gone beIore? You simly cannot make an omelettc
without breaking eggs, as a whole line oI moJernist thinkers Iron
Goetheto Mao have noteJ.Jheliterary archetye oI such aJilemma
is, as 8erman (1982) anJ Lukacs (1969) oint out, Goethe's Faust.
neic hero reareJ to Jestroyreligious myths, traJitionalvalues,
anJ customaryways oI liIe inorJer to builJ a brave newworlJ ou
oIthe ashesoIthe olJ,!austis,inthe enJ, atragic hgure. Synthesizing
thought anJ action, !aust Iorces himselI anJ everyone else |even
Mehistoheles)to extremes oIorganization, ain, anJ exhaustion in
orJertomasternatureanJcreate anewlanJscae,asublimesiritual
achievement that contains the otentiality Ior humanliberationIron
want anJ neeJ. !reareJ to eliminate everthing anJ everyone wh
stanJs in the way oI the realization oI this sublimevision, !aust, t
his own ultimate horror, Jeloys Mehistoheles to kill a much-
loveJ olJ coule who live in a small cottage by the sea-shore Ior n
other reason than the Iact that they Jo not ht in with the maste
lan. ' !t aears,` says 8erman (1982), 'that the v
.
ery roce

oI
Jeveloment, even as it transIorms the wastelanJ irito a thvirig
hysicalanJ socialsace, recreates thewastelanJ insiJe oI the Jevel
oer himselI. Jhis is how the trageJy oI Jeveloment works. `
JhereareenoughmoJernhgures - HaussmannatworkinSeconJ
mire !aris anJ Kobert Moses at work in ew York aIter WorlJ
War !! - to make this hgure oI creative Jestruction more than d
myth |lates 1. 3, 1.4). 8ut we here se at work that oositicn
between the ehemeral anJ the eternal in a rather JiIIerent guise. !I
the moJernisthastoJestroyin orJerto create, then the onlyway t
reresent eternal truths is through a rocess ol Jestruction that i
liable,intheenJ, to beitselIJestructive oI thosetruths.Yet we ar
IorceJ, iIwe strive Ior the eternalanJ immutable, to try anJ utou
Modernity and modernism
Plte 1 .3 Haussmann's creative destruction of Second Empire Paris: the
rebuilding of the Place Saint Germain
17
stam uon the chaotic, the ehemeral, anJ the lragmentary. Jhe
etzschian image oI creative Jestruction anJ Jestructive creation
briJges
.
the two siJes oI

8auJelaire`s lormulation in a new way.

!nterestiigly, the economist Schumeter ickeJ u this very same
imageinorJertounJerstanJtherocessesoIcaitalistJeveloment.
Jhe entrereneur, in Schumeter`s view a heroic hgure, was the
creative Jestroyerpar excelence because the entrereneur was re-
areJ to ush the consequences oI technical anJ social innovation
to vital extremes. nJ it was only through such creative heroism
that human rogress coulJ be assureJ. Creative Jestruction, Ior
Schumeter, was the rogressive leitmotiI oI benevolent caitalist
Jevel

ment. !or others, it was simly the necessary conJition oI

twentieth-centuryrogress.HereisGertruJeSteinwritingon!icasso
in 1938:
s everything Jestroys itsell in the twentieth century anJ
nothingcontrnues,sothenthetwentiethcenturyhasaslenJour
which is its own anJ !icasso is oI this century, he has that
strange quality oI an earth that one has never seen anJ oI
things JestroyeJ as they have never been JestroyeJ. So then
!icasso has his slenJour.
s The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1. 4 The boulevard art of Paris, attacking the modernist destruction o
the ancient urban fabric: a cartoon by J. F. Batellier in 'Sans Retour, Ni
Consigne'
Moderity and modernism
be automatic llyresuoseJ, then the moJern artist haJ a creative
role rolayin Jehning the essene oIhumanity. !I'creative Jestruc-
tion'
wasan essential conJitionoImoJernity,th.nerhstheartist
as inJiviJual J a heroc role to lay |even iI the consequences
might be tragic). Jhe artist, argueJ !rank LloyJ Wright - one oI
megr
'
a

estoI
.
all moJernist a

c-tects - mustnotonlycomrehenJ
me
sut oIhis age but also mitiate the rocess oIchanging it.
WehereencounteroneoIthemoreintriguing,buttomanyJeely
troubling, asects to moJernism's history. !or when Kousseau re-
laceJ Lescartes' sIamous maxin `! thinkthereIore ! exist,' with ' I
Ieel thereIore I exist,' hesignalleJ a raJicalshiIt Irom a rational anJ
instmentalist t
'
a more consciously aesthetic strategy Ior realizing
nghtenm

t aims. t about the same time, Kant, too, recognizeJ

thataesthet cj

JgementhaJto beconstrueJasJistinctIromractical
reason |

oral juJgement) anJ unJerstanJing |scientihc knowleJge),

anJ that it IormeJ a

necessary th
'
ugh roblematic briJge between
thetwo.Jheexlora

ionoIaestheticsasa searate realmoIcognition

wasvery much an eighteenth-century aIIair. !t arose in art out oI
the neeJ to come to terms with the immense variety oI cultural
arteIacts, roJuceJ unJer very JiIIerent social conJitions which
incre

sing traJe anJ cultura

l contact revealeJ. LiJ Min vases,

Crecianurns,anJLresJenchmaallexresssomecommonsentiment
oI eauty? 8ut it

ls

arose out

I the sheer JiIhculty oI translating

nghtenment rn

iles

oI

rational anJ scientihc unJerstanJing

m

omoral anJ
1
otical rnciles aroriateIor action. It was into
this gathat ietzschewas laterto insert hisowerIul messagewith
such Jevastatmg eIIect, that art anJ aesthetic sentiments haJ the
!rohetic worJs anJ a rohetic concetion this, on the art oI
owerto g
'
eyonJ gooJ orevil. Jhe ursuit oIaesthetic exerience
both Schumeter anJ Stein, in the years beIore the greatest event in
as an enJ U itselI became, oI course, the hallmark oI the romantic
caitalism's history oI creative Jestruction - WorlJ War !!.
movement |as

ex
'
mlihe+b
`
,
.
say, Shelley anJ 8yron). !t generateJ
8y the beginning oI thetwentieth century, anJ articularly aIte
thatwave oI raJical subjectivism, ' oI 'untrammelleJ inJiviJualism '
ietzsche's intervention, it was no longer ossible to accorJ n
anJ oI 'search Ior inJiviJual selI-realization' which in Laniel 8ell
`
s
lightenment reasona rivilegeJ status in the JehnitionoIthe eternal
/s,view, has long ut moJernist cultural behaiour anJ artistic
anJimmutableessenceoIhumannature.JotheJegreethatietzsch
rac

icesIunJa

entally at oJJs with the rotestant ethic. HeJonism

haJ leJ the way in lacing aesthetics above science, rationality, anu
nts ill, accorJmg to 8ell, with the saving anJ investment which
olitics, so the exloration oI aesthetic exerience - 'beyonJ goou
u
P
oseJlynourishcaitalism.WhateverviewwetakeoI8ell'sthesis,
anJevil' became a owerIul means to establisha newmytholog
!

tissurel
'
tru

thattheromanticsaveJ thewayIoractiveaesthetic
as towhattheeternal anJtheimmutablemightbeaboutinthemiJs\
mterventions m cultural anJ olitical liIe. Such interventions were
oI all the ehemerality, Iragmentation, anJ atent chaos oI moJern
anti ciateJ bywriters such as ConJorcetanJSaint-Simon.Jhelatter
liIe. Jhis gave anewrole, anJanewimetus, tocultura|moJernism
rnsisteJ, Ior examle, that,
rtists, writers, architects, comosers, oets, thinkers, anJ hil
osohers haJ a very secial osition within this new concetion oI
themoJernistroject. !I the'eternal anJimmutable' coulJnolonge
!tis
^
e, artist

,whowill serve you asavant-garJe.What amost

beautiIul Jestmy Ior the arts, that oI exercising over society a
z: The passage from moderity to postmodernity
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Modernity and modernism
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Plate 1. 7 The Venus d'Urbino by Ttian provided the inspiration for
Manet's Olympia of 1 863.
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56 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1 . 8 Manet's pioneering modernist work Olympia re-works the ideas of
Titian.
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57
Plate 1 . 9 Rauschenberg's pioneering postmodernist work Persimmon (1964),
collages many themes including direct reproduction of Rubens's Venus at her
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The passage from modernity to postmodernity
MLI TI 7l0
Plate 1. 10 An advertisement for Citizen Watches engages directly with the
postmodemist techniques of superimposition of ontologically diferent worlds
that bear necessary relation to each other (compare the David Salle
painting of plate 1 . 6). The watch being advertised is almost invisible.
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The illustrations used m this chapter have been criticized by some feminists of
a postmodern persuasion. They were deliberately chosen because they allowed
comparison across the supposed pre-modern, modern and postmoder divides.
The classical Titian nude is actively reworked m Manet's modernist Olympia.
Rauschenberg simply reproduces through post modern collage, David Salle su
perimposes dif erent worlds, and the Citizen's Watch advertisement (the most
outrageous of the lot but which appeared in the weekend magazine supplements
of several quality newspapers in Britain for an extended period) is a slick use
of the same postmodern technique for purely commercial purposes. A the
illustrations make use of a woman's body to inscribe their particular message.
The additional point I sought to make is that the subordination of women, one
of the many 'troublesome contradictions' in bourgeois Enlightenment practices
(see p. 1 above and p. Z3Z below), can expect no particular relief by appeal
to postmodernism. I thought the illustrations made the point so well that no
frther elaboration was necessary. But, D some circles at least, these particular
pictures were not worth their usual thousand words. Nor, it seems, should I
have relied upon post modernists appreciating their own technique of tell
ing even a slightly different story by way of the illustrations as compared to
the text. (J , I 991 . )
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Pos tmodernism in the city:
architecture and urban design
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72 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1 . 1 1 The moderist monumentalism of the Rockefeller Center
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Plate 1 . 12 Trump Tower: one of the most recent architectural celebrations
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78 The passage frm modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1 . 1 5 The signs of rehabilitation and gentrifcation often assume almost
exactly the same serial monotony as the moderism they were supposed to
replace: rehabilitation in Baltimore is everywhere signalled by the standard
coach lamp hanging outside the house.
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Postmoderism in the city 79
Plate 1. 16 Baltimore's Gallery at Harbor Place is typical of the innumerable
interior shopping malls that have been constructed since around 1970.
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s: The passage from modernity to postmoderity
Plate 1. 17 This atrium in the IBM building on Madison Avenue, New York,
attempts a garden atmosphere within a secure space sealed of from a
dangerous, heavily built-up and polluted city outside.
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sz The passage from moderity to postmodernity
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Postmodernism in the city s
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Postmoderism in the city 85
Here we encounter the trageJv oI moJernitv once more, but this
time stabilizeJ bv the hxeJ oints oI monuments that incororate
anJreserve a 'mvsterious` sense oIcollective memorv. Jhereser
vationoImvththroughritual'constitutes akevtounJerstanJingthe
meaning oI monuments anJ, moreover, the imlications oI the
IounJing ol cities anJ oI the transmission oI iJeas in an urban
context.` Jhe task oI the architect, in Rossi`s view, is to articiate
'Ireelv` in the roJuction oI 'monuments` exressive oI collective
memorv,while also recognizingthatwhat constitutes a monument is
itselI a mvsterv which is 'above all to be IounJ in the secret anJ
ceaseless will oI its collective manilestations. ` Kossi grounJs his
unJerstanJing oI that in the concet oI 'genre de vie' that
relativelv ermanent wav olliIe that orJinarv eole construct Ior
themselves unJer certain ecological, technological, anJ social con
Jitions.Jhisconcet, JrawnIromtheworkoItheIrench geograher
ViJal Je la 8lache, roviJes Kossi with a sense oI what collective
memorv reresents. Jhe Iact that ViJal IounJ the concet oI genre
de vie aroriate to interret relativelv slow-changing easant
societies, but began, towarJs the enJ oIhis liIe, to Joubtits alic-
abilitvtotheraiJlvchanginglanJscaesoIcaitalistinJustrialization
|see his Geographie de {'est ublisheJin I 9I6), escaes Kossi`satten-
tion. Jhe roblem, unJer conJitions olraiJlv unIolJing inJustrial
change,is to reventhis theoreticalosturelasingintotheaesthetic
roJuction oI mvth through architecture, anJ therebv Ialling into
the verv tra that 'heroic` moJernism encountereJ inthe I 950s. ot
surrisinglv,Kossi`sarchitecturehasbeenheavilvcriticizeJ.Lmberto
co Jescribes it as 'Irightening`,while others ointto whatthev see
as its Iascist overtones |late I . 20).
Kossi at least has the virtue oI taking the roblem oIhistorical
reIerence seriouslv. Cther ostmoJernists simlv make gestures
towarJshistoricallegitimacvbvextcnsiveanJoIteneclecticquotation
olast stvles. Jhrough hlms, television, books, anJ the like, historv
anJast exerienceareturneJintoaseeminglvvastarchive'instantlv
retrievableanJcaableoIbeingconsumeJoveranJ overagain atthe
ush oI a button. ` !I, as Javlor | I 98/, I 05) uts it, historv can be
seen'as anenJlessreserveoIequal events, ` then architects anJurban
Jesigners canIeel Iree to quote them in anvkinJ oIorJerthevwish.
Jhe ostmoJern enchant Ior jumbling together all manner oI re-
Ierences to ast stvles is one oI its more ervasive characteristics.
Kealitv, it seems, is being shaeJ to mimic meJia images.
8uttheoutcomeoIinsertingsucharacticeintothecontemorarv
socio-economic anJ olitical context is more than a little quirkv.
Since arounJ I 9/2, Ior examle, what Hewison | I 98/) calls 'the
86 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1. 20 Aldo Rossi's design for student accommodation in Chieti yields a
very diferent sort of impression within the eclecticism of postmodern
architecture.
heritage inJustrv` has suJJenlv become big business in 8ritain.
Museums, countrv houses, reconstructeJ anJ rehabilitateJ urban
lanJscaes that echo ast Iorms, Jirectlv roJuceJ coies oI ast
urban inIrastructures, have become art anJ arcel oI a vast trans-
IormationoI the 8ritish lanJscaeto the ointwhere, in Hewison`s
juJgement,8ritainis raiJlv turningIromthemanuIacture oI gooJs
to the manuIacturing oI heritage as its rincial inJustrv. Hewison
exlains theimulsebehinJitallintermsabitreminiscentoIKossi.
Jhe imulse to reserve the ast is art oI the imulse to
reserve the selI. Without knowing where we have been, it is
JiIhculttoknowwherewearegoing.JheastistheIounJation
oI inJiviJual anJ collective iJentitv, objects Irom the ast are
the source oI signihcance as cultural svmbols. Continuitv be
tween ast anJ resent creates a sense oI sequence out oI
aleatorvchaosanJ,sincechange isinevitable, a stablesvstemoI
orJereJmeaningenables us to coe with both innovation anJ
Jecav. Jhe nostalgic imulse is an imortant agencv in aJjust-
ment to crisis, it is a social emollient anJ reinIorces national
iJentitv when conhJence is weakeneJ or threateneJ.
Postmodernism in the city 8/
Hewison is, ! think, here revealing something oI great otential
imortance because it is inJeeJ the case that the reoccuation with
iJentitv, with ersonal anJ collective roots, has become Iar more
ervasive since the earlv I 9/0s because oI wiJesreaJ insecuritv in
labour markets, in technological mixes, creJit svstems, anJ the like
|see!art !!) Jhetelevision series Roots, which traceJ the historv oI
a black merican Iamilv Irom Irican origins to the resent Jav,
sarkeJ awaveoIIamilvhistorv research anJ interest thoughoutthe
whole Western worlJ.
!t has, unIortunatelv, roveJ imossible to searate ostmoJ-
ernism`s enchant Ior historical quotation anJ oulism Irom the
simle task oI catering, iI not anJering, to nostalgic imulses.
Hewison sees a relation between the heritage inJustrv anJ ost-
moJernism

'8othconsiretocreateashallowscreenthatintervenes
between our resent lives, our historv.Wehaveno unJerstanJing oI
historv in Jeth, but insteaJ are oIIereJ a contemorarv creation,
more costume Jrama anJ re-enactment than critical Jiscourse. `
Jhe same juJgement mav be maJe oI the wav ostmoJernist
architecture anJ Jesign quotes the vast range oI inIormation anJ
images oI urban anJ architectural Iorms to be IounJ in JiIIerent
arts oI the worlJ. We alloIus, savs |encks, carrv arounJ withus a
musee imaginaire inourminJs,JrawnIromexerience|oItentouristic)
oI other laces, anJ knowleJge culleJIrom hlms, television, exhibi
tions, travel brochures, oular magazines, etc. !t is inevitable, he
savs, that all oI these get run together. nJ it is both exciting anJ
healthv that this shoulJ be so. 'Whv, iI one can aIIorJ to live in
JiIIerent ages anJ cultures, restrict oneselIto theresent, thelocale?
clecticisnisthenatural evolution oIa culturewithchoice.`LvotarJ
echoes that sentiment exactlv. 'clecticism is the Jegree zero oI
contemorarvgeneralculture.onelistenstoreggae,watchesawestern,
eats McLonalJ`s IooJ Ior lunch anJ local cuisine Ior Jinner, wears
!aris erIume in Jokvo anJ 'retro` clothes in Hong Kong. `
JhegeograhvoIJilIerentiateJtastes anJ culturesisturneJ into a
ot-ourrioIinternationalismthatis in manvresects more startling,
erhas because more jumbleJ, than high internationalism everwas.
When accomanieJ bv strongmigration streams |not onlv oIlabour
butalsooIcaital)thisroJucesalethoraoI'Little`!talies,Havanas,
Jokvos, Koreas, Kingstons, anJ Karachis as well as Chinatowns,
Latino barrios, rab quarters, Jurkish zones, anJ the like. Yet the
eIIect, even in a citv like San Irancisco where minorities collectivelv
make u the maj oritv, is to Jraw a veil over real geograhv through
construction oI images anJ reconstructions, costume Jramas, stageJ
ethnicIestivals, etc.
88 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Jhe masking arises not onlv out oI the ostmoJernist enchant
Ior eclectic quotation, but also out oI an eviJent Iascination with
surIaces. |ameson | I 98+b), Ior examle, regarJs the relIecting glass
surIacesoIthe8onaventureHotelasservingto'reelthecitvoutsiJe`
muchasrellectorsunglassesreventtheseerbeingseen,thusermit-
ting the hotel 'a eculiar anJ laceless Jissociation` Irom its neigh-
bourhooJ.JhecontriveJcolumns,ornamentation, extensivequotations
Irom JiIIerent stvles |in time anJ sace) give much oI ostmoJern
architecturethatsense oI'contriveJ Jethlessness` oIwhich|ameson
comlains. 8ut the masking nevertheless conhnes conlIict between,
Ior examle, the historicism oI being rooteJ in lace anJ the inter-
nationalism oI stvle Jrawn Irom the musee imaginaire, between
Iunction anJ Iantasv, between the roJucer`s aim to signiIv anJ the
consumer`s willingness to take the message.
8ehinJ all this eclecticism |articularlv oI histo.ical anJ geo-
grahical quotation) it is harJ to sot anv articular uroseIul
Jesign. Yet there Jo seem to be eIIects which are themselves so
uroseIul anJ wiJesreaJ that in restrosect it is harJ not to
attribute a simle set oI orchestrating rinciles . Let me illustrate
with one examle.
'8reaJ anJcircuses` is an ancientanJwell-trieJIormulaIor social
control. !thasIrequentlvbeenconsciouslvJeloveJtoaciIvrestless
or JiscontenteJ elements in a oulation. 8ut sectacle can also be
an essential asect oI revolutionarv movement |see, Ior examle,
CzouI`s, I 988, stuJv oIIestivals as ameans to exressrevolutionarv
willintheIrenchKevolution).LiJnotevenLenin, aIterall,reIerto
revolution as 'the Iestival oI the eole` ? Jhe sectacle has alwavs
been a otent olitical weaon. How has urban sectacle been Je-
loveJ these last Iewvears ?
!n LS cities, urban sectacle in the I 960s was constituteJ out oI
the mass oositional movements oI the time. Civil rights Jemon-
strations,street riots, anJinnercitvurisings,vast anti-war Jemon-
strations, anJ counter-cultural events |rock concerts in articular)
were grist Ior the seething mill oI urban Jiscontent that whirleJ
arounJ the base oI moJernist urban renewal anJ housing rojects.
8ut since arounJ I 9/2, the sectacle has been catureJ bv quite
JiIIerent Iorces, anJ been ut to quite JiIIerentuses. Jhe evolution
oI urban sectacle in a citv like 8altimore is both tvical anJ
instructive.
!n the wake oI the riots that eruteJ aIter the assassination oI
MartinLuther King in I 968 |late I . 2I), a smallgrou oIinlIuential
oliticians, roIessionals, anJ business leaJers got together to see iI
there was some wav to bring the citv together. Jhe urban renewal
Post modernism in the city
* m

89
Plate 1 . 21 Riots, burings, and looting were an all-too-frequent urban
spectacle in the inner cities of the United States in the 1960s. Baltimore in
April 1968, after the assassination of Martin Luther King, was one of many
examples.
eIIort oI the I 960s haJ createJ a highlv Iunctional anJ stronglv
moJernist Jowntown oI oIhces, lazas anJ occasionallv sectacular
architecture such as the Mies van Jer Kohe builJing oI Cne Charles
Center |lates I .22anJ I .25). 8ut the riots threateneJ thevitalitv oI
JowntownanJtheviabilitvoIinvestmentsalreaJvmaJe. JheleaJers
sought a svmbol arounJ which to builJ the iJea oI the citv as a
communitv, a citv which coulJ believe in itselI suIhcientlv U over
come the Jivisions anJ the siege mentalitv with which the common
citizenrv aroacheJ Jowntown anJ its ublic saces. 'SawneJ bv
the necessitv to arrest the Iear anJ Jisuse oIJowntownareas causeJ
bvthecivicunrestinthelateI 960s,`saiJalaterLeartmentoIHousing
anJ Lrban Leveloment reort, 'the 8altimore Citv Iair was orig-
inateJ . aswavtoromote urbanreJeveloment.` JheIairsetout
to celebrate the neighbourhooJ anJ ethnicJiversitvm thecitv, even
went out oIits wavtoromote ethnic |as ooseJto racial)iJentitv.
Jherewere5+0,000visitors to the Iair in the hrstvear | I 9/0), butbv
I 9/5 thatnumberhaJ swelleJ tonearlvtwo miIlion. 8igger, but ste
90 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1 . 22 Baltimore urban renewal of the 1960s in the modernist style: the
Federal Building in Hopkins Plaza
bv ste inexorablvless 'neighbourlv` anJmorecommercial |even the
ethnic grous began to roht Irom the sale oI ethnicitv), the Iair
became the leaJ item in Jrawing larger anJ larger crowJs to the
Jowntown area on a regular basis, to see all manner oI stageJ
sectacles. !t was a short ste Irom that to an institutionalizeJ
commercialization oI a more or less ermanent sectacle in the
construction oI Harbor !lace |a waterIront Jeveloment reuteJ
now to Jraw in more eole than LisnevlanJ), a Science Center,
an quarium, a Convention Center, a marina, innumerable hotels,
leasure citaJels ol all kinJs. juJgeJ bv manv as an outstanJing
success |though the imact uon citvovertv, homelessness, health
care, eJucationrovision, has beennegligible anJerhasevennega-
tive), such aIorm oI Jeveloment requireJ awhollvJiIIerent archi-
tecture Irom the austere moJernism oI the Jowntown renewal that
Postmodernism in the city
Plate 1. 23 Baltimore urban renewal modernism: the Mies van der Rohe
building of One Charles Centre
9I
haJ JominateJ i n the I 960s. n architecture oI sectacle, with its
senseoIsurlaceglitteranJtransitorvarticiatorvleasure,oIJislav
anJ ehereralitv, oIjouissance, became essential to the success oI a
project oI this sort |lates I .2+, I .25, I .26).
8altimore was not alone in the construction oI such new urban
saces. 8oston`s Ianeuil Hall, San Irancisco`s Iisherman`s WharI
|with GhirarJelli Square), ew York`s South Street Seaort, San
ntonio`s Kiverwalk, LonJon`s Covent GarJen |soon to be Iol-
IoweJ bv LocklanJs), GatesheaJ`s Metrocentre, to sav nothing oI
theIableJWestJmontonMall,arejustthehxeJasectsoIorganizeJ
sectaclesthatincluJemoretransitorveventssuchastheLosngeles
Clvmic Games, the Liverool GarJen Iestival, anJ the re-staging
oI almost everv imaginable historicalevent|Iromthe 8attle oI Has-
tings to that oI Yorktown) . Cities anJ laces now, it seems, take
92 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1. 24 Baltimore goes to the City Fair: a collage of scenes of a managed
and controlled urban spectacle (by Apple Pie Graphics)
much more care to create aositive anJ high qualitvimage oIlace,
anJ have sought an architecture anJ Iorms oI urban Jesign that
resonJ to such neeJ. Jhat thev shoulJ be soresseJ, anJ that the
result shoulJ be a serial reetition oI successIul moJels |such as
8altimore`s Harbor !lace), is unJerstanJable,given the grim historv
oI JeinJustrialization anJrestructuring thatleIt most major cities in
the aJvanceJ caitalist worlJ with Iew otions excet to comete
witheachother,mainlvas hnancial, consumtion, anJentertainment
centres. !maging acitvthroughthe organizationolsectacular urban
saces became ameanstoattractcaitalanJeole|oItherightsort)
in a erioJ |since I 9/5) oI intensiheJ inter-urban cometition anJ
urban entrereneurialism |see Harvev, I 989).
Whileweshallreturntoa closer examinationoIthis henomenon
in !art !!!, it is imortanthere to note how architecture anJ urban
JesignhaveresonJeJtothesenew-IelturbanneeJs. Jherojection
Postmodernism in the city
Plate 1 . 25 Harbor Place attempts a post moderist atmosphere of leisure
sprawled around moderist scenes of urban renewal.
95
oIaJehnite imageoIlace blesseJ withcertainqualities,the organi-
zation oI sectacle anJ theatricalitv, have been achieveJ through an
eclectic mix oI stvles, historical quotation, ornamentation, anJ the
Jiversihcation oI surIaces |in 8altimore, Scarlett !lace exemlihes
the iJea in somewhat bizarre Iorm, see late I .2/). ll oI these
tenJencies areexhibiteJin Moore`s !iazza J` Italiain ew Crleans.
Wehereseethecombination oImanvoItheelementsthathave been
so Iar JescribeJ within one singular anJ quite sectacular roject
|late I .28). Jhe Jescrition in the Post-modern visions catalogue
|Klotz, I 985) is most revealing.
! n an area oI new Crleans requiring reJeveloment Charles
Noore has createJ theublic !iazza J`ItaliaIor the local !talian
oulation. !ts Iorm anJ architectonic language have brought
the social anJ communicative Iunctions oI a uroean anJ,
9+ The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Plate 1 . 26 The pavilions of Harbor Place are reputed to bring O many
visitors to Baltimore as to Disneyland.
more secihcallv, !talian iazza to the southern LniteJ States.
Within the context oI a new block oI builJings covering a
substantial area anJ Ieaturing relativelv regular, smooth, anJ
angular winJows, Moore has inserteJ a large circular iazza
that reresents a kinJ oI negative Iorm anJis thereIore all the
more surrising when one enters through the barrier oI the
surrounJingarchitecture. smalltemlestanJs at the entrance
anJ heralJs the historical Iormal language oI the iazza, which
is IrameJ bv IragmenteJ colonnaJes. t the center oI the
arrangement is a Iountain basin, the 'MeJiterranean` bathing
the boot oI !talv, which extenJs Jown Irom the 'ls. ` Jhe
lacement oI Sicilv at the center oI the iazza avs tribute to
theIactthat the !talianoulationoI the areais JominateJ bv
immigrants Irom that islanJ.
Jhe arcaJes, laceJ in Iront oI the convex IacaJes oI the
builJing arounJ the iazza, make ironic reIerence to the hve
orJers oI classical column |Loric, !onic, Corinthian, Juscan,
anJ Comosite)bvlacingtheminasubtlvcoloreJcontinuum,
inJebteJsomewhatto!ort. Jhe basesoIthelluteJcolumns
areIormeJ like ieces oI aIragmenteJarchitrave, more a nega-
Postmodernism in the city 95
Plate 1 . 27 Scarlett Place of Baltimore brings together historical preservation
(the nineteenth-centur Scarlett Seed Warehouse is incorporated into the far
left-hand corer) and the postmodernist urge for quotation, in this case from
a Mediterranean hilltop village (note the moderist public housing in the
background ).
tive Iorm than a Iullv three-Jimensional architectural Jetail.
JheirelevationisIaceJin marble, anJtheircrosssectionis like
aslice oIcake. JhecolumnsaresearateJIromtheirCorinthian
caitals bv rings oI neon tubing, which give them colorIul
luminousnecklaces atnight. Jhe archeJ arcaJeat the to oIthe
!talian boot also has neon lights on its IacaJe. Cther caitals
take on a recise, angular Iorm anJ are laceJ like rt Leco
brooches beneath the architrave, while other columns resent
Iurther variations, their lluting createJ bv j ets oI water.
ll oIthis brings the JigniheJ vocabularv oI classical archi-
tecture u to Jate with !o rt techniques, a ost-moJernist
alette, anJtheatricalitv. !tconceivesoIhistorvas a continuum
oIortableaccessories,reIlectingthewavthe!talians themselves
have been 'translanteJ` to the ew WorlJ. !t resents a nos-
talgicictureoI!talv`s renaissance anJbaroquealacesanJ its
iazzas, but at the same time there is a sense oI Jislocation.
Iterall,thisisnotrealism,butaIaaJe,a stageset, aIragment
inserteJinto anewanJ moJern context. Jhe!iazzaJ`!taliais a
96 The passage from moderity to postmodernity
Plate 1 . 28 Charles Moore's Pizza d'Italia in New Orleans is frequently
cited O one of the classic pieces of postmodernist architecture.
ieceoIarchitectureaswellas aiece oItheater. !nthetraJition
oI the !talian 'res ublica,` it is alaceIor the ublic to gather,
vetat thesame time, itJoes nottake itselItoo seriouslv, anJ it
canbealaceIorgames anJamusement.JhealienateJIeatures
oIthe !talian homelanJ act as ambassaJors in the ewWorlJ,
thus reaIhrming the neighborhooJ oulation`s iJentitv in a
Jistrict oIew Crleans that threatens to become a slum. Jhis
iazza must count as one oI the most imortant anJ striking
examles oIost-moJernist builJing in the worlJ. !t has been
themistakeoImanvublicationstoshowtheiazzainisolation,
however, the moJel here shows the successIul integration oI
this theatrical event into its context oI moJernbuilJings.
8utiIarchitectureisaIormoIcommunication, thecitvaJiscourse,
thenwhatcansuchastructure,inserteJintotheurbanIabricoIew
Crleans, ossiblv sav or mean? Jhe ostmoJernists themselves will
robablv answer that it JeenJs at least as much, iI not more, on
Postmodernism in the city 9/
what isintheeveoIthebeholJer, asitJoes on the thoughts oIthe
roJucer. Yetthere is a certain Iacile naivetv in such an answer. Ior
there is much too much coherence between the imagerv oI citv liIe
laiJ out in books such as Kaban`s Soft city anJ the svstem oI
architecturalroJuction anJurbanJesignhereJescribeJIorthereto
be nothing in articular beneath the surIace glitter. Jhe examle oI
sectacle suggests certain Jimensions oIsocialmeaning, anJMoore`s
!iazzaJ` !talia isharJlvinnocent in whatit sets out to savanJhow
itsavsit. Wethere seetheenchantIorIragmentation, theeclecticism
oI stvles, the eculiar treatments oI sace anJ time |

historv as a
continuum oI ortable accessories`). Jhere is alienation unJerstooJ
|shallowlv) in terms oI emigration anJ slum Iormation, that the
architect tries to recuerate through construction oI a lace where
iJentitvmightbe reclaimeJ evenin the miJstoIcommercialism, o
art, anJ all the accoutrements oI moJern liIe. Jhe theatricalitv oI
eIIect,thestrivingIorjouissance anJ schizohreniceIIect|in|encks`s
sense) are all consciouslv resent. bove all, ostmoJern archi-
tecture anJ urban Jesign oI this sort convev a sense oI some search
Ior a Iantasv worlJ, the illusorv 'high` that takes us bevonJ current
realities into ure imagination. Jhe matter oI ostmodernism, the
catalogue to the Post-modern visions exhibition |Klotz, I 985) Iorth-
rightlv Jeclares, is 'not just Iunction but hction.`
Charles Moore reresents onlv one strain oI ractice within the
eclecticumbrellaoIostmoJernism.Jhe!iazzaJ`ItaliawoulJharJlv
earn the aroval oI Leon Krier, whose instincts Ior classicalrevival
are so strong as sometimes to ut him outsiJe the ostmoJernist
aellation altogether, anJ it looks verv oJJ when juxtaoseJ with
an lJo KossiJesign. Iurthermore, the eclecticism anJ o imagerv
that lie at the heart oI the line oI thinking that Moore reresents
have come in Ior strong criticism, reciselv because oItheir lack oI
theoretical rigour anJ their oulist concetions. Jhe strongest line
oI argument now comes Irom what is calleJ 'Jeconstructivism. ` !n
art oI a reaction against the wav that much oI the ostmoJern
movementhaJentereJintothemainstreamanJgenerateJaoular-
izeJ architecture that is lush anJ inJulgent, Jeconstructivism seeks
to regain the high grounJ oI elite anJ avant-garJe architectural
ractice bv active Jeconstruction oI the moJernism oI the Kussian
constructivists oI the I 950s. Jhe movement in art acquires its in-
terest because oI its Jeliberate attemt to Iuse the Jeconstructionist
thinking Irom literarv theorv with ostmoJernist architectural rac-
tices that oIten seem to haveJeveloeJ accorJing to a logic all their
own. !t shares with moJernism a concern to exlore ure Iorm anJ
sace, but Joes so in such awavas to conceive oIa builJingnot as a
98 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
uniheJwhole but 3 'Jisarate texts" anJarts thatremain Jistinct
anJ unaligneJ, without achieving a sense oI unitv,` anJ which are,
thereIore, suscetible to 'several asvmmetrical anJ irreconcilable`
reaJings. WhatJeconstructivism has in commonwithmuch oIost-
moJernism, however, is its attemt to mirror 'an unrulv worlJ
subject to carooming moral, olitical anJ economic svstem. ` 8ut it
Joes so in such awav as to be 'Jisorienting, even conIusing` anJso
breakJown 'ourhabitualwavs oIerceiving Iorm anJsace. ` Irag-
mentation,chaos,JisorJer,evenwithinseemingorJer,remaincentral
themes |GolJberger, 1 988; Giovannini, 1 988).
Iiction, Iragmentation, collage, anJ eclecticism, allsuIIusedwith a
sense oI ehemeralitv anJ chaos, are, erhas, the themes that Jo-
minate in toJav`s ractices oI architecture anJ urban Jesign. nJ
thereis, eviJentlv, muchincommonherewithracticesanJthinking
in manv other realms such as art, literature, social theorv, sv-
chologv, anJhilosohv. How is it, then, thatthe revailing mooJ
takes the Iorm it Joes ? Jo answer that question with anv ower
requiresthatwehrsttakestockoIthemunJanerealitiesoI caitalist
moJernitv anJ ostmoJernitv, anJ see what clues mightlie there as
to the ossible Iunctions oI such hctions anJ Iragmentations in the
reroJuction oI social liIe.
J
Modernization
MoJernism is a troubleJ anJ lluctuating aesthetic resonse to
conJitionsoImoJernitvroJuceJbvaarticularrocessoImoJern-
ization. roerinterretation oItheriseoIostmoJernism, there-
Iore, ought to grale with the nature oI moJernization. Cnlv in
that wav will we be able to juJge whetherostmoJernism is a JiI-
Ierentreaction to an unchanging moJernizationrocess, orwhether
it relIects or resages a raJical shiIt in the nature oI moJernization
itselI, towarJs, Ior examle, some kinJ oI 'ostinJustrial` or even
'ostcaitalist` societv.
MarxroviJes one oI the earliest anJ most comlete accounts oI
caitalistmoJernization. ! thinkituseIultobegin withthatnot onlv
becauseMarxwas, as8ermanargues,oneoIthegreatearlvmoJernist
writers, combining all the breaJth anJ vigour oI nlightenment
thought with a nuanceJ sense oI the araJoxes anJ contraJictions
towhich caitalism isrone, butalso because the theorv oIcaitalist
moJernization that he oIIers makes Ior articularlv comelling
reaJing when set against the cultural theses oIostmoJernitv.
!n The communist manifesto Marx anJ ngels argue that the
bourgeoisiehas createJ anewinternationalism viatheworlJ market,
together with 'subj ection oI nature`s Iorces to man, machinerv,
alicationoIchemistrvtoagricultureanJinJustrv,steamnavigation,
railwavs, electric telegrahs, clearing oI whole continents Ior culti-
vation, canalization oIrivers, whole oulations conjureJ out oIthe
grounJ. ` !t has Jone this at great cost. violence, Jestruction oI
traJitions, oression, reJuctionoIthevaluationoIall activitv to the
colJ calculus oI monev anJ roht. Iurthermore.
Constant revolutionizing oIroJuction, uninterruteJ Jisturb-
ance oIallsocialrelations,everlastinguncertaintvanJagitation,
Jistinguish the bourgeois eochIromallearliertimes. llhxeJ,
I 00 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
Iast-Irozenrelationshis, with their train oIvenerableiJeas anJ
oinions,are swet awav,allnew-IormeJ ones becomeobsolete
beIorethevcan ossiIv. llthatis soliJmeltsintoair,allthatis
holv is roIaneJ, anJmen at lastareIorceJto Iacewith sober
sense the real conJitions oI their livesanJ their relations with
their Iellow men. |Marx anJ ngels, I 952, 25)

Jhe sentiments certainlv match those oI 8auJelaire an

A
, as 8erman
oints out, Marx here unlooses a rhetoric that Jehnes the unJersiJe
oIalmoJernista

hetics. utwhati

l aboutMarxis thewav
he Jissects the orgm oI this genetaIconJition.
Marxbegins Capital, Iorcxamle,withananalvsisoIcommoJities,
those evervJav things |IooJ, shelter, clothing, etc.) which we Jailv

onsumein the courseoIreroJucing ourselves. Yetthe commoJitv

is, he avers, 'a mvsterious thing` because it simultaneouslv emboJies
bothausevalue|itIulhlsaarticularwantorneeJ)anJ an exchange
value|!canuseitasabargainingchitorocureothercommoJities).
Jhis Jualitv alwavs renJers the commoJitv ambiguous Ior us, shall
we consumeitortraJeitawav? 8utasexchangerelationsroliIerate
anJrice-hxingmarketsIorm,soonecommoJitvtvicallvcrvstallizes
outasmonev.WithmonevthemvstervoIthecommoJitvtakesona
new twist, because the use value oI monev is that it reresents the
worlJ oI social labour anJ oI exchange value. Monev lubricates
exchange but above all it becomes the means bvwhichwe tvicallv
comare anJ assess, both beIore anJaIter the Iact oI exchange, the
value oI all commoJities. !lainlv, since the wav we ut value on
things is imortant, an analvsis oI the monev Iorm anJ the con
sequences that lIow Irom its use are oI aramountinterest.
Jhe aJvent oI a monev economv, Marx argues, Jissolves the
bonJs anJ relations that make u 'traJitional` communities so that
'monev becomes the real communitv. ` We move Irom a social con-
Jition,inwhichweJeenJJirectlvonthoseweknowersonallv,to
one inwhichweJeenJonimersonalanJ objectiverelationswith
others. s exchange relations roliIerate, so monev aears more
anJmore as 'aowerexternal to anJinJeenJent oItheroJucers,`
sowhat'originallvaearsasameanstoromoteroJuctionbecomes
a relation alien` to them. Monev concerns Jominate roJucers.
Monev anJ market exchange Jraws a veil over, 'masks` social re-
lationshis between things. Jhis conJition Marx calls 'the Ietishism
oI commoJities. ` !t is one oI Marx`s most comellinginsights, Ior it
oses the roblem oI how to interret the real but nevertheless
suerhcial relationshis that we can reaJilv observe in the market
lace in aroriate social terms.
M oderniz ation I 0I
Jhe conJitions oI labour anJ liIe, the sense oI jov, anger, or
IrustrationthatliebehinJtheroJuction oI commoJities, thestates
oI minJ oI the roJucers, are all hiJJen to us as we exchange one
object |mon
.
ev) Ior another |the commoJitv). We can take our Jailv
breakIast without a thought Ior the myriaJ eole who engageJ in
itsroJuction. lltraces oIexloitation are obliterateJ intheobject
|there are no hnger marks oI exloitation in the Jailv breaJ). We
cannot tell Irom contemlation oI anv object in the suermarket
what conJitions oIlabour lavbehinJ its roJuction. Jhe concet oI
Ietishism exlains howit is that unJer conJitions oI caitalist moJ
ernizationwecanbesoobjectivelvJeenJenton 'others` whoselives
anJ asirations remain so totallv oaque to us. Marx`s meta-theorv
seeks totearawavthatIetishistic mask, anJ to unJerstanJ thesocial
relations that lie behinJ it. He woulJ surelv accuse those ost
moJernists who roclaim the 'imenetrabilitv oI theother` as their
creeJ, oI overtcomlicitvwith the Iact oIIetishism anJ oIinJiIIer
ence towarJs unJerlving social meanings. Jhe interest oI CinJv
Sherman`s hotograhs |or anv ostmoJern novel Ior that matter)
is that thev Iocus on masks without commenting Jirectlv on social
meanngs other than on the activitv oI masking itselI.
8utwe can take the analvsis oI monev Jeeer still. !Imonev is to
erIormitsIunctionseIIectivelv,Marxargues,itmustberelaceJbv
mere svmbols oIitselI |coins, tokens, aercurrencv, creJit),which
leaJ it to be consiJereJ as a mere svmbol, an ' arbitrarv hction`
sanctioneJ bv 'the universal consent oI mankinJ. ` Yet it is through
these 'arbitrarv hctions` that the whole worlJ oI social labour, oI
roJuction anJ harJ Jailv work, get reresenteJ. !n the absence oI
social labour, all monev woulJ be worthless. 8ut it is onlv through
monev that social labour can be reresenteJ at all.
Jhemagicalowers oImonevarecomounJeJ bvthewavowners
'lenJ their tongues` to commoJities bv hanging a rice ticket on
them, aealing to 'cabalistic signs` with names likeounJs, Jollars,
Irancs. So even though monev is the signiher oI the value oI social
labour,theeretualJangerloomsthatthesigniherwillitselIbecome
the object oI human greeJ anJ oI human Jesire |the hoarJer, the
avaricious miser, etc. ). Jhis robabilitv turns to certaintv once we
recognizethat monev, ontheonehanJa'raJicalleveller`oIallother
IormsoIsocialJistinction,isitselIaIormoIsocialowerthatcan be
aroriateJas'thesocialoweroIrivateersons. `MoJern societv,
Marx concluJes, 'soonaIterits birth, ulleJ !lutusbv thehairoIhis
heaJJrom the bowels oI the earth, greets golJ as its Holv Grail, as
the glittering incarnation oI the verv incile oI its own liIe. ` Loes
ostmoJernism signal a reinterretation orreinIorcementoItherole
1 02 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
oI monev 3 the roer object oI Jesrre? 8auJrillarJ Jeicts ost-
moJernculture as an 'excremental culture,` anJ monev=excrement
in both 8auJrillarJ`s anJ IreuJ`s view |somehints oIthat sentiment
can beIounJ in Marx). !ostmoJern concerns Ior the signiher rather
than the signiheJ, the meJium |monev) rather than the message
|sociallabour),the emhasis on hction ratherthanIunction, onsigns
rather than things, on aesthetics rather than ethics, suggest a rein-
IorcementratherthanatransIormationoItheroleoImonev asMarx
Jeicts it.
scommoJitvroJucers seekingmonev,however,weareJeen-
Jent uon the neeJs anJ caacitv oIothers to buv. !roJucers con-
sequentlv have a ermanent interest in cultivating 'excess anJ in
temerance` in others, in IeeJing 'imaginarv aetites` to the oint
whereiJeas oIwhat constitutes social neeJ arerelaceJ bv 'Iantasv,
carice, anJ whim. ` Jhe caitalist roJucer increasinglv 'lavs the
im` between the consumers anJ their sense oI neeJ, excites in
them 'morbiJ aetites, lies inwait Ior each oI their| weaknesses -
all so that hecan JemanJ the cash Ior this service oIlove. ` !leasure,
leisure, seJuction, anJ eroticliIeare all broughtwithinthe range oI
monev ower anJ commoJitv roJuction. Caitalism thereIore
'roJuces sohistication oI neeJs anJ oI their means on the one
hanJ, anJ a bestialbarbarization, a comlete, unrehneJ, anJabstract
simlicitvoIneeJ, on the other` |Marx, 1 964, 148). Jvertising anJ
commercialization Jestrov alltraces oI roJuction in their imagerv,
reinIorcing the Ietishism that arises automaticallv in the course oI
market exchange.
Iurthermore, monev, as the sureme reresentation oI social
ower in caitalist societv, itselI becomes the object oI lust, greeJ,
anJ Jesire. Yet here, too, we encounter Jouble meanings. Monev
conIers the rivilege to exercise ower over others - we can buv
their labour time or the services thev oIIer, even builJ svstematic
relationsoIJominationoverexloiteJclassessimlvthroughcontrol
over monev ower. Monev, in Iact, Iuses the olitical anJ the econ-
omic into a genuine olitical economv oI overwhelming ower re-
lations|aroblemthatmicro-theoristsoIowerlikeIoucaultsvstem-
aticallv avoiJanJwhichmacro-socialtheoristslike GiJJens - with
his strict Jivision between allocative anJ authoritative sources oI
ower - cannot gras). Jhe common matcrial languages oI monev
anJ commoJities roviJe a universal basiswithinmarket caitalism
IorlinkingevervoneintoaniJentical svstemoImarketvaluationanJ
so rocuring the reroJuction oI social liIe through an obj ectivelv
grounJeJsvstemoIsocialbonJing.YetwithinthesebroaJconstraints,
we are 'Iree,` as it were, to Jevelo our own ersonalities anJ
M oderniz ation 1 03
relationshis in our own wav, our own 'otherness,` even to Iorge
grou language games, roviJeJ, oI course, that we have enough
monev toliveon satisIactorilv. Monevisa 'greatlevelleranJ cvnic,`
a owerIul unJerminer oI hxeJ socialrelations, anJ a great 'Jemo-
cratizer`. s a socialowerthatcanbehelJbv inJiviJualersonsit
Iorms the basis Ior a wiJe-ranging inJiviJual libertv, a libertv that
can be JeoveJ to Jevelo ourselves as Iree-thinking inJiviJuals
without reIerence to others. Monev unihes reciselv through its
caacitvtoaccommoJate inJiviJualism, otherness,anJextraorJinarv
social Iragmentation.
8ut bv what rocess is the caacitv Ior Iragmentation latent in
the monev Iorm transIormeJ into a necessarv Ieature oI caitalist
moJernization?
!articiation in market exchange resuoses a certain Jivision oI
labour as well as a caacitv to searate |alienate) oneselI Irom one`s
own roJuct. Jhe result is an estrangement Irom the roJuct oI
one`s ownexerience,aIragmentationoI socialtasksanJasearation
oIthe subj ective meaningoIa rocess oIroJuctionIromthe objec-
tive market valuation oI the roJuct. highlv organizeJ technical
anJsocialJivisionoIlabour,thoughbvnomeansuniquetocaitalism,
is one oI the IounJing rinciles oI caitalist moJernization. Jhis
Iorms a owerIul lever to romote economic growth anJ the ac-
cumulation oI caital, articularlv unJer conJitions oI market ex-
changein which inJiviJualcommoJitvroJucers|rotecteJ bvrivate
roertv rights) can exlore the ossibilities oI secialization within
an oen economicsvstem. Jhis exlains the ower oI economic |Iree
market) liberalismasaIounJingJoctrineIorcaitalism.!tisreciselv
in such a context that ossessive inJiviJualism anJ creative entre-
reneurialism,innovation,anJseculation,canllourish,eventhough
this also means a roliIerating Iragmentation oI tasks anJ reson-
sibilities, anJ a necessarv transIormation oI social relations to the
ointwhereroJucersareIorceJtoviewothersinurelvinstrumental
terms.
8utthereismuchmore to caitalismthancommoJitvroJuction
anJ market exchange. Certain historical conJitions - in articular,
the existence oIwage labour - are requireJ beIoreroht-seeking -
launching monev into circulation in orJer to gain more monev -
can become the basic wav Ior social liIe to be reroJuceJ. 8aseJ on
the violent searation oI the mass oI the Jirect roJucers Irom
controloverthe meansoIroJuction, the emergence oIvagelabour
- ersons who have to sell labour ower in orJer to live - is the
'result oI manv revolutions, oI the extinction oI a whole series oI
olJer Iorms oI roJuction` ( Capital, 1 : 1 66-7). Jhe sense oI a
1 04
The passage from modernity to postmodernity
raJical, total, anJ violent ruture with me ast - another oI the
basic elements oI moJernist sensibilitv - is omni-resent in Marx`s
accountoIthe origins oI caitalism.
8ut Marx takes matters much Iurther. Jhe conversion oI labour
into wage labour means 'the searation oI labour Irom its roJuct,
oI subjective labour owerIrom the objective conJitions oI labour`
( Capital, 1 : 3). Jhis is a verv JiIIerent kinJ oI market exchange.
Caitalists when thev urchase labour ower necessarilv treat it in
instrumentalterms. Jhe labourerisvieweJas a'hanJ` ratherthanas
a whole erson |to useLickens`s satirical comment inHard Times),
anJ the labour contributeJ is a 'Iactor` |notice the reihcation) oI
roJuction. Jhe urchase oI labour ower with monev gives the
caitalist certain rights to Jisose oI the labour oI others without
necessarv regarJ Iorwhat the others might think, neeJ, or Ieel Jhe
omni-resenceoIthis class relation oI Jomination, oIIset onlvtothe
Jegree that the labourers activelv struggle to assert their rights anJ
exress their Ieelings, suggests one oI the IounJing rinciles uon
which the verv iJea oI 'otherness` is roJuceJ anJ reroJuceJ on a
continuing basis incaitalistsocietv. JheworlJ oItheworking class
becomes the Jomain oI that 'other,` which is necessarilv renJereJ
oaque anJ otentiallv unknowable bv virtue oI the Ietishism oI
marketexchange. nJ ! shoulJalso aJJarentheticallvthatiIthere
arealreaJvthoseinsocietv |women, blacks, colonizeJeoles, min-
orities oI all kinJs) who can reaJilv be concetualizeJ as the other,
thentheconllationoIclassexloitationwithgenJer,race,colonialism,
ethnicitv, etc. canroceeJaacewithallmanneroIinviJiousresults.
CaitalismJiJnotinvent'theother` butitcertainlvmaJeuseoIanJ
romoteJ it in highlv structureJ wavs.
Caitalists can Jelovtheirrights strategicallv to imose allkinJs
oI conJitions uon the labourer. Jhe latter is tvicallv alienateJ
Irom the roJuct, Irom commanJ over the rocess oI roJucing it,
as well as Irom thecaacitvto realize thevalue oItheIruitoIhis or
her eIIorts - the caitalist aroriates that as roht. Jhe caitalist
has the ower |though bv no means arbitrarv or total) to mobilize
the owers oI co-oeration, Jivision oI labour, anJ machinerv as
owers oI caital over labour. Jhe result is an organizeJ Jetail
JivisionoIlabourwithintheIactorv,whichreJucesthelabourerto a
Iragment oIaerson. 'JheabsurJIable oIMenenius gria, which
makes man a mere Iragment oI his own boJv, becomes realizeJ`
(Capital, 1 : 340). We hereencounter therincile oI the Jivision oI
labour at work in a quite JiIIerent guise. Whereas the Jivision oI
labour in societv 'brings into contact inJeenJent commoJitv ro-
Jucers,whoacknowleJgenootherauthoritvbutthatoIcometition,
M oderniz ation
1 05
oIthe coercion exerteJ bv theressureoItheirmutual interests,` the
'Jivision oI labour within the worksho imlies the unJisuteJ au-
thoritv oIthe caitalist over men, that are butarts oIa mechanism
that belongs to him. ` narchv in the social Jivision oI labour is
relaceJbv theJesotism - enIorceJthroughhierarchies oIauthor-
itv anJ close suervision oItasks - oItheworksho anJtheIactorv.
Jhis enIorceJ Iragmentation, which is both social anJ technical
within a single labour rocess, is Iurther emhasizeJ bv the loss oI
control overthe instruments oI roJuction. Jhis turns the labourer
eIIectivelv into an 'aenJage` oI the machine. !ntelligence |know-
leJge, science,technique)isobjectiheJinthemachine,thussearating
manual Irom mental labour anJ Jiminishing the alication oIintel-
ligence on the art oI the Jirect roJucers. !n all oI these resects,
theinJiviJuallaboureris'maJeoor`ininJiviJualroJuctiveowers
'in orJer to make the collective labourer, anJ through him caital
rich in social roJuctive ower` (Capital, 1 : 341) . Jhis rocess Joes
not sto with the JirectroJucers, with the easants ulleJ oIIthe
lanJ, thewomen anJ chilJren IorceJ to give oItheir labour in the
Iactories anJ mines. Jhe bourgeoisie 'has itilesslv torn asunJerthe
motlevIeuJaltiesthatbounJmantohis naturalsueriors, "anJhas
leIt remaining no other nexus between man anJ man than callous
cash avment. ` . . . !t| has strieJ oI its halo everv occuation
hitherto honoureJ anJ lookeJ u to with reverent awe. !t has con-
verteJ the hvsician, the lawver, the riest, the oet, the man oI
science, into itsaiJwage labourers` ( The communist manifesto, 45).
Howis it, then, that the 'bourgeoisie cannot exist without con-
stantlv revolutionizing the instruments oI roJuction, anJ therebv
the relations oIroJuction?` Jhe answerMarxroviJes in Capital is
both thorough anJ convincing. Jhe 'coercive laws` oI market com-
etition Iorce all caitalists to seek out technological anJ organi-
zational changes that will enhance their own rohtabilitv vis-a-vis
the social average, thus entraining all caitalists in lea-Irogging
rocesses oIinnovation that reach their limit onlv unJer conJitions
oI massive labour surluses. Jhe neeJ to kee the labourer unJer
control in the worklace, anJ to unJercut the bargaining ower oI
the labourer in the market |articularlv unJer conJitions oI relative
labour scarcitv anJ active class resistance), also stimulates caitalists
to innovate. Caitalism is necessarilv technologicallv Jvnamic, not
becauseoIthemvthologizeJcaacities oItheinnovativeentrereneur
|as Schumeter was later to argue) but because oI the coercive
laws oI cometition anJ the conJitions oI class struggle enJemic to
caitalism.
Jhe eIIect oIcontinuousinnovation,however,is to Jevalue, iI not
I 06
The passage from modernity to postmoderniy
Jestrov, ast investments anJ labour skills. Creative destruction is
embeJJeJ within the circulation oI caitalitselI. !nnovation exacer
bates instabilitv, insecuritv, anJ in the enJ, becomes therimeIorce
ushing caitalism into erioJicaroxvsms oI crisis. ot onlv Joes
the liIe oI moJern inJustrv become a series oI erioJs oI moJerate
activitv, roseritv, over-roJuction, crisis, anJstagnation, 'but the
uncertaintv anJ instabilitv to which machinerv subjects the emlov-
ment, anJconsequentlv the conJitions oIexistence, oIthe oeratives
become normal.` Iurthermore.
ll means Iorthe Jeveloment oIroJuction transIorm them-
selves into means oI Jomination over, anJ exloitation oI, the
roJucers,thevmutilatethe labourerinto aIragmentoIaman,
JegraJehimto theleveloI an aenJage oI amachine, Jestrov
everv remnant oI charm in his work anJ turn it into a hateJ
toil, thevestrangeIromhim the intellectualotentialities oIthe
labour-rocessinthesameroortionasscienceisincororateJ
in it as an inJeenJent ower, thev Jistort the conJitions
unJer which he works, subject him Juring the labour-rocess
toaJesotismthemorehateIulIoritsmeanness, thevtransIorm
his liIe-time into working-time, anJ Jrag his wiIe anJ chilJ
beneath the wheels oI the |uggernaut oI caital. (Capital, I .
60+)
Jhestruggleto maintainrohtabilitv senJscaitalistsracingoIIto
exloreallkinJsoIotherossibilities.ewroJuctlinesareoeneJ
u, anJ that means thecreationoI newwants anJ neeJs. Caitalists
are IorceJ to reJouble their eIIorts to create new neeJs in others,
thusemhasizing the cultivation oI imaginarv aetites anJ the role
oI Iantasv, carice anJ whim. Jhe result is to exacerbate insecuritv
anJ instabilitv, as masses oI caital anJ workers shiIt Irom one line
oIroJuctionto another, leavingwhole sectors JevastateJ, whilethe
eretual llux in consumer wants, tastes, and neeJs becomes a er-
manentlocusoIuncertaintvanJ struggle. ewsacesarenecessarilv
oeneJ u as caitalists seek new markets, new sources oI raw
materials, Iresh labourower, anJ new anJ more rohtable sites Ior
roJuction oerations. Jhe Jrive to relocate to more aJvantageous
laces|thegeograhicalmovementoIbothcaitalanJlabour)erioJ
icallv revolutionizes the international anJ territorial Jivision oI
labour, aJJing a vital geograhical Jimension to the insecuritv. Jhe
resultant transIormation in the exerience oI sace anJ lace is
matcheJbv revolutions in the time Jimension, as caitalists striveto
reJuce the turnover time oI their caital to 'the twinkling oI an eve`
M oderniz ation I0/
|see below, !art !!!) . Caitalism, in short, i s a social svstem inter-
nalizingrules that ensure it will remain a ermanentlv revolutionarv
anJJisrutiveIorce inits ownworlJhistorv. !I, thereIore, 'the onlv
securething about moJernitv isinsecuritv,` thenitis not harJ to see
romwhere thatinsecuritv Jerives .
Yet, Marx insists, there is a single unitarv rincile at work that
unJerinsanJIramesalloIthisrevolutionarvuheaval,Iragmentation,
anJeretual insecuritv. Jhe rincile resiJes inwhathe calls, most
abstractlv, 'value in motion` or, more simlv, the circulation oI
caital restlesslv anJeretuallv seekingnewwavsto garnerrohts.
8vthesame token, therearehigher-orJerco-orJinating svstems that
seem to have the ower - though in the enJ Marx will insist that
thisoweris itselItransitorv anJ illusorv - tobring orJer to all this
chaos anJ set the ath oI caitalist moJernization on a more stable
terrain. JhecreJitsvstem, Iorexamle,emboJies acertainowerto
gulate monev uses, monev lIows can be switcheJ so as to stabilize
relationsbetweenroJuctionanJ consumtion, to arbitratebetween
current exenJitures anJ Iuture neeJs, anJ to shiIt surluses oI
caitalIromonelineoIroJuctionorregiontoanotheronarational
basis.8uthere, too,weimmeJiatelvencounteracentralcontraJiction
because creJit creation anJ Jisbursement can never be searateJ
Irom seculation. CreJit is, accorJing to Marx, alwavs to be
accounteJ Ior as 'hctitious caital,` as some kinJ oI monev bet on
roJuctionthatJoes notvetexist. Jhe resultis aermanenttension
betweenwhatMarxcalls'thehnancialsvstem`|creJitaer,hctitious
cai

al, hnancial instruments oI all kinJs) anJ its 'monetarv base`

|unulrecentlv attacheJ to sometangible commoJitvsuchas golJor
silver).JhiscontraJictionisIounJeJon aarticulararaJox. monev
hasto take some tangibleIorm |golJ, coin, notes,entriesin aleJger,
etc. ) even though it is a general reresentation oI all social labour.
JhequestionoIwhichoItheJiversetangiblereresentationsis 'real`
monev tvicallv eruts at times oI crisis. !s it better to holJ stocks
anJ share certihcates, notes, golJ, or cans oI tuna, in the miJst oIa
Jeression? !t also Iollows that whoever controls the tangible Iorm
|the golJ roJucers, the state, the banks who issue creJit) that is
most 'real` ata given time, has enormous social inlIuence, eveniI, in
the last instance, it is the roJucers anJ exchangers oIcommoJities
in aggregate who eIIectivelv Jehne 'the value oI monev` |a ara-
Joxical termwhichweallunJerstanJ, butwhichtechnicallvsignihes
'the value oIvalue`). Control over the rules oI monev Iormation is,
asaconsequence,astronglvcontesteJterrainoIstrugglewhichgener-
atesconsiJerableinsecuritvanJuncertaintvastothe'valueoIvalue.`
!nseculativebooms,ahnancialsvstemwhichstartsoutbvaearing
I08
The passage from moderniy to postmodernity
as a sane JeviceIor regulating the incoherenttenJencies oI caitalist
roJuction, enJs u becoming 'the main lever Ior overroJuction
anJ over-seculation. ` Jhe Iact that ostmoJernist architecture re-
garJs itselIas being aboutfction ratherthanfunction aears, inthe
light oI the reutations oI the hnanciers, roertv Jeveloers, anJ
seculators thatorganizeconstruction, more than a little at.
Jhe state, constituteJ as acoercivesvstem oI authoritv thathas a
monoolvover institutionalizeJviolence, Iorms a seconJorganizing
rincilethroughwhich arulingclass canseekto imose its will not
onlv uon its oonents but uon the anarchical llux, change, anJ
uncertaintv towhichcaitalistmoJernitv isalwavsrone. Jhe tools
varv Irom regulation oI monev anJ legal guarantees oI Iair market
contracts, through hscal interventions, creJitcreation, anJtax reJis-
tributions, to rovision oI social anJ hvsical inIrastructures, Jirect
controlovercaitalanJlabourallocationsas well as overwages anJ
rices, the nationalization oI kev sectors, restrictions on working
classower, olice surveillance, anJmilitarv reression anJthe like.
Yetthe state is aterritorialentitvstrugglingto imose itswilluona
lluiJ anJ satiallv oen rocess oI caital circulation. !t has to
contestwithinits borJersthe Iactional Iorces anJ Iragmenting eIIects
oI wiJesreaJ inJiviJualism, raiJ social change, anJ all the
ehemeralitv that tvicallv attaches to caital circulation. !t also
JeenJs on taxation anJ creJit markets, so that states can be Jis-
cilineJbv thecirculation rocess at the sametime as thevcan seek
to romotearticular strategies oI caital accumulation.
JoJosoeIIectivelvthestatemustconstructanalternative sense oI
communitv to thatbaseJonmonev, as wellas a Jehnition oIublic
interestsoveranJabovethe class anJsecretarian interests anJstrug-
glesthatarecontaineJwithinits borJers. !tmust, inshort,legitimize
itselI. !tis,thereIore, bounJ to engagetosomeJegreeintheaesthe
ticization of politics. Jhisissueis aJJresseJ in Marx`s classic stuJvoI
The eighteenth brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. How is it, he there
asks, that even at the height oI revolutionarv Ierment, the revolu-
tionaries themselves ' anxiouslv conjure u the sirits oI the ast to
theirserviceanJ borrowIromthemnames, battle cries anJcostumes
in orJer to resent the new scene oI worlJ historv in this time
honoureJ Jisguise anJ borroweJ language` ? Jhe 'awakening oI the
JeaJ in 'bourgeois| revolutions serveJ the urose oI gloriIving the
new struggles, not oI aroJving the olJ, oI magniIving the given
taskinimagination, not lleeing Iromits solutioninrealitv, oIhnJing
once more the sirit oI revolution, not oI making its ghost walk
aboutagain. ` Jhe invocation oImvthmavhavelaveJ a kevrolein
ast revolutions, but here Marxstrives to Jenvwhat Sorelwas later
M oderniz at ion
I09
to aIhrm. 'Jhe social revolution oI the nineteenth centurv cannot
Jraw its oetrv Irom the ast,` Marx argues, 'but onlv Irom the
Iuture.` !t must stri oII 'all suerstition in regarJ to the ast,` else
'the traJition oIallthe JeaJ generations weighs like a nightmare on
thebrainoItheliving`anJconvertsthecathartictrageJvoIrevolution
into the ritual oI Iarce. !n itting himselI so mercilesslv against the
ower oI mvth anJ the aestheticization oI olitics, Marx in eIIect
aIhrms their remarkable owers to stille rogressive workingclass
revolutions . 8onaartism was, IorMarx, aIorm oI'caesarism` |with
allitsclassicalallusions) that coulJ, in theersonoILouis8onaarte
assumingthemantle oIhisuncle, block therevolutionarvasirations
oI therogressive bourgeoisie anJ theworking class alike. Jhus JiJ
Marx come to terms with the aesthetization oI olitics thatIascism
later achieveJ in Iar morevirulentIorm.
Jhe tension between the hxitv |anJ hence stabilitv) that state
regulation imoses, anJ the lluiJ motion oI caital llow, remains a
crucialroblemIorthesocialanJoliticalorganizationoIcaitalism.
Jhis JiIhcultv |to which we shall return in !art !!) is moJiheJbv
thewavinwhichthestate stanJs itselIto be JiscilineJ bvinternal
Iorces |uonwhichitrelies Iorits ower) anJ external conJitions -
cometitionintheworlJ economv, exchangerates,anJcaitalmove-
ments, migration, or, on occasion, Jirect olitical interventions on
theart oIsueriorowers. Jhe relation between caitalistJevelo-
mentanJthe statehasto be seen, thereIore, asmutuallv Jetermining
rather then uniJirectional. State ower can, in the enJ, be neither
morenorlessstablethantheoliticaleconomvoIcaitalistmoJernitv
will allow.
Jhereare, however, manvositive asects tocaitalistmoJernitv.
Jhe otential commanJ over nature that arises as caitalism 'renJs
theveil`overthemvsteriesoIroJuction holJs a tremenJous oten-
tial Ior reJucing the owers oI nature-imoseJ necessities over our
lives. Jhe creation oI new wants anJ neeJs can alert us to new
culturalossibilities |oIthe sortthatavant-garJe artistswerelaterto
exlore).venthe'variationoIlabour, lluencvoIIunction, universal
mobilitv oI the labourer` JemanJeJ bv moJern inJustrv, holJs the
otential to relace the IragmenteJ worker 'bv the Iullv JeveloeJ
inJiviJual, ht Ior a varietv oI labours, reaJv to Iace anv change oI
roJuction, anJ to whom the JiIIerent Iunctions he erIorms, are
but so manv moJes oI giving Iree scoe to his own natural anJ
acquireJ owers` ( Capital, I. +58). Jhe reJuction oI satial barriers
anJ theIormationoItheworlJmarketnotonlv allows ageneralizeJ
access tothe JiversiheJroJucts oIJiIIerentregions anJclimes, but
also uts us into Jirect contact with all the eoles oI the earth.
I I 0
The passage from modernity to postmodernity
bove all, revolutions in roJuctive Iorce, intechnologvanJ science,
oen u new vistas Ior humanJeveloment anJ selI-realization.
!tis articularlv useIul to look at these concetons nrelation to
'heroic` moJernism`s jousting with mvthologv. Jhe latter, Marx
argues, 'controls anJIashions the Iorces oInature intheimagination
anJthroughtheimagination,itJisaearsthereIorewhenrealcontrol
over these Iorces is establisheJ. ` Mvthologv is, in short, a humanlv
constructeJ, intermeJiate, anJ historicallv JetermineJ link, which
Jisaearswhenhumanbeings acquire thethecaacitv to make their
historv accorJing to conscious choice anJ Jesign |Kahael, I 98I ,
89). Kevolutions in technologv renJereJ ossible bvthe Jivson oI
labour anJ the rise oI the materialist sciences haJ the eIIect oI
JemvstiIving the rocesses oI roJuction |atlv calleJ 'mvsteries`
anJ 'arts` in there-moJern erioJ) anJ oeningu thecaacitvto
liberate societv Irom scarcitv anJ the more oressive asects oI
nature-imoseJ necessitv. Jhiswas the gooJ siJe oI caitalist moJ
ernization.Jheroblem, however,was toliberateusIromtheIetsh-
isms oI market exchange anJ to JemvstiIv |anJ bv extension Je-
mvthologize)the socialanJhistoricalworlJinexactlvthesamewav.
Jhiswas the scientihc task thatMarx set himselIin Capital. 8utitis
alwavs ossible, articularlv in the Iace oI the uncertainties anJ
Iragmentations to which caitalism is rone |economic crises Ior
examle), to re-mvthologize, to seek once again to control anJ
Iashion the social Iorces in imagination anJ through imagination,
unJer conJitions where all semblance oI control over these Iorces
seems to be lost. Jhe struggle to create a 'Je-mvthologizeJ` art anJ
science oI historv |both erIectlv Ieasible rojects in Marx`s view)
has to be seen asart anJarcel oI this broaJer social struggle. 8ut
that battle |Ior which Marx believeJ he haJ reareJ a owerIul
IounJation) coulJ be won onlv through the transition to an all-
encomassing anJ owerIul socialism, which woulJ renJer aro-
riationoIthenaturalanJ socialworlJthroughmvthreJunJantanJ
irrelevant. Meanwhile, the tension between the mvsthcations, Ietsh-
isms, anJ mvthological constructions oI the olJer orJer, anJ the
enchant Ior revolutionizing ourconcetions oIthe worlJ has to be
areciateJ as central to intellectual, artstic, anJ scientihc liIe.
!t is out oIthe tension between the negative anJostve qualtes
oI caitalism that new wavs to Jehne our secies being can be
constructeJ.
Jhus caital creates the bourgeois societv, anJ the universal
aroriation oI nature as well as oI the social bonJ itselI bv
M oderniz ation
I I I
the members oIsocietv. Hence the great civilizing inlluence oI
caital, its roJuction oI a stage oI societv in comarison to
which all earlier ones aear as mere local developments oI
humanitv anJ as nature-idolatry. Ior the hrst time nature be-
comes urelv an object Ior humankinJ, urelv a matter oI
utilitv, ceases to be recognizeJ as a ower Ior itselI, anJ the
theoreticalJiscoverv oIits autonomous laws aears merelv as
a ruse so as to subjugate it to human neeJs. . . Caital Jrives
bevonJ national barriers anJ rejuJices as much as bevonJ
nature worshi, as well as bevonJ| all traJitional, conhneJ,
comlacent,encrusteJsatisIactionsoIresent neeJs, anJrero-
JuctionoIolJwavs oIliIe. !tisJestructivetowarJs all oI this,
anJ constantlv revolutionizes it, tearing Jown all the barriers
which hem inthe Jeveloment oIthe Iorces oIroJuction, the
exansion oI neeJs, the all-siJeJ Jeveloment oI roJuction,
anJtheexloitationanJ exchange oInatural anJmental Iorces.
(Grundrisse, +I 0)
Jhereis more thanahintoIthenlightenmentrojectinassages oI
this sort. nJ Marx gives us lentv oI aJvice on how we might Iuse
allthesoraJicthoughwiJesreaJresistances,Jiscontents,anJstrug-
glesagainsttheoressive,Jestructive,Iragmenting,anJJestabilizing
asects oI liIe unJer caitalism so as to master the maelstrom anJ
becomecollectivecreatorsoIourownhistorv accorJingtoconscious
lan. 'JherealmoIIreeJomactuallvbeginsonlvwherelabourwhich
is JetermineJ bv necessitv anJ munJane consiJerations ceases. .
8evonJitbeginsthat Jeveloment oIhumanenergvwhich is an enJ
in itselI, the true realm oIIreeJom. `
What Marx Jeicts, thereIore, are social rocesses atwork unJer
caitalism conJucive to inJiviJualism, alienation, Iragmentation,
ehemeralitv, innovation, creative Jestruction, seculative Jevelo-
ment,unreJictableshiItsinmethoJsoIroJuctionanJconsumtion
|wants anJneeJs), a shiItingexerience oIsace anJ time, as well as
a crisis-riJJen Jvnamic oI social change. !Ithese conJitions oIca-
italist moJernization Iorm the material context out oI which both
moJernist anJostmoJernist thinkers anJ cultural roJucers Iorge
their aesthetic sensibilities,rinciles, anJractices, itseemsreason-
able toconcluJethattheturntoostmoJernism Joes notrellectanv
IunJamental change oI social conJition. Jhe rise oI ostmoJernism
either reresents a Jearture |iI such there is) in wavs oI thinking
about what coulJ or shoulJ be Jone about that social conJition, or
else |anJ this is the roosition we exlore in consiJerable Jeth in
I I2 The passage from moderity to postmodernity
!art !!) it relIects a shiIt in the wav in which caitalism is working
these Javs. !n either case, Marx`s account oI caitalism, iI correct,
roviJes us with a verv soliJ basis Ior thinking about the general
relations between moJernization, moJernitv, anJ the aesthetic
movements that Jraw their energies Irom such conJitions.
b
POSTmodernISM or
pos tMODERNism?
How, then, shoulJ ostmoJernism in general be evaluateJ? Mv
reliminarv assessment woulJ be this. Jhat in its concern Ior JiIIer-
ence, Ior the JiIhculties oI communication, Ior the comlexitv anJ
nuances oI interests, cultures, laces, anJ the like, it exercises a
ositive inlIuence. Jhe meta-languages, meta-theories, anJ meta-
narratives oI moJernism |articularlv in its later maniIestations) JiJ
tenJ to gloss overimortantJiIIerences, anJ IaileJ to av attention
to imortant Jisjunctions anJ Jetails. !ostmoJernism has been
articuIarlv imortant in acknowleJging 'the multile Iorms oI
otherness asthevemergeIrom JiIIerencesin subj ectivitv, genJeranJ
sexualitv, race anJ class, temoral |conhgurations oIsensibilitv) anJ
satial geograhic locations anJ Jislocations` |Huvssens, I 98+, 50).
!tisthis asectoIostmoJernistthoughtthat gives ita raJical eJge,
so much so that traJitional neo-conservatives, such as Laniel 8ell,
Iear rather than welcome its accommoJations with inJiviJualism,
commercialism, anJ entrereneuralism. Such neo-conservatives
woulJ, aIter all, harJlv welcome LvotarJ`s |I 980, 66) assertion that
'the temorarv contract is in ractice sulanting ermanent insti-
tutions in the roIessional, emotional, sexual, cultural, Iamilv, anJ
international Jomains, as well as in olitical aIIairs . ` Laniel 8ell
lainlv regrets the collase oI soliJ bourgeois values, the erosion oI
the work ethic in the working class, anJ sees contemorarv trenJs
less asa turntowarJs avibrantostmoJernistIutureanJmore as an
exhaustion oImoJernism that surelvharbingers a socialanJolitical
crisis 1 vears to come.
!ostmoJernism also ought to be lookeJ at as mimetic oI the
social, economic, anJ olitical ractices in societv. 8ut since it is
mimtic oI JiIIerent Iacets oI those ractices it aears in verv
JiIIerent guises. Jhe suerimosition oI JiIIerent worlJs in manv a
ostmoJern novel, worlJs between which an uncommunicative
I I+ The passage from modernity to postmodernity
'otherness` revails m a sace oI coexistence, bears M uncannv
reIationshi to the increasing ghettoization, Jisemowerment, anJ
isolation oI overtv anJ minoritv oulations in the inner cities oI
both 8ritain anJ the LniteJ States. !t is not harJ to reaJ a ost-
moJern novel as a metahorical transect across the Iragmenting
sociallanJscae,thesub-cultures anJlocal moJes oIcommunication,
in LonJon, Chicago, ewYork, or Los ngeles. Since most social
inJicators suggest a strong increase in actual ghettoization since
I 9/0, it is useIul to thinkoI ostmoJernhction aserhasmimetic
oIthat Iact.
8utthe increasing aIlIuence, ower, anJauthoritv emerging at the
otherenJoIthe social scale roJuces an entirelvJiIIerentethos. Ior
while it is harJ to see that working in the ostmoJern JcJ
builJing bv !hili |ohnson is anv JiIIerent Irom working in the
moJernistSeagrambuilJingbvMiesvanJerKohe,theimagerojecteJ
to the outsiJe is JiIIerent. 'JcJ insisteJ thev wanteJ something
otherthanjustanotherglassbox,`saiJthearchitect.'Wewerelooking
Ior something that rojecteJ the comanv`s image oI nobilitv anJ
strength. o material Joes that better thangranite` |even though it
was Jouble the cost oI glass). With luxurv housing anJ cororate
heaJquarters, aesthetic twists become an exression oI class ower.
Crim | I 98/) takes it Iurther.
JheresentconJitionoIarchitecture is oneinwhich architects
Jebate acaJemic, abstract aesthetics whilethev are in Iactin the
thrall oI the real-estate Jeveloers who are ruining our cities
anJ turningworking cIasseole outoItheirhomes . !hili
johnson`s new skvscraer

. . is a Jeveloer builJing, with a

Iew alieJ geegaws, thrust uon a neighborhooJ that is not
articularlv in neeJ oI another skvscraer.
!nvokingthe memorv oI Hitler`s architectlbertSeer, Crim goes
on to attack the ostmoJernist mask oI what he sees as a new
authoritarianism in the Jirection oI citv Iorms.
! have chosen thesetwo examles to illustratehowimortant itis
to thinkthroughexactlvwhat kinJs oI social ractice, what sets oI
social relations, are beingreIlecteJinJiIIerentaestheticmovements.
Yetthisaccountissurelvincomletebecausewehavevettoestablish
- anJ this will be the subject oI enquirv in !arts !! anJ !!! oI this
stuJv - exactlvwhatostmoJernismmightbemimetic oI. Iurther-
more,itisjustassurelvJangeroustoresuosethatostmoJernism
is solelv mimetic rather than an aesthetic intervention in olitics,
economv, anJ social liIe in its own right. Jhe strong injection oI
POSTmodernISM or postMODERNism?
I I 5
fction aswell asfunction into commonsensibilitv,Ior examle, must
have consequences, erhas unIoreseen, Ior socialaction. venMarx
insisteJ,aIterall, thatwhatJistinguishestheworstoIarchitectsIrom
thebestoIbeesisthatthearchitecterects stucturesintheimagination
beIore giving them material Iorm. Changes in the wav we imagine,
mink,lan, anJ rationalize are bounJ to have material consequences.
Cnlv in these verv broaJ terms oI the conjoining oI mimesis anJ
aesthetic intervention can the broaJ range oI ostmoJernism make
sense.
Yet ostmoJernism sees itselI rather more simlv. Ior the most
art as a wilIul anJ rather chaotic movement to overcome all the
suoseJillsoImoJernism.8utinthisregarJ! thinkostmoJernists
exaggeratewhenthevJeictthemoJern as grosslv as thev Jo, either
caricaturing the whole moJernist movement to the oint where, as
even|encks aJmits, 'moJernarchitecture bashinghas becomea Iorm
oI saJism that is getting Iar too easv,` or isolating one wing oI
moJernism Ior criticism |lthusserianism, moJern brutalism, or
whatever) as iI that was all there was. Jhere were, aIter all, manv
cross-currents within moJernism, anJ ostmoJernists echo some oI
them quite exlicitlv encks, Ior examle, looks back to the erioJ
I 8/0 -I 9I+, even to the conIusions oI the I 920s, while incluJing Le
Corbusier`s monasterv at Koncham as an imortant recursor oI
one asect oI ostmoJernism). Jhe meta-narratives that the ost-
moJernistsJecrv |Marx,IreuJ,anJevenlaterhgureslikelthusser)
were much more oen, nuanceJ, anJ sohisticateJ than the critics
aJmit. MarxanJmanvoItheMarxists |! thinkoI8enjamin,Jhom-
son, nJerson, as Jiverse examles) have an eve Ior Jetail, Irag-
mentation, anJ Jisjunction that is oIten caricatureJ out oI existence
in ostmoJern olemics. Marx`s account oI moJernization is
exceeJinglv rich in insights into the roots oI moJernist as well as
ostmoJernist sensibilitv
!t is equallv wrong to write oII the material achievements oI
moJernistractices soeasilv.MoJernistsIounJawavto controlanJ
contain an exlosive caitalist conJition. Jhev were eIIective Ior
examle, in the organization oI urban liIe anJ the caacitv U builJ
sace in such awav as to contain theintersectingrocesses thathave
maJe Ior a raiJ urban change in twentieth-centurv caitalism. !I
there is a crisis imlicitin all oI that, itis bvnomeans clear thatitis
the moJernists, rather than the caitalists, who are to blame. Jhere
are, inJeeJ, some extraorJinarv successes in the moJernistantheon
|!notethe 8rtish school builJing anJ Jesignrogrammeintheearlv
I 960s that solveJ some oI the acute housing roblems oI eJucation
within tight buJget constraints). While some housing rojects were
I I 6 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
inJeeJ Jismal Iailures, others were not, articularlvwhen comareJ
with the slum conJitions Irom which manv eole came. nJ it
turns out that the social conJitions in !ruitt-!goe - that great
svmbol oImoJernist Iailure - were much more at the heart oI the
roblem than ure architectural Iorm. JheblamingoIhvsicalIorm
Ior social ills has to rest on the most vulgar kinJ oI environmental
Jeterminism thatIew woulJ be reareJ to accetin other circum-
stances |though ! note with Jistress that another member oI !rince
Charles`s 'kitchen cabinet` is the geograher lice Coleman, who
regularlv mistakes correlation between baJ Jesign anJ anti-social
behaviour with causation). !t is interesting to note, thereIore, how
thetenantoulationinLeCorbusier`s'habitat Iorliving`atIirminv-
le-Vert has organizeJ into a social movement to revent its Jestruc-
tion|not, ! shoulJ aJJ,outoIanvarticularlovaltvto Le Corbusier
but more simlv because it haens to be their home). s even
|encks aJmits, ostmoJernists have taken over all oI the great
achievements oI the moJernists in architectural Jesign, though thev
havecertainlvaltereJaesthetics anJ aearancesin atleastsuerhcial
wavs.
! also concluJethat thereismuchmorecontinuitv than JiIIerence
between the broaJ historv oI moJernism anJ the movement calleJ
ostmoJernism. !t seems more sensible to me to see the latter as a
articular kinJ oI crisis within the Iormer, one that emhasizes the
Iragmentarv, the ehemeral, anJ the chaotic siJe oI 8auJelaire`s
Iormulation |that siJe which Marx so aJmirablv Jissects as integral
tothecaitalistmoJeoIroJuction)whileexressingaJeesceticism
as to anvarticular rescritions as to how the eternal anJ immut-
able shoulJ be conceiveJoI, reresenteJ, or exresseJ.
8ut ostmoJernism, with its emhasis uon the ehemeralitv oI
jouissance, its insistence uon the imenetrabilitv oI the other, its
concentration on the text rather than the work, its enchant Ior
Jeconstruction borJering on nihilism, its reIerence Ior aesthetics
over ethics, takes matters too Iar. !t takes them bevonJ the oint
whereanvcoherentoliticsareleIt,whilethatwingoIitthatseeksa
shameless accommoJation with the market uts it hrmlv in the
tracksoIanentrereneurialculturethatisthehallmarkoIreactionarv
neoconservativism. !ostmoJernist hilosohers tell us not onlv to
accet but even to revel in theIragmentations anJ the cacohonvoI
voices through which the Jilemmas oIthe moJern worlJ are unJer-
stooJ. CbsesseJ with Jeconstructing anJ Jelegitimating everv Iorm
oI argument thev encounter, thev can enJ onlv in conJemning their
own valiJitv claims to the oint where nothing remains oI anv basis
IorreasoneJ action. !ostmoJernismhas usaccetingthe reihcations
POSTmoderISM or postMODERNism? I I /
anJ
artitionings, actuallv celebrating the activitv oI masking anJ
cover-u, all the Ietishisms oI localitv, lace, or social grouing,
whileJenvingthatkinJoImeta-theorvwhichcangrastheolitical-
economic rocesses |monev llows, internationalJivisions oIlabour,
hnancialmarkets, anJ the like)thatarebecomingevermoreuniver-
salizing in their Jeth, intensitv, reach anJ ower over Jailv liIe.
WorstoIall,whileitoensu araJicalrosectbvacknowleJging
me authenticitv oI other voices, ostmoJernist thinking immeJi-
atelv shuts oII those other voices Irom access to more universal
sources oI ower bv ghettoizing them within an oaque otherness,
thesecihcitv oIthis orthatlanguage game. !ttherebvJisemowers
those voices |oI women, ethnic anJ racial minorities, colonizeJ
eoles,theunemloveJ, vouth, etc.) in aworlJ oIlo-siJeJower
relations. Jhe language gameoIa cabal oIinternationalbankersmav
be imenetrable to us, but that Joes not ut it on a ar with the
equallv imenetrable language oI inner-citv blacks Irom the stanJ-
oint oI ower relations.
Jhe rhetoric oI ostmoJernism is Jangerous Ior it avoiJs con-
Innting the realities oI olitical economv anJ the circumstances oI
global ower. Jhe silliness oI LvotarJ`s 'raJical roosal` that
oening u the Jata banks to evervone as a rologue to raJical
reIorm|asiIwewoulJ allhaveequalowertousethatoortunitv)
is instructive, because it inJicates how even the most resolute oI
ostmoJernists is IaceJ in the enJ with either making some univer-
salizing gesture |like LvotarJ`s aeal to some ristine concet oI
justice) or lasing, like LerriJa, into total olitical silence. Meta-
theorvcannotbeJisenseJwith. Jhe ostmoJernists simlvushit
unJergrounJ where it continues to Iunction as a 'now unconcious
eIIectivitv` |jameson I 98+b).
! hnJ mvselI agreeing, thereIore, with agleton's reuJiation oI
LvotarJ, Iorwhom 'there can be no JiIIerence between truth, au-
thoritvanJrhetoricalseJuctiveness,hewhohasthesmoothesttongue
or the raciest storv has theower.` Jhe eight-vear reign oI acharis-
matic storv-teller in the White House suggests that there is more
than a little continuitv to that olitical roblem, anJ that ost-
moJernism comes Jangerouslv close to comlicitv with the aesthe
ticizing oI olitics uon which it is baseJ. Jhis takes us back to a
verv basic question. !I both moJernitv anJ ostmoJernitv Jerive
their aesthetic Irom some kinJ oIstrugglewith thefact oIIragment-
ation, ehemeralitv, anJ chaotic llux, it is, ! woulJ suggest, verv
imortantto establishwhv such aIact shoulJ have been so ervasive
an asect oI moJern exerience Ior so long a erioJ oI time, anJ
whv the intensitv oI that exerience seems to have ickeJ u so
I I 8 The passage from modernity to postmodernity
owerIullv since I 9/0. !I the onlv thing certai

about moJer

itv is
uncertaintv, then we shoulJ, surelv, av

nsiJer

ble attention

to
the social Iorces that roJuce such a conJition. !t is to these social
Iorces that ! now turn.
or/
The political -economic
transformation of late twentieth
century capitalism
The interval between the decay of the ol d and the formation and
establishment of the new, constitutes a period of transition, which
must always necessarily be one of uncertainty, confusion, error, and
wild and ferce fanaticism. ] ohn Calhoun
/
Introduction
!I therehasbeen some kinJ oI transIormation in the olitical econ-
omv oI late twentieth-centurv caitalism, then it behoves us to
establish how Jee anJ IunJamental the change might be

Signs anJ
tokens oIraJical changes in labour rocesses, in consumerhabits, in
geograhical anJ geoolitical conhgurations, in state owers anJ
ractices, anJ the like, abounJ. Yet we still live, in the West, in a
societv where roJuction Ior roht remains the basic organizing
rincileoIeconomicliIe. WeneeJsomewav,thereIore,toreresent
all the shiIting anJ churning that has gone on since the hrst major
ost-warrecessionoI I 9/5,which Joesnotlose sight oItheIactthat
the basicrules oIa caitalist moJe oIroJuction continue to oerate
as invariant shaing Iorces in historical- geograhical Jeveloment.
Jhe language |anJthereIore the hvothesis) that ! shall exloreis
one inwhichweviewrecent events as a transition in the regime of
accumulation anJitsassociateJmode of social and political regulation.
!n reresentingmatters thiswav,! amresortingto thelanguage ola
certain school oI thought known as the 'regulation school. ` Jheir
basic argument,ioneereJbv glietta| I 9/9)anJaJvanceJbvLiietz
|I 986),8over| I986a, I 986b),anJothers,canbrievbesummarizeJ.
regime oI accumulation 'Jescribes the stabilization over a long
erioJoItheallocationoIthenetroJuctbetweenconsumtionanJ
accumulation, it imlies some corresonJence between the trans-
Iormation oI both the conJitions oI roJuction anJ the conJitions
oIreroJuctionoIwageearners . ` articularsvstemoIaccumulation
can exist because 'its schema oIreroJuction is coherent.`Jhe rob-
lem, however, is to bring the behaviours oI allkinJs olinJiviJuals
- caitalists, workers, state emlovees, hnanciers, anJall manner ol
other political-economic agents - into some kinJ oI conhguration
that will kee the regime oI accumulation Iunctioning Jhere must
exist, thereIore, 'a materialization oI the regime oI accumulation
I 22 Political-economic capitalist transformation
taking the Iorm oI norms, habits, laws, regulating networks anJ so
on that ensure the unitv oI the rocess, i.e. the aroriate con-
sistencv oI inJiviJual behaviours with the schema oI reroJuction.
Jhis boJv oI interiorizeJ rules anJ social rocesses is calleJ the
mode of regulation' |Liietz, I 986, I9).
Jhis kinJ oIlanguage i suseIul, i nthe hrst instance, as a heuristic
Jevice. !t Iocuses our attention uon the comlex interrelations,
habits, olitical ractices, anJ cultural Iorms that allow a highlv
Jvnamic, anJ consequentlv unstable, caitalist svstem to acquire
suIhcient semblance oI orJer to Iunction coherentlv at least Ior a
certain erioJ oI time.
JherearetwobroaJareasoIJiIhcultvwithinacaitalisteconomic
svstem that have to be successIullv negotiateJ iI that svstem is to
remain viable. Jhe hrst arises out oIthe anarchic qualities oI rice-
hxingmarkets,anJtheseconJJerivesIromtheneeJtoexertsuIhcient
control over the wav labour ower is JeloveJ to guarantee the
aJJition oI value in roJuction anJ, hence, ositive rohts Ior as
manv caitalists as ossible.
!rice-hxingmarkets,totakeuthehrstroblem,tvicallvroviJe
innumerable anJ highlv JecentralizeJ signals thatallowroJucers to
co-orJinate outut Jecisions with the neeJs, wants, anJ Jesires oI
consumers |subject, oIcourse, to the buJgetanJcost constraintsthat
aIIect both arties to anv market transaction). 8ut Jam Smith`s
celebrateJ 'hiJJen hanJ` oI the market has never been suIhcient in
itselIto guaranteestable growth Ior caitalism, evenwhen the back-
grounJ institutions |rivate roertv, enIorceable contracts, aro-
riatemanagementoImonev)havebeenIunctioningroerlv. Some
JegreeoIcollectiveaction- usuallvstateregulationanJintervention
- is neeJeJ to comensate Ior the marketIailures |such as unriceJ
Jamages to thenatural anJ social environment),torevent excessive
concentrations oImarketower, or to check the abuse oI monoolv
rivilege where such cannot be avoiJeJ |in helJs such as transort
anJcommunications),toroviJecollectivegooJs|JeIence,eJucation,
social anJ svsical inIrastructures) that cannotberoJuceJ anJ solJ
through the market, anJ to guarJ against runawav Iailures Jue to
seculative surges, aberrant market signals, anJ the otentiallv ne-
gative interlav between entrereneurial exectations anJ market
signals |the roblem oI selI-Iulhlling rohecies in market erIor-
mance). !n ractice, collective ressures exerciseJ bv the state or
other institutions |religious, olitical, traJe union, business com-
munitv, anJ cultural organizations) together with the exercise oI
Jominant market ower bv large cororations anJ other owerIul
institutions, aIIect caitalism`s Jvnamic invital wavs. Jhe ressures
Introduction I25
can be Jirect |suchasmanJateJwageanJrice controls) orinJirect
|such as subliminal aJvertising that ersuaJes us to newconcets oI
our basic neeJs anJ Jesires in liIe), but theneteIIectis to shae the
traj ectorv anJIorm oI caitalist Jevelonent inwavs that cannot be
unJerstooJ simlv bv analvsis oI market transactions. Iurthermore,
social anJ svchological roensities, such as inJiviJualism anJ the
JriveIor ersonal Iulhllment through selI-exression, the search Ior
securitv anJ collective iJentitv, the neeJ to acquire selI-resect,
status, or some other mark oI inJiviJual iJentitv, all lav a role in
shaing moJes oI consumtion anJ liIe-stvles. Cne onlv has to
contemlate the whole comlex oI Iorces imlicateJ in the roli-
Ieration oI mass automobile roJuction, ownershi, anJ use to re-
cognize the vast range oI social, svchological, olitical, as well as
more conventionallv unJerstooJ economicmeaningswhich attach to
one oI the kev growth sectors oI twentieth-centurv caitalism. Jhe
virtue oI 'regulation school` thinking is that itinsists we look at the
total ackage oI relations anJ arrangements that contribute to the
stabilization oI outut growth anJ aggregate Jistribution oI income
anJ consumtion in a articular historical erioJ anJ lace.
Jhe seconJ arena oI general JiIhcultv in caitalist societies con-
cerns the conversion oImenanJ women`s caacitvto Joactivework
into a labourrocess whoseIruits can be aroriateJ bvcaitalists.
Labour oIanvkinJ requires a certain concentration, selI-Jisciline,
habituation to JiIIerent instruments oI roJuction, anJ knowleJge
oI the otentialities oI various raw materials Ior conversion into
useIul roJucts. CommoJitv roJuction unJer conJitions oI wage
labour, however, locates much oI the knowleJge, Jecisions as to
technique, as well as Jiscilinarv aaratus, outsiJe the control oI
the erson who actuallv Joes the work. Jhe habituation oI wage
labourers to caitalism was a long-Jrawn-out |anJ not articularlv
hav) historical rocess, that has to be reneweJ with the aJJition
oI each new generation oI workers into the labour Iorce. Jhe Jis
cilining oIlabour owerto the uroses oIcaitalaccumulation -
a rocess ! shall generallv reIer to as 'labour control` - is a verv
intricateaIIair. !t entails,inthe hrstinstance, some mix oIreression,
habituation, co-otation anJ co-oeration, all oI which have to be
organizeJ not onlvwithintheworklace but throughout societv at
large. Jhe socialization oI the worker to conJitions oI caitalist
roJuction entails the social control oI hvsical anJ mental owers
onavervbroaJbasis.Jucation,training,ersuasion,themobilization
oI certain social sentiments |the work ethic, comanv lovaltv, na
tional or local riJe) anJ svchological roensities |the search Ior
iJentitv through work, inJiviJual initiative, or social soliJaritv) all
I2+ Political-economic capitalist transformation
lav a role anJ arelainlv mixeJ inwith the Iormation oI Jominant
iJeologies cultivateJ bv the mass meJia, religious anJ eJucational
institutions, the various arms oIthe stateaaratus, anJ asserteJ bv
simle articulation oI their exerience on the art oI those who Jo
thework. Here, too,the'moJe oI regulation` becomes auseIul wav
to concetualize how the roblems oI organizing labour ower Ior
uroses oI caital accumulation are workeo out inarticularlaces
anJ times.
! broaJlv accettheviewthat the longostwarboom, Irom I 9+5
to I 9/5, was built uon a certain set oI labour control ractices,
technologicalmixes,consumtionhabits,anJconhgurations oIoli-
tical-economicower, anJthatthisconhgurationcanreasonablvbe
calleJ IorJist-Kevnesian. Jhe break u oI this svstem since I 9/5
has inaugurateJ a erioJ oI raiJ change, lIux, anJ uncertaintv.
Whether or not the new svstems oI roJuction anJ marketing,
characterizeJ bv more lIexible labour rocesses anJ markets, oI
geograhical mobilitv anJ raiJ shiIts in consumtion ractices,
warrant the title oI a new regime oI accumulation, anJwhetherthe
revival oIentrereneurialism anJ oI neo-conservatism, couleJwith
the cultural turnto ostmoJernism, warrant the title oIa newmoJe
oI regulation, is bv no means clear. Jhere is alwavs a Janger oI
conIusing the transitorv anJ the ehemeral with more IunJamental
transIormations in olitical -economic liIe. 8ut the contrasts be-
tween resent olitical-economic ractices anJ those oI the ost-
warboomerioJaresuIhcientlv strongtomakethehvothesis oIa
shiIt Irom IorJism to what might be calleJ a 'llexible` regime oI
accumulationa tellingwavto characterizerecenthistorv. nJ while
!shall,IorJiJacticuroses,emhasizethecontrastsinwhatIollows,
! shall return to the evaluative question oI how IunJamental the
changes reallv are bv wav oI general conclusion.

Fordism
Jhe svmbolic initiation Jate oIIorJism must, surelv, be I 9I+, when
Henrv IorJ introJuceJ his hve-Jollar, eight-hour Jav as recom-
ense Ior workers manning the automateJ car-assemblvlinehe haJ
establisheJ the vear beIore at Learborn, Michigan. 8ut the manner
oIgeneral imlantationoIIorJism was vervmuchmorecomlicateJ
than that.
IorJ`sorganizationalanJ technologicalinnovationswere, in manv
resects, a simle extensionoIwelI-establisheJ trenJs. Jhe cororate
Iorm oI business organization, Ior examle, haJ been erIecteJ bv
the railroaJs throughout the nineteenth centurv, anJ haJ alreaJv
sreaJ, articularlv aIter the wave oI mergers, trust anJ cartel Ior
mation at the enJ oI the centurv, to manv inJustrial sectors |one
thirJoILS manuIacturing assetswere subjectto mergerin thevears
I 898 -I 902 alone). IorJ likewise JiJ little more than rationalize olJ
technologies anJ a re-existing Jetail Jivision oI labour, though bv
llowing the work to a stationarv workerhe achieveJJramatic gains
in roJuctivitv. I. W. Javlor`s The principles of scientifc manage
ment - aninuuential tractwhichJescribeJhowlabourroJuctivitv
coulJ be raJicallv increaseJ bv breaking Jown each labour rocess
into comonentmotions anJorganizing IragmenteJworktasks ac-
corJingto rigorousstanJarJsoItimeanJmotionstuJv - haJ, aIter
all,beenublisheJinI 9I I . nJJavlor`sthinkinghaJalongancestrv,
going back via Gilbreth`s exeriments oI the I 890s to the works oI
miJ-nineteenth-centurv writers like Lre anJ 8abbage, which Marx
haJ IounJ so revealing. Jhe searation between management, con
cetion, control, anJ execution |anJ all that this meant in terms oI
hierarchicalsocialrelations anJJe-skillingwithinthe labourrocess)
was also alreaJv well unJer wav in manv inJustries. What was
secial about IorJ |anJ what ultimatelv searates IorJism Irom
Javlorism), was his vision, his exlicit recognition that mass ro-
I26
political-economic capitalist transformation
Juction meant mass consumtion, a new svstem oIthereroJuction
oIlabourower, anewolitics oIlabourcontrol

nJmana

eme

+t, a
new aesthetics anJsvchologv, in short, a newkmJ oIrationalizeJ
moJernist, anJ oulist Jemocratic soci

tv.

. .
Jhe !taIian communist leaJer, ntoriio Gramsci, langushmg m
one oI Mussolini`s jails some two JecaJes later, Jrew exactlv that
imlication. mericanism anJ IorJism, he noteJ in his Prison note
books amounteJ to 'the biggest collective eIIort to Jate to create,
with nreceJenteJ seeJ, anJ with a consciousness oI urose
unmatcheJinhistorv,anewtveoIworkeranJanewtveoI man.`
Jhe new methoJs oIwork 'areinsearableIrom a secihc moJeoI
living anJ oI thinking anJ Ieeling liIe.` Cuestions oI sexualitv,

he
Iamilv,Iorms oImoralcoercion,oIconu

erism, anJoIstateaction
were, in Gramsci`s view, all bounJ u with the search to Iorge a
articular kinJ oI worker 'suiteJ to the new tve oI work

nJ
roJuctive rocess. ` Yet, even t

o JecaJe

aIt

r I
.
orJ`s o

ru

tg
gambit, Gramsci juJgeJ that 'this elaboration is still onlv i

s
initial hase anJ thereIore |aarentlv) iJvllic.` Whv, then,

JiJ it
take so long Ior IorJism to mature into a Iullv-IleJgeJ regime oI
accumulation?
IorJ believeJ thatthenewkinJoIsocietv coulJ be built simlv
through the roer alication oI cororateower. Jhe urose oI
the hve-Jollar, eight-hour Jav was onlv in art to secure worker
comliancewiththeJiscilinerequireJtoworktheh:ghlvroJuctive
assemblv-linesvstem. !twascoinciJentallvmeanttoroviJeworkers
with suIhcient income anJ leisure time to consume the mass-
roJuceJroJuctsthe cororations wereaboutto turnout in ever
vaster quantities. 8ut this resumeJ that workers knew how to
senJ theirmonevroerlv.Soin I 9I6, IorJsent an armvoIsocial
workers into the homes oI his 'rivilegeJ` |anJ largelv immigrant)
workers to ensure that the 'new man` oI mass roJuction haJ the
rightkinJ oImoralrobitv, IamilvliIe, anJcaacitvIorruJent |i.e.
non-alcoholic) anJ 'rational` consumtion to live u to cororate
neeJs anJexectations.JheexerimentJiJnotIasttoolong, butits
vervexistencewasarescientsignaloItheJee social, svchological,
anJ olitical roblems that IorJism was to ose.
So stronglv JiJIorJ believe in cororate ower to regulate the
economv as a whole, that he increaseJ wages with the onset oI the
great JeressioninthebelieIthatthiswoulJboosteIIectiveJemanJ,
revive themarket, anJ restore business conhJence. 8ut the coercve
laws oI cometition roveJ too owerIul Ior even the mightv IorJ,
anJhewasIorceJtolav oIIworkersanJcutwages.!ttookKoosevelt
anJ the ew Leal to trv anJ save caitalism bv Joingthrough state
Fordism
I2/
interventionwhatIorJhaJtrieJtoJoalone.IorJtrieJtore-emt
that outcome in the I 950s bv ushing his workers to sulv the
greater art oI their own subsistence requirements. Jhev ought, he
argueJ, tocuItivatevegetabIesintheirsaretimeintheirowngarJens
|a
racticeIoIloweJ to greateIIectin 8ritain Juring WorlJ War !!).
!n
insisting that 'selI-hel is theonlv means oIcombatingtheecon-
omic Jeression` IorJhere reinIorceJ the kinJ oIcontrolleJ, back-
to-the-lanJutoianismthatcharacterizeJIrankLlovJWright` slans
Ior 8roaJacre Citv. 8ut evenhere we canJetectinteresting signs oI
Iuture conhgurations, since it was the suburbanization anJ Jecon-
centration oI oulation anJ inJustrv |rather than the selI-hel)
imlicit in Wright`s moJernist concetion that was to become a
majorelementinstimulatingeIIective JemanJ IorIorJ`sroJucts in
the long ostwar boom aIter I 9+5.
Howthe IorJist svstem was ut into lace is,i nIact, a long anJ
comlicateJstorv, stretching overnearlvhalIa centurv. !t JeenJeJ
on mvriaJ inJiviJual, cororate, institutional, anJ state Jecisions,
manv oIthem unwitting olitical choices or knee-jerk resonses to
the crisis tenJencies oI caitalism, articularlv as maniIest in the
greatJeressionoIthe I 950s. Jhesubsequentwar-time mobilization
alsoimlieJ large-scalclanningas well as thorough rationalizations
oI the labour rocess in site oI worker resistance to assemblv-line
roJuctionanJcaitalistIearsoIcentralizeJcontroI. !twasharJIor
eithercaitalistsorworkerstoreIuserationalizationswhichimroveJ
eIhciencv at a time oI all-out war eIIort. Iurthermore, conIusions
oI iJeological anJ intellectual ractices comlicateJ matters. 8oth
leItanJrightwingsoItheoliticalsectrumevolveJtheirownversion
oI rationalizeJ state lanning |with all its moJernist accout-
rements) as a soIution to the ills to which caitalism was solainlv
heir, articularlv as maniIest in the I 950s. Jhis was the kinJ oI
conIuseJ olitical anJ intellectual historv that haJ Lenin lauJing
Javlorist anJ IorJist roJuction technologv while the unions in
Western uroe reIuseJ it, Le Corbusier aearingas an aostle oI
moJernitv while consorting with authoritarian regimes |Mussolini
Iorawhile,anJthentheVichvregimeinIrance), benezerHowarJ
Iorging utoian lans insireJ bv the anarchism oI GeJJes anJ
Krootkin onlv to be aroriateJ bv caitalist Jeveloers, anJ
Kobert Moses beginning the centurv as a olitical 'rogressive` |in-
sireJ bv the utoian socialism JeicteJ in JwarJ 8ellamv`s
Looking backwards) anJenJingu as the'owerbroker`who 'took
the meat axe` to the 8ronx in the name oI the automobilization oI
merica |see, e.g. Caro, I 9/+) .
Jhere were, it seerus, two major imeJiments to the sreaJ oI
I 28 Political-economic capitalist transformation
IorJism in the inter-war vears. Jo begin with, the state oI class
relations throughoutthecaitalistworlJwas harJlv conJucive tothe
easv accetance oI a roJuction svstem that resteJ so heavilv
.
u
I
on
the socialization oI the worker to long hours oI urelv routiriizeJ
labour, JemanJing little in the wav oI traJitional craIt skills,

nJ
conceJing almost negligible control to the worker over the Jesi

n,
ace, anJ scheJuling oI the roJuction rocess. orJ haJ rel

eJ
almost exclusivelv on immigrant labour to set u his

ssemblv-
.
lirie
roJuction svstem, buttheimmigrantsl earneJ, anJnativemercan
workers were hostile. Jhe turnover in IorJ`s labour Iorce roveJ
imressivelv high. Javlorism was likewise hercelv resisteJ in the
I 920s anJ some commentators, such as KicharJ JwarJs | I9/9),
insist

that worker oosition rounJlv JeIeateJ the imlantation oI

such techniques in mostinJustries, in site oI caitalist Jomination
oI labour markets, the continueJ ow oIimmigrantlabour, anJ the
caacitvtomobilizelabourreservesIromrural|anJsometimesbl ack)
merica. !nthe rest oIthe caitalistworlJ, labourorganizationanJ
craIt traJitions were simlv too strong, anJ immigration too w

ak,
to ermit IorJism or Javlorism anv easv urchase on roJuction,
even though the general rinciles oI scientihc management were
wiJelv acceteJ anJ alieJ !n this regarJ, Henri Iavol` sAdmini
stration industrielle et generale |ublisheJ in I 9I 6) roveJ a much
more inlIuential text in uroe than JiJJavlor's. With its emhasis
uonorganizationalstructuresanJhierarchicaloreringoIautioritv
anJ inIormation lIow, it gave rise to a rather JiIIerent version oI
rationalizeJ management comareJ to Javlor`s reoccuation with
simliIving the horizontal llow oI roJuc

ion
.
rocesses.
.
Mass-
roJuction assemblv-line technologv, s

ottilv imlanteJ H

he
LniteJStates,wasvervweaklvJeveloeJmuroebeIorethemiJ-
I 950s. Jhe uroeancarinJustrv, withtheexcetion oIIiat`s lant
in Jurin, remaineJ Ior the most art a highlv skilleJcraItinJustrv
|though cororatelv organizeJ) roJucing u-market
.
cars Ior elite
consumers,anJwasonlvlightlvtoucheJbvassemblv-lmeroceJures
Ior the mass roJuction oIcheaer moJels beIoreWorlJ War !!. !t
took a major revolutionin class relations - a revolutionthat began
in the I 950s but which came to Iruition onlv in the I 950s - to
accommoJate the sreaJ oIIorJism to uroe.
Jhe seconJ major barrier to be overcome lav in the moJes anJ
mechanisms oIstateintervention. newmoJe oIregulation haJ to
be JeviseJ to match the requirements oI IorJist roJuction anJ it
tooktheshockoIsavageJeressionanJthenear-collaseoIcaitalism
in the I 950s to ush caitalist societies to some new concetion oI
how state owers shoulJ be conceiveJ oI anJ JeloveJ. Jhe crisis
Fordism
I29
aeareJ IunJamentallv as a lack oI eIIective JemanJ Ior roJuct,
anJ it was in those terms that the search Ior solutions began. With
the benehtoIhinJsight, oIcourse, wecan more clearlv see all oI the
dangers oseJ bv national socialist movements. 8ut in the light oI
the
eviJentIailure oI Jemocratic governments to Jo anvthing other
thanseem to comounJ theJiIhculties oIan across-the-boarJ econ-
omic collase, it is not harJ to see the attraction oI a olitical
solution in which workers were JiscilineJ to new anJ more eI
hcientroJuctionsvstems, anJ excess caacitv was absorbeJ in art
throughroJuctive exenJitures on much neeJeJ inIrastructuresIor
both roJuction anJ consumtion |the otherart being allocateJ to
wasteIulmilitarvexenJitures).otaIewoliticiansanJintellectuals
|!citethe economist Schumeter as an examle) thought thekinJs oI
solutions being exloreJ in|aan, !talv, anJ Germanv in the I 950s
|strieJoItheiraeals tomvthologv, militarism, anJ racism)were
along the right lines, anJ suorteJ Koosevelt`s ew Leal because
thevsawitreciselv in thatlight. JheJemocraticstasis oIthe I 920s
|albeitclass-bounJ)haJtobeovercome, manvagreeJ,bvamoJicum
oI state authoritarianism anJ interventionism, Ior which verv little
receJent |save that oI|aan`s inJustrialization, or the 8onaartist
interventionsoISeconJmireIrance)coulJbeIounJ.LisillusioneJ
bv the inabilitv oI Jemocratic governments to unJertake what he
consiJereJ essential tasks oI moJernization, Le Corbusier turneJ
hrst to svnJicalism, anJ later to authoritarian regimes, as the onlv
olitical Iorms caable oIIacingu to the crisis. Jhe roblem, as an
economist like Kevnes saw it, was to arrive at a set oI scientihc
managerialstrategies anJstateowersthatwoulJ stabilizecaitalism,
while avoiJing the eviJent reressions anJ irrationalities, all the
warmongering anJ narrow nationalism that national socialist solu
tions imlieJ. !t is in such a context oI conIusion that we have to
unJerstanJ the highlv JiversiheJ attemts within JiIIerent nation
states toarrive at olitical, institutional anJ social arrangements that
coulJ accommoJatethe chronic incaacities oIcaitalism to regulate
the essential conJitions Ior its own reroJuction.
Jhe roblem oItheroer conhguration anJ Jelovment oI state
owers was resolveJ onlv aIter I 9+5. Jhis brought IorJism to ma-
turitv as a Iullv-eJgeJ anJ Jistinctive regime oI accumulation. s
such, it then IormeJ the basis Ior a long ostwar boom that staveJ
broaJlv intact until I 9/5. Luring that erioJ, caitalism in the aJ-
vanceJ caitalist countries achieveJ strong but relativelv stable rates
oI economic growth |see hgure 2. I anJ table 2. I ) . Living stanJarJs
rose|hgure 2. 2), crisis tenJencies were containeJ, mass Jemocracv
was reserveJ anJ the threat oI inter-caitalist wars ket remote.
LN| JCL JPJC
UP|PN
VCJ LCNPN
PNLC
| JP| N
PLL LL LLNH| Lb
! -
1
!
! 7 O
Figure 2. 1 Annual rates of economic growth in selected advanced capitalist
countries and the DECD as a whole for selected time periods, 1960-1985
(Source: DECD)
m

C
m
O
C
C
m

O
C
0
>
<
m

L m
C
O
.
C
Z =
.~

L C
m
V
C
, C
~ J

0 C
C
JbU
JbU
J4U
JJU ^
JZU
JT U
JUU
-
ZJU
ZbU
Z/U
ZbU
ZbU
Z4U
ZJU
ZZU
JU
ZJ
.
Zb
Z/
Zb
.
Zb
.
Z4
ZJ
.
ZZ
-
ZT
.
ZU
.
l J
.
T b
l /
.
T b
Fordism
T JbU l Jbb l JbU T Jbb l J/U l J/b T JbU T Jbb
Year
I 5 I
Figure 2. 2 Real wages and family incomes in the USA, 1941-1986
(Sources: Historical Statistics of the United States and Economic Reports to
the President)
IorJismbecame hrmlv connecteJwithKevnesianism, anJcaitalism
inJulgeJ in a slurge oI internationalist worlJ-wiJe exansions that
Jrewa host oI Je-colonizeJnations into its net. Howsuch a svstem
I 52 Political-economic capitalist transformation
Table 2. I Average rates of growth for the advanced capitalist countries
over various time periods since I820
Annual percentage rates of change
Output Output per capita Exports
=
I 20-I /0 2. 2 I 0 + 0
I /0-I 9I5 2. 5 I .+ 5. 9
I 9I 5 -I 950 I . 9 I .2 I 0
I 950-I 9/5 +. 9 5

. 6
I 9/5 I 9/9 2. 6 I . 5. 6
I 9/9I 95 2. 2 I .5 5.
Sources: Maddison, I92 ( I 20-I 9/) and OECD (I9/-)
cametobeis a Jramatic story that Jeserves atleastcursorv scrutinv
iIwearebettertounJerstanJthetransitionsthathaveoccurreJsince
I 9/5.
Jheostwar erioJsawtherise oI a series oIinJustries baseJon
technologiesthat haJ matureJ inthe inter-war vears anJbeenusheJ
to new extremes oI rationalization in WorlJ War !!. Cars, shi-
builJing, anJ transort equiment, steel, etrochemicals, rubber,
consumer electrical gooJs, anJ construction became the roulsive
engines oIeconomicgrowth,IocuseJ onaseries oIgranJroduction
regions in the worlJ economv - the MiJwest oI the Lnited States,
the Kuhr-KhinelanJs, the West MiJlanJs oI 8ritain, the Jokvo-
Yokohama roJuction region. Jhe rivilegeJ workIorces in these
regions IormeJ one illar oI a raiJlv exanJing eIIective JemanJ.
Jhe other illar resteJ on state-sonsored reconstruction oI war-
torn economies, suburbanization articularlv in the LniteJ States,
urban renewaI, geograhical exansion oI transort anJ communi-
cations svstems, anJ inIra structural Jeveloment both within anJ
outsiJe the aJvanceJ caitalist worlJ. Co-orJinateJ bv wav oI in-
terlinkeJ hnancialcentres - withtheLniteJStatesanJewYorkat
theaexoIthehierarchv - these coreregions oItheworlJ economv
Jrewin massive sulies oI raw materials Irom the rest oIthe non
communist worlJ, anJ reacheJ out to Jominate an increasinglv
homogeneous mass worlJ market with their roJucts.
Jhe henomenal growth that occurreJ in the ostwar boom
JeenJeJ, however, on a series oI comromises anJ reositionings
ontheart oIthe major actors inthecaitalistJevelomentrocess.
Jhe state haJ to take on new |Kevnesian) roles anJ builJ new
Fordism
I 55
institutionalowers, cororate caitalhaJt otrim its sails in certain
resects in orJer to move more smoothlv in the track oI secure
rohtabilitv, anJ organizeJ labour haJ to take on new roles anJ
unctions with resect to erIormance in labour markets anJ in
roJuction rocesses. Jhe tense but nevertheless hrm balance oI
ower thatrevaileJ between organizeJ labour, large cororate ca-
ital, anJ the nation state, anJ which IormeJ the ower basis Ior the
ostwarboom, was notarriveJatbvacciJent. !twas the outcome oI
vears oI struggle.
Jhe JeIeat oI the resurgent raJical working-class movements oI
-e immeJiate ostwar erioJ, Ior examle, reareJ the olitical
rounJ Ior the kinJs oI labour control anJ comromise that maJe
IorJism ossible. rmstrong, Glvn, anJ Harrison ( I 9+,chater+)
roviJe a JetaileJ account oIhowtheattackuontraJitional|craIt-
orienteJ) anJ raJical Iorms oI labour organizing was mounteJ both
inthe occuieJterritories oIjaan, West Germanv, anJ !talv anJ in
the suoseJlv 'Iree` territories oI 8ritain, Irance, anJ the Low
Countries. !nthe LniteJ States, where the Wagner ct oI I 955 haJ
giventhe unions owerinthe market lace |withexlicitrecognition
that collective bargaining rights were essential to the resolution oI
the eIIective JemanJroblem) in return Ior sacrihcingowers in the
realm oI roJuction, the unions IounJ themselves unJer virulent
attack in the ostwar vears Ior communist inhltration, anJ were
ultimatelv brought unJer strict legal Jisciline through the JaIt-
Hartlev ct oI I 952 |an act ut through at the height oI the
McCarthvite erioJ) |Jomlins, I 95). With their rincial aJversarv
unJer control, caitalist class interests coulJ resolve what Gramsci
earlier calleJ the roblem oI 'hegemonv` anJ establish a seeminglv
new basis Ior those class relations conJucive to IorJism.
How Jeelv these new class relations enetrateJ is a matter oI
someJisuteanJin anvcase eviJentlvvarieJa great JealIrom one
countrv orevenregionto another. !ntheLniteJStates,Iorexamle,
the unions won consiJerable ower in the shere oI collective bar-
gaininginthemass-roJuctioninJustries oItheMiJwestanJorth-
ast, reserveJ some sho-lIoor control over job secihcations,
securitv anJ romotions, anJ wielJeJ an imortant |though never
Jeterminant) olitical ower over such matters as social securitv
benehts, the minimum wage, anJ other Iacets oI social olicv. 8ut
thev acquireJ anJ maintaineJ these rights in return Ior aJoting a
collaborative stance with resect to IorJist roJuction techniques
anJ cognate cororate strategies to increase roJuctivitv. 8urawov,
in his Manufacturing consent, illustrates how Jeelv co-oerative
sentiments ran within the work-Iorce, though moJiheJ bv all kinJs
I 5+ Political-economic capitalist transformation
oI ' games` oI resistance to anv excessive incursions oI caitalist
ower on the sho lIoor |with resect, Ior examle, to the ace oI
work). He thus broaJlv conhrms withmerican Jata the rohle oI
theco-oerationstanceoIThe affuent worker comileJbvGolJthore
in8ritain. Yet there has beena suIhcientrecorJ oIsuJJenerutions
oI Jiscontent, even among aIlIuent workers |in, Ior examle, the
General Motorslant atLorJstownshortlvaIteritoeneJ, oramong
theaIlluentcarworkersthatGolJthorestuJieJ) to suggestthatthis
mav be more oI a surIace aJatation than a total reconstruction oI
worker attituJes withresect to assemblv-line roJuction. Jhe er-
etual roblem oI habituating the worker to such routinizeJ, Je-
skilleJanJJegraJeJsvstemsoIwork,as8raverman| I 9/+)IorceIullv
argues, can never be comletelv overcome. evertheless, bureau-
cratizeJtraJeunionorganizations wereincreasinglvcorralleJ|some-
timesthroughtheexercise oIreressivestateower)intothecorner
oI swaingrealwage gains Iorco-oeration in Jisciliningworkers
to the !orJist roJuction svstem.
Jhe roles oIthe otherartners in the general, iIoItentacit, social
contract that reigneJ over the ostwar boom were similarlv well
JehneJ. LargecororateowerwasJeloveJtoassuresteaJvgrowth
in investments that enhanceJ roJuctivitv, guaranteeJ growth, anJ
rarseJlivingstanJarJswhileensuringastablebasisIorgainingrohts.
Jlis imlieJ a cororate commitment to steaJv but owerIul ro-
cesses oItechnologicalchange,mass hxeJcaitalinvestment, growth
oI managerial exertise in both roJuction anJ marketing, anJ the
mobilization oI economies oI scale through stanJarJization oI ro-
Juct. Jhe strong centralization oI caitalthathaJ been sucha con
sicuous Ieature oILScaitalismsince I 900 alloweJthecurbing oI
inter-caitalist cometition within an all-owerIul LSeconomv anJ
the emergence oI oligoolistic anJ monoolv ricing anJ lanning
ractices. Scientihc management oI all Iacets oI cororate activitv
|notonlvroJuction,butalsoersonnelrelations,on-the-jobtraining,
marketing, roJuct Jesign, ricing strategies, lanneJ obsolescence
oIequimentanJroJuct)becamethe hallmark oIbureaucraticcor-
orate rationalitv. Jhe Jecisions oI cororations became hegemonic
in Jehning the aths oI mass consumtion growth, resuming, oI
course, that the other twoartners in the granJ coalition JiJ what-
ever was necessarv to kee eIIective JemanJ at levels suIhcient
to absorb the steaJv growth oI caitalist outut. Jhe massing oI
workers inlarge-scaleIactoriesalwavsoseJ, however, the threat oI
stronger labour organization anJ enhanceJ working-class ower -
hence the imortance oI the olitical attack uon raJical elements
within the labour movement aIter I9+5. evertheless, cororations
Fordism
I 55
gruJginglv acceteJ union ower, articularlv when the unions
unJertook to control their membershi anJ collaborate with man-
agement in lans to raise roJuctivitv in return Ior wage gains that
stimulateJ eIlective JemanJ in the wav that !orJ haJ originallv
envisageJ.
Jhe state, Ior its art, assumeJ a varietv oI obligations. Jo the
Jegree that mass roJuction requiring heavv investment in hxeJ
caital in turn requireJ relativelv stable JemanJ conJitions to be
rohtable, so the state strove to curb business cvcles through an
aroriatemixoIhscalanJmonetarvoliciesintheostwarerioJ.
SucholicieswereJirecteJtowarJsthoseareas oIublicinvestment
- in sectors liketransortation,ublic utilities, etc. - thatwerevital
to the growth oI both mass roJuction anJ mass consumtion, anJ
whichwoulJalsoguaranteerelativelvIull emlovment. Governments
likewise moveJ to roviJe a strong unJerinning to the social wage
throughexenJiturescovering social securitv, healthcare, eJucation,
housing, anJ the like. !n aJJition, state ower was JeloveJ, either
Jirectlv or inJirectlv, to aIIect wage agreements anJ the rights oI
workers in roJuction.
Jhe Iorms oI state interventionism varieJ greatlv across the aJ-
vanceJ caitalist countries. Jable 2.2 illustrates, Ior examle, the
varietvoIosturestakenbvJiIIerentgovernmentsinWesternuroe
inrelationto wagecontractregotiations. Similarqualitativeas wellas
quantitative JiIIerences can be IounJ in the atterning oI ublic
exenJitures, the organization oI welIare svstems |ket verv much
within the cororation in the jaanese case, Ior examle), anJ the
Jegree oI active as ooseJ to tacit state involvement in economic
Jecisions.!atterns oIlabourunrest, sho-lloor organizinganJunion
activism likewise varieJ consiJerablv Irom state to state |Lash anJ
Lrrv, I 98/). 8ut what is remarkable is the wav in which national
governments oIquiteJiIIerent iJeological comlexions - Gaullistin
!rance, the Labour !artv in 8ritain, Christian Lemocrats in West
Germanv, etc. - engineereJ bothstableeconomicgrowthanJrising
materiallivingstanJarJsthroughamixoIwelIarestatism,Kevnesian
economic management, anJ control over wage relations. !orJism
JeenJeJ,eviJentlv,uonthenationstatetaking - muchasGramsci
reJicteJ - a verv secial role within the overall svstem oI social
regulation.
!ostwar !orJism has to be seen, thereIore, less as a mere svstem
oImassroJuctionanJmoreas a totalwavoIliIe. MassroJuction
meant stanJarJization oIroJuct as well as mass consumtion, anJ
that meant a whole new aesthetic anJ a commoJihcation oI culture
thatmanvneo-conservatives, suchasLaniel8ell, were laterto seeas
136
Political-economic capitalist transformation
Table 2. 2 The organization of wage bargaining in four countries,
1 950-1 975
\nions
Membershi
France
Iow
Crganization weak with
olitical
IactionaIism
Cwners
State
JiviJeJ among
tenJencies anJ
organizations
wiJesreaJ
o o
mterventions
anJ regulation
oI work anJ
wages through
triartite
accorJs
Britain
high blue-
collar
IragmenteJ
between
inJustries anJ
traJes
weak
collective
organization
voluntary
collective
bargaining
with state-set
norms aIter
miJ-I 960s
Source: after Boyer, 1986b, table 1
Italy
variable
erioJic
with mass
movements
rivate-ubIic
rivalry
erioJic
legislative
o o
mtervention
JeenJing on
class struggle
West
Germany
moJerate
structureJ
anJ unineJ
owerIul
anJ
organizeJ
very weak
role
JetrimentaIto thereservationoItheworkethicanJ other suoseJ
caitalist virtues. !orJism also built uon anJ contributeJ to the
aesthetic oImoJernism - articularlythelatter'senchantIorIunc-
tionality anJ eIhciency - in very exlicit ways, while the Iorms oI
state interventionism |guiJeJbyrinciles oIbureaucratic-technical
rationality), anJ the conhguration oI olitical ower that gave the
system its coherence, resteJ on notions oI a mass economic Je-
mocracywelJeJtogetherthroughabalanceoIsecial-interestIorces.
Postwar !orJism was also very much an international aIIair. Jhe
longostwarboom was crucialIyJeenJentuon a massive exan-
sion oI worlJ traJe anJ international investment lIows. Slow to
Jevelo outsiJe the \niteJ States be|ore 1 939, !orJism became
more hrmlyimlanteJ in both uroe anJ|aanaIter 1 940 as art
oI the war eIIort. !t was consoIiJateJ anJ exanJeJ in the ostwar
erioJ, either Jirectly through olicies imoseJ in the occuation
Fordism 137
|or, morearaJoxicaIly, i nthe!rench case, becausethe communist-
leJunions saw !orJism as theonlywayto assurenational economic
autonomyintheIaceoIthemericanchallenge)orinJirectlythrough
ihe MarshalI Plan anJ subsequent \S Jirect investment. Jhe latter,
which haJ suttereJ along in the inter-war years as \S cororations
sought market outlets overseas to overcome the limits oI internal
eIIective JemanJ, srang to liIe aIter 1 945. Jhis oening u oI
Ioreign investment |chielly in uroe) anJ traJe ermitteJ surlus
roJuctive caacity in the \niteJ States to be absorbeJ elsewhere,
whilethe rogress oI!orJisminternationalIymeanttheIormationoI
global mass markets anJ the absortion oI the mass oI the worlJ's
oulation, outsiJe the communist worIJ, into the global Jynamics
oIanewkinJoIcaitalism.!urthermore,unevenJevelomentwithin
the worlJ economy meant the exerience oI alreaJy muteJ business
cyclesassomanylocalanJbroaJlycomensatingoscillationswithin
aIairly stable growthoIworlJ JemanJ. ttheinutenJ,theoening
u oI Ioreign traJe meant the globalization oI the suly oI oIten
cheaer raw materials |articularly energy sulies). Jhe new inter-
nationalism also brought a whole host oI other activities in its wake
- banking, insurance, services, hotels, airorts, anJ ultimately tour
ism. !t carrieJ with it a new international culture anJ relieJ heavily
uon new-IounJ caacities to gather, evaluate, anJ Jisseminate
inIormation.
ll oI this was secureJ unJer the hegemonic umbrella oI the
\niteJ States' hnancial anJ economic ower backeJ by military
Jomination. Jhe 8retton WooJs agreement oI1 944 turneJthe Jollar
into the worIJ's reserve currency anJ tieJ the worlJ's economic
Jevelomenthrmly into\S hscal anJ monetary olicy. Jhe\niteJ
States acteJas the worlJ's bankerinreturnIor an oeningu oIthe
worlJ`s commoJity anJ caital markets to the ower oI the large
cororations. \nJer this umbrella, !orJism sreaJ unevenly as each
state sought its own moJe oI management oI labour relations, mon-
etary anJ hscal olicy, welIare anJ ublic investment strategies,
limiteJ internally only by the state oI class relations anJ externaIly
only by its hierarchical osition in the worlJ economy anJ by the
hxeJ exchange rate against the JoIIar. Jhe international sreaJ oI
!orJismoccurreJ,thereIore,withinaarticularIrameoIinternational
olitical-economic regulation anJ a geooIitical conhguration in
whichthe\niteJStatesJominateJthroughaveryJistinctivesystem
oI military alliances anJ ower relations.
ot everyone was incluJeJ in thebenehts oI !orJism, anJ there
were, to be sure, abunJant signs oI Jiscontent even at the system's
aogee. Jo begin with, !orJist wage bargaining was conhneJ to
certain sectors oIthe economy anJcertainnationstates where stabIe
I 5 8
Political-economic capitalist transformation
JemanJgrowthcoulJbematcheJbylarge-scaleinvestmentinmass-
roJuction technology. Cther sectors oI high risk roJuction still
JeenJeJ on low wages anJ weak job security. nJ even !orJist
sectorscoulJrestuonanon-!orJistbaseoIsub-contracting.Labour
markets thereIore tenJeJtoJiviJeintowhatC' Connor| I 9/5)calleJ
a 'monooly'sector,anJamuchmoreJiverse'cometitive'sectorin
which labour was Iar Irom rivilegeJ. Jhe resultant inequalities
roJuceJ serious socialtensionsanJstrong social movements onthe
art oI the excluJeJ - movements that were comounJeJ by the
way in which race, genJer, anJethnicityoIten JetermineJ who haJ
access to rivilegeJ emloyment anJ who JiJ not. Jhe inequalities
were articularly harJ to sustain in the Iace oI rising exectations,
IeJ in art by all the artihce alieJ to neeJ-creation anJ thero-
Juction oI a new kinJ oI consumerist society. LenieJ access to
rivilegeJ work in mass roJuction, large segments oI the work-
Iorce were equally JenieJ access to the much-touteJ joys oI mass
consumtion. Jhiswasa sureIormulaIorJiscontent.Jhecivilrights
movement inthe \niteJ States silleJover into a revolutionary rage

hat shook the inner cities. Jhe surge oI women into low-aying
jobs was accomanieJ by an equally vigorous Ieminist movement.
nJ the shock oI Jiscovery oI awesome overty in the miJst oI
growing aIlluence |as exoseJ in Michael Harrington's The other
America) sawneJstrongcounter-movements oI Jiscontentwiththe
suoseJ benehts oI !orJism.

While the Jivision between a reJominantly white, male, anJ

highly unionizeJ

ork-Iorce anJ 'the rest' was useIul insome ways

Irom the stanJomt oI labour control, it also haJ its Jrawbacks. !t
meant a rigiJity in labour markets that maJe it harJ to re-allocate
labour Irom one line oI roJuction to another. Jhe exclusionary
ower

oI

he
.
union

strengtheneJtheir caacity to resist Je-skilling,

authortarar:ism, h

erarchy, anJ loss oI control in the worklace.

JheenchantIo

us

mg thoseowers JeenJeJonoliticaltraJitions,
moes oI orgar:ization |the sho stewarJ movement in 8ritain being
articularly owerIul), anJ the willingness oI workers to traJe in
their rghts in
I
roJuction Ior greater market ower. Labour strug-
gles JiJ not Jisaear, as unions oIten IounJ themselves IorceJ
to resonJ to grass-roots Jiscontent. 8ut the unions also IounJ
themselvesincreasinglyunJerattackIromthe outsiJe,IromexcluJeJ
minorities, women anJ the unJerrivilegeJ. Jo the Jegree they
ser
`
e their members' narrow interests anJ JroeJ more raJical
socialistconcerns,they
.
we

'
e inJangeroIbeing reJuceJintheublic
eye toIragme

teJsecial-mterest grous ursuing selI-serving rather

than general aims.
Fordism I 59
Jhe state bore the brunt oIthe increasing Jiscontent, sometimes
culminating in civil JisorJers on the art oI the excluJeJ. t the
very minimum the state haJ to try anJ guarantee some kinJ oI
aJequat
'
socialwageIorall

orto engageinreJistributiveolicies or
legalactions thatwoulJactively remeJytheinequalities, aJJress the
relative imoverishment anJ lack oI inclusion oI minorities. !n-
creasingly, the legitimation oIstate ower JeenJeJ onthe ability to
sreaJ the benehts oI !orJism over all anJ to hnJ ways to Jeliver
aJequate health care, housing anJ eJucational services on a massive
scale but in a humane anJ caring way. Cualitative Iailures on that
score were the butt oI innumerable criticisms, but in the enJ it was
robably the quantitative Iailure that rovokeJ the most serious
Jile

mas. Jhe ability to roviJe collective gooJs JeenJeJ uon

contmuous ac

elerationintheroJuctivityoIlabourinthecororate
sector. Cnly m that way coulJ Keynesian welIare statism be maJe
hscally viable.
CntheconsumersiJe,therewas morethanalittlecriticismoIthe
blanJness oI the quality oIliIeunJer a regime oI stanJarJizeJ mass
c

ns

ti

n. Jhe quality oI service rovision through a non-

Jiscrmmatmg system oI state aJministration |baseJ on technical-
scien

ihc bureaucratic rationality) also came in Ior heavy criticism.

!orJism anJ Keynesian state managerialism became associateJ with
an austere Iunctionalist aesthetic |high moJernism) in the helJ oI
rationalizeJ Jesign. JhecriticsoIsuburban blanJness anJJowntown
monolithic monumentality |like jane |acobs) became, as we have
seen, a vociIerous minority that articulateJ a whole host oI cultural
Jiscontents.Jhe counter-cultural critiques anJractices oIthe I 960s
thereIore aralleleJ movements oI the excluJeJ minorities anJ the
critique oI JeersonalizeJ bureaucratic rationality. ll these threaJs
oI oosition began to Iuse into a strong cultural -olitical move-
ment at the very moment when !orJism as an economic system
aeareJ to be at its aogee.
Jo this must be aJJeJ all theJhirJWorlJJiscontents at a moJ-
ernization rocess that romiseJ Jeveloment, emanciation Irom
want, anJIullintegrationinto!orJism, butwhich JelivereJ Jestruc-
tion oI lo

al

uIt

res, much oression, anJ various Iorms oI cai-

talistJommationmreturnIorrathermeagregainsinlivingstanJarJs
a

J service

|e.g. ublic health) Ior any excet a very aIlluent in-

Jig
'
nous elite that chose to collaborate actively with international
caital. Movements towarJs national liberation - sometimes socialist
b

t more oiten bourgeois -nationalist - IocuseJ many oI these

Jiscontents

m ways that so

etimes aeareJ quite threatening to

global!orJism.JhegeooliticalhegemonyoIthe \niteJ States was
I+0 Political-economic capitalist transformation
threateneJ anJthe\S,whichbegan theostwarerabyusing anti-
communismanJmilitarism asavehicleIorgeooliticalanJeconomic
stabilization, soon IounJitselIIacingthe roblem oI'guns orbutter`
in its own hscal economic olicy.
8utinsite oIalltheJiscontents anJ allthemaniIest tensions, the
centreieces oI the !orJist regime helJ hrm at least until I 9/5, anJ
intherocess JiJ inJeeJ manage to keea ostwarboomintactthat
IavoureJ unionizeJ labour, anJ to some Jegree sreaJ the 'benehts`
oI mass roJuction anJ consumtion even Iurther ahelJ. Material
livingstanJarJs rose Ior the mass oI the oulationin the aJvanceJ
caitalist countries, anJa relatively stable environmentIor cororate
rohtsrevaileJ.!twasnotuntiltheshar recessionoII 9/5shattereJ
thatIrameworkthatarocessoIraiJ,anJasyetnotwellunJerstooJ,
transition in the regime oI accumulation began.
V
From Fordism to fexible
accumulation
!n retrosect, it seemstherewere signs oIserious roblems within
!orJism as early as the miJ-I 960s. 8y then, the West uroean anJ
|aanese recoveries were comlete, their internal market saturateJ,
anJtheJrivetocreateexortmarketsIortheir surlus oututhaJto
begin |hgure 2. 5) . nJ this occurreJ at the very moment when the
success oI !orJist rationalization meant the relative Jislacement oI
more anJ more workers Irom manuIacturing. Jhe consequent slack-
ening oI eIIective JemanJwas oIIsetin the\niteJ States by thewar
on overty anJ the war in Vietnam. 8ut Jeclining cororate ro-
JuctivityanJrohtabilityaIterI 966|hgure2. 4) meantthebeginnings
oI a hscal roblem in the \niteJ States that woulJ not go away
excet at the rice oI an acceleration in inllation, which began to
unJermine the role oI the Jollar as a stable international reserve
currency. Jhe Iormation oI the uroJollar market, anJ the creJit
crunchoI I 966-/,wereinJeeJrescientsignalsoIthe\niteJStates'
JiminisheJ ower to regulate the international hnancial system. !t
wasataboutthistimetoo that imort substitution olicies inmany
JhirJ WorlJ countries |articularly Latin merica), couleJ with
the hrst big ush by multinationals into oIIshore manuIacturing
|articularly in South-ast sia), brought a wave oI cometitive
!orJist inJustrialization to entirely new environments, where the
social contract with labour was either weakly enIorceJ or non-
existent. !nternational cometition thereaIter intensiheJ as Western
uroe anJ|aan, j oineJ by a whole host oI newly inJustrializing
countries, challengeJ \niteJ States hegemonywithin !orJism to the
oint where the 8retton WooJs agreement crackeJ anJ the Jollar
was JevalueJ. !loatinganJoItenhighlyvolatileexchangeratesthere-
aIter relaceJ the hxeJ exchange rates oI the ostwar boom |hgure
2. 5).
Moregenerally,theerioJIrom I 965toI 9/5wasoneinwhichthe
1 42
36
32
28
24
20
J 6
J 2
8
Political-economic capitalist transformation
Share of US exports n OEC0 trade
I mports as share of US GNF
P P
P P
P
P P
P P
P
P
P
P P
B 4
4

%
J 948 J 9 50 955 J 960 J 965 J 970 J 975 980 985 J 987
Figure 2.3 US share in GECD trade and manufacturing imports as a
percentage of GNP in the USA, 1948-1987
(Sources: GECD, Historical Statistics of the United States and Economic
Reports to the President).
inability oI !orJism anJ Keynesianism to contain the inherent con-
traJictions oI caitalism became more anJ more aarent. Cn the
surIace,theseJiIhcultiescoulJbestbecatureJbyoneworJ.rigiJity.
Jhere were roblems with the rigiJity oI long-term anJ large-scale
hxeJcaitalinvestments in mass-roJuction systems thatrecluJeJ
much Ilexibility oI Jesign anJ resumeJ stable growth in invariant
consumer markets. Jhere were roblems oIrigiJities in labour mar-
kets, labour allocation, anJ in labour contracts |esecially in the
so-calleJ 'monooly` sector). nJ any attemt to overcome these
rigiJitiesranintotheseeminglyimmovableIorceoIJeelyentrencheJ
working-classower- hencethestrikewavesanJlabourJisrutions
oI the erioJ 1 968-72. Jhe rigiJities oI state commitments also
became more serious as entitlement rogrammes |social security,
ension rights, etc.)grewunJerressure tokeelegitimacy ata time
when rigiJities in roJuction restricteJ any exansion in the hscal
basisIorstateexenJitures. JheonlytooloIuexibleresonselayin
monetary olicy, in the caacity to rint money at whatever rate
aeareJ necessary to kee the economy stable. nJ so began the
inIlationary wave that was eventually to sink the ostwar boom.
8ehinJallthesesecihcrigiJitieslayaratherunwielJyanJseemingly
hxeJ conhguration oI olitical ower anJ recirocal relations that
bounJ big labour, big caital, anJ big government into what in
creasingly aeareJ as a JysIunctional embrace ol such narrowly
JehneJ vesteJ interests as to unJermine rather than secure caital
accumulation.
J

From Fordism to fexible accumulation

C
L
+

. .
Z
c

4
L
L
0
W
L

+
0
&

1
ll
Rate of accumulation
Profit rate
5
0
35
30
5
0

_
J 5 .
. 2
~ 20
1 b

+
T U
N
4
C
6

bl
143
Pre-tax -
manufacturi ng
Pre-tax -
al l companies
Figure
?
4 Business accumulation and proft rates in the advanced capitalist
countnes, 1950-1982 (ater Armstrong, Glyn and Harrison) and proft rates
as )pen
;
entage
?
f the replacement cost of capital stock and (b) percentage /
natzonal mcome the USA, 1948-1984
(Source: Pollin, 1986)

J
C
E
C

C
v =
m m
L "
m

L

7

C
+ C
-
o a
= o
c m
o =
= c
~ >

* >

C
O
_
m

0
C
m

C
0
c
=
o
C

o
C
o
o
C
o
o
C
o
C
m
C

C
o
C
o
C
C
C
C

C
m
C

C
u
C

C
o
C
o
C
C
C
o

C
o
|
C

'

'
C
u
|
C
|
C
m
|
From Fordism to fexible accumulation I+5
1hemomentum oItheostwarboomwas maintaineJ through the
erioJ I 969-/5 by an extraorJinarily loose monetary olicy on the
art oI both the \niteJ States anJ 8ritain. Jhe caitalist worlJ
was awash with excess IunJs, anJ with Iew JiminisheJ roJuctive
outlets Ior investment, that meant strong inllation. Jhe attemt to
ut a brake on rsmg inllation m I 9/5 exoseJ a lot oI excess
caacity in Western economies, triggering hrst oI all a worlJ-wiJe
crash in roerty markets |see hgure 2. 6) anJ severe JiIhculties Ior
hnancial institutions. Jo that were aJJeJ the eIIects oI CPC's
Jecision to raise oil rices, anJ the rab Jecision to embargo oil
corts to the West inthe I 9/5 rab-!sraeli War. Jhis | I ) changeJ
the relative cost oI energy inuts Jramatically, anJ usheJ all seg
ments oIthe economyto seekoutways to economize on energy use
through technological anJ organizational change, anJ |2) leJ to a
recyclingroblem olsurlus etro-Jollars, thatexacerbateJthealreaJy
brewing instability H the worlJ's hnancial markets. Jhe strong
Jellation oI I 9/5 -5IurtherinJicateJ that state hnances were over
extenJeJ H relation to resources, creatmg a Jee hscal anJ legit-
imation crsis. Jhe technical bankrutcy oI ew York City m
I 9/5 - with one oI the largest ublic buJgets in the worlJ - was
illustrative oI the serousness ol the roblem. t the same time,
cororationsIounJthemselveswitha lot olunusable excess caacity
|chielly iJle lant anJ equiment) unJer conJitions oI intensiIying
cometition |hgure 2. /). Jhis IorceJ them into a erioJ oI rational-
ization, restructurng, anJ intensihcation oI labour control |iI they
coulJ overcomeorbyass unionower).Jechnologicalchange,auto
mation, the search Ior new roJuct lines anJ market niches, geo-
grahical Jisersal to zones oI easier labour control, mergers, anJ
stes to acccelerate the turnover time oI their caital surgeJ to the
Iore oI cororate strategies Ior survival unJer general conJitions oI
Jellation.
Jheshar recession oII 9/5,exacerbateJbytheoilshockeviJently
shook the caitalist worlJ out oI the suIIocating toror oI 'stag-
llation` |stagnant outut oI gooJs anJ highinllation oIrices), anJ
set in motion a whole set oI rocesses that unJermineJ the !orJist
comromise. Jhe I 9/0sanJI 980shaveconsequentlybeenatroubleJ
erioJ oI economic restructurng anJ social anJ olitical reaJjust-
ment |hgure 2. 8) . !n the social sace createJ by all this llux anJ
uncertainty, a series oI novelexeriments in the realms oI inJustrial
organizaiion as well asin olitical anJ social liIe have begun to take
shae. Jhese exeriments may reresent the early stirrings oI the
assage to an entirely new regime oI accumulation, couleJ with a
quite JiIIerent system oI olitical anJ social regulation.
b0
AnnuaI tateOI change nmOngage
50
deDt| nthe Unted btates
40 |UeDtO|COmmercel
% 30
=
m
c
o *
L
m
w* 400


o |
S
300
= w
u
c
'
Z00
M
V C
G I
= l
o
"
V

300
`C
D

o
x
E
m
Z00 o
c
o
o
E
J
m

O
Figure 2. 6 Some indices of the property boom and crash in Britain and the
United States, 1955-1975. Top: Annual rate of change in mortgage debt in
the United States (Department of Commerce Data) Middle: Share prices of
real estate investment trusts in the United States (Source: Fortune Magazine)
Bottom: Property share price index in Britain (Source: Investors Chronicle)
!

From Fordism to fexible accumulation 1 47

Total manufacturi ng
Uti l iti es
! ! Z ! 4 1 ! ! 1 Z ! 4 1 1
Figure 2. 7 Capacity utilization in the United States, 1970-1988
(Source: Federal Reserve Board)
Flexible accumulation, as ! shall tentatively call it, is markeJ by a
Jirect conIrontation with the rigiJities oI !orJism. !t rests on llex-
ibility with resect to labour rocesses, labour markets, roJucts,
anJatterns oIconsumtion. !tis characterizeJbythe emergence oI
entirelynew sectors oIroJuction, new ways oI roviJing hnancial
services, new markets, anJ, above all, greatly intensiheJ rates oI
commercial, technological, anJ organizational innovation. !thas en-
traineJ raiJ shiIts in the atterning oI uneven Jeveloment, both
between sectors anJ between geograhical regions, giving rise, Ior
examle, to a vast surge in so-calleJ 'service-sector` emloyment as
wellastoentirelynewinJustrialensemblesinhithertounJerJeveloeJ
regions |such as the 'JhirJ !taly`, !lanJers, the various silicon val-
leys anJ glens, to say nothing oI the vast roIusion oI activities in
newly inJustrializing countries). !thas also entaileJ a new rounJ oI
what ! shall call 'time-sace comression' |see Part !!!) in the
caitalist worlJ - the time horizons oI both rivate anJ ublic
Jecision-makinghaveshrunk, while satellite communication anJ Je
clining transort costs have maJe it increasingly ossible to sreaJ
those Jecisions immeJiately over aneverwiJeranJvariegateJsace.
Jhese enhanceJ owers oI llexibility anJ mobility have alloweJ
emloyers to exert strongerressures oI labour control on a work-
Iorce in any case weakeneJ by two savage bouts oI Jellation, that
saw unemloyment rise tounreceJenteJostwarlevelsin aJvanceJ
caitalist countries |save, erhas, |aan). CrganizeJ labour was
unJercut by the reconstruction oI Ioci oI llexible accumulation in
regionslackingrevious inJustrial traJitions, anJby the imortation
back into the olJer centres oI the regressive norms anJ ractices
establisheJ in these new areas. !lexible accumulation aears to
imly relativelyhighlevels oI 'structural' |as ooseJ to 'Irictional`)
l Z

l U
0
+
C
b ~
C
0
E

b
C
E
0
C

4
Z
U
T 4
l Z
l U

m
b 9
L
C
C
+
b
0
w
C
4
Z
U
T Jbb
T Jbb l J/U T J/b T JbU
Figure 2. 8 Unemployment and inflation rates in Europe and the USA,
1961 -1987
(Source: OEeD)
Figure 2.9 (a) Index of non-farm hourly earings, (b) percentage unemployed,
(c) percentage of jobless receiving unemployment benefts and (d) median
family incomes in the USA, 1974-1987
(Sources: Bureau of Labor Statistics and Economic Reports to the President)

i
I
|

'

0z
00
+s
l +
+4
+z
0

0
0
+
s
|l
1

0
s0
0
|(I
40
z0

0
.

u
1
J

W 10

C
|7l
C
z+ m
D
C
= zs
0
c
z1
C
C
c
0
+14 +1 +1s +s0 +sz +s4 +s
1 50 Political-economic capitalist transformation
unemloyment,raiJJestructionanJreconstructionoIskills, moJest
|iI any) gains in the real wage, |see hgures 2. 2 anJ2. 9) anJ the roll-
back oI traJe union ower - one oI the olitical illars oI the
!orJist regime.
Jhe labour market has, Iorexamle,unJergone a raJical restruc-
turing. !aceJ with strong market volatility, heighteneJ cometition,
anJ narrowing roht margins, emloyers have taken aJvantage oI
weakeneJ union ower anJ the ools oI surlus |unemloyeJ or
unJeremloyeJ) labourers to ush Ior much more Ilexible work
regimes anJ labourcontracts. !t is harJ to geta clear overall icture,
because the very urose oI such llexibility is to satisIy the oIten
highly secihc neeJs oI each hrm. ven Ior regular emloyers,
systems suchas 'nine-JayIortnights,orworkscheJulesthat average
a Iorty-hour week over the year but oblige the emloyee to work
muchlongeraterioJsoIeak JemanJ, anJcomensatewithshorter
hours at erioJs oI slack, are becoming much more common. 8ut
more imortant has been the aarent move away Irom regular
emloyment towarJs increasing reliance uon art-time, temorary
or sub-contracteJ work arrangements.
Jhe result is a labour market structure oI the sort JeicteJ in
hgure2. 1 0, taken, as are the Iollowingquotations, Irom the !nstitute
oI Personnel Management`s Flexible patterns of work ( 1 986). Jhe
core - a steaJily shrinking grou accorJing to accounts emanating
Irom both siJes oIthetlantic - is maJeu oIemloyees 'withIull
time, ermanent status anJ is central to the long term Iuture oI the
organization.`njoyinggreaterjobsecurity, gooJromotion anJ re-
skilling rosects, anJ relatively generous ension, insurance, anJ
other Iringe beneht rights, this grou is nevertheless execteJ to be
aJatable, lIexible, anJ iI necessary geograhically mobile. Jheo
tential costs oIlaying oII core emloyees in time oI JiIhculty may,
however, leaJ a comany to sub-contract even high level Iunctions
|varying Irom Jesign to aJvertising anJ hnancial management),
leaving the core grou oI managers relatively small. Jheperiphery
encomasses two rather JiIIerent sub-grous. Jhe hrst consists oI
'Iull-time emloyees with skills that are reaJily available in the
labourmarket, such as clerical, secretarial, routine anJ lesser skilleJ
manual work.` With less access to career oortunities, this grou
tenJs to be characterizeJ by high labour turnover 'which makes
workIorcereJuctionsrelativelyeasybynaturalwastage. ` JheseconJ
eriheral grou 'roviJes even greater numerical lIexibility anJ
incluJes art-timers, casuals, hxeJ term contract staII, temoraries,
sub-contractorsanJublicsubsiJytrainees,withevenlessjobsecurity
than the hrst eriheral grou.` ll the eviJence oints to a very
From Fordism to fexible accumulation
FI RST PERI PHERAL GROUP
SECONDARY LABOUR MARKET
NUMER I CAL F LEXI BI LI TY
COR E GROUP
PR I MARY LABOU R MARKET
FUNCTI ONAL FLEXI BI LI TY
I NCREASED
OUTSOURCI NG
Figure 2. 10 Labour market structures under conditions of fexible
accumulation
1 51
C
C
2
m
C
*

"
(Source: Flexible Patterns o f Work, ed. C. Curs on, Institute of Personnel
Management)
signihcantgrowthinthis categoryoIemloyeesinthelastIewyears.
Such lIexible emloyment arrangements Jo not by themselves
engenJer strong worker JissatisIaction, since lIexibility can some-
timesbe mutually benehcial . 8uttheaggregate eIIects, whenlookeJ
at Irom the stanJont oIinsurance coverage anJ ension rights, as
well as wage levels anJ job security, by no means aear ositive
IromthestanJontoItheworkingoulationas a whole. Jhemost
raJical shiIt has been either towarJs increaseJ sub-contracting (70
ercentoI8rtishhrms surveyeJ bytheationalconomicLevel-
oment Council reorteJ an increase in sub-contracting between
I 52 political-economic capitalist transformation
I 982 anJ I 985) or towarJs temorary rather than art-time work.
Jhis Iollows a long-establisheJ attern in |aan where, even unJer
!ordism, small business sub-contracting acteJ as a buIIer torotect
largecororations Irom the cost oImarketlluctuations. Jhe current
trenJ in labour markets is to reJuce the number oI 'core` workers
anJto rely increasinglyuon aworkIorce thatca

quickly be t

ken
on boarJ anJ equally quickly anJ costlessly be laiJ oII when times
get baJ. !n 8ritain, 'llexiblewoker` increaseJ b
`
I6 er cent to 8. I
million between I 98I anJ I 985whleermanentjobsJecreaseJby6
er cent to I 5. 6 million (Financial Times, 2/ ebruary I 98/) . Cver
roughly the same time erioJ, nearly one thirJ

I the

ten millio
new jobs createJ in the \S were thought to be H the temorary
category (New York Times, I / March I 988)
`
Jhis has not, eviJently, changeJ very raJically the roblems that
arose inthe I 960s oIsegmenteJor 'Jual' labour markets, but has re
shaeJ them accorJing to a rather JiIIerent logic. While it is t
'
e
that the Jeclining signihcance oI unionowerhas reJuceJ the si:

-
gular ower oI white male workers in monooly sector markets, it
Joes notIollowthatthose excluJeJ Irom thoselabour markets, such
asblacks,women,ethnicminoritiesoIallkinJs,haveachieveJsuJJen
arity |excet in the sense that many traJitionally rivilegeJ white
male workers have been marginalizeJ alongsiJe them). While some
women anJ some minorities have gaineJ access to more rivilegeJ
ositions, the new labour

rket c

nJitions have Ior the most art

re-emhasizeJthevulnerability oIJisaJvantageJ grous |as we shall
shortly see in the case oI women).
Jhe transIormationinlabourmarketstructure has beenaralleleJ
by equally imortant shiIts in inJustrial organ

ation. Crganize1
sub-contracting, Ior examle, oens u oortunities Ior small busi-
ness Iormation, anJ in some instances ermits olJer systems oI
Jomestic, artisanal, Iamilial |atriarchal), anJ aternalistic |'goJ
Iather' , ' guv'nor' or even maha-like) labour systems to revive

nJ
lIourish as centreieces rather than as aenJages oI the roJuction
system. JherevivaloI'sweatsho'Iorms oIroJuctionin cities such
3 ewYork anJ Los ngeles , Paris anJ LonJon, became a matter
Ior commentary in the miJ- I 9/0s anJ has roliIerateJ rather than
shrunkJuring the I 980s. JheraiJgrowth oI 'black,' 'inIormal,' or
'unJergrounJ' economies has also been JocumenteJ throughout
.
the
aJvanceJ caitalist worlJ, leaJing some to suggest that ther

is
.
a
growing convergence between 'thirJ worlJ' anJ aJvanceJ caitalist
laboursystems. Yetthe rise oInew anJthe revival

oIo

lJerIorms oI
inJustrial organization |oIten JominateJ by new immigrant grous
in large cities, such as the !iliinos, South Koreans, Vietnamese,
From Fordism to fexible accumulation I 55
anJ Jaiwanese in Los ngeles, or the 8anglaJeshis anJ !nJians in
ast LonJon) reresents rather JiIIerent things in JiIIerent laces.
Sometimes it inJicates the emergence oI new survival strategies Ior
the unemloyeJ or wholly JiscriminateJ against |such as Haitian
immigrants in Miami or ew York), while in others it is more
simlyimmigrantgrouslookingIoranentryintoacaitalistsystem,
organizeJ tax-JoJging, or the attraction oI high roht Irom illegal
traJe that lies at its basis. 8ut in all such cases, the eIIect is to
transIorm the moJe oI labour control anJ emloyment.
Working-class Iorms oI organization |such as the traJe unions),
Ior examle, JeenJeJ heavily uon the massing oIworkerswithin
the Iactory Ior their viability, anJ hnJ iteculiarly JiIhcult to gain
anyurchasewithinIamilyanJJomesticlaboursystems.Paternalistic
systems are Jangerous territories Iorlabour organizing because they
are more likely to corrut union ower |iI it is resent) than union
ower is likely to liberate emloyees Irom 'goJIather` Jomination
anJ aternalistic welIarism. !nJeeJ, one oI the signal aJvantages oI
embracing such ancient Iorms oI labour rocess anJ oI etty-
caitalistroJuctionis thattheyunJermineworking-class organization
anJ transIorm the objective basis Ior class struggle. Class conscious-
nessnolongerJerivesIromthestraightclassrelationbetweencaital
anJ labour, anJ moves onto a much more conIuseJ terrain oIinter-
Iamilial conllicts anJ hghts Ior ower within a kinshi or clan-like
system oI hierarchically orJereJ social relations. Struggling against
caitalist exloitation in theIactoryisveryJiIerentIrom struggling
against a Iather or uncle who organizes Iamily labour into a highly
JiscilineJ anJcometitivesweatshothatworks toorJerIormulti
national caital |table 2. 5) .
Jhe eIIects are Joublyobvious whenweconsiJerthe transIormeJ
role oI women in roJuction anJ labour markets. ot only Jo the
new labour market structures make it much easier to exloit the
labour ower oI women on a art-time basis, anJ so to substitute
lower-aiJ Iemale labourIorthat oImore highly aiJ anJ less easily
laiJ-oII core male workers, but the revival oI sub-contracting anJ
JomesticanJIamilylaboursystemsermitsaresurgenceoIatriarchal
ractices anJhomeworking. Jhis revival arallels the enhanceJ ca-
acityoImultinationalcaitaltotake!orJistmass-roJuctionsystems
abroaJ, anJ there to exloit extremely vulnerable women`s labour
ower unJer conJitions oI extremely low ay anJ negligible j ob
security |see ash anJ !ernanJez-Kelly, I 985). Jhe MaquilaJora
rogramme thatallows\S managersanJcaitalownershi toremain
north oI the Mexican borJer, while locating Iactories emloying
mainlyyoung womensouth oIthe borJer, is a articularly Jramatic
Table 2. 3 Diferent forms of labour process and production
organization
Type of Form Basis of Politics of
production exploitation production
SelI-emloyeJ consul tan ts, exchange oI inJiviJualist anJ
artisans anJ gooJs anJ market-leJ anti-
inIormal sector services monooly or
state regulation
Co-oerative collectives internal negotiation
anJ agreements
co-oeratives external
exchange
Patriarchy smallIamilynrms kinshibaseJ kitchen
|sweatshos) on age anJ sex olitics
Communal large Jomestic commumty olitics oI Iace
aternalism nrms |sweateJ baseJ on norms, anJ status
labour) customs, anJ
Iorce
8ureaucratic cororate anJ calculating career laJJer anJ
aternalism state managerial rationality, cometition
systems loyalty, anJ within
seniority orgamzauons
Patrimonial hierarchically ower relations bargaining,
orJereJ emires anJ exchange mutual gain, anJ
in roJuction, oI Iavours Jynastic struggles
traJe, or nnance |traJitional
rivilege)
Proletarian caitalistnrmanJ buyinganJselling market cometi-
Iactory system oI labourower tion, collective
anJ control over action, bargaining,
labour rocess anJ class struggle
anJ means oI
roJuction
Source: aIter Deyo, I9/
From Fordism to fexible accumulation
1 55
examleoIaracticethathas becomewiJesreaJinmany oItheless
JeveloeJanJnewly-inJustrializingcountries|thePhiliines,South
!orea, 8razil, etc ). Jhe transition to lIexible accumulation has in
Iact been markeJ by a revolution |by no means rogressive) in the
role oI women in labour markets anJ labour rocesses Juring a
erioJ when the women`s movement has Iought Ior both greater
awareness anJ imroveJ conJitions Ior what is now more than 40
er cent oI the labour Iorce in many oI the aJvanceJ caitalist
countries.
ew techniques anJ organizational Iorms in roJuction have
selleJ JangerIortraJitionally organizeJ businesses,sarkingawave
oIbankrutcies,lantclosures,JeinJustrialization,anJrestructuring,
thathasut even the mostowerIul cororations at risk. Jhe organ-
izational Iorm anJmanagerial technique aroriate to highvolume,
stanJarJizeJ mass roJuction were not always easy to convert to
lIexible systemroJuctionwithits emhasisuonroblem solving,
raiJ anJ oIten highly secializeJ resonses, anJ aJatability oIskillsto
secialuroses. WhereroJuction coulJ be stanJarJizeJ, itroveJ
harJto sto its moving to take aJvantage oIlow-aiJ labourower
inthethirJworlJ,creatingtherewhatLiietz( 1 986) calls'eriheral
!orJism. ` Jhe Penn Central bankrutcy oI 1 976 anJ the Chrysler
bail-out oI 1 981 inJicateJ the seriousness oI the roblem in the
\niteJ States ot only JiJ the list oI the Fortune 500 to coror-
ations in thatcountryunJergo consiJerable moJihcation, theirrole
in the economy also changeJ - their global emloyment remaineJ
stationaryaIter 1970 |with a net loss inthe \niteJ States) comareJ
to the Joubling oI emloyment that haJ occurreJ in their lants
Irom 1 954 to 1 970. Cn the other hanJ, new business Iormation in
the \niteJ States ickeJ u Jramatically, Joubling in the erioJ
between1975 anJ1 981 |aJeerecessionyear).ManyoIthenewsmall
businesses inserteJ themselves into the matrix oI sub-contracting
skilleJ tasks or consultancy.
Jhe economies oI scale sought unJer !orJist mass roJuction
have, itseems, been countereJ by an increasing caacity to manuIac-
ture avariety oI gooJs chealy in small batches. conomies oIscoe
have beaten out economies oI scale. 8y 1 983, Ior examle, Fortune
reorteJ that 'seventy-hve er cent oI all machinearts toJay are
roJuceJ in batches oI hIty or less. ` !orJist enterrises coulJ, oI
course, aJotthe new technologies anJlabourrocesses |aractice
JubbeJ 'neo-!orJist` by some), but in many instances cometitive
ressures anJ the struggle Ior better labour control leJ either to the
riseoIentirelynewinJustrial Iorms orto the integration oI!orJism
with a whole network oI sub-contracting anJ ' outsourcing` to give
I 56 Political-economic capitalist transformation
greater llexibility in the Iace oI heighteneJ cometiti

n anJ greater
risk. Small-batch roJuction anJ sub-contracting certainly haJ the
virtues oIbyassing the rigiJities oIthe!orJistsystemanJsatisIying
a Iar greater range oI market neeJs, incluJing quick-changing ones.
Such llexible roJuction systems have ermitteJ, anJ to some
Jegree JeenJeJ uon, an acceleration in the ace oI roJuct in-
novation together with the exloration oIhighly secializeJ anJ
small-scale market niches. \nJerconJitions oI recession anJ heigh
teneJ cometition, the Jrive to exlore such ossibilities became
IunJamental to survival. Jurnover time - always one oIthekeys to
caitalistrohtability - stooJto be reJuceJJramaticallybyJeloy-
ment oI the new technologies in roJuction |automation, robots)
anJ new organizational Iorms |such as the 'just-in-time' inventory
uows Jelivery system, which cuts Jown raJically on stocks requireJ
to kee roJuction llow going). 8ut accelerating turnover time in
roJuctionwoulJ have been uselessunlessthe turnover time in con-
sumtionwas also reJuceJ. JhehalI-liIe oIatyical!orJistroJuct
was, Ior examle, Iromhveto sevenyears, butllexible accumulation
has more than cut that in halI incertain sectors |such as textile anJ
clothinginJustries),whileinothers - suchas theso-calleJ'thought-
ware` inJustries |e.g. viJeo games anJ comuter soItware ro
grammes) - the halI-liIe is Jown to less than eighteen months.
!lexible accumulation has been accomanieJ on the consumtion
siJe,thereIore,byamuchgreaterattentiontoquick-changingIashions
anJ the mobiIization oI all the artihces oI neeJ inJucement anJ
culturaltransIormationthatthis imlies.Jherelativelystableaesthetic
oI !orJist moJernism has given way to all the Ierment, instability,
anJ lleeting qualities oI a ostmoJernist aesthetic that celebrates
JiIIerence,ehemerality,sectacle,Iashion,anJthecommoJihcation
oIcultural Iorms.
Jhese shiIts on the consumtion siJe, couleJ with changes in
roJuction, inIormation gathering anJ hnancing, seem to unJerly a
remarkable roortionate surge in service emloyment since the
early I 9/0s. Jo some Jegree, this trenJ coulJ be JetecteJ much
earlier, erhas as a consequence oI raiJ increases in eIhciency in
much oI manuIacturing inJustry through !orJistrationalization anJ
oI the eviJent JiIhculty oI making similar roJuctivity gains in
service rovision. 8ut the raiJ contraction in manuIacturing em
loyment aIter I 9/2 |table 2. +) has highlighteJ a raiJ growth oI
service emloyment, not so much in retailing, Jistribution, trans-
ortation, anJ ersonal services |which have remaineJ Iairly stable
orevenlostgrounJ), asinroJucerservices,hnance, insurance, anJ
realestate,anJcertain othersectorssuchashealthanJeJucation|see
From Fordism to fexible accumulation
I 5/
Table 2. + Structure of civilian employment in selected advanced
capitalist countries, 1960-1981, illustrating the rise of the
serVIce economy
Percentage of employed population in:
Agriculture
Industry
Services
1 960 1973 1 981
1960 1973 1981 1 960 1973 1 981
Austrara I0. 5 /.+ 6. 5 59.9 55.5 50. 6 +9.8 5/. I 62.8
Canada I5.5 6. 5 5. 5 55. 2 50. 6 28. 5 55. 5 62. 8 66. 2
France 22.+ I I .+ 8.6 5/.8 59. / 55.2 59. 8 +8.9 56.2
W. Germany I+. 0 /.5 5. 9 +8. 8 +/.5 ++. I 5/. 5 +5.0 +9.9
taly 52. 8 I 8.5 I5. + 56. 9 59.2 5/. 5 50.2 +2.5 +9.2
Japan 50. 2 I 5.+ I0. 0 28. 5 5/. 2 55. 5 +I. 5 +9.5 5+./
Spain +2.5 2+. 5 I 8.2 52. 0 56. / 55. 2 25. / 59. 0 +6.6
Sweden I5. I /. I 5. 6 +2.0 56. 8 5I . 5 +5. 0 56. 0 65. I
UK +. I 2. 9 2. 8 +8. 8 +2. 6 56. 5 +/.0 5+.5 60.9
USA 8. 5 +.2 5. 5 55. 6 55. 2 50. I 58. I 62. 6 66.+
CCL 2I . / I2. I I0. 0 55.5 56. + 55. / +5. 0 5I . 5 56.5
Source: OECD Labour Force Statistics
Walker, I 985, also oyelle anJ Stanback, I 98+, Laniels, I 985). Jhe
exact interretation |or inJeeJ even basic Jehnitions oI what is
meant by a service) to be ut on this is a matter oI consiJerable
controversy. Some oI the exansion can be attributeJ, Ior examle,
to the growth oI sub-contracting anJ consultancy which ermits
activities Iormerly internalizeJ within manuIacturing hrms |legal,
marketing,aJvertising,tying,etc.)to behiveJoIIto searateenter-
rises. !t may also be, as we shall see in Part !!!, that the neeJ to
accelerate turnover time in consumtion has leJ to a shiIt oI em
hasis Irom roJuction oI gooJs |most oI which, like knives anJ
Iorks, have a substantial liIetime) to the roJuction oI events |such
as sectaclesthathavean almost instantaneousturnover time). What-
ever the Iull exlanation may be, any account oI the transIormation
oI aJvanceJ caitalist economies since I 9/0 has to look careIully at
this markeJ shiIt in occuational structure.
ll oI this has ut aremium on 'smart' anJinnovativeentre re
neuralism, aiJeJ anJ abetteJ by all oI the accoutrements oI swiIt,
Jecisive, anJwell-inIormeJ Jecision-making. Jhe enhanceJ caacity
Ior geograhical Jisersal, small-scaleroJuction, anJ the ursuit oI
I 58 Political-economic capitalist transformation
custom-markets has notnecessarily leJ, however, to anyJiminution
oI cororate ower. !nJeeJ, to the Jegrec that inIormation anJ the
ability to make swiItJecisions in a highly uncertain, ehemeral, anJ
cometitiveenvironmentbecomecrucialtorohts,thewellorga

izeJ
cororation has markeJ cometitive aJvantages over small busmess.
'Leregulation` |another oI the olitical buzz-worJs oI the era oI
llexible accumulation) has oIten meant increaseJ monoolization
|aIter a hase oI intensiheJ cometition) in sectors such as airlines,
energy, anJ hnancial services . t one enJ oI the business scale,
lIexible accumulation has been conJucive to massive mergers anJ
cororate Jiversihcations. \S comanies sent $22 billion acquiring
eachotherin I 9//, butby I98IthathaJrisento $82 billion, cresting
in I 985 at anextraorJinary$I 80billion Jhoughmergers anJacqui-
sitions JeclineJ in I 98/, in art as a resonse to the stock market
crash,thetotalvaluestillstooJat$I 65. 8billionIor2,052transactions
|accorJingto W.J. Grimm, a merger consultant grou) . Yetin I 988
the merger mania ket going. !n the \niteJ States merger Jeals
worththan$I 98 billionwere comleteJinthehrstthree-quartersoI
theyear,whilein uroe, Je8eneJetti oI Clivetti`s attemt to take
overthe \nion GnraleoI8elgium, a bankwhichcontrolleJabout
one thirJ oI that country`s roJuctive assets inJicateJ the global
sreaJ oImergermania. MostoIthoseemloyeJby theFortune 500
to comanies i nthe \Snowwork in lines oI activity that have
nothing to Jo with the rimary line oIbusiness with which their
comany is iJentiheJ. 'Jhe Juty oI management is to make money,
notsteel`announceJjamesKoJerick, ChairmanoI\SSteel,in I 9/9,
anJ he romtly launcheJ into a camaign oI acquisitions anJ ex-
ansions to JiversiIy thatcomany`s activities. t the other enJ oI
the scale, small businesses, atriarchal anJ artisanal organizational
structures have also lIourisheJ. ven selI-emloyment, which haJ
JeclineJ steaJily in the \niteJ States aIter I 950, unJerwent,
accorJing to Keich`s | I 985) account, substantial revival aIter I 9/2,
exanJing by more than 25 er cent in less than a JecaJe |a trenJ
whichencomasseJeverythingIromcasualworkbytheunemloyeJ
to highly aiJ consultants, Jesigners, craIt workers anJ secialists).
ewsystems oIco-orJinationhavebeenutinlace eitherthrough
an intricate variety oI sub-contracting arrangements |that connect
small hrms to large-scale, oIten multinational, oerations) through
the Iormation oInew roJuction ensembles inwhich agglomeration
economies have become oI increaseJ signihcance, or through the
Jomination anJ integration oI small businesses unJer the aegis oI
owerIulhnancialormarketingorganizations |8enetton,Iorexamle,
engages innoroJuctionJirectly, butsimlyoerates as a owerIul
From Fordism to fexible accumulation I 59
marketing machine, which transmits commanJs to a wiJe array oI
inJeenJent roJucers).
.
Wt tis

uggests is that the tension that has always revaileJ

vithmcaitalism between monooly anJ cometition, between cen-
trali

ationanJ JecentralizationoIeconomicower, is beingworkeJ

out m IunJament

lly

ne

ways. Jhis Joes not necessarily imly,

however, that caitalism is becoming more 'JisorganizeJ` as CIIe
| I985)anJLashan+\r

y i98/) sugg

st.!orwhatismostinteresting
aboutthecu

rentsituatio

isthewaymwhichcaitalismisbecoming
e
`
r more tigh

tly orgamzeJ through Jisersal, geograhical mo-

bility, anJ lIexible resonses in labour markets, labour rocesses,
anJconsumermarkets,allaccomanieJbyheItyJosesoIinstitutional,
roJuct, anJ technological innovation.
Jhe ti

hter organization anJ imloJing centralization haveinIact

been a

hieveJ by two arallel Jeveloments oI the greatest imort-

ance. !irst, accu

ateanJu-to-Jate inIormationisnowaveryhighly
vueJ commoJity.
.
ccess
.
to,anJcontrolover, inIormation, couleJ
witha strongcaacityIor mstant Jataanalysis,havebecomeessential
to the ce

tralizeJ
.
co-orJination oI Iar-lIung cororate interests.
Jhe caa

ity Ior mstantaneous resonse to changes in exchange

rates, Iashions anJtastes, anJmoves bycometitors ismore essential
to

ororate

survival than it ever was unJer !orJism. Jhe emhasis

on

nIormati

n has also sawneJ a wiJe array oIhighly secializeJ

b

smess
.
services
.
anJ consultancies caable oIroviJing u-to-the-
mmute mIormation on market trenJs anJ the kinJ oI instant Jata
a

aly

es

seIul n cororate Jecision-making. !t has also createJ a

situation m which vast rohts stanJ to be maJe on the basis oI
rivilegeJa

cesstoinIormation,articularlyinhnancialanJcurrency
markets |witness the roliIerating 'insiJer traJing` scanJals oI the
I 980s that struck both ew York anJ LonJon). 8ut this is, in a

ense, o

ly the illegal ti oI an iceberg where rivilegeJ access to

mIormation oI any sort |such as scientihc anJ technical know-how,
governmentolicies, anJ olitical shiIts) becomes an essential asect
oI successIul anJ rohtable Jecision-making.
ccess to scientihc anJtechnicalknow-howhas always been im-
ortant in the cometitive struggle, but here, too, we can see a
renew
.
al oI interest anJ emhasis, because in a worlJ oI quick
changmgta

tesanJneeJsanJlIexibleroJuctionsystems|asooseJ
to therelativelystableworlJ oIstanJarJizeJ !orJism), access tothe
ates

technique

e lates
P
roJuc
.
t, the latest scientihc Jiscovery
imlies the

osstbtlityoIseizmgan imortant cometitive aJvantage.

KnowleJge itselI becomes a key commoJity, to be roJuceJ anJ
solJ to the highest biJJer, unJer conJitions that are themselves
I60 Political-economic capitalist transformation
increasingly organizeJ on a cometitive basis. \niversities anJ re-
search institutes comete hercely Ior ersonnel as well as Ior being
hrst inatenting newscientihc Jiscoveries |whoevergets hrst to the
antiJoteIortheiJsviruswillsurelyrohthanJsomely, astheagree-
ment reacheJ between\S researchers anJ !rance's Pasteur!nstitute
over the sharing oI inIormation anJ royalties clearly recognizeJ).
CrganizeJ knowleJge roJuction has exanJeJ remarkably over
the ast Iew JecaJes, at the same time asithas been increasinglyut
uon a commercial basis |witness the uncomIortable transitions in
manyuniversitysystems intheaJvanceJcaitalistworlJ Irom guar-
Jianshi oIknowleJge anJw:sJomto ancillaryroJuction oIknow-
leJge Ior cororate caital) . Jhe celebrateJ StanIorJ Silicon
.
Valley
or the M!J-8oston Koute I28 'high-tech' rnJustry connections are
conhgurations that are quite new anJ secial to the era oI Ilexible
accumulation |even though, as LaviJ oble oints out in America
by design, many \S universities were set u anJ romoteJ by
cororate caitalIrom theirveryincetion).
Control over inIormaton lIow anJ over the vehcles Ior ro-
agation oI oular taste anJ culture have likewise b

come vital
weaonsincometitivestruggle. Jhe startlingconcentrationoIecon-
omic ower in book ublishing |where2 er cent oI theublishers
control /5 er cent oI the books ublisheJ in the \S), the meJia
anJtheresscannotbeexlaineJsimlyin terms oI theroJuction
conJitions conJucive to mergers in those helJs. !t has a lot to Jo
with the ower oI other large cororations, as exresseJ through
their controls over mechanisms oI Jistribution anJ aJvertising ex-
enJitures. Jhe latter have grown markeJly since the I 960s, anJ eat
u evenlarger roortions oI cororate buJgets because, in a ighly
cometitive worlJ, itis not simly roJucts butthe cororate image
itselI that becomes essential, not only to marketing but also Ior
raising caital, ursuing mergers, anJ gaining leverage over the ro-
Juction oI knowleJge, government olicy, anJ the romotion oI
culturalvalues. Cororatesonsorshi oItherts|xhibitionson-
soreJ by -), oI universities, anJ oI hilanthroic rojects is the
restige enJ oI a scale oI activities that incluJe everything Irom
lavish brochures anJ comany reorts, ublic relations stunts, anJ
even scanJals that constantly kee the comany name in the ublic
eye.
Jhe seconJ Jeveloment - anJ this has beenIar more imortant
thanthehrst - wasthecomletereorganizationoItheglobalhnancial
system anJ the emergence oI greatly enhanceJ owers oI hnancial
co-orJination. gain, there has been a Jual movement, on the one
hanJ towarJs the Iormation oI hnancial conglomerates anJ brokers
oI extraorJinary global ower, anJ, on the other hanJ, a raiJ
From Fordism to fexible accumulation
I6I
roliIeration anJ Jecentralization oI hnancial activities anJ uows
throughthecreationoIentirelynewhnancialinstrumentsanJmarkets.
!n the \niteJ States, this meant the Jeregulation oI a hnancial
system thathaJ been rigorously circumscribeJ ever since thereIorms
oIte
.
I 95 0s. h

e \SHunt Commission Report oII 9/I was the nrst

exlicitrecogritionoItheneeJIorreIorms asaconJitionoIsurvival
anJ growth oI the caitalist economic system. Iter the traumas oI
I 9/5, the ressure Ior hnancial Jeregulation gathereJ ace in the
I 9/0s anJ haJ engulIeJ all oI the worlJ's hnancial centres by I 986
|L

Jon'scelebr

teJ'big bang' reIorms oIthatyearJrovehomethe

omt). Leregulation anJ hnancial innovation - both long anJ com
licateJ rocesses - haJ bythen become a conJition oI survival oI
any w
'
rlJ hnancial ce

tre within a highly integrateJ global system

co-orJmateJ through mstantaneous telecommunications. Jhe Ior-
mation oI a global stock market, OI global commoJity |even Jebt)
Iutures markets, oI currency anJ interest rate swas, together with
a

accelerateJ g

ograhic

l mobility oI IunJs, meant, Ior the hrst

time, the Iormation oI a smgleworlJ marketIor moneyanJ creJit
suly |hgure 2. I I ) .
Jh

structureoIthis globalhnancialsystemisnowsocomlicateJ
that it surasses most eole' s unJerstanJing. Jhe bounJaries be-
twee

JistinctiveIunctionslikebanking, brokerage, hnancialservices,

housmg hnance, consumer creJit, anJ the like have become increa-
singlyorous at the same time as new markets incommoJity, stock,

urre

cy, or Jebt

Iutures
.
have srung u, Jiscounting time Iuture
mto time resent m baIllmg ways. Comuterization anJ electronic
communications haveresseJhome the signihcanceoIinstantaneous
i

terna

ional co-orJination oI hnancial uows. '8anking,' saiJ the

Fmannal Times |8 May I 98/), 'is raiJly becoming inJiIIerent to
the constraints oI time, l

ce anJ currency. ' !t is now the case that

'

n nglish buyer can get a|aanesemortgage, an merican can ta

his ewYork
.
bank account through

a cash machine in Hong Kong

anJajaanesemvestorcanbuysharesmaLonJon-baseJScanJinavian
bank whose stock is JenominateJ in sterling, Jollars, Leutsche
Marks anJ Swiss Irancs. ` Jhis 'bewilJering` worlJ oI high hnance
enc

loses an equally bewilJeringvariety oIcross-cutting activities, in

which banks borrow massively short-term Irom other banks, insur-
ance comanies anJ ension IunJs assemble such vast ools oI in-
vestment IunJs as to Iunction as Jominant 'market makers` while
inJust

ial, mer

hant, anJ lanJeJ caital become so integratJ into

hnancial oerations anJ structures that it becomes increasingly JiI-
hcul to tell where commercial anJ inJustrial interests begin anJ
strictly hnancial interests enJ.
JhisconIusionhas beenarticularlyassociateJwiththegrowth oI
z+
z i
F OREI GN EXCHANGE
Hours GMT
s
z
Hours GMT
a c a
c a 0
z+ z
s z a
I NTE RNATI ONAL SECURI TI ES
LFYL D. m. LFYL .m.
Hours GMT
z+

a

c

FUTURES

FLNL FLNL . m.
4
bYNcYD.D. bYNcY8.D.
From Fordism to fexible accumulation I 65
whatisnowcalleJ 'aer entrereneurialism. ` JremenJous emhasis
has been ut in recent years on hnJing ways other than straight
roJuction oI gooJs anJ services to make rohts . Jhe techniques
vary Irom sohisticatJ 'creative accounting' through careIul moni-
toring oI international markets anJ olitical conJitions by multi-
nationals, so that they can roht Irom relative shiIts in currency
valuesorinterestrates,tostraightcororateraiJinganJasset-striing
oI rival or even totally unrelateJ cororations. Jhe 'merger anJ
takeover mania` oI the I 980s was art anJ arcel oI this emhasis
uonaerentrereneurialism,Ioralthoughthereweresomeinstances
where such activities coulJ inJeeJ be justiheJ in terms oI rational-
ization or Jiversihcation oI cororate interests, the thrust was more
oIten than not to gain aer rohts without troubling with actual
roJuction. Small wonJer, as Kobert Keich | I 985) observes, that
'aer entrereneurialism now reoccuies some oI merica's best
minJs, attacks someoIits mosttalenteJ graJuates, emloyssomeoI
its most creative anJ original thinking, anJ surs someoI its most
energeticwheelinganJJealing. ' CverthelasthIteenyears,hereorts,
the most sought aIter anJ most lucrative jobs to be haJ in \S
business lay not in the management oI roJuction but in the legal
anJ hnancial sheres oI cororate action.
wash with liquiJity, anJ erturbeJ by an inJebteJness that has
siralleJ out oIcontrol since I 9/5, the worlJ's hnancialsystemhas,
however, eluJeJ anycollective control onthe art oIeventhe most
owerIul aJvanceJ caitalist states. Jhe Iormation oI the so-calleJ
'uroJollar' hnancial market out oI surlus \S Jollars in the miJ
I 960s is symtomatic oI the roblem. Cuite uncontrolleJ by any
nationalgovernment,thismarketin 'stateless`moneyexanJeJIrom
$50 biIlion in I 9/5 to nearly $2 trillion by I 98/, thus aroaching
the size oI the money aggregates within the \niteJ States. Jhe
volume oIuroJollars increaseJ at a rate oI arounJ 25 er center
year in the I 9/0s, comareJ to a I0 er cent increase in money
sulywithinthe\SanJa4 ercentgrowthrateinthevolumeoI
Ioreign traJe. Jhe Jebt oI thirJ worlJ countries likewise mush-
roomeJ out oI control |see hgure 2. I 2) . !t Joes not take much
imagination to see that such imbalances ortenJ severe stresses anJ
strains withintheglobalcaitalistsystem.ProhetsoIJoom |likethe
Wall Street investment banker!elixKohatyn)nowabounJ, anJeven
The Economist anJthe Wall Street ] ournal sounJeJsombrewarnings
Figure Z. 1 1 Twenty-four hour trading patterns in global fnancial markets
(courtesy of Nigel Thrift)
I6+
Political-economic capitalist transformation
1 ,

O
7O
O
ZO
c
C
1
Nomi nal l ong term debt from
_ Official sources
]
Private sources
Figure 2. 12 Growth of debt of lesser developed countries, 1970-1987
(Source: World Bank Debt Tables)
oI imenJinghnancialJisaster well beIore the stockmarketcrashoI
Cctober I 98/.
Jhe new hnancial systems ut into lace since I9/2 have changeJ
the balance oIIorces atwork in global caitalism, givingmuchmore
autonomyto the banking anJ hnancial system relativeto cororate,
state, anJ ersonal hnancing. !lexible accumulation eviJently looks
moreto hnance caital as itsco-orJinatingower than JiJ !orJism.
Jhis means that the otentiality Ior the Iormation oI inJeenJent
anJ autonomous monetary anJ hnancial crises is much greater than
beIore, eventhoughthehnancialsystemisbetter ableto sreaJrisks
overa broaJer IrontanJshiItIunJsraiJlyIromIailingtorohtable
enterrises, regions, anJ sectors. Much oI the uux, instability, anJ
gyrating can be Jirectly attributeJ to this enhanceJ caacity to
switch caital llows arounJ in ways that seem almost oblivious oI
the constraints oI time anJ sace that normally in Jown material
activities oIroJuction anJ consumtion.
Jhe increasing owers oIco-orJination loJgeJ withintheworlJ`s
hnancial system have emergeJ to some Jegree at the exense oI the
ower oI the nation state to control caital llow anJ, hence, its own
hscal anJ monetary olicy. Jhe breakJown, in I9/I, oI the 8retton
WooJs agreement to hx the rice oI golJ anJ the convertibility oI
the Jollar was an acknowleJgement thatthe \niteJ States no longer
haJ the ower to control worlJ hscal anJ monetary olicy single-
hanJeJly.Jhe aJotionoIallexibleexchangeratesystem inI 9/5|in
From Fordism to flexible accumulation I 65
resonsetomassiveseculativecurrencymovementsagainsttheJollar)
signalleJ the comlete abolition oI 8retton WooJs. Since that time
all
nation states have been at the mercy oI hnancial Jiscilining,
either through the eIIects oI caital llow |witness the turnarounJ in
!rench socialistgovernmentolicy intheIaceoIstrongcaitalllight
aIter I 98I ), or by Jirect institutional Jiscilining. 8ritain`s con-
cession unJer a Labour government to austerity measures JictateJ
,y the !nternational Monetary!unJinorJerto gain access to creJit
in I 9/6 was a s.
l
le acknowleJgement oI external hnancial ower
o

ver ir:ternal po.itics |there was more to matters, eviJently, than a

simleconsiracyoIthe'gnomesoIZurich`thathaJbeensocastigateJ
bytheWilsongovernmentoItheJecaJebeIore).JherehaJ,oIcourse,
always be

n Jelicate balance between hnancial anJ state owers

unJer caitalism, but the breakJown oI !orJism-Keynesianism
e
`
iJ

nty meant
.
a shiIttowarJs the emowerment oIhnance caital
UI5dUI5 the nation state. Jhe signihcance oI all this becomes even
more aarent when ut into the context oI the raiJ reJuction in
transortation anJ communications costs that resteJ on container-
ization, jumbo-jet cargo transort, anJ satellite communications,
which alloweJ roJuction anJ Jesign instructions to be communi-
cateJ instantaneously anywhere arounJ the worlJ. !nJustry
that haJ traJitionally been tieJ by locational constraints to raw
material sources or markets coulJ become much more Iootloose.
!rom the miJ- I 9/0s onwarJs a vast literature emergeJ trying to
k

e trackoIthenewinternationalJivisionoIlabour, shiItingrin-
ciles oI location, anJ roliIerating mechanisms oI co-orJination
both within trans-national cororations as well as between JiIIerent
sector

l commoJity anJ roJuct markets. ewly inJustrializing

countres |!Cs) such as the South-ast sian 'gang oIIour' |Hong
Kong, Singaore, Jaiwan, anJ South Korea) began to make serious
inroaJs into the markets Ior certain roJucts |textiles, electronics,
etc. )in the aJvanceJcaitalist countries, anJ were soon j oineJ by a
hostoIother!Cs |Hungary, !nJia, gyt) anJ those countries that
haJ ea

lierursueJ imort substitution strategies |8razil, Mexico) in

a locational re-shuIlle oI the worlJ`s inJustrial roJuction.
Some oI the ower shiIts since I 9/2 within the global olitical
economy oIaJvanceJ caitalismhave beentrulyremarkable. \niteJ
Sta

es JeenJence on Ioreign traJe |historically always rather small

~ m the r

nge oI+-5ercent oI gross JomesticroJuct) JoubleJ

m the

e
'
ioJ I 9/5 -80 |see table 2. 5). !morts Irom Jeveloing
countres ir:creaseJ almosttenIolJ, anJ Ioreign imorts |articularly
Iromjaan) surgeJ to claim a major share oI\S markets in areas as
Jiverseassiliconchis, televisionsanJviJeos, numericallycontrolleJ
I 66 Political-economic capitalist transformation
Table Z. J Dependence on foreign trade for selected advanced
capitalist countries
Exports and imports as per cent of GNP
1 960 1 970 1 980 1 986
\S
exorts +. 5/ 5. 55 I 0. 0 /. 0
imorts +.56 5.00 I 0.5 I 0.2
\I
exorts 20.9 25. I 2/. / 26.2
imorts 22.5 22.2 25. 5 2/. 0
jaan
exorts I 0. 8 I0. 8 I5. / I I . /
imorts I 0.5 9.5 I+.6 /.6
W. Germany
exorts I /.9 2I .2 26.5 50.0
imorts I 6.+ I 9. I 2/.0 2+. 9
!taly
exorts I 2. I I5. + 2I . / 20.+
imorts I 2.+ I5.0 2+.+ I 8. /
Source: OEeD
machine tools, shoes, textiles anJ cars. Jhebalance oI ayments in
gooJsanJservices Iorthe\niteJStatesraiJlymoveJthatcountry
Irom a net global creJitor to the status oI the worlJ`s largest Jebtor
|see hgure 2. I 5) . Meanwhile the hnancial ower oI |aan grew,
turningJokyointooneoItheworlJ's mostimortanthnancialcentres
|toing ewYork Ior the hrst time in I 98/) simly because oI the
vast quantities oI surlus IunJs controlleJ by the jaanese banks.
Jhe latter JislaceJ the mericans as the largest holJers oI inter-
national assets in I 985, anJby I 98/helJ$I .+ trillioncomareJ with
the $650 billion helJ by mericans. Jhe Iour largest banks in the
worlJ |in asset terms) are now|aanese.
JheseshiItshavebeenaccomanieJ anJ inartushereJ in bythe
rise oI an aggressive neo-conservatism inorth merica anJ much
oI Western uroe. Jhe electoral victories oI Jhatcher | I 9/9) anJ
Keagan| I 980)areoItenvieweJasaJistinctiverutureintheolitics
oI the ostwar erioJ. ! unJerstanJ them more as consoliJations oI
C
Z
44
40
36
60 -
62 -
58 -
C 54 -
>
50 -
46 -
o ,
From Fordism to fexible accumulation
Federal debt
T T T 1 7 ! I ! 1 I I 1 1
Personal debt
I 1 ! 1 ! 1 ! ! 1 ! ! ! 1
Corporate debt
44
40
36
32
24 -
28 -I
o , ! T I t I J 1 1 1 1 1 J 1
50
Trade deficit/surpl us
o --------
Y -50
0
-1 00
C
O
= -1 50 -

-200 -
-250 = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I 6/
Figure 2 . 13 Growth of federal, personal and corporate debt in the United
States and deterioration in US trade balance, 1973-1987
(Source: Department of Commerce and Federal Reserve Board)
what was alreaJy unJer way throughout much oI the I 9/0s. Jhe
crisis oI I 9/5-5 was in art born out oI a conIrontation with the
accumulateJ rigiJities oI government olicies anJ ractices built u
Juring the !orJist-Keynesian erioJ. Keynesian olicies haJ a-
eareJinllationaryasentitlementsgrewanJhscal caacities stagnateJ.
Since it haJ always been art oI the !orJist olitical consensus that
reJistributions shoulJ be IunJeJ out oI growth, slackening growth
inevitably meant trouble Ior the welIare state anJ the social wage.
Jheixon anJHeath governments bothrecognizeJtheroblem in
the erioJ I 9/0-+, sarking struggles with organizeJ labour anJ
retrenchment in state exenJitures. Jhe Labour anJ Lemocratic
governments that subsequently came to ower boweJ to the same
imeratives, though iJeologically reJisoseJ in quite JiIIerent Ji-
rections. Jheir cororatist aroach to solving the roblem may
have been JiIIerent |relying on voluntary comliance anJ union
enIorcement oI wages anJ rices olicies) but the obj ectives haJ to
be the same. s soon as olitical choices were seen as a traJe-oII
168 Political-economic capitalist transformation
between growth or equity, there was no question which way the
winJ woulJ blow Ior even the most JeJicateJ oI reIormist govern-
ments. Jhe graJualwithJrawal oI suort Ior the welIare state |see
hgure 2. 9), anJ the attack uon the realwage anJ organizeJ union
ower, that began as an economic necessity in the crisis oI 1973-5,
were simly turneJ by the neo-conservatives into a governmental
virtue. Jhe image oI strong governments aJministering owerIul
Joses oI unalatable meJicine to restore the health oI ailing econ-
omies became wiJesreaJ.
Jo the Jegree that heighteneJ international cometition unJer
conJitions oI llagging growth IorceJ all states to become more
'entrereneurial' anJ concerneJ to maintain a Iavourable business
climate,sotheoweroIorganizeJlabouranJoIothersocialmove-
ments haJ to be curbeJ. Jhoughtheolitics oIresistancemay have
varieJ - with tangible results, as Jherborn's ( 1 984) comarative
stuJy oIuroeanstates shows - austerity, hscalretrenchment, anJ
erosion oIthe social comromisebetween biglabour anJ big govern-
ment became watchworJs in every state in the aJvanceJ caitalist
worlJ. lthough, thereIore, states retain consiJerable over to in-
tervene in labour contracts, what |esso (1 982, 1 983) calls 'the ac
cumulation strategy` oIeach caitalist nation state has become more
strictly circumscribeJ.
Cn the reverse siJe oI the coin, governments iJeologically com-
mitteJto non-intervention anJ hscal conservatismhavebeen IorceJ
by events to be more rather than less interventionist. Laying asiJe
the Jegree towhichthe eviJentinsecurities oI lIexible accumulation
create a climate conJucive to authoritarianism oI the Jhatcher-
Keagantye,hnancialinstabilityanJthemassiveroblemsoIinternal
anJ external inJebteJness have IorceJ erioJic interventions in un-
stable hnancial markets. Jhe Jeloyment oI !eJeral Keserve ower
to ameliorate the MexicanJebt crisis oI 1 982, anJthe \SJreasury's
agreement to broker what might amount to a $20 billion write-oII
oIMexican Jebt helJby\Sbanks in 1 987, are two examles oIthis
new kinJ oI interventionism in international markets. Jhe Jecision
to nationalize the Iailing Continental!llinois 8ank in 1 984, anJ the
massiveoutlaysoIthe\S!eJeralLeositanJ!nsuranceCororation
|!L!C) to absorb the rising costs oI bank Iailure |see hgure 2. 1 4)
anJ the similar Jrain on the resources oI the !eJeral Savings anJ
Loan !nsurance Cororation that requireJ a $1 0 billion re-caital-
ization eIIort in 1987 to guarJagainsttheIactthat some 20 er cent
oI the nation`s 3, 1 00 thriIt institutions were technically insolvent,
illustratesthe scale oItheroblem |theestimateJbail-outrequireJto
Jealwith the savings anJ loan crisis stooJ at $50 to $100 billion by
From Fordism to fexible accumulation
Z "
!
!
U

! 4

C
+
! Z "
.
L
F
J
! "

C ,
5
- O
c +

+
2.
4
Z
Figure 2. 14 Bank Failures in the USA, 1970-1987
(Source: Federal Deposit and Insurance Cmporation)
169
Setember 1 988) . So exerciseJ JiJ William !saacs, Chairman oI the
!L!C, become that he Ielt obligeJ to warn the merican 8ankers
ssociation as early as Cctober 1987 that the\S 'might beheaJeJ
towarJs nationalization oI banking,` iI they coulJ not stem their
losses. Cerations ininternationalcurrencymarkets to stabilize ex-
change rates come no cheaer - the ew York !eJeral Keserve
reorteJ senJing more than $4 billion in the two months aIter the
stock market crash oICctober 1 987 to kee the Jollar exchange rate
relatively orJerly, anJ the 8ank oI nglanJ solJ 24 billion in 1 987
inorJertokee the 8ritish ounJ Irom rising tooIast anJ too Iar.
Jhe role oI the state as a lenJer or oerator oI last resort has,
eviJently, become more rather than less crucial.
8ut, by the same token, we now see that it is also ossible Ior
nation states |South Irica, Peru, 8razil, etc.) to JeIault on their
internationalhnancial obligations, Iorcing inter-state negotiations on
Jebt reayments. !t is also, ! susect, no acciJent that the hrst
economic summit between the major caitalist owers occurreJ in
1 975, anJ that the ursuit oI international co-orJinations - either
through the !M! or through the ursuit oIcollective agreements to
I /0 Political-economic capitalist transformation
interveneincurrencymarkets - has intensiheJever since, becoming
even more emhatic in the wake oI the I98/ stock market crash.
Jhere has been, in short, a struggle to win back Ior the collectivity
oI caitaliststatessomeoItheowertheyhaveinJiviJuallylostover
the asttwo JecaJes. Jhis trenJwas institutionalizeJin I 982, when
the!M!anJtheWorlJ8ankwereJesignateJasthecentralauthority
Ior exercising the collective ower oI caitalist nation states over
international hnancial negotiations. Such ower is usually JeloyeJ
toIorcecurbsonublicexenJiture,cutsinrealwages, anJausterity
in hscal anJ monetary olicy, to the oint oIrovoking a wave oI
so-calleJ'!M!riots' Irom Sao Paulo to Kingston, jamaica, anJ Irom
Peru to the SuJan anJ gyt since I 9/6 |see Walton, I 98/, Ior a
comlete list).
Jhere aremanyother signs oIcontinuity ratherthan ruturewith
the!orJistera. JhemassivegovernmentJehcits inthe \niteJ States,
mainly attributable to JeIence, have been lunJamental to whatever
economic growth there has been in worlJ caitalism in the I 980s,
suggestingthat Keynesian ractices are by no means JeaJ. either
Joes the commitment to 'Iree-market` cometition anJ Jeregulation
entirely ht with the wave oI mergers, cororate consoliJations, anJ
the extraorJinary growth oI interlinkages between suoseJly rival
hrms oI JiIIerent national origin. renas oI conllict between the
nation state anJ trans-national caital have, however, oeneJ u,
unJermining the easy accommoJation between big caital anJ big
government sotyical oIthe!orJistera.Jhestateis nowin amuch
more roblematicosition. !tis calleJ uon to regulate theactivities
oI cororate caital in the national interest at the same time as it is
IorceJ,alsointhenationalinterest, tocreatea'gooJbusinessclimate`
to act as an inJucement to trans-national anJ global hnance caital,
anJ toJeter|bymeansotherthanexchange controls)caitalllightto
greener anJ more rohtable astures.
WhilethehistorymayhavevarieJsubstantiallyIromone country
to another, there is strong eviJence that the moJalities anJ targets
oI, as well as the caacity Ior, state intervention have changeJ sub-
stantiallysince I 9/2 throughoutthecaitalistworlJ,nomatterwhat
the iJeological comlexion oI the government in ower |the recent
exerienceoIthe!renchanJSanish socialistsIurtherhelssubstan-
tiatetheoint).JhisJoesnotmean,however,thatstateintervention-
ism has generally JiminisheJ, Ior in some resects - articularly
regarJing labour control - state intervention is more crucial now
than it everwas.
Jhisbringsus, hnally, totheeventhornierroblemoIthewaysin
which norms, habits, anJ oliticalanJculturalattituJeshaveshiIteJ
From Fordism to fexible accumulation
I /I
since I 9/0, anJ the Jegree to which such shiIts integrate with the
transition Irom !orJism to exible accumulation. Since theolitical
success oI neo-conservatism can harJly be attributeJ to its overall
economic achievements |its strong negatives oIhigh unemloyment,
weakgrowth,raiJ Jislocation, anJsirallinginJebteJness areoIIset
only by control oI inlIation), several commentators have attributeJ
its rise to a general shiIt Irom the collective norms anJvalues, that
were hegemonic at least in working-class organizations anJ other
social movements oI the I 950s anJ I 960s, towarJs a much more
cometitive inJiviJualism as the central value in an entrereneurial
culture that has enetrateJ many walks oI liIe. Jhis heighteneJ
cometition |in labour markets as well as amongst entrereneurs)
has, oI course, roveJ Jestructive anJ ruinous to some, yet it has
unJeniably generateJ a burst oI energy that many, even on the leIt,
comare Iavourably with the stilling orthoJoxy anJ bureaucracy oI
statecontrolanJmonoolisticcororateower. !thas alsoermitteJ
substantial reJistributons oI income to be achieveJ, which have
aJvantageJ,Iorthemostart, thealreaJyrivilegeJ. ntrereneuria-
lism nowcharacterizes notonlybusiness action, but realms oIliIeas
Jiverse as urban governance, the growth oI inIormal sector ro
Juct:on,labourmarketorganization,researchanJJeveloment, anJ
ithasevenreacheJintothenethercornersoIacaJemic,literary, anJ
artistic liIe.
While the roots oI this transition are eviJently Jee anJ com-
licateJ,theirconsistencywithatransitionIrom!orJism to lIexible
accunulation is reasonably clear even iI the Jirection |iI any) oI
causality is not. Jo begrnwth, the more llexible motion oI caital
emhasizesthe new, the lIeeting, theehemeral,theIugitive, anJ the
contingentinmoJernliIe,ratherthanthemore soliJvaluesimlanteJ
unJer !orJism. Jo the Jegree that collective action was thereby
maJe more JiIhcult - anJ it was inJeeJ a central aim oIthe Jrive
Ior enhanceJ labour control to renJer it thus - so ramant inJivi-
Jualism hts into lace as a necessary, though not a suIhcient, con-
Jition Ior the transition Irom !orJism to lIexible accumulation.
!twas,aIterall,mainlythroughtheburstoInewbusinessIormation,
innovation, anJ entrereneurialism that many oIthe newsystems oI
roJuction were ut into lace. 8ut, as Simmel | I 9/8) long ago
suggesteJ, it is also at such times oI Iragmentation anJ economic
insecurity that the Jesire Ior stable values leaJs to a heighteneJ
emhasis uon the authority oI basic institutions - the Iamily,
religion, the state. nJ there is abunJant eviJence oI a revival oI
suort Ior such institutions anJ the values they reresent through-
out the Western worlJ since about I 9/0. Such connections are, at
I /2 Political-economic capitalist transformation
least, lausible, anJ they ought, thereIore, to be given more careIul
scrutiny Jhe immeJiate task at hanJ is to outline an interretation
oI the roots oI such a major transition in caitalism' s Jominant
regime oI accumulation.
1 U
Theorizing the transItIon
Jo the Jegree that we are witnessing a historical transition, still lar
Irom comlete anJ in any case, like !orJism, bounJ to be artial in
certain imortant resects, so we have encountereJ a series oI the-
oretical Jilemmas. Can we gras theoretically the logic, iI not the
necessity, oI the transition? Jo what Jegree Jo ast anJ resent
theoretical Iormulations oI the Jynamics oI caitalism have to be
moJiheJinthelight oItheraJicalreorganizationsanJrestructurings
taking lace in both roJuctive Iorces anJ social relations ? nJ can
we reresent the currentregimesuIhcientlywell to get some gri on
the robable course anJ imlications oI what aears to be an on-
going revolution?
Jhe transition Irom !orJism to lIexibIe accumulation has,inIact,
oseJ serious JiIhculties Ior theories oI any sort. Keynesians,
monetarists, neo-classicalartialequilibriumtheorists, aearjust as
beIuJJleJ as everyone else. Jhe transition has also oseJ serious
JiIemmas Ior Marxists. !n the Iace oI such JiIhculties, many com
mentators have abanJoneJ any retence oI theory, anJ simly re
sorteJ to Jata-chasing to kee ace with the raiJ shiIts. 8ut here
too there are roblems - what Jata are key inJicators rather than
contingent series ? Jhe only generaloint oIagreement isthatsome-
thingsignihcanthaschangeJinthewaycaitaIismhasbeenworking
since about I 9/0.
Jhe hrst JiIhculty is to try to encasulate the nature oI the
changes we are looking at. !n tabIes 2.6, 2. /, anJ 2. ! summarize
three recent accounts oIthetransition. Jhe hrst, arathercelebratory
accountbyHalal| I 96)oIthenewcaitaIism,emhasizestheositive
anJ liberatory elements oI the new entrereneurialism. Jhe seconJ,
byLash anJ\rry | I 9/), emhasizesowerrelations anJoliticsin
relationto economyanJculture.JhethirJ, bySwyngeJouw |I 96),
roviJesmuchmoreJetail ontransIormations intechnologyanJthe
1 74 Political-economic capitalist transformation
Table Z. The new capitalism according to Halal
The old capitalism The new capitalism
(Industrial paradigm) (Post-industrial
paradigm)
!rontier ol rogress han growth smart growth
Crganization mechanistic structure market networks
Oecision-making authoritarian
commanJ
articiative IeaJershi
!nstitutional values hnancial goals multiIe goals
Management locus oerational strategic management
management
conomic macro- roht-centereJ big Jemocratic lree
system business enterrise
WorlJ system
caitalism hybriJs ol
versus socialism caitalism anJ
socialism
Source: Halal, 1 986
labour rocess while areciating how the regime oI accumulation
anJ its moJes oIregulationhaveshilteJ. !neach case, oI course, the
oosition is useJ as a JiJactic tool to emhasize the JilIerences
rather than the continuities, anJ none oI the authors argue that
mattersare anywherenear as cut anJJrieJastheseschemas suggest.
JheschemasinJicate, however, some overlas but also some JiIIer-
ences which areinstructive, since theysuggestratherJillerentmech-
anisms oI causation. Halalaears closer to Schumeter`s theoryoI
entrereneurial innovation as the Jriving Iorce oI caitalism, anJ
tenJs to interret!orJism anJ Keynesianism as an unIortunate in-
terluJeincaitalistrogress. LashanJ\rryseetheevolutioninart
as the collase ol the material conJitions Ior a owerIul collective
working-class olitics, anJ attemt to robe the economic, cultural,
anJ olitical roots oI that collase. 8y the very use oI the terms
'organizeJ' anJ 'JisorganizeJ' to characterize the transition, they
emhasizemoretheJisintegrationthanthecoherenceoIcontemorary
caitalism, anJ therelore avoiJ conIronting the ossibility oI a tran-
Table Z. / Contrast between organized and disorganized capitalism
according to Lash and Urry
Organized capitalism
concentrationanJcentralizationol
inJustrial banking, anJ
commercial caital m regulateJ
national markets
increasingsearation olownershi
lrom control anJ emergence ol
comlex managerial hierarchies
growth olnew sectors ol
managerial, scientihc,
technologicalintelligentsia anJ ol
miJJle-class bureaucracy
growth oI collective organizations
anJ bargaining within regions anJ
nation states
close articulationoI stateanJlarge
monoolycaitaIinterests anJrise
ol class-baseJ wellare statism
exansion oleconomic emires
anJcontrololoverseasroJuction
anJ markets
incororation ol Jiverse class
interests within a national agenJa
set through negotiateJ
comromises anJ bureaucratic
reguIation
Disorganized capitalism
Je-concentration ol raiJly
increasing cororate ower away
lrom national markets . !ncreasing
internationaIization ol caitaI anJ
in some cases searation ol
inJustrial lrom bank caital
continueJ exansion olmanagerial
strata articulating their own
inJiviJuaI anJ olitical agenJas
quite Jistinct Irom class olitics
reIative/absolute Jecline m blue-
collarworking class
Jecline in ellectiveness olnational
collective bargaining
increasing inJeenJence ollarge
monoolies lrom state regulation
anJ Jiverse challenges to
centraIizeJ state bureaucracy anJ
ower
inJustrialization ol thirJ worlJ
anJ cometitive Je-
inJustrialization ol core countries
whic
[
turn to seciaIization in
services
outright Jecline ol cIass-baseJ
olitics anJinstitutions
1 76 Political-economic capitalist transformation
Table Z. / cont.
Organized capitalism
hegemony of technical-scientifc
rationality
concentration of capitalist
relations within relatively few
industries and regions
extractive-manufacturing
industries dominant sources of
employment
strong regional concentration and
specialization in extractive
manufacturing sectors
search for economies of scale
through increasing plant (work
force) size
growth of large industrial cities
dominating regions through
provision of centralized services
(commercial and fnancial)
cultural-ideological confguration
of 'modernism'
Source: after Lash and Urry ( 1 987)
Disorganized capitalism
cultural fragmentation and
pluralism coupled with
undermining of traditional class or
national identities
dispersal of capitalist relations
across many sectors and regions
decline of extractive
manufacturing industries and rise
of organizational and service
industries
dispersal, diversifcation of the
territorial -spatial division of
labour
decline in plant size through
geographical dispersal, increased
sub-contracting, global production
systems
decline of industrial cities and
deconcentration from city centres
into peripheral or semi-rural areas
resulting in acute inner city
problems
cultural-ideological confgurations
of 'postmodernism'
sit ion in the regime of accumulation. Swyngedouw, on the other
hand, by emphasizing changes in the mode of production and of
industrial organization, locates the transition in the mainstream of
Marxian political economy while clearly accepting the regulation
school' s language.
I am more partial to Swyngedouw's interpretation. But if the
language of the regulation school has survived better than most, it is,
I suspect, because of its rather more pragmatic orientation. There is,
Table Z. Contrast between Fordism and fexible accumulation
according to Swyngedouw
Fordist production
(based on economies of scale)
] ust-in-time production
(based on economies of scope)
A THE PRODUCTION PROCESS
mass production of homogeneous
goods
uniformity and standardization
large buffer stocks and inventory
testing quality ex-post (rejects and
errors detected late)
rejects are concealed in buffer
stocks
loss of production time because of
long set-up times, defective parts,
inventory bottlenecks, etc.
resource driven
vertical and (in some cases)
horizontal integration
cost reductions through wage
control
small batch production
flexible and small batch production
of a variety of product types
no stocks
quality control part of process
(immediate detection of errors)
immediate reject of defective parts
reduction of lost time, diminishing
'the porosity of the working day'
demand driven
(quasi -) vertical integration sub
contracting
learning-by-doing integrated in
long-term planning
B LABOUR
single task performance by worker
payment per rate (based on job
design criteria)
high degree of job specialization
no or only little on the job
training
vertical labour organization
no Jearning experience
multiple tasks
personal payment (detailed bonus
system)
elimination of job demarcation
long on the j ob training
more horizontal labour
organization
on the job learning
Table 2. 8 cant.
Fordist production
(based on economies of scale)
emhasis on diminishing worker's
resonsibility |disciliningol
labour lorce)
no j ob security
] ust-in-time production
(based on economies of scope)
emhasis onworker's co-
resonsibility
highemloymentsecuritylorcore
workers |lile-time emloyment).
No job security and oor labour
conditions lortemoraryworkers
C SPAC
lunctional satial secialization
|centralization/decentralization)
satial division ol labour
homogenization olregionallabour
markets |satially segmented
labour markets)
world-wide sourcing ol
comonents and sub-contractors
satial clustering and
agglomeration
satial integration
labour market diversincation
|in-lace labourmarket
segmentation)
satial roximity olvertically
quasi-integrated nrms.
D STAT
regulation
rigidity
collective bargaining
socialization olwellare |the
wellare state)
international stability through
multi-lateral agreements
centralization
the 'subsidy' state/city
indirect intervention inmarkets
through income and rice olicies
deregulation/re-regulation
llexibility
division/individualization, local or
nrm-based negotiations
rivatization ol collective needs
and social security
international destabilization;
increasedgeoolitical tensions
decentralization and sharened
interregional/intercitycometition
the 'entrereneurial' state/city
directstate intervention inmarkets
through rocurement
Theorizing the transition 1 79
Table 2. 8 cont.
Fordist production
(based on economies of scale)
national regionalolicies
nrmnnanced researchand
develoment
industry-led innovation
] ust-in-time production
(based on economies of scope)
'territorial' regional olicies |third
arty lorm)
state nnanced research and
develoment
state-led innovation
IDLGY
massconsumtion ol consumer
durables. the consumtion society
modernism
totaIity/structuralrelorm
socialization
Source: Swyngedouw ( 1 986)
individualized consumtion.
'yuie'-culture
ostmodernism
secincity/adatation
n.di vidualization
the 'sectacle' society
within the regulation school, little or no attemt to rovide any
detailed understanding ol the mechanisms and logic ol transitions.
This,itseems tome, isaseriouslack.To lugthegarequiresgoing
back to basics anddealingwiththeunderlyinglogicolcaitalismin
general.Anditwas,olcourse, Marx's eculiarvirtuetohavebuilt a
theory ol caitalism in general through an analysis ol caitalism
under the broadly cometitive and laissez-faire mode ol regulation
to beloundinBritaininthemid-nineteenthcentury. Letusgoback,
therelore, to Marx's 'invariant elements and relations' ol a caitalist
mode ol roduction and see to what degree they are omni-resent
beneathallthesurlacelrothandevanescence, thelragmentationsand
disrutions, so characteristicol resent olitical economy.
Since llexible accumulation is still a lorm ol caitalism we can
exect a number ol basic roositions to hold. I have tried to
summarizetheseroositionselsewhere,andsoI shallsimlyextract
somevery basic elements ol the argument laid out in The limits to
capital |Harvey, 1 982). I shall reler, in articular, to three basic
leatures ol anycaitalist mode olroduction.
I 30 Political-economic capitalist transformation
I Caitalism is growth-oriented. A steady rate ol growth is es-
sentiallorthe health ola caitalist economic system, sinceitis only
through growth that ronts can be assuredand the accumulation ol
caital be sustained. This imlies that caitalism has to reare the
ground lor, and actually achieve an exansion ol, outut and a
growthinrealvalues,nomatterwhatthe social, olitical,geoolitical,
or ecological consequences. To the degree that virtue is made ol
necessity, itis a corner-stone ol caitalism'sideology that growth is
both inevitable and good. Crisis is then denned as lack ol growth.
2 Crowthin realvalues rests on theexloitationollivinglabour
in roduction. This is not to say that labour gets little, but that
growth is always redicatedon a ga between whatlabour gets and
what it creates. This imlies that labour control, both in roduction
and in the marketlace, is vital lor the eretuation ol caitalism.
Caitalism is lounded, m short, on a class relation between caital
and labour. Since labour control is essential to caitalist ront, so,
too, is thedynamicolclass struggleoverlabour controlandmarket
wage lundamental to the traiectory ol caitalist develoment.
3 Caitalism is necessarily technologically and organizationally
dynamic. This is so in artbecausethecoercivelaws olcometition
ush individual caitalists into lealrogging innovations in their
search lor ront.-But organizational and technological change also
lay a key role in modilying the dynamics ol class struggle, waged
lrom both sides, in therealm ol labour markets and labour control.
Furthermore, il labour control is lundamental to the roduction ol
ronts and becomes a broader issue lor the mode ol regulation, so
technologicalandorganizational innovationintheregulatorysystem
|such as the state aaratus,olitical systems olincororation and
reresentation,etc. )becomescrucialtotheeretuationolcaitaIism.
The ideology that 'rogress' is both inevitable and good derives in
art lrom this necessity.
What Marx was able to show was that these three necessary
conditions ol a caitalist mode ol roductionwere inconsistent and
contradictory and that the dynamic ol caitalism was necessarily,
therelore, crisis-rone. There was, in his analysis, no way in which
the combination ol these three necessary conditions could roduce
steadyandunroblematicgrowth. Inarticular, thecrisistendencies
ol caitalism would roduce eriodic hases ol overaccumulation,
denned as a condition in which idle caital and idle labour suly
could exist side by side with no aarent way to bring these idle
resourcestogetherto accomlish sociallyuselul tasks. A generalized
Theorizing the transition I 3 I
conditionol overaccumulationwouldbe indicatedbyidleroductive

acity, a glut ol commodities and an excess olinventories, surlus

money caital |erhas held as hoards), and high unemloyment.
Theconditions thatrevailedinthe I 930sandhave emergederiod-
ically since I 9/3haveto beregardedas tyicalmanilestationsolthe
tendency towards overaccumulation.
The Marxist argument is, then, that the tendency towards over-
accumulationcannever be eliminatedunder caitalism. Itisanever-
ending and eternal roblem lor any caitalist mode ol roduction
The only question,therelore, is how the overaccumulationtendency
can be exressed, contained, absorbed, or managed in ways that do
notthreaten the caitalist social order. Wehere encountertheheroic
side ol bourgeois lile and olitics, in which real choices have to be
made ilthe social orderis not to dissolve into chaos. Let us look at
some ol these choices .
I Devaluation olcommodities, olroductive caacity, olmoney
value, erhas couledwith outright destruction, rovides one way
ol dealing with surluses ol caital. In simle terms, devaluation
means the 'writing down' or 'writing oll' ol the value ol caital
equiment |lant and machinery in articular), the cutrate disosal
olsurlus stocks ol goods |ortheiroutrightdestruction, suchas the
lamous Brazilian collee-burning eisode in the I 930s), or the in-
llationaryerosionolmoneyowercouledwithburgeoningdelaults
on loan obligations. Labour ower can similarly be devalued and
even destroyed |rising rates ol exloitation, lalling real incomes,
unemloyment,moredeathsonthejob, oorerhealthandlowerlile
exectancy, etc. ). The great deression saw lenty ol devaluation ol
both caital and labour ower, and World War II saw even more.
Therearelentyolexamles,andabundantevidencelordevaluation
asaresonsetooveraccumulationsince I 9/3. Butdevaluationextracts
aoliticalrice andhurts largesegments olthe caitalist class aswell
as workers and the various other social classes comrising modern
comlexcaitalist society. Some shake-out might seem a goodthing,
but uncontrolled bankrutcies and massive devaluation exoses the
irrationalsideolcaitalistrationalityinlartoobrutalawayloritto
b

sustainablelor long without eliciting some kind ol revolutionary

|rghtorlelt)resonse.Mevertheless,controlleddevaluation through
managed dellationary olicies is one very imortant and by no
means uncommon otion lor dealing with overaccumulation.
2 Macro-economic control, through institutionalization ol some
system ol regulation, can contain the overaccumulation roblem,
erhas lor a considerable eriod ol time. It was, ol course, the
I 32 Political-economic capitalist transformation
virtue ol the Fordist-Keynesian regime tha a balance ol lorces,
however tenuous, could be created through which the mechanisms
causing the overaccumulation roblem - the ace ol technological
and organizational change together with the struggle over labour
control - could be ket sulnciently under control so as to assure
steady growth. But it took a maior crisis ol overaccumulation to
connectFordistroductionwithaKeynesianmodeolstateregulation
belore some kind ol steady macro-economic growth could be as
sured lor any extended eriod. The rise ol a articular regime ol
accumulationhas tobeseen,thenas now, as theoutcomeolawhole
host ol olitical and economic decisions, by no means always con-
sciously directed towards this or that secinc end, rovoked by
ersistent manilestations ol the overaccumulationroblem.
3 Absmption of overaccumulation through temoral and satial
dislacement rovides, in my iudgement, a much richer and long
lasting, but also muchmoreroblematic, terrainuonwhichto try
and control the overaccumulation roblem. The argument here is
rather comlicatedin its details, so I shall again drawuon accounts
ublished elsewhere |Harvey I 932, I 935c).
|a) Temoral dislacement entails either a switch ol resources
lrom meeting current needs to exloring luture uses, or an ac-
celeration in turnover time |the seed with which money outlays
return ront to the investor) so that seed-u this year absorbs
excesscaacitylromlastyear. xcesscaitalandsurlus labourcan,
lor examle, be absorbedby switchinglromcurrent consumtion to
long-termublicandrivateinvestmentsinlant,hysicalandsocial
inlrastructures, and the like. Such investments mo u surluses in
the resent only to return their value equivalent over a long time
eriodin the luture |this was therincile thatlay behindtheublic
works rogrammes used to combat the slum conditions in the
I 930s in many advanced caitalist countries). The caacity to make
the switch deends, however, uontneavailability olcreditandthe
caacity lor ' nctitious caital lormation.' The latter is denned as
caital that has a nominal money value and aer existence, but
which at a given moment in time has no backing in terms ol real
roductiveactivityorhysicalassetsascollateral.Fictitiouscaitalis
converted into real caital to the degreethat investments are made
that lead to an aroriate increase in uselul assets |e.g. lant and
machinery that can be rontably deloyed) or commodities |goods
and serviceswhichcanberontably sold). Forthisreasontemoral
dislacement into luture uses is a short-run alliative to the over-
accumulation roblem unless, that is, there is continuous dislace-
Theorizing the transition I 33
mentviacontinuouslyacceleratingrates olnctitiouscaitallormation
and exanding volumes ol longer-term investment. All ol this
deendsuon some continuous andstate-backeddynamicgrowthin
indebtedness. Keynesianoliciesalter I 9+5inthe advanced caitalist
countries in art had such an ellect.
Absortion olsurluses through accelerations inturnovertime -
astrongleature inthe recenteriodolexibleaccumulation oses
adillerentkindoltheoreticalroblem.Heightenedcometitioncer-
tainly rovokes individual nrms to seed u their turnover time
|those nrmswiththelasterturnovertimetendtogainexcess ronts
thereby, and so survive more easily). But only under certain con-
ditions does thisroduce an aggregate acceleration ol turnover time
so as to ermit aggregateabsortion ol surluses. ven then, this is,
atbest, a short-runalliative, unless itroves ossible to accelerate
social turnover time continuously year by year |a solution that
would surelyimlystrongwrite-olls olast assets inany case, since
seed-u usually entails new technologies which dislace the old).
|b) Satial dislacement entails the absortion ol excess caital
and labour in geograhical exansion. This 'satial nx' |as I have
elsewhere called it) to the overaccumulation roblem entails the
nroduction ol new saces within which caitalist roduction can
roceed|throughinlrastructuralinvestments,lorexamle),thegrowth
ol trade and direct investments, and the exloration ol new ossi-
bilities lor the exloitation ol labour ower. Here, too, the credit
system andnctitious caitallormation, backed bystate nscal, mone-
tary, and, where necessary, military ower, become vital mediating
inlluences. And it also lollows that the manner ol rior occuation
ol the saces into which caitalism exands, and the degrees ol
resistance encountered there, can have rolound consequences. In
some saces there has been a history ol nerce resistance to the
imlantationolWesterncaital| e. g. China), whereas in other saces
|e. g. |aan or the more recent cases ol Hong Kong, Singaore, or
Taiwan), dominant or even subordinate classes have aggressively
insertedthemselvesintowhattheysawasasuerioreconomicsystem.
Ilcontinuousgeograhicalexansion olcaitalismwerearealossi-
bility, there could be a relatively ermanent solution to the over-
accumulation roblem. But to the degree that the rogressive im-
lantationolcaitalism across thelaceoltheearthextends the sace
withinwhichtheoveraccumulationroblemcanarise,sogeograhical
exansion can at best be a short-run solution to the overaccumul-
ationroblem.Thelong-runoutcomewill almost certainlybeheigh-
tened international and inter-regional cometition, with the least
advantagedcountriesandregionssulleringtheseverestconsequences.
I 3+ Political-economic capitalist transformation
|c) Time-sace dislacements, ol course, have a double ower
with resectto absortion olthe overaccumulationroblem, and in
ractice,andarticularlytothedegreethatnctitiouscaitallormation
|and, usually, state involvement) is essential to both temoral and
satial dislacement,itisthe combinationolthe temoralandsatial
strategies that counts. Lending money |olten rased on, say, London
orNewYorkcaitalmarketsthroughnctitiouscaitallormation)to
Latin America to build long-term inlrastructures or to urchase
caital equiment which will hel to generate outut lor many
years to come, is a tyical and owerlul lorm ol absortion ol
overaccumulation.
How, then, did Fordism solve the inherent overaccumulation
tendencies ol caitalism? Belore World War II it lacked the aro-
riate regulatory anaratus to do very much more than engage
insometentativeursuitsoltemoralandsatialdislacement|mainly
within countries, though overseas direct investment on the art ol
LS cororations did begin in the I 920s), and was therelore lorced,
lor the most art, intosavagedevaluationolthe sort achievedin the
I 930s and I 9+0s. Since I 9+5 - and largely as a consequence ol
detailedwar-time lanning tostabilizetheost-war economicorder
- thereemergedalairly coherentaccumulationstrategybuiltaround
control ol devaluation and the absortion ol overaccumulation by
other means. evaluation through violent swings in the business
cyclewas broughtundercontrolandreducedto the kind ol steady
devaluationthroughlannedobsolescencethatosedrelativelyminor
roblems. n the other hand, a strong system ol macro-economic
controlwasinstitutedwhichcontrolledtheace oltechnologicaland
organizational change |mainly throughcororate monooly ower),
ket the class strugglewithinbounds |through collective bargarning
and state intervention), and ket mass roduction and mass con-
sumtion roughly in balance through state management. But this
mode olregulationwouldnothavebeen anywherenearas successlul
as it evidently was, had it not beenlor the strong resence ol both
temoral and satial dislacements, albeitunderthewatchluleye ol
theinterventioniststate.
ByI 9/2, lorexamle,wenndBusiness Week comlainingthatthe
LS economy was sitting ato a mountain ol debt |though lrom
current heights it all looks like a mole-hill now; see ngure 2. I 3).
Keynesian debt-nnancing, initially intended as a short-term man-
agement tool to control business cycles, had, redictably, become
sucked into an attemt to absorb over accumulation by continuous
exansion ol nctitious caital lormation and consequent exansion
Theorizing the transition I 35
ol the debt burden. Steady exansion ol long-term investments,
orchestrated by the state roved a uselul way, at least u until the
mid- I 960s, to absorb any excess caital or labour. Satial dislace-
ment |combined, ol course, with long-term indebtedness) was an
even more owerlul inlluence. Within the Lnited States the radical
translormation ol metroolitan economies |through the suburban-
izationolbothmanulacturingandresidences),aswellastheexansion
into the South and West, absorbed vast quantities ol excess caital
and labour. Internationally, the reconstruction ol the economies
ol Western uroe and |aan, accelerating llows ol loreign direct
investment,andtheenormousgrowthinworldtradelayedacritical
role in absorbing surluses. Planning lorostwar 'eace withros-
erity' in WorldWar II emhasized the needlor a global strategy
lor caital accumulation within a world where trade and investment
barriersweretobesteadilyreducedandcolonialsubserviencerelaced
byan oen systemolgrowth,advancement,andco-oerationwithin
a decolonized caitalist world system. ven though some lacets ol
thisrogrammewere toroveideologicalandillusory, enougholits
content was realized to make a satial revolution in global trading
and investment entirely ossible.

It was rimarily through satial and temoral dislacement that

the Fordist regime ol accumulation resolved the overaccumulation
roblem during the long ostwar boom. The crisis ol Fordism can
to some degree be interreted, therelore, as a running out ol those
otionstohandletheover accumulationroblem.Temoraldislace-
ment was iling debt uon debt to the ointwhere the onlyviable
government strategy was to monetize it away. This was done, in
ellect, byrinting so much money astotriggeran inllationary surge,
which radically reduced the real value ol ast debts |the thousand
dollars borrowed ten years ago has little value alter a hase olhigh
inllation). Turnover time could not easily be accelerated withou:
destroyingthevalue olnxed caital assets. New geograhicalcentres
ol accumulation - the LS South and West, Westerr: uroe and
|aan, and then a range ol newly-industrializing countries - were
created. As these Fordist roduction systems cameto maturity, they
becamenewandoltenhighlycometitivecentresoloveraccumulation.
Satial cometition intensined between geograhically distinct
Fordist systems,withthemostelncientregimes |suchasthe|aanese)
and lower labour-cost regimes |such as those lound in third world
countries where notions ola social contractwith labour were either
lacking or weakly enlorced) driving other centres into aroxysms
ol devaluation through deindustrialization. Satial cometition
inte .ined, articularly alter I 9/3, as the caacity to resolve the
I 36 Political-economic capitalist transformation
overaccumulatron roblem through geograhrcal dislacement ran
out. The crrsrs ol Fordrsm was, therelore, as much a geograhrcal
and geoolrtrcalcrrsrsas rt was acrrsrs olindebtedness,classstruggle,
or cororate stagnatron wrthrn any artrcular natron state. It was
srmly that the mechanrsms evolved lor controllrng crrsrs tendencres
were nnally overwhelmed by the ower ol the underlyrng contra-
drctions ol cartalrsm. There seemed to be no otion excet to lall
back rnto devaluatron olthe sort that occurred rntheerrod I 9/3-5
orI 930-2astherrmarymeansol dealrngwrththetendencytowards
overaccumulatron. Lnless,thatrs, some otherand suerror regime ol
caitalist roductron could be created whrch would assure a solid
basrs lor lurther accumulatron on a global scale.
Flexrbleaccumulatronhere seems to ntas asrmlerecombrnatron
ol the two basrc strategres whrch Marx denned lor rocurrng ront
|surlus value). Thenrst,termedabsolute surlus value, restsonthe
extensronoltheworkrngdayrelatrvetothewageneededtoguarantee
working-class reroductron at a grven standard ol lrvrng. The shrlt
towards longer working hours couledwrth an overall reductron rn
the standard ol livrng erther by erosron ol the real wage or by the
shrlt ol cororate cartal lrom hrgh-wage to low-wage regions ca-
tures one lacet ol llexrbIe cartal accumulatron.
Many ol the standardized roductron systems burlt u under
Fordrsm have, lor thrs reason, shrlted to the errhery, creatrng
'errheral Fordrsm. ' ven the new roductron systems have tended
to shrlt, once standardized, lrom therr innovatrve hearths to thrrd
world locatrons |Atarr's I 93+ move lrom Silrcon Valley to South-
ast Asra's low-wage labour ower rs a case rn ornt). Lnder the
second strategy, termed relative surlus value, organrzational and
technologrcal change rs set rn motion to garn temorary ronts lor
rnnovatrve nrms and more generalrzed ronts as costs ol goods that
denne the standard ol lrvrng ol labour are reduced. Here, too, the
rolrleratrng vrolence ol rnvestments, whrch cut emloyment and
labour costs rneveryrndustrylromcoalmrnrngandsteelroductron
to bankrng and nnancral services, has beenahrghlyvrsrble asectol
cartalaccumulatronintheI930s. Yetrelranceonthisstrategybrrngs
to thelorethe srgnrncance olhrghlyskrlled labourowerswrththe
caacrty to understand, rmlement, and manage the new but much
morellexibleatterns oltechnologrcalrnnovation and marketorren-
tation. Ahrghlyrrvrleged, and to somedegree emowered, stratum
wrthrn the labour lorce emerges as cartalrsm deends more and
more on mobrlrzing theowersolrntellectuallabouras avehrclelor
lurther accumulatron.
Intheend,ol course, rtrstheartrcularmannerrnwhrchabsolute
Theorizing the transition I 3/
and
relatrve strategres combrne and leed oll each other that counts.
Interestrngly, the deloyment olnew technologres has so lreed sur-
luses

llabourowerastomaketherevrvalolabsolutestrategieslor
rocur

ngsurlu

value more leasrble evenintheadvancedcartalrst

countres. at is, erhas, more unexected rs the way m whrch
newroductiontechnologiesandco-ordrnatrnglormsolorganrzatron
have ermitted the revrval ol domestrc, lamrlral, and aternalrstic
labour systems, whrch Marx tended to assume would erther be
drrven out ol busrness or reduced to such condrtions ol gross ex-
lortatronanddehumanizing torlas to berntolerableunderadvanced
cartalrsm. The revrval ol the sweatshos rn Mew York and Los
Angeles, ol home work and 'telecommutrng', as well as the bur-
geoning growth olrnlormal sector labour ractrces througnout the
a+
'
anced catalst orld, does rndeed reresent a rather soberrng
vtsion ol caitalisms suosedly rogressrve history. Lnder con-
ditrons ol llexrble accumulatron, rt seems as il alternatrve labour
systemscanxis
'
srdebysrdewrthrnthesamesacern suchawayas
to enablecaitalistentrereneurstochooseatwrllbetweenthem|see
table 2. 3). The same shrrt desrgns can be roduced by large-scale
lactorisrnIndra,co-oerativeroductronrnthe'ThrrdItaly,'sweat-
shosH Ne
"
Yorand London,
.
or lamrly labour systems in Hong
Kong.clecticismH labourracticesseemalmostasmarkedrnthese
trmes as the eclectrcrsmolostmodern hrlosohres and tastes.
Yettherers,insrteolthedrllerenceolcontextandthesecrncrtres
oltheexamle used, somethrng quite comellrng andrelevant about
Marx's account ol the logrc ol cartalist organizatron and accumul-
ation. Re-readrng hrs account rn Capital strrkes home wrth a certain
i olt ol recognrtion. We there read ol the ways rn whrch the lactory
system canrntersectwrthdomestrc,worksho, and artrsanal systems
olmanulacture, olhow anrndustrralreserve army rs mobrlrzed as a
counter-werght to workers' owerwrth resectto bothlabourcon-
trol and wage rates, ol the ways rn whrch rntellectual owers and
newtechnologresaredeloyedtodrsruttheorganrzedowerolthe
workingclass,olhowcartalrststrytolosterthesrrrtolcometitron
amongst workers, whrle all the trme demandrng llexrbrlity ol drs
osrtron,ollocation, and olaroachtotasks.Weare alsolorcedto
consrderhow all olthrs creates oortunrtres as well as dangers and
drlncultres lor working-class eole recrsely because educatron,
llexrbrlrty, and geograhrcal mobrlrty, once acqurred, become harder
lor cartalrsts to control.
venthoughresentcondrtionsareverydrllerentinmanyresects,
rt rs not hard to see how the rnvarrant elements and relations that
Marx denned as lundamental to any cartalrst mode ol roduction
I 33 Political-economic capitalist transformation
still shine through, and in many instances with an even greater
luminosity than belore, all the surlace lroth and evanescence

so
characteristic ol exible accumulaton. Is the latter, then, anythmg
more than a iazzed-u version olthe same old story olcaital
.
isas
usual ? That would be too simle ajudgement. It treats olcaitalism
a-historically, as a non-dynamic mode ol roducti

n, when

ll
.
the
evidence|includingthatexlicitlylaid
.
outbyMa

) isthatcaitalrsm
is a constantly revolutionary lorce m world history
:
a lo:ce that
eretually reshaes theworldint
.
onewandoltenquiteunexected
conngurations. Flexible accumulation aears, at leas

t,

to -e a ne

connguration and, as such, it requires

hat we scr

tiriize its mat:i-

lestationswiththe requisitecareandserousness, usmg, nevertheless,
the theoretical tools thatMarxdevised.
1 1
Flexible accumulation - solid
transformation or temporary fx?
I have argued that there has certainly been a sea-change in the
surlace aearance olcaitalism since I 9/3, even though the under-
lyinglogic olcaitalist accumulation andits crisis-tendencies remain
the same. We need to consider, however, whether the shilts in
surlaceaearancebetokenthebirtholanewregimeolaccumulation,
caable ol containing the contradictions ol caitalism lor the next
generation, orwhethertheybetoken a series oltemorary nxes, thus
constituting a transitional moment ol grumbling crisis in the con-
ngurationollatetwentieth-centurycaitalism.The question olllexi-
bilityhasalreadybeenthelocusolsomedebate.Threebroadositions
seem now to be emerging.
The nrst osition, rimarily esoused by Piore and Sabel |I 93+)
and acceted in rincile by several subsequent writers, is that the
new technologies oen u the ossibility lor a reconstitution ol
labour relations and olroduction systems on an entirely dillerent
social,economic,andgeograhicalbasis.PioreandSabelseeaarallel
between the current coniuncture and the missed oortunity ol the
mid-nineteenth century, when large-scale and eventually monooly
caital ousted the small nrm and the innumerable small-scale co-
oerative ventures that had the otential to solve the roblem ol
industrial organization along decentralized and democratically con-
trolledlines |thengureolProudhon'sanarchismloomslarge). Much
is made ol the 'Third Italy' as an examle ol these new lorms ol
worker-co-oerative organizations which, armed with new decen-
tralized technologies ol command and control, can successlully in-
tegratewith,andevensubvert, thedominantandreressivelormsol
labour organization characteristic ol cororate and multinational
caital. Moteveryonesharesthisrosyvisionolthelormsolindustrial
organization |see, lor examle, Murray, I 93/). There is much that
is regressive and reressive about the new ractices. Mevertheless,
1 90 Political-economic capitalist transformation
many share the sense that we are at some kind ol 'second industrial
divide' |to aroriate the title olPiore and Sabel's book) , and that
new lorms ollabour organization and new locational rinciles are
radically translorming the lace ol late twenti
.
eth-cent

ry caitalis

.
Therevivalolinterestintherole ol small busit:ess |a highly dynamic
sector since 1 970), the rediscovery ol sweatshos and ol inlormal
activities ol all kinds, and the recognition that these are laying an
imortant role in contemorary economic develoment even in the
most advanced ol industrialized countries, and the attemt to track
the raid geograhical shilts in emloyment and economiclortune

,
have roduced a mass ol inlormation that seems to suort this
vision ol a maior translormation in the way late twentieth-century
caitalism is working. A vast literature has indeed emerged, lr

m
both leltandright ends oltheoliticalsectrum,thattends to deict
the world as il it is in the lull llood ol such a radical break in all
these dimensions ol socio-economic and olitical lile that none ol
the old ways ol thinking and doing alyanymore.
The second osition sees the idea ol llexibility as an 'extremely
owerlultermwhichlegitimizesanarrayololitcalractces'|ci

y
reactionary and anti-worker), but without any str

ng
.
emncal
or materialist grounding in the actual lacts ol orgamzation ol late
twentieth-century caitalism. Pollert ( 1 988), lor examle, lactually
challenges the idea olllexibilityinlabour markets and labour organ-
ization, andconcludesthatthe'discoveryolthe"lIexibleworklorce"
is art ol an ideological ollensive which celebrates liability and
casualization, and makes them seem inevitable. ' Cordon ( 1 988)
similarly challenges the idea ol hyer

eograical mobility

l
caital as lar beyond what the lacts ol it:ternational trade |arti-
cularly between the advanced caitalist countries and the less deve-
loed countries) will suort. Cordon is articularly conc

rned to
combat the idea ol the suosed owerlessness ol the nation state
|and ol worker movements oerating within that lramework) to
exercise any degree ol control over caital mobility. Sayer

1 98

)
likewise disutes the accounts ol the new lorms ol accumulation m
new industrial saces as ut lorward by Scott ( 1 988) and others on
the grounds that they emhasize relatively insignincant and e

-
iheral changes. Pollert, Cordon and Sa
"
er all argue

th

there is
nothing new in the caitalist search lor iticre

sed lIexibilty or

lo-
cational advantage, andthatthe substantive evidenceloranyradical
change in the way caitalism is working is either weak or la

lty
Those who romote the idea olllexibility, they suggest, are either
consciously or inadvertently contributing to a climate ol oinion
an ideological condition - that renders working-class movements
less rather than moreowerlul.
l

I

Flexible accumulation 1 91
I donotaccetthisosition.TheevidencelorincreasedlIexibility
|sub-contracting, temorary and sell-emloyment, etc. ) throughout
the caitalist world is simly too overwhelming to make Pollert's
counter-examles credible. I alsonnditsurrisingthatCordon,who
earlier made a reasonably strong case that the suburbanization ol
industry away lrom the city centres was in art motivated by a
desire to increase labour control, should reduce the question ol
geograhicalmobilityto a matter olvolumes anddirectionsolinter-
national trade. Mevertheless, such criticisms introduce a number ol
imortant correctives in the debate. The insistence that there is
nothing essentially new in the ush towards llexibility, and that
caitalism has eriodically taken these sorts olaths belore, is cer-
tainlycorrect|acarelulreadingolMarx's Capital sustainstheoint).
he
.
argument that there is an acute danger ol exaggerating the
sigmncanceolanytrendtowardsincreasedexibilityandgeograhical
mobility, -linding us to how strongly imlanted Fordistroduction
systems

ill are, deserves carelul consideration And the ideological

and oltical consequences ol overemhasizing llexibility in the
narrowsenseolroductiontechniqueandlabourrelationsareserious
eno

make
.
sober and carelul evaluations ol the degree ol
lIexibilityimerativeIl,alterall,workersareconvincedthatcaital-
ists can move or shilt to more lIexible work ractices even when
they cannot, then the stomach lor strugglewill surely be weakened.
ButI thinkitequallydangeroustoretendthatnothinghaschanged,
whenthelactsoldeindustrializationandollant relocation, olmore
exible manning ractices and labour markets, ol automation and
roduct innovation, stare most workers in the lace.
Thethirdosition,whichdennesthesenseinwhich I usetheidea
ol a transition lrom Fordism to lIexible accumulation here, lies
somewhereinbetweenthesetwoextremes.Flexibletechnologiesand
organizational lorms have not become hegemonic everywhere |but
thenneither did the Fordismthatreceded them) Thecurrentcon-
iunctureischaracterized byamixolhighlyelncientFordistroduc-
tion|oltennuanced bylIexibletechnologyandoutut) insomesectors
and regions |like cars in the LSA, |aan, or South Korea) andmore
traditionalroduction systems |such as those olSingaore, Taiwan,
or Hong Kong) resting on 'artisanal,' aternalistic, or atriarchal
|lamilial) labour relations, embodying quite dillerent mechan-
isms ol labour control. The latter systems have undoubtedly grown
|even within the advanced caitalist countries) since 1 970, olten at
the exense ol the Fordist lactory assembly line. This shilt has
imortant imlications. Market coordinations |olten ol the sub-
contracting sort) have exanded at the exense ol direct cororate
lanning within the system ol surlus value roduction and aro-
I 92 Political-economic capitalist transformation
rratron. Thenatureand comosrtron olthe globalworkrngclass has
also changed, as have the conditions olconscrousnesslormatron and
olrtical actron. Lnionrzatron and tradrtronal 'lelt olrtrcs' become
very hard to sustarn rn the lace, lor examle, ol the atrrarchal
|lamrly) roductron systems characterrstrc ol South-ast^sra, orol
rmmrgrant grous rn Los Angeles, Mew York, and London. Cender
relatrons havesimrlarly become muchmore comlrcated, at the same
trme as resort to a lemale labour lorce has become much more
widesread. By the same token, the socral basis lor rdeologres ol
entrereneurralrsm, aternalrsm, and rrvatism has rncreased.
We can, I thrnk, trace backmany olthesurlace shrlts rneconomrc
behavrourandolrtrcalattrtudestoasrmlechangeinbalancebetween
Iordrst and non-Iordrst systems ol labour control, couled wrth a
drscrlrnrng olthe lormer erther through cometrtionwrth thelatter
|lorced restruct

rings and ratronalrzatrons), wr

(
esread unemloy-
ment or through olrtical reression |curbs on unron ower) and
geograhrcal relocatrons to 'errheral' countrres or regrons and
backrnto industrral heartlands rn a 'see-saw' motron oluneven geo-
grahical develoment |Smrth, I 93+).
I do not see thrs shrlt to alternatrve systems ol labour control
|wrthallrts olrtrcal rmlrcatrons) as rrreversrble, butrnterretrtas a
rathertradrtionalresonsetocrrsrs.The devaluatron ollabourower
has always been the rnstrnctrve resonse ol cartalrsts to lallrng
ronts.Thegeneralrtyolthatconceals,however, some contradrctory
movements. Mew technologres have emowered certarn rrvileged
layers, at the same trme as alternatrveroductron and labour control
systems oen u theway to hrgh remuneration ol technrcal, mana-
gerral, and entrereneurral skrlls. The trend, lurther exaggerated by
the shrlt to services and the enlargement ol 'theculturalmass' , has
been to rncreasrngrnequalrtres ol income |ngure 2. I 5), erhas re-
sagrngtherrseolanewarrstocracyollabouraswellastheemergenceol
an rll-remunerated and broadly drsemowered under-class |Dahren-
dorl, I 93/; Wilson, I 93/).hrs,however, oses serrous roblems ol
sustarnrngellectrvedemandandrarsesthesectre olacrisrs olunder-
consumtron - the kind olmanrlestatron ol crrsrs that Iordrsm-
Keynesranrsmrovedmostadetatavordrng.I donot,therelore,see
the neoconservatrve monetarrsm that attaches to llexrblemodes ol
accumulatron andthe overall devaluatron ol labourower through
enhancedlabourcontrolasollerrngevenashortterm solutron to the
crrsrs-tendencresolcaitalrsm.ThebudgetdencrtoltheLnrtedStates
has, I thrnk, been veryrmortant to the stabrlrzatron ol cartalrsm
these last lew years, and rl thatroves unsustarnable, then the ath
ol cartalrst accumulatronworld-wrdewrll be rocky rndeed.
What does seem secral about the errod srnce I 9/2 is the extra-
3o
3
34
32
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2o
2
24
22
2U
7 U
2. 1
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8|O8!g8 O US 888!8 Ow8C Uy
w8|tI88! 17 O th8 Ou|!|O
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7

O
Figre 2. 15 Inequality of asset ownership (1810-1987) and in incomes
(1963-1985) in the United States
(Souces Historical Statistics of the United States, Economic Reports to the
Presldent, Harrison and Bluestone, 1988)
I 9+ Political-economic capitalist transformation
ordrnary elllorescence and translormatron rn nnancral markets |see
ngures 2. I 2, 2. I 3, and 2. I+). There have been hases ol cartalrst
hrstory - lrom I 390 to I 929, lor examle - when 'nnance cartal'
|however denned) seemed to occuy a ositron ol aramount rm-
ortancewrthrncartalrsm, only to lose thatosrtron rn the secul-
atrve crashes that lollowed. In the resent hase, however, rtrs not
so much the concentratron ol ower in nnancral rnstrtutrons that
matters, as the exlosron rn new nnancral rnstruments and markets,
couledwrththe rrse olhrghlysohrsticatedsystems olnnancral co
ordrnatron on a global scale. Itrs through this nnancral system that
mucholthe geograhrcal and temoral llexrbrlrty ol cartal accumu-
lationhasbeenachreved.Thenatronstate,thoughserrouslyweakened
as an autonomous ower, nevertheless retains rmortant owers ol
labour drscrlrning as well as ol rnterventron rn nnancral llows and
markets, whrle becomrng itsell much more vulnerable to nscalcrrsrs
andthe drscrlrneolrnternatronalmoney. I am thereloretemtedto
see the llexrbrlrty achieved rn roductron, labour markets, and con-
sumtronmore as an outcome olthesearchlorhnancral solutrons to
the crrsrs-tendencres olcartalrsm,ratherthanthe otherwayround.
Thrswould rmlythat thennancral system has achreveda degree ol
autonomylromrealroductronunrecedentedrncartalrsm'shrstory,
carryrng cartalrsm rnto an era ol equally unrecedented nnancral
dangers.
The emhasrs on nnancral and monetary solutrons derrves, ol
course, lrom the rnllatronary rather than dellatronary nature ol the
way the crrsis was manrlest lrom the mrd-I 960s on. What rs sur-
rrsrng is the way rn which rndebtedness and nctrtrous cartal lor-
mation have accelerated srnce then, at the same time as massrve
delaults anddevaluatronshave been absorbed,notwrthout trauma to
be sure, wrthrn the nnancral aaratus ol overall regulation |see
ngures2. I 2and2. I 3) . IntheLnrtedStates,lorexamle, thebankrng
system went rnto the red, lor the nrst trme srnce I 93+, rn the nrst
hall ol I 93/ wrth scarcely a murmur ol anrc. The ace ol bank
lailureshas lrkewrserckedu dramatically since I 930 |ngure 2. I +).
And we need only take the secondary market value ol thrrd world
debt, and multrly rt by the oblrgatrons outstandrng, to get a rough
estrmate ol the volume ol devaluatron current wrthrn the nnancral
system |see ngure 2. I 6and table 2. 9). Comared to all ol thrs, the
extraordrnary lIuctuatrons manilest rn stock and currency markets
aear more as eihemonena rather than as lundamental structural
roblems.
It rs temtrng, ol course, to see thrs all as some relude to a
nnancralcrashthat would make I 929look lrke a lootnote rnhrstory.
Flexible accumulation

O
4

Brazi l
. . . . .
.
.
. .
..
-

.
^
Mexico N
.
.
Z Peru
' ~
- .
^
1

7
J A c N O

1 7
1
.
.
. ~ - ~ ,
%
^
N A M J J
.
.

Argenti na
A c
I 95
Figure 2. 16 The changing secondary market value of the debt obligations of
selected countries
(Source: The Economist)
Whrle rtwould be loolrsh to rule that out as avery realossibrlity,
artrcularlyrn thelightoltheheavylossesrnworldstockmarketsrn
ctober I 93/ |see table2. I 0), crrcumstances dorndeedaearradr-
cally drllerent this trme around. Consumer, cororate, and govern-
mental debts are much more trghtly tred rn wrth each other |ngure
2. I 3), ermrttrng the srmultaneous regulatron ol both consumtron
androductronmagnitudesthroughseculatrveandnctrtrousnnancrng.
Itisalsomucheasiertodeloystrategresoltemoralandgeograhrcal
drslacement together wrth sectoral change under the hegemonrc
umbrella ol burgeonrng nnancial markets. Innovatron wrthin the
nnancral systems aears to have been a necessary rereqursrte to
overcomrng the general rrgrdrtres as well as the drstrnctive temoral,
I 96 Political-economic capitalist transformation
Table 2.9 The outstanding debt of selected third world countries
and an estimate of devaluation, measured by secondary market value of
the debt at the end of I98/
Country Outstanding debt,
end of I98
(US $bns)
Argentina +9.+
Brazil I I+. 5
Chile 20.5
Mexico I05. 0
Peru I (. /
Secondary market
value, end I98
" of fa.e value)
+
+5
(2
52
9(
Total devaluation measure |5 countries,US $bns)
Source: World Bank Debt Tables and Th Economist
Estimated
devaluation
(US $bns)
22.5
6. 2
I I 3
50.+
I6.0
I /+. 0
geograhical, and even geoolitical crisis into which Fordism had
lallenbythe late I 960s.
Twobasic|thoughtentative)conclusionsthenlollow.First,thatil
wearetolookloranythingtrulydistinctive|asoosedto'capitalism
as usual') intheresentsituation,thenitisuonthennancialasects
ol caitalist organization and on the role ol credit that we should
concentrate our gaze. Secondly, il there is to be any medium-term
stability to the resent regime ol accumulation, then it is in the
realms ol new rounds and lorms oltemoral and satial nxes that
thesewill most likely be lound. Itmay, in short, rove ossible to
're-schedule the crisis' by re-scheduling |lor examle) third world
and other debt reayments until the twenty-nrst century, while
simultaneously rovoking a radical reconstitution ol satial con-
ngurations in which a diversity ol systems ol labour control may
revail along with new roducts and atterns in the international
division ol labour.
I want to stress the tentative nature ol these conclusions. Yet it
does seem imortant to emhasize towhatdegree llexible accumu-
lation has to be seen as aarticularanderhas new combination ol
mainlyoldelementswithintheoveralllogicolcaitalaccumulation.
Furthermore, I am right that the crisis ol Fordism was in large
artacrisis oltemoralandsatiallorm, thenweshouldayrather
moreattentiontothesedimensionsoltheproblemthaniscustomary
in either radical or conventional modes ol analysis. We look more
Table 2. I0
Country
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
Denmark
Irance
West Germany
Hong Kong
Ireland
Italy
|aan
Malaysia
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Singaore
South Alrica
Sain
Sweden
Switzerland
UK
USA
Flexible accumulation
I 9/
The losses in world stock markets, October I98/
Per cent change from I98/
high point of share values
-29
-(
- I (
-25
- I I
-25
- I /
- I 6
-25
-2
-I5
-29
-0
-2+
-22
-25
-23
- I 3
- I 2
- I 5
-20
-2
-2(
Source: Financial Times, 2+October I9s/
closely attheminPart III, sinceit also transires thatthe changing
exerience oltime and sace underlies, atleastinart, theimulsive
turntoostmodernistculturalractices andhilosohicaldiscourses.
or/
The experience of s pace and time
I hear the ruin of all space, shattered glass and toppling masonry, and
time one livid fnal fame. James Joyce
1 Z
Introduction
Marshall Berman| I 932)equatesmodernity|amongotherthings)with
a certain mode ol exerience ol sace and time. Daniel Bell | I 9/3,
I 0/-I I ) arguesthatthevariousmovementsthatbroughtmodernism
U its aogeehadtoworkoutanewlogic intheconcetionolsace
andmotion. Hesuggests,lurthermore, thattheorganizationolsace
has 'becometherimaryaestheticroblem olmidtwentiethcentury
culture as the roblem ol time |in Bergson, Proust, and |oyce) was
the rimary aesthetic roblem ol the nrst decades ol this century. '
Frederic|ameson | I 93+b) attributes theostmodern shilttoa crisis
inourexerienceolsaceandtime,acrisisinwhichsatialcategories
cometo dominatethoseoltime,whilethemselvesundergoingsucha
mutation that we cannot kee ace. 'We do not yet ossess the
ercetual equiment to match this new kind ol hyersace,' he
writes, 'in art because our ercetual habits were lormed in that
older kind ol sace I have called the sace ol high modernism. '
Inwhatlollows, I shall accet thesestatements attheirlace value.
But sincelewtrouble to exlainexactlywhat they mean by them, I
shall givean accountolsaceandtimeinsociallileso as tohighlight
material links between olitical -economic and cultural rocesses.
Thiswill allowmeto exlore the linkbetweenostmodernism and
the transition lrom Fordism to more llexible modes ol caital ac-
cumulation via the mediations ol satial and temoral exeriences.
Sace and time ae 5asic caegories ol human existence. Yet we
rarelydebatetheirmeanings; =e tendto takethemlor granted, and
give them common-sense or se|levident attributions. We record the
assage ol time in seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years,
decades, centuries, and eras, as il everything has its lace uon a
singleobj ective time scale. ven though time inhysicsis adilncult
anHcontentious concet, wedonot usuallyletthatinterlerewiththe
common-senseoltime aroundwhichwe organizedailyroutines. We
202 The exerience of space and time
recognize, ol course, that our mental rocesses and ercetions can
lay tricks, make seconds leel like light years, or leasurable hours
ass by so last we hardly notice. We may also learn to areciate
how dillerent societies |orevendillerentsub-grous) cultivate quite
dillerent senses ol time |see table 3. 2).
In modern society, many dillerent senses oltime get inned to-
gether. Cyclicalandreetitivemotions |everythinglromdailybreak-
last and going]to work, to seasonal rituals like lestivals, birthdays,
vacations, the oenings ol baseball or cricket seasons) rovide a
sense ol secmity in a world where the general thrust ol rogress
aears to beeveronwards anduwards into the nrmament olthe
unknown. When the sense ol rozess is checked by deression or
recession, by war or social disrution, we may reassure ourselves
|somewhat) either with the idea ol cyclical time |'long waves,'
'kondratiellcycles,'etc.)asanaturalhenomenontowhichwemust
erlorceadat,ordredgeuanevenmorecomellingimageolsome
stableuniversalroensity |such as innatehuman quarrelsomeness)
as theeretual counteroint to rogress. At anotherlevelwe can
seehowwhat Hareven | I 932)calls 'lami!ytme' |the timeimlicitin
raising children and translerring knovledge and assets between gen-
erations through kinshi networks) may be mobilized to meet the
exigencies ol 'industrial time' which allocates and reallocates labour
totasksaccordingtoowerlulrhythmsoltechnologicalandlocational
change lorged out ol the restless search lor caital accumulation.
And in moments oldesair or exaltation,who amongus canrelrain
lrom involing the tieolfate, mth, olthe Cods ? Astrologers,
we have learned, edledtheirinsights evenin tbccorridors olthe
Reagan White House.
ut ol such dillerent senses ol time, serious conllicts can arise.
should the otimal rate ol exloitation ol a resource be set by the
interest rate, or should we search, as environmentalists insist, lor a
sustainable develoment which assures the eretuation ol the eco-
logical conditions suitable lor humanlile into an indennite luture?
Suchquestionsarebyno means arcane.Thetimehorizonimlicated
in a decision materially allects the kind ol decision we make. Ilwe
want to leave something behind, or build a better luture lor our
children, then we do quite dillerent things than would be the case
were we simly concernedwith our own leasures in the here and
now. Forthis reason, timegets usedinoliticalrhetoricinconlusing
ways. Failure to deler gratincations is olten used by conservative
critics, lor examle, to exlain theersistence olimoverishment in
an allluent society, even though that societysystematicallyromotes
the debt-nnancing ol resent gratincations as one ol its rincial
engines ol economic growth.
Introduction 203
In site ol |or erhas recisely because ol) this diversity ol
concetionsandthesocialconlIicts that llowtherelrom, thereisstill
a tendency to regard the dillerences as those olercetion or inter-
retation ol what should lundamentally be understood as a single,
obi ective yardstick ol time's ineluctable arrow ol motion. I shall
shortly challenge this concetion.
Sacelikewisegetstreatedasalactolnature,'naturalized'through
the assignment ol common-sense everyday meanings. In some ways
m

e comlex that time - it has diection, area, shae,attern and '

volumeas keyattributes,aswellasdistance- wetyicallytreatolit ` `
...-= .. . .~~. ...... . . -. .. . - .
l ' `
asnn obj eciivc attribute oIthings which can be measured and thus '
'

inned down. We do recognize, ol course, that our subiective ex-

erience can take us into realms ol ercetion, imagination, nction,
and lantasy, which roduce mental saces and mas as so many
mirages olthesuosedly'real' thing. Wealsodiscoverthatdillerent
societies or sub-grous ossess dillerent concetions. The Plains
Indians olwhat is now the Lnited States did nothold at allto the
same concetion ol sace as the white settlers that relaced them;
'territorial' agreements between the grous were based on such dil-
lerent meanings that conlIict was inevitable. Indeed, the conlIict in
artwasreciselyoverthe roer sense olsace that should be used
toregulatesociallileandgivemeaningtoconcetssuchas territorial
rights. The historical and anthroological record is lull ol examles
olhowvariedtheconcetolsace canbe, whileinvestigations olthe
satial worlds ol children, the mentally ill |articularly schizo-
hrenics), oressed minorities,women and men ol dillerent class,
rural and urban dwellers, etc. illustrate a similar diversity within
outwardly homogeneous oulations. Yet some sense ol an over-
arching and obiective meaning ol sace which we must, in the last
instance, all acknowledge is ervasive.
I thinkit imortant to challenge the idea ola single and obiective
I
senseoltime or sace, againstwhichwecan measurethediversityol
human concetions and ercetions. I shall not argue lor a total
dissolution oltheobiective-subiectivedistinction, butinsist, rather, /
that we recognize the multilicity ol the obiective qualities which
sace and time can exress, and the role olhuman ractices in their
construction. Meither time nor sace, the hysicists now broadly
roose, had existence |let alone meaning) belore matter; the obiec-
tivequalitiesolhysicaltime-sacecannotbeunderstood,therelore,
indeendently ol the qualities ol material rocesses. It is, however,
by no means necessary to subordinate all obiective concetions ol
timeandsaceto thisarticularhysicalconcetion, sinceit, also, is
a construct thatrests uonaarticularversion olthe constitution ol
matter and the originoltheuniverse. Thehistory olthe concets ol
20+ The experience of space and time
trme, sace, and trme-sacern hysrcs has, rn lact, been marked by
strong erstemologrcal breaks and reconstructrons. The conclusron
weshoulddrawrs srmlythatnerthertrmenorsacecanbe assrgned
obiectrvemeanrngsrndeendentlyolmaterralrocesses,andthatrtrs
only throughrnvestrgatronolthelatterthatwe canroerly ground
ourconcetsolthelormer. Thrsrsnot, olcourse, anewconclusron.
It connrms the general thrust ol severalearlrer thrnkers, ol whom
rlthey and urkhermarethe most romrnent.
Fromthrs materralrstersectrvewe can then argue that obiectrve
concetronsoltrmeandsacearenecessarrlycreatedthroughmaterral
ractrces and rocesses whrch serve to reroduce socral lrle. The
Plarns Indrans or the Alrrcan Muer ojectrly qualrtres ol trme and
sace that are as searate lrom each other as they are drstant lrom
thoserngrarnedwrthrnacartalrstmodeolroductron.Theobiectrvrty
oltrme and sace rs grven rn each case by the materral ractrces ol
. socral reroductron, and to the degree that these latter vary geo-
grahrcally and hrstorrcally, so we nnd that socral trme and socral
sace are drllerentrally constructed. ach drstrnctrve mode ol ro-
ductron or socral lormatron wrll, rn short, embody a drstrnctrve
bundle ol trme and sace ractrces and concets.
Srnce cartalrsm has been |and contrnues to be) a revolutronary
mode olroductronrnwhrchthematerral ractrces androcessesol
socral reroductronarealways changrng, rtlollows thatthe obiectrve
qualrtres as well as the meanrngs ol sace and trme also change. n
the other hand, rl advance ol knowledge |screntrnc, technrcal, ad-
mrnrstratrve, bureaucratrc, and ratronal) rs vrtal to the rogress ol
cartalrstroductronandconsumtron,thenchangesrnourconcetual
aaratus |rncludrng reresentatrons ol sace and trme) can have
materral consequences lor the orderrng ol darly lrle. When, lor ex-
amle, alanner-archrtect lrkeLe Corbusrer,oran admrnrstratorlrke
Haussmann, creates a burltenvrronmenirnwhrchthetyrannyolthe
strarght lrne redomrnates, then we musterlorce adiust our darly
ractrces.
Thrsdoesnotmeanthatractrcesaredetermrnedbyburltlorm|no
matterhowhard thelanners maytry), lortheyhavethe awkward
habrtolescarngtherrmoorrngsrnanynxedschemaolreresentatron.
Mewmeanrngs can be loundlor oldermaterralrzatrons ol sace and
trme.Wearotrateancrentsace rnverymodern ways, treat trme
and hrory as somthrng to crcatc rather than to accet. The same
concet ol, say, 'communrty' |as a socral entrty created rn sace
throughtrme)candrsgurseradrcaldrllerences rnmeanrngbecausethe
rocesses ol communrty roductron themselves drverge remarkably
accordrng to grou caacrtres and rnterests. Yet the treatment ol
Introduction 205
communrtres as rltheyarecomarable |by, say, a lannrng agency)
hasmaterralrmlrcatronstowhrchthesocral ractrces oleolewho
lrve rn them have to resond.
Beneaththeveneerolcommon-senseandseemrngly'natural' rdeas
about sace and trme, there lre hrdden terrarns ol ambrgurty, con-
tradrctron,andstruggle. Conrctsarrsenotmerelyoutoladmrttedly
drverse subiectrve arecratrons, but because drllerent obiectrve
materral qualrtres oltrme and sace are deemedrelevant to socrallrle
rn drllerentsrtuatrons. Imortant battles lrkewrse occur rntherealms
olscrentrnc, socral, and aesthetrc theory, as wellasrn ractrce. How
wereresentsaceandtrmerntheorymatters, becausertallectshow
we andothers rnterret andthen actwrthresect to the world.
Consrder, lor examle, one ol the more startlrng schrsms rn our
rntellectualherrtageconcernrngconcetrons oltrmeandsace. Socral
theorres |and I herethrnkoltradrtronsemanatrnglromMarx,Weber,
Adam Smrth, and Marshall) tyrcally rrvrlege trme over sace rn
therrlormulatrons.Theybroadlyassumeerthertheexrstenceolsome
re-exrstrng satral orderwrthrnwhrch temoral rocesses oerate,
or that satral barrrers have been so reduced as to render sace a
contrngentratherthanlundamental asecttohumanactron.Aesthetrc
theory, on the other hand, rs deely concerned wrth 'the satral-
rzatron oltrme. '
It rs a trrbute to the comartmentalrzatrons rn Western thought
that thrs drsiunctron has lor so long assedlargely unremarked. n
the surlace, the drllerence rs not too hard to understand. Socr
t

eo
"+Y1 J
oc
_0_P_O.ral ch

dern-

.
rzatron, and revolutron |technrcal, socral, olrtrcal). Progress rs rts
theoretrcalobiect, and hrstorrcal trmerts rrmary drmensron. Indeed,
rogressentarlstheconquestolsace, thetearrngdownolallsatral
barrrers, and the ultrmate 'annrhrlatron ol sace through trme.' The
reductron olsace to a contrngent category rs rmlred rn the notron
olrogressrtsell. Srncemodernrtyrsabouttheexerrenceolrogress
through modernrzatron, wrrtrngs on that themehave tended to em-
hasrze temoralrty, the rocess ol becoming, rather than being rn
sace andlace. ven Foucault | I 93+, /0), obsessed as he conlesses
hrmsellto be wrth satral metahors, wonders, whenressed, when
and why rt haened that 'sacewas treated as the dead, the nxed,
the undralectrcal, the rmmobrle' whrle 'trme, on the contrary, was
rrchness,lecundrty, lrle, dralectrc. '
Aesthetrctheory,ontheotherhand, seeks outtherulesthatallow
eternal and rmmutable truths to be conveyed rn the mrdst ol the
maelstromollIuxandchange.Thearchrtect,totakethemostobvrous
case, trres to communrcate certarnvalues throughtheconstructronol
206 The experience of space and time
a satial lorm. Painters, scultors, oets, and writers ol all sorts do
no less . venthe writtenwordabstractsroertieslromthelluxol
exerience andnxesthemin satiallorm. 'Theinventionolrinting
embedded thewordinspace,' ithasbeensaid,andwriting- a' setol
tinymarks marching in neatline, likearmies ol insects, across ages
and ages ol white aer' - is, therelore, a dennite satialization
|quotedinMcHale, 1 987, 1 79-81 ) . Anysystemolreresentation,in
lact,is a satialization ol sorts which automaticallylreezes the llow
ol exerience and in so doing distorts what it strives to reresent.
'Writing,' saysBourdieu( 1 977, 1 56) 'tearsracticeanddiscourse out
ol the ow ol time. ' For this reason, Bergson, the great theorist ol
becoming,oltimeasux,wasincensedthatittookthesatializations
olthe clock to tell the time.
The hilosoher Karsten Harries ( 1982, 59-69) makes m

ch ol
thisidea.Architecture, hemaintains,isnotonlyaboutdomesticating
sace, wresting and shaing a liveable lace lrom sace. It is also a
dee delence against 'the terror oltime'. The 'languageolbeauty' is
'the language ola timeless reality. ' To create a beautilulobject 'is to
link time and eternity' in such a way as to redeem us lrom time's
tyranny. Theurgeto 'devaluatetime' reaears as the artist'swillto
redeemthroughthecreationolawork'strongenoughto stilltime.'
Much ol the aesthetic thrust ol modernism, we sawin Part I, is to
strivelorthissenseoleternityinthemidstolllux.Butinleaningto
the eternal side ol Baudelaire's lormulation, this emhasizes sace
ratherthan time. The aim ol satialconstructs is 'not to illuminate
temoralreality so thatwe|mightleelmoreathomeinit, buttobe
relievedolit. toabolishtimewithintime,ilonlyloratime.'Harries
hereechoes thoselamousmodernistlormulationsolBaudelaire, ' one
can only lorget time by making use ol it,' and T. S. liot, 'only
through time, time is conquered.'
But here arises the aradox. We learn ourways olthinking and
concetualizing lrom active graling withthe satializations ol the
written word, the study and roduction ol mas, grahs, diagrams,
hotograhs, models, aintings,mathematicalsymbols, and the like.
How adequate are such modes olthought and such concetions in
the lace ol the llow ol human exerience and strong rocesses ol
socialchange? nthe othersideolthecoin, howcansatializations
in general, and aesthetic ractices in articular, reresent lIux and
change, articular|y il these latter are held essential truths to be
conveyed? This wasthedilemma that lagued Bergson. Itbecame a
central roblem lor both luturist and Dada art. !utur!sm soughilo
sh

aespaceinways that could reresent seed andmotion.1adaists

Introduction
207
yiewedartasehemeraland,renouncinganyermanentsatialization,
sought eternity by embedding their haenings in revolutionary
action. It was erhas in resonse to this conundrum that Walter
Pater argued that 'all art asires to the condition olmusic' - music,
alter all, contains its aesthetic ellect recisely through its temoral
movement. But the most obvious means ol reresentation ol time
was the nlm. The young Sartre was articularly imressed by its
ossibilities. 'It is an art which relIects civilization in our time,' he
said; it'willteachyouaboutthebeautyoltheworldyoulivein,the
oetry olseed,machines,andtheinhuman slendid inevitabilityol
industry' |Cohen-Solal, 1 987). The combination ol nlm and music
rovides a owerlul antidote to the satial assivity ol art and
architecture. Yet the very connnement ol the nlm to a dethless
scr

enandatheatreisareminderthatit, too, issace-boundin some

curous way.
There is much to be learned lrom aesthetic theory about how
dillerent lorms ol satialization inhibit or lacilitate rocesses ol
social change. Conversely, there is much to be learned lrom social
theory concerning th

ux and changewithwhich aesthetic theory

has to coe. By laymg these two currents ol thought oll against
each other, we can, erhas, better understand the ways in which
olitical-economic change inlorms cultural ractices.
Butletmenrstillustratewheretheoliticalsignincanceolsuchan
arg

ment might lie. In so doing, I shall revert to that concetion

whichKant advanced |see above, . 1 9), olaesthetic iudgement as a
otential mediator between the worlds ol obj ective science and ol
subiective moraliudgement |without necessarilyconcedingeitherthe
triartite division ol knowledge that Kant roosed or the entirely
disinterested

satislaction with which his concet ol beauty is asso-

ciated).Aestheticiudgements|aswellas'redemtive'artisticractices)
have entered in as owerlul criteria ol olitical, and hence ol social
and economic, action. Il aesthetic judgement rioritizes sace over
time, then it lollows that satial ractices and concets can, under
certain circumstances, become central to social action.
In this regard, the Cermanhilosoher Heidegger is an intriguing
ngure.
.
Rejecting the Kantian dichotomies ol subject and obiect, he
roclaimed the ermanence ol Being over the transitoriness ol Be-
coming (Metaphysics, 202). His investigations olBeingledhimaway
lrom the universals ol modernism and ol the |udaeo-Christian tra-
dition,
.
and back to the intense and creative nationalism ol re-
SocraticCreekthought.Allmetahysicsandhilosohy,hedeclared,
are giventheirmeaningonly in relation to the destiny oltheeole
203 The experience of space and time
|Blrtz, I 93 I ). The geoolrtrcal osrtron ol Cermanyrn the rnter-war
years - squeezedrn a 'greatrncer' betweenRussra and Amerrca -
led to the lollowrng rellectrons .
Fromametahysrcalorntol vrew,RussraandAmerrcaarethe
same; the same dreary technologrcal lrenzy, the same unres-
trrcted organrzatron ol the average man. At a trme when the
lurthermost corner ol the globe has been conquered by tech-
nologyandoenedtoeconomrcexlortatron;whenanyrncrdent
whatsoever, regardless ol where and when it occurs, can be
communrcated t o the rest olthe world at any desrred seed;
whenthe assassrnation olaKrngrn France and a Symhony rn
Tokyo can be 'exerienced' srmultaneously; when trme has
ceased to be anythrng other than velocity, rnstantaneousness
and srmultanerty, and trme as hrstory has vanrshed lrom the
lrvesolalleoles . . then,yes, then,throughallthrsturmoil
a questron strll haunts us like a sectre. What lor? Whrther?
What then?
The sense ol trme-sace translormatron and the angursh rt ro-
voked, could hardly be stronger. Herdegger's resonse rs exlicrt.
All thrs rmlies that thrs natron, as a hrstorrcal natron, must
move rtsell and thereby the hrstory ol the West beyond the
centreoltherrluture'haenrng' andrntotherrmordral realm
ol the owers ol berng. Ilthe great decrsron regardrng uroe
rs not to brrng annrhrlatron, that decisron must be made in
terms olnew srrrtual energres unloldrng hrstorrcally lrom out
ol the centre.
Herern, lor Herdegger, lay the 'rnner truth and greatness ol the
MationalSocralrstmovement'|understoodas the'encounterbetween
global technology and modern man'). In suort ol Cermany's
wrthdrawallromtheLeagueolMatrons,hesoughtaknowledgethat
does not'drvidethe classes' butbrnds andunrtes them 'rn the great
wrll ol the state. ' By such means he hoed that the Cerman eole
mrght 'grow rn rts unityas a work eole, nndrng agarn rts srmle
worthand genurneower, androcurrngrts duratron and greatness
as a work state. To the man ol thrs unheard ol will, our Fuhrer
Adoll Hrtler, a three-lold Sreg-Heil | ' |quoted rn Blitz, I93 I , 2 I /).
That a great twentreth-century hrlosoher |whohas rncrdentally
rnsrred the deconstructronrsm ol Derrrda) should so comromrse
hrmsell olrtrcally has been a matter ol consrderable concern |a
Introduction 209
concern that has eruted oncemorernto the status ol 'scandal' rn
France astheresultoIFarras's |I 93/) documentatron olHerdegger's
ratherlong-lastrngMazrlrnks).ButIthrnkanumberoluseluloints
can be made on the basrs ol the Herdegger case. He was evrdently
drsturbed by the bland unrversalrsms oltechnology, the collase ol
satral drstrnctrveness and rdentrty, and the seemrngly uncontrolled
acceleratron ol temoral rocesses. From this standoint he exem-
lrnes all the dilemmas ol modernrty as Baudelarre artrculates them.
Hers deely rnuenced by Mretzsche's rnterventrons |see above, .
I5-I 3) butseesthemleadrngdown theatholanunaccetable and
totalnrhrlrsm.Itrslromsuchalatethatheseekstorescuecrvilrzatron.
Hrssearchlorermanence |thehrlosohyolBerng) connectswrtha
lace-bound sense ol geoolrtrcs and destrny that was both revolu-
tronary |in the senseollorward lookrng) and rntenselynatronalrstrc.
From a metahysrcal oint ol vrew thrs entarled rootrng hrmsellrn
classrcalvalues|artrcularlythoseolre-Socratrc Creekcrvrlizatron),
thereby hrghlrghtrng aarallel orrentatron towards classrcrsmrnMazr
rhetorrcrn general andin archrtectureinartrcular. Therei ectron ol
Platonic and |udaeoChrrstran values, ol the 'myth' ol machrne
ratronalrty and rnternatronalrsm, was total, even rlthe revolutronary
srde to hrs thought lorced hrm to comromrsewrth the advances ol
scrence and technology rn ractrcal allairs. Reactronary modernrsm
ol the Mazr sort srmultaneously emhasrzed the ower olmyth |ol
blood and sorl, ol race and latherland, ol destrny and lace) while
mobrlrzrngalltheaccoutrementsolsocralrogress towards aroiect
ol sublrme natronal achrevement. The alrcatron ol tnrs tar-
trcularaesthetrcsense to olrtrcsalteredthe course olhrstorywrtha
vengeance.
The Mazi case rs by no means unrque. The aesthetrcrzatron ol
olrtrcs has alonghrstory and oses dee roblems lordoctrrnesol
untrammelledsocralrogress.Ithasrtsleltandrtsrrghtversions |the
Sandrnistas,alterall,aesthetrcrzeolrtics aroundthengureolSandrno
rn order to romote adherence to a lelt olrtrcal rogramme ol
natronallrberatron andsocral iustrce). The clearestlormtheroblem
takesrs theshrltrnemhasrslromhistorrcalchangetowardsnatronal
cultures and destrnres, sarkrng geograhrcal conllrcts between drl-
lerentsacesrntheworld economy. Ceoolrtrcalconicts rnvarrably
rmly a certarn aesthetrcrzatron ol olrtics rn whrch aeal to the
mythology ol lace and erson has a strong role to lay. The
rhetoric olnatronallrberatron movements rs here i ustasowerlulas
the counter-rhetorrc, rmosed through rmerralrsm and colonralrsm,
olmanrlest destrny, racral orculturalsuremacy, aternalrsm |white
man's burden, lor examle), and doctrrnes ol natronal suerrorrty.
2 I 0
The experience of space and time
How and why the world's history |the outcome ol struggles
between classes inMarxian versions) dissolves into geoolitical con-
lIictsoltenolamostdestructivekindcannot be regarded asamatter
ol mere accident. It may have its roots in the olitical -economic
rocesses that lorce caitalism into conngurations ol uneven geo-
grahicaldevelomentandmakeitseekoutaseriesolsatialnxesto
the overaccumulation roblem. But the aestheticization ol olitics
that accomanies this geoolitical turn must likewise be taken ser-
iously. Herein, I think, lies the signincance ol conioining aesthetic
and socialtheoreticersectives on thenature andmeaning olsace
andtime. Anditisexactlylromthis sortolersectivethatagleton
| I93/)launches hismostvirulentolemic againsttheostmodernism
ol Lyotard.
Modernity lor Lyotardwould seem nothing but a tale olter-
roristicreasonandMazismlittlemorethanthelethalterminus
oltotalizingthought.Thisrecklesstravestyignoresthelactthat
the death cams were among other things the ushot ol a
barbarous irrationalism which, like some asects ol ost-
modernismitsell,iunkedhistory,relusedargumentation,aesthet-
icizedolitics andstakedallonthecharismaolthosewhotold
the stories.
1 J
Individual s paces and
s ocial life
B
tImes In
The material ractices lrom which ourconcets olsace and time
llowareasvariedastherangeolindividualandcollectiveexeriences.
The challenge is to ut some overall interretative lrame around
them that will bridge the ga between cultural change and the dy-
namics ol olitical economy.
Letmebeginwiththe simlest descr
racticesas set
out inthetime geograhyioneeredb

erstrana_

here vie+uuselul agents eg muro es_t ta u

timer sace.

Individrahies can
`.
t:ked as 'itp, sm e,'beginningwithdai ol
movement |lrom house to lactory, to shos, to school, and back
homeagain),andextendingtomigratorymovements overhases ol
alilesan |lor examle, youth in the country, rolessional training
m the large city, marriage and movement to thesuburbs, and retire-
ment to the country). Such aths can be ortrayed diagram-
matically|seengure3 . I ). Theideais tostudytherinciles oltime-
sace behaviour through anexamination olsuch biograhies. Finite
time resources and the 'lriction ol distance' |measured in time
or cost taken to overcome it) constrain daily movement. Time lor
eating, sleeing, etc. has to be lound, and social roiects always
encounter 'couling constraints,' secined as the need o have the
time-saceaths oltwo ormoreindividuals intersect to accomlish
any social transaction. Such transactions tyically occur within a
geograhical attern olavailable 'stations' |laceswhere certain acti-
vitieslike working, shoing, etc. occur) and'domains'wherecertain
social interactions revail.
Hagerstrand's schemaisauseluldescritorolhowthedailylileol
individuals unlolds in sace andtime. Butit

tells us nothing about

how 'stations' and 'domains' are roducd ory the 'Iriction ol
distar:cc' varics inhe wayituaIablydoes. It also leaves asidethe
2I 2
t
The experience of space and time
Path
Bundl e

|
|

|
^=~

Domai n
Station
Figure 3. 1 Diagrammatic representation of daily time-space paths according
to Hierstrand (1970).
question ol how and why certain social roiects and their char
acteristic'coulingconstraints'becomehegemonic|why,lorexamle,
the lactory system dominates, or is dominated by disersed and
artisanal lorms ol roduction), and it makes no attemt to under-
standwhycertain socialrelations dominateothers, or how meaning
gets assigned to laces, saces, history, and time. Lnlortunately,
assembling massive emirical data on time- sace biograhies does
not get at the answers to these broader questions, eventhough the
Individual spaces and times in social life 2I 3
recordol such biograhies lorms a uselul datumlorconsidering the
time-sace dimension ol social ractices.
Consider, by way ol contrast, the socio-sychological and he-
nomenologicalaroachestotimeand sacethathave beenutlor-
ward by writers such as de Certeau, Bachelard, Bourdieu, and
Foucault. The latter treats the sace ol the body as the irreducible
element in our social scheme ol things, lor itisuon thatsace that
thelorces olreression,socialization, discilining, andunishingare
inllicted.Thebody existsin saceandmusteithersubmittoauthority
|through, lor examle, incarceration or surveillance in an organized
sace) or carve out articular saces ol resistance and lreedom
'heterotoias' - lrom an otherwise reressive world. That struggle,
the centreiece ol social history lor Foucault, has no necessary
temorallogic.ButFoucaultdoes seearticularhistoricaltransitions
as imortant and he ays great attention to the eriodization ol
exerience. Theower oltheancien regime was underminedby the
nlightenment only to be relaced by a new organization ol sace
dedicated to the techniques ol social control, surveillance, and re-
ressionolthesellandtheworldoldesire. Thedillerenceliesinthe
way state owerin the modern era becomes laceless, rational, and
technocratic |and hence more systematic), rather than ersonalized
and arbitrary. The irreducibility |lor us) ol the human body means
thatitisonlylromthatsiteolowerthatresistancecanbemobilized
in the struggle to liberate human desire. Sace, lor Foucault, is a
metahor lor a site or container ol ower which usually constrains
but sometimes liberates rocesses ol Becoming.
Foucault's emhasis uon imrisonment within saces ol social
comroIhasmore than a little literal |as oosed to metahorical)
relevanceto thewaymodern sociallileisorganized.Theentrament
ol imoverished oulations ininnercity saces is a themethathas,
lor examle, long catured the attention olurban geograhers. But
Foucault's exclusive concentration on 1he saces ol organized re-
ression |risons, the 'anoticon,' hositals, and other institutions
olsocialcontrol)weakensthegeneralityolhisargument. C
rovides an interesting corrective. He treats s_cisa as more
'
en tohuman
.
c

eati
`
it
'
and
..
action. Walking,
.
he s
"
ggests, dennes a
sace olenunciation. LikeHagerstand,hebegmshisstoryatground
level, but in this case 'with lootstes' in the city. 'Their swarming
mass is an innumerable collection ol sIngularities. Their intertwined
aths give their shae tosaces. Theyweave laces together,'and so ,
create the citythroughdaily activities andmovements. 'Theyarenot
localized; it is rather that they satialize' |note how dillerent the
sentiment is lromthatconveyedin Hagerstand's work). Thearticular
2I + The experience of space and time
saces olthecityare createdbymyriadactions, allolwhich bear the
stam olhuman intent. AnsweringFoucault, deCerteau sees a daily
substitution'lorthetechnologicalsystemolacoherentandtotalizing
sace' by a 'edestrian rhetoric' ol traiectories thathave 'a mythical
structure' understood as 'a story i errybuilt out ol elements taken
lrom common sayings, anallusiveandlragmentarystorywhose gas
mesh with the social ractices it symbolizes. '
De Certeau here dennes a basis lor understanding the lerment ol
oular, localized street cultures, even as exressed within the
lrameworkimosedbysomeoverarchingreressiveorder. 'Thegoal,'
he writes, 'is not to make clear how the violence olorder is trans-
muted into adiscilinary technology, butratherto bringto lightthe
clandestine lorms taken by the disersed, tactical and makeshilt
creativity ol grous or individuals already caught m the nets ol
disciline. ''The'resurgence ol oular"racticeswithinindustrial
and scientinc modernity,' hewrites, 'cannot be connned to the ast,
the countryside or rimitive eoles' but 'exists at the heart olthe
contemorary economy. ' Saces can be more easily 'liberated' than
Foucault imagines, reciselybecausesocialractices satialize rather
thanbecominglocalizedwithinsomereressivegridolsocialcontrol.
De Certeau,asweshall see, recognizesthattheractices olr
davlile can and do get convertedintothe 'totalzo(s ol r(-1Y
or
(
ered and ontlld tit-

But he tells us little ol y-y

and how the rationalizations takelorms they do. In some it:-
stances it seems as il the nlightenmentroiect |or even caitalism)
hassomething to dowithit, althoughin otherinstances heoints to
the symbolic orderings ol sace and time which give rolounder
continuity |by no means necessarily lreedom-giving) to social rac
tices. n this latter oint, de Certeau draws some sustenance lrom
Bourdieu.
Symbolic orderings ol sace and time rovide a lramework lor
exerience throughwhichwe learnwho or whatwe are in society.
'Thereasonwhysubmissiontothecollectiverhythmsissorigorously
demanded,' writes Bourdieu | I 9//, I 63), 'is that the temoral lorms
orthe satialstructures structure notonlythegrou'sreresentation
ol the world but the grou itsell, which orders itsell in accordance
with this reresentation. ' The commonsense notion that 'there is a
timeandalaceloreverything'getscarriedintoasetolrescritions
which relicate the social order by assigning social meanings to
saces and times. Thiswas thesortolhenomenonthatHall| I 966)
saw as the root ol a lot ol intercultural conlIict, recisely because
dillerent grous signalled quite dillerent meanings by their use ol
sace and time. Through studies oltheinternalworld olthe Kabyle
Individual spaces and times in social lie 2I 5
houseandol the external worldsolnelds,markets, gardens, andthe
like in relation :c the annual calendar and divisions between night
and
.
day, Bourdieu shows h

w 'all the divisions ol the grou are

ro
)
ected

at every moment it:to the satio-temoral organization

which assigns each category its lace and time. it is here that the
luz

y logic ol rac

ice works

wo

ders in enabling the grou to

achie
`
e as

ch social and logical ititegration as is comatible with

the diversity imosed by the division ol labour between the sexe
the ag
.
es, and the oc

atio
.
ns" |smth, butcher). ' It is, suggests
Bourdieu, through
.
the
.
dialecticalrelatio

shi betweenthebodyand
a structured or

at:ization ol sace and time that common ractices

and r

resent
.
ations are dete

mined. ' And itis recisely out olsuch

exerences |it: the home, H articular) that durable schemes ol
ercetion, thought, and action get imosed |see ngure 3 .2). ven
more
'
oloundl
'

'the organizationoltime and the grouinaccord-

ance yith mythical structures leads collective ractice to aear as
' realized myth. ''
Fi

di

gs ol this sort have been relicatedin manyanthroological

studie

re

ent years
.
|through without necessarily acceting all ol
Bourdieus it:terretative aaratus). The more general question,
however, concerns the degree to which similar kinds ol social
OUTS I DE
DRY
BOTTOM
FEMALE, I NTE RI OR
DAR K, COLD
BRI GHT, HOT
MALE, EXTERI OR
TOP

labour time
production time
sl ack ti me
Figure 3. 2 The annual calendar of the Kabyle, according to Bourdieu (1977)
(reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press)
L
2I 6 The experience of space and time
meanings can besignalled throughsatialand temoralorganization
in contemorary caitalist culture. Certainly, it is not hard to sot
examles ol such rocesses at work. The organization ol saces
within a household, lor examle, still says much about gender and
age relations. The organized satio-temoral rhythms ol caitalism
rovide abundant oortunities lor socialization ol individuals to
distinctive roles. The common-sensenotion that there is 'a timeand
a lace lor everything' stilI carries weight, and social exectations
attach to where and when actions occur. But while the mechanisms
to which Bourdieuoints may be omni-resent in caitalistsociety,
they do not easily conlorm to the broadly static icture ol social
reroduction which he evokes in the case ol the Kabyles. Modern-
ization entails, alter all, the eretual disrution ol temoral and
satial rhythms, and modernism takes as one ol its missions the
roduction ol new meanings lor sace and time in a world ol
ehemerality and lragmentation.
Bourdieu rovides the barest hint ol how the search lor money
ower might undermine traditional ractices. Moore | I936), in her
study ol the ndo, elaborates on that idea, and in so doing sheds
lurther insight on the comlex relations between satializations and
social reroduction. Value and meaning 'are not inherent in any
satial order,' sheinsists, 'but must be invoked.' The idea that there
is some 'universal' language ol sace, a semiotics ol sace inde-
endent olractical activities and historically situated actors, has to
be reiected. Yetwithin the context ol secinc ractices, the organ-
ization ol sace can indeed denne relationshis between eole,
activities, things, and concets. 'The organization ol sace amongst
the ndo can be conceived ol as a text; as such, it talks about" or
works over" states olallairs which are imaginary' but nonetheless
imortant, because they reresent social concerns. Such satial re-
resentations are 'both roduct and roducer.' Lnder ressures ol
monetizationandtheintroductionolwagelabour,thereresentations
shilt. In the case ol the ndo, 'modernism' is dislayed by the
relacement ol the traditional round house with a square house,
couledwithanovertdislayolwealth,thesearationolthecooking
area lrom the main house, and other satial reorganizations that
signal a shilt in social relations.
The otentiality lor such rocesses to become wraed in myth
and ritual tells us much about the dilemmas ol modernism and
ostmodernism. We have already noted, in Part I as well as in the
introduction to Part III, how modernism was so olten to llirt with
mythology. We here encounter the lact that satial and temoral
ractices can themselves aear as 'realized myth' and sobecomean
Individual spaces and times in social life 2 I /
essential ideological ingredient to socialreroduction. The dilnculty
under caitalism, given its enchant lor lragmentation and ehem-
erality in the midst ol the universals ol monetization, market ex-
change, and the circulation ol caital, is to nnd a stable mythology
exressive olits inherent values and meanings. Social ractices may
invoke certain myths and ush lor certain satial and temoral
reresentations as art and arcel ol their drive to imlant and
reinlorce their hold on society. But they do so in such an eclectic
and ehemeral lashion that it is hard to seak ol 'realized myth'
under caitalism with the same certitude that Bourdieu achieves lor
the Kabyles. This does not revent the deloyment ol owerlul
mythologies|aswiththe case olMazismorthemyth olthemachine)
as vigorous rovocations to historicalgeograhic change. More-
over,mythologyisresentedinmildenoughlorms|theevocationol
tradition, ol collective memory, ol locality and lace, ol cultural
identity)tomakeolita more subtle allairthanthe raucous claimsol
Mazism. But it ishard to nnd examles olitsworkings in contem-
orarysocietythatdonotinsomewayevokeaverysecincsenseol
whata'timeandalaceloreverything'means.Hencethesignincance
ol satializing ractices in architecture and urban design, ol his-
toricalevocation, and the struggles that go onover thedennitionol
what exactly is the right time and right lace lor what asects ol
social ractice.
Bachelard | I96+), lor his art, locuses our attention on the sace
olimagination - 'oeticsace.' Sace'thathasbeenseizeduonby
the imagination cannot remain indillerent sace subjectto the mea-
sures and estimates olthe surveyor' any more than it can be exclu-
sively reresented as the 'allective sace' ol the sychologists. 'We
thinkwe know ourselves in time,' hewrites, 'whenallweknowis a
sequenceolnxations inthesacesolthebeing'sstability.' Memories
'are motionless, and the more securely they are nxed in sace, the
sounder they are. ' The echoes ol Heidegger are strong here. 'Sace
contains comressed time. Thatiswhatsaceislor.' And thesace
whichisaramountlormemory is the house - 'one olthe greatest
owers ol integration ol the thoughts, memories and dreams ol
mankind. ' Forit is within that sace that we learned how to dream
and imagine. There
Being is already a value. Lile begins well, t begins enclosed,
rotected, allwarmin the bosom olthe house. . . . This is the
environment in which the rotective beings live . . In this
remote region,memoryandimaginationremainassociated,each
one working lor their mutual deeening. . . . Through dreams,
2I 3
The experience of space and time
thevarious dwelling-laces in our lives co-enetrate and retain
the treasures ol lormer days. And alter we are in the new
house, when memories ol other laces we have lived in come
back to us, we travel to the land ol Motionless Childhood,
motionless the way allImmemorialthings are.
Being, sullused with immemorial satial memory, transcends Be-
coming. It lounds all those nostalgic memories ol a lost childhood
world. Is this the loundation lor collective memory, lor all those
manilestations ol lace-bound nostalgias that inlect our images ol
the country and the city, ol region, milieu, and locality, ol neigh-
bourhood and community? And il it is true that time is always
memorializednot asllow, but as memoriesolexeriencedlacesand
saces, then history must indeed give way to oetry, time to sace,
as the lundamental material ol social exression. The satial image
|articularly the evidence ol the hotograh) then asserts an im-
ortantoweroverhistory |see chater I 3).
Satialandtemoralractices,inany society, aboundinsubtleties
andcomlexities. Sincetheyaresocloselyimlicatedinrocessesol
reroductionandtranslormationolsocialrelations, somewayhasto
beloundtodeictthem andgeneralize abouttheiruse. Thehistory
ol social changeisinart caturedbythehistoryoltheconcetions
ol sace and time, and the ideological uses to which those conce-
tions might be ut. Furthermore, any roiect to translorm society
must gras the comlex nettle ol the translormation ol satial and
temoral concetions and ractices.
I shalltrytocaturesomeolthecomlexity:hroughconstruction
ol a 'grid' olsatial ractices |table 3. I ) . own the lelt hand side I
range three dimensions identined in Lelebvre' s La production de
l'espace:
I Material satial ractices reler to the hysical and material
llows, translers, and interactions that occur in and across sace in
such a way as to assure roduction and social reroduction.
Reresentations olsaceencomassallolthesignsandsignin-
cations, codes and knowledge, that allowsuch material ractices to
be talked about and understood, no matter whether in terms ol
everydaycommon-senseorthrough the sometimes arcane iargon ol
the academic discilines that deal with satialractices |engineering,
architecture, geograhy,lanning, social ecology, and the like).
3 Saces reresentation are mental inventions |codes, signs,
'satial discourses,' utoian lans, imaginary landscaes, and even
Individual spaces and times in social life 2I 9
materialconstructs such as symbolicsaces,articularbuiltenviron-
ments, aintings, museums, and the like) that imagine newmeanings
or ossibilities lor satial ractices.
Lelebvre characterizes these three dimensions as the exerienced,
the erceived, and the imagined. He regards the dialectical relations
between them as the lulcrum ol a dramatic tension through which
the history ol satial ractices can be read. The saces olreresent-
ation, therelore, have the otential not only toallectreresentation
ol sace butalsoto actas amaterialroductivelorcewithresect to
satial ractices. But to argue that the relations between the exeri-
enced, the erceived, and the imagined are dialectically rather than
causally determined leaves things much too vague. Bourdieu | I 9//)
rovides a clarincation. He exlains how 'amatrix ol ercetions,
areciations, and actions' can at one and the same time be ut to
work lIexibly to ' achieve innnitely diversined tasks' while at the
same time being 'in the last instance' |ngels's lamous hrase) en-
genderedoutolthematerial exerience ol'obiective structures,' and
therelore 'out ol the economic basis ol the social lormation in
question.'The mediatinglink isrovided by the concet ol'habitus'
- a'durablyinstalledgenerativerincileolregulatedimrovisations'
which 'roduces ractices' which in turn tend to reroduce the
obiective conditions which roduced the generative rincile ol
habItus inthenrstlace.Thecircular|evencumulative?)causationis
obvious. Bourdieu's conclusionis,however, averystrikingdeiction
oltheconstraintstotheoweroltheimaginedovertheexerienced.
Becausethehabitus isanendlesscaacitytoengenderroducts
- thoughts, ercetions, exressions, actions - whose limits
areset by thehistorically and socially situated conditions olits
roduction,theconditionmgandconditionallreedomitsecures
is as remote lrom a creation ol unredictable novelty as it is
lrom asimlemechanicalreroduction oltheinitialcondition-
ings . |Bourdieu, I 9//, 95)
That theorization, though notinitsell comlete, is olconsiderable
interest. I shall return to examine its imlications lor cultural ro-
duction later.
Across the to ol the grid |table 3. I ) I list lour other asects to
satial ractice drawnlrom more conventional understandings .
I Accessibility anddistanciation seak tothe role olthe 'lriction
Iistance' in human allairs. istance is both a barrier t

, a
J
+

~.
Material satial
ractices
|exerience)
Reresentations
ol sace
|ercetion)
Saces ol
reresentation
|imagination)
Table 3. I A 'grid' of spatial practices
Accessibility and
distanciation
llows ol goods,
money, eole
labourower,
inlormation, etc. ;
transort and
communications
systems; market and
urban hierarchies;
agglomeration
social, sychological
andhysical
measures ol distance;
ma-making;
theories olthe
'lriction ol distance'
|rincile ol least
ellort, social hysics,
range ol a good,
central lace and
other lorms ol
location theory)
attraction/reulsion;
distance/desire;
access/denial;
transcendence
'mediumis the
message'.
Appropriation and
use of space
land uses and built
environments; social
saces and other
'turl' designations;
social networks ol
communication and
mutualaid
ersonal sace;
mental mas ol
occuied sace;
satial hierarchies;
symbolic
reresentation ol
saces; satial
'discourses'
lamiliarity;
hearth and home;
oenlaces;
laces ol oular
sectacle |streets,
squares, markets);
iconograhy and
gralnti; advertising
Domination and
control of space
rivate roerty in
land; state and
administrative
divisions ol sace;
exclusive
communities and
neighbourhoods;
exclusionary zoning
and otherlorms ol
social control
|olicing and
surveillance)
lorbidden saces;
'territorial
imeratives';
community; regional
culture; nationalism;
geoolitics;
hierarchies
unlamiliarity;
saces ollear;
roerty and
ossession;
monumentality and
constructed saces
ol ritual; symbolic
barriers and
symbolic caital;
construction ol
'tradition'; saces ol
reression
Source: inart insired by Lelebvre ( 1 974)
Production of space
roduction ol
hysical
inlrastructures
|transort and
communications;
built environments;
land clearance, etc.);
territorial
organization ol
social inlrastructures
|lormal and
inlormal)
new systems oi
maing, visual
reresentation,
communication, etc. ;
new artistic and
architectural
'discourses';
semiotics.
utoian lans;
imagmary
landscaes; science
nction ontologies
and sace; artists'
sketches; mythologies
ol sace and lace;
oetics ol sace
saces ol desire
222 The experience of space and time
delenceagainst,humanrnteractron. Itrmosestransactroncosts uon
anysystem olroductronandreroduction |artrcularly those based
on anyelaboratesocraldrvrsionollabour, trade,andsocral drlleren
tratron ol reroductrve lunctrons). Drstancratron |cl. Crddens, I 93+,
2539) rs simly a measure olthe degree to whrch thelrrctron ol
sacehas been overcome toaccommodate socral rnteractron.
2 Thearorratronolsaceexamrnesthewayrnwhrchsacers
occuied by objects |house, lactorres, streets, etc. ), actrvrtres |land
uses), rndrvrduals, classes, or other socral grourngs. Systematized
and rnstrtutionalized arorration may entarl the roductron ol
terrrtorrally bounded lorms ol socral solrdarity.
3 The domination ol sace rellects howrndrvrduals or owerlul
grous domrnate the organizatron and roduction ol sace through
legalorextra-legalmeans so as to exercrseagreaterdegreeolcontrol
ertheroverthelrrctronoldrstanceoroverthemannerrnwhrchsace
rs arorrated by themselves or others.
+ Theroductronolsaceexamrneshownewsystems|actualor
rmagrned) ol land use, transort and communrcations, terrrtorral
organrzatron,etc.areroduced,andhownewmodesolreresentatron
|e. g. rnlormatrontechnology,comuterizedmarng,ordesrgn)arrse.
Theselourdrmensionstosatralractrcearenotrndeendentoleach
other.Thelrrctronoldrstanceis rmlrcrtrnanyunderstandingolthe
domrnatron and arorratron ol sace, whrle the ersrstent aro-
rratron ola sace by aartrculargrou|saythe gang that hangs out
onthe street corner) amounts toa de facto domrnatronolthatsace.
Theroductronolsace,rnsolarasrtreducesthelrrctronoldrstance
|cartalrsm's 'annihilatron olsace through trme,' lorexamle) alters
drstancratron and theconditrons olarorratronand domrnatron.
My urose rn setting u such a grrd rs not to attemt any
systematrc exloratron ol the osrtrons withrn rt, though such an
examrnatron would be ol consrderable rnterest |I have enned rn a
lew controversial osrtronrngs wrthrn the grrd lor uroses ol rllus-
tratron,andwouldlrketosuggestthatthe drllerentauthorswehave
so lar examrned concentrate on drllerent lacets olrt). Myurose rs
to nnd some ornt ol entry that will allow a deeer drscussron ol
the shrltrng exerrence ol sace rn the hrstory ol modernrsm and
ostmodernrsm.
Thegrrdolsatralracticescantellusnothingrmortantbyrtsell.
To suose so would be to accet the idea that there rs some
unrversal satral language rndeendent ol socral ractrces. Satral
l"
'
Individual spaces and times in social life 223
ractrcesderivetherrelncacyrnsocrallrle onlythroughthestructure
ol
socral relatrons wrthrn whrch they come rnto lay. Inder the
socral relatrons ol cartalrsm, lor examle, the satral ractices or-
tr

cJine grr!1ecomeimbuedwithcIassmeaningsToutitthrs
ay oi, owever, to argue that satral ractrces are derrvatrve ol
cartalrsm.Theytakeontherrmeanrngsundersecrncsocralrelatrons
ol class, gender, communrty,ethnicity, or race and get 'used u' or
'worked over' rn the course ol socral action. When laced rn the
context ol cartalrst socral relatrons and rmeratrves |see chater I +
below), the grrd hels unravel some olthe comlexrty that revarls
rn understandrng the translormatron ol satral exerrence assocrated
wrththe shrltlrommodernrst to ostmodernist ways olthrnking.
Curvrtch | I 96+) suggests an analogous lramework lor thrnkrng
about themeanrngoltrmernsocrallrle. He addresses the rssueolthe
socralcontentoltemoralractrces drrectly,however,whrleavordrng
rssuesolmaterralrty, reresentatron, and rmaginatron olthe sort that
Lelebvre rnsists uon. Hrs rrmary thesrs rs that artrcular socral
lormations |lrsted rn the rrght-hand column ol table 3. 2) assocrate
wrth a secrnc sense ol trme. ut olthat study comes an erghtlold
classrncatronolthetyes olsocraltimethathave exrstedhrstorrcally.
Thrs tyology roves rather rnterestrng rn its rmlrcatrons.
To begrn with, rt rnverts the roosrtron that there rs a trme lor
everythrngandroosesthatwethrnk,rnstead,oleverysocralrelatron
contarnrng rts own sense ol trme. It rs temtrng, lor examle, to
thrnk ol I 963 as an 'exlosrve' trme |rn whrch qurte drllerent be-
havrours were suddenly deemed accetable) emergrng out ol the
'decetrve' time ol Fordrsm-Keynesranrsm and grvrng way rn the
late I 9/0s to the world ol 'trme rn advance ol rtsell' oulated by
seculators,entrereneurs,anddebteddlrngnnancecartalrsts. Itrs
alsoossrbletousethetyologytolookatdrllerentsenses oltrmeat
work contemoraneously, wrth academrcs and other rolessronals
eretually condemned |rt seems) to 'retarded trme,' erhaswrtha
mrssron to avert 'exlosrve' and 'erratic' trmes, and so restore to us
some sense ol 'endurrng' trme |a world also oulated by ecologists
andtheolograns).Theo:entralmrxes arerntrrguing,andIshallcome
back to them later, srnce they shed lrght, I think, on the conlused
transrtron rnthe sense oltrme rmlredrntheshrltlrom modernrst to
ostmodernrst cultural ractrces.
Il there were an rndeendent language |or semrotrc) ol trme or
sace |or trmesace) we could at thrs ornt reasonably abandon
social concerns and enqurre more drrectly rnto the roertres ol
sace-trmelanguagesasmeansolcommunrcatronintherrownrrght.
But srnce rt rs a lundamental axrom ol my enqurry that trme and
Table 3. 2 Gurvich's typology of social times
Type
nduring
trme
Decetrve
trme
Level
ecologrcal
organrzed
socrety
rratrc trme socral roles,
collectrve
attrtudes
|lashron) and
technical
mixes
Cyclrcal mystrcal
time unions
Retarded
trme
socral
symbols
Form
contrnuous trme
rn whrch ast rs
rojectedrn the
resent and
luture; easrly
quantrnable
longand slowed
down duratron
maskrng sudden
and unexected
crrses and
rutures between
astandresent
trme ol
uncertarnty and
accentuated
contrngency in
whrch resent
revarls over ast
and luture
ast, resent and
luture rojected
into each other
accentuatrng
contrnurtywithrn
change;
drmrnutron ol
contrngency
luture becomes
resent so late as
to be outmoded
as soon as rtrs
crystallrzed
Social formations
krnshrs and
localrty
groumgs
|artrcularlyrural
easant socretres
and atrrarchal
structures)
large crtres and
olitrcal 'ublrcs';
charrsmatrc and
theocratrc
socretres
non-olitrcal
'ublrcs' |social
movements and
lashron-
lollowers);
classes rnrocess
ol lormatron
astrology-
lollowers; archarc
socretres rn whrch
mythologrcal,
mystrcal and
magrcal belrels
revarl
communrty and
its socral
symbols; gurlds,
rolessrons etc.
leudalrsm
Individual spaces and times in social life
Table 3. 2 cont.
225
Type
Alternatrng
trme
Trme rn
advance ol
rtsell
|rushrng
lorward)
xlosrve
trme
Level
rules, srgnals,
srgns and
collectrve
conduct
collectrve
translormatrve
actron and
rnnovatron
revolutronary
lerment and
collectrve
creation
Source: Curvitch( 1 964)
Form
ast and luture
comete rn the
resent;
drscontrnurty
wrthout
contrngency
drscontrnurty,
contrngency;
qualrtatrvechange
trrumhant; the
luture becomes
resent
resent and ast
drssolvedrnto a
transcendent
luture
Social formations
dynamrc
economic grous;
transrtron eochs
|rncetron ol
cartalrsm)
cometitrve
cartalrsm;
seculatron
revolutrons and
radrcal
translormatrons
ol global
structures
sace |or language, lor that matter) cannot be understood rndeen-
dently olsocral action, I shall now shrltthelocus to a consrderatron
olhowowerrelatrons arealwaysrmlrcatedrn satralandtemoral
ractrces. Thrs wrll then ermrtus to ut these rather assive tyo-
logres and ossrbrlrtres rnto the more dynamrc lrame ol hrstorrcal
materralrst concetrons olcartalrst modernrzatron.
1 +
Time and space as sources of
s ocial power
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223 The experience of space and time

attachrrces, and hence the money lorm rtsel!, toworkrng trme c

Landes, I 933, /2) .
I
Two general rmlrcatrons then lollow. First, x.ont-
rzatronol rlatros(LIiltr=n:orms.qualitixs.m ;J
. The dennrtronola'trme and alaceloreverythrng'necessarrly
changes and constitutes a new lramework lorromoting new krnds
ol socral relatrons. The medraeval merchants, lor examle, rn-
structrngatri:i<sue ol trme`t|rIbsness'
rom_nmi= hasrel e

ich
,was Jedacbangentrme(tsell.'ymbolloc!andells
:hat calle r ers cab__ 1arkc, sc+red

'
a

ur

s
r drvodlromrelrgrous

.=
not ass undisuted by relrgious authorrty any more than by the
workers called uon to accet the new rules ol temoral drscrlrne.
'These evolvrng mental structures and therr materral exressron,' Le
Collconcludes, 'weredeelyrmlrcatedrn the mechanrsms olclass
struggle. ' Ironically, theexloratrons ol the calendarand trme mea-
surementthathadbeenromotedbythemonastrcordersinorderto
rmose relrgious drscrlrne were arorrated by the nascent bour-
georsie as a means to organrze and drscrlrne the oulatrons ol
medraevaltowns to a new-lound andverysecularlabourdrscrlrne.
'qual hours' rn the crty, comments Landes | I 933, /3), 'announced
the vrctory ol a new cultural andeconomic order. '
I
Bythesametoken, the mrngolthe worIdopenedu away to
look uon sace as oen to ac.:alor rrvate uses. Marng
alsoturnedouttobelarlromrdeologrcallyneutral.Helgerson| I 936),
lor examle, argues that Chrrstoher Saxton's collectron ol county
masol Brrtarn,ublrshedrn I 5/9,notonlyallowedthenglrsh, lor
\' the nrst trme, to take 'ellectrve vrsual and concetual ossessron ol
thehysrcalkrngdomrnwhrchtheylived,'butalsostrengthenedthe
l
sense olrndrvrdual and local owerswrthrna lramework olnatronal
loyaltres, all 'at the exense ol identrty based on dynastrc loyalty.'
Butrlthedynastrcowerslookedtotradeas asource olthemoney
ower whrch they needed to ursue therr olrtrcal and mrlrtary
obiectrves |as well as therrassron lor consumtron), then they had
tornrtratetheratronalreresentatronolsaceandtrmethatsuorted
the ower ol that class |the merchants) whrch would ultrmately
sulant them. In the long run, ol course, the state authorrtres had
lrttle otron. The cost olcartograhrcrgnorance - mrlrtarrlyas well
as rn trade and commerce - was so enormous that the rncentive to
rocure good mas overwhelmed any other reservatrons. ' In the
Time and space as sources of social power 229
internatronal contestlor access to t

e rrches ol theIndres,' Landes

|I 933, I I 0) notes, ' mau_re m neyand secret agents ol asrrrng
owersardgoldlorgoodcoiesolthecarelullyguardedPortugueseI
padrons' .

A secon, and rn some resects more drlncult rmlicatron rs that

modrncatrons olthe qualrtres ol sace and trme can result lrom the
ursurtolmonetaryobiectrves .Ilmoneyhasnomeanrngrndeendent
ol trme and sace, then rt rs always ossrble to ursue ront |or
other lorms ol advantage) by alterrng the ways trme and sace are
used and denned. This thesrs can be most cogently exlored m the
contextoltherontseekrngthat occurs wrthrnthe standard lorm ol
crrculatronolcartal.Materralcommodrtyexchangeentarlschangeol
locatron and satral movement. Any comlrcated system ol ro-r
ductron entarls s

ral

ga

nrzatron|ev

en rlonlyolth

esh

olIoor or
olnce) . vercommg th satral barrrers takes time and money.
lncren ol satral organrzatron and movement rs cf an
rmortant rssue lor all cartalrsts. The trme ol roductron together
wrth the trme olcrrculatronolexchange make u theconcetol 'the
turnovertrmeolcartal . 'Thrs, too, rsan extremely rmortantmagni
tude. The laster the cartal launched rnto crrculatron can be re-
cuerated, the greater therontwrll be. The dennrtrons ol'elncientj
satral organizatron' and ol ' socrally necessary turnover trme' are
lundamental norms agarnst whrch the search lor ront rs measured.
And both are subect to change.
Consrder, nrst, the turnover trme ol cartal. There rs an omnr-
resentrncentivelorrndivrdualcartalrststoacceleratetherrturnover
trme vis-a-vis the socral average, andin so dorngtoromoteasocral
trend towards laster average turnover trmes. Cartalrsm, as we shall
see, has lor thrs reason been characterrzed by contrnuouse .

shorten turnover trmes, thereby seedrng u social rocesses whrle

reducrng t':e trme horrzons ol meaninglul decrsronmakrng. There
are, however, a numberolbarriers tothrs tendencx - barrrers rn the
rrgidrty ol rodon anu !abour sE s, xeuartal that must be
amortrzed, marketrng lrictrons, consumtron lags, bottlenecks to
moneycirculation,andthelrke.Therersawholehistoryoltechnical!
and

nrzatronalrnnovatronalredtothereductionolsuchbarrre
everythrng rom assemby-lrne roductron |ol cars or battery
hens), acceleratron ol hysrcal rocesses |lermentatron, genetic en-
grneerrng),tolanned obsolescencernconsumtron|tLemobilrzatron
ol lashron and advertrsrng to accelerate change), the credrt system,
electronrc bankrng, and the lrke. It rs rn thrs context that the adat-
abrlrty and llexrbrlrty ol workers become vrtalto cartalrstdevelo-
ment. Workers, rnstead ol acqurrrng a skrll lor lrle, can now look
230 The experience of space and time
lorward to at least one il not multile bouts ol de-skilling and re-
skilling in a liletime. The accelerated destruction and reconstruction
ol workers' skills have been, as we saw in Part II, a central leature
in the turn lrom Fordist to exible modes ol accumulation.
The general ellect, then, is lor cai

aI:niza|iono b
.
v
7

machinery, as well as in orgamzational lorms and labour skills,

cannot easily be changed. The imlantation ol new systems has
eithertoawaittheassing olthe 'natural'liletime olthelactoryand
the worker, or to engage in that rocess ol'creative destruction'
whichrests onthelorceddevaluationordestructionolast assetsn
order to make way lor the new. Since the latter imlies a loss ol
1 value even lor the c
P
italists, strong so

ial lorces are

.
ranged against
it. When the conduons ol accumulation are relatively easy, the
incentive to aly suchinnovations isrelativelyweak. But at times
ol economic dilnculty and intensilying cometition, individual ca-
italists are lorced to accelerate the turnover ol their caital; those
who can bestintensilyorseedu roduction, marketing,etc. arein
the bestositionto survive.Modernizationsthatallectturnovertime
.are not, therelore, deloyed at a unilorm rate. They tend to bunch
togethermainly ineriods olcrisis. I shalllaterexlore|chaterI /)
this thesis inthe context olseed-uas aresonseto caitalist crisis
since I 9/2.
Since 'moments' are 'the elements ol ront' |Marx, I 96/, vol. I ,
233), it is command over the labour time ol others, however, that
gives caitalists the initial ower toaroriate ront as their own.
( Struggles between owners ol labour and ol caital over the use ol
timeandthe intensity ollabourhavebeenendemc.Theygo back, as
both Le Coll and . . Thomson | I 96/) agree, to at least the
mediaeval eriod. Marx notes thatthe struggle overthe length olthe
working day arose in lizabethan ngland when the state legislated
anincreaseinthelengtholthecustomaryworkingdaylorlabourers
lreshly released lrom the land by violent exroriation, and con-
sequently rone to be unstable, undiscilined, and itinerant. The
incarceration ol the unemloyed with the mad |which Marx high-
I
lights and Foucault erects into a whole bo
'
k) was but one

l many
means to bring the labour lorce to heel. Mew labour habits were
lormed, and a new time-disciline imosed,' Thomson connrms,
over several generations, lorged under the ressure to synchronize
boththe social andthedetaildivisionollabourandto maximize the
extraction olthe labourer's surlus labour time |the basis olront).
Time and space as sources of social power 23 I
Thus came into being 'the lamiliar landscae olindustrial caitalism,
with the time-sheet, the timekeeer, the inlormers and the nnes. '
The battle overminutes and seconds, over theace and intensityol
work schedules, over the working lile |and rights ol retirement),
overtheworkingweek andday|withrights to 'lreetime'), overthe
workingyear |andrightsto aidvacations), has been, and continues
to be, rightroyallylought. Workerslearnedtonght backwithinthe
connnes olthe newly internalized sense ol time.
The nrst generation ol lactory workers were taught by their
masters the imortance ol time; the second generationlormed
their short-time work committees in the ten-hour movement;
the third generation struck lor overtime or time-and-a-hall.
Theyhadaccetedthecategoriesoltheiremloyers andlearned
I
to nght back within them. They had learned their lesson, that
time is money, only too well. |Thomson, I 96/, 90)
It isstillverymuchthe case that attemts toseeduorintensily
labourrocessessarksomeolthe strongestand bitterestolstruggles
between labour and management. Stratagems such as iece-work or
roductionbonuses canonlyeverbecountedartial successeslrom
the standoint olmanagement, becauseworkerslrequently establish
theirownworknormsthatinturnregulatetheratelorthei ob. irect
conlrontations over seed-u and intensity, over break times and
schedules, are too olten destructive to be engaged inwithease. The
seed olassembly-linemovement, robotization,andautomatedcon-
trol systems rovide more insidious means ol indirect control, but
rarely can be altered excet marginally without sarking worker
rotest. Yet in site ol this resistance, most work schedules are
extremely tightly ordered, andtheintensity and seed olroduction
have largely been organized in ways thatlavour caital rather than
labour. TelehoneoeratorsworkinglorATTareexectedtodeal
withonecalIevery23 secondsasaconditionolcontract,lorrydrivers
ush themselves to extremes olendurance and courtdeath bytaking
ills to kee awake, air tralnc controllers suller extremes ol stress,
assembly-lineworkerstaketodrugsandalcohol,allartandarcelol
I
a daily work rhythm nxed by ront-making rather then by the
constructionolhumaneworkschedules.Comensations,suchasaid
vacations,higherwages, shorterworking weeks,earlyretirement,are
alltooolten,asMarxlongagoobserved,recueratedbycaitalinthe
lormolevengreaterintensityandseed-uontheiob. Thebalanceol
class lorces is not easily struck, however. When the Ceneral Motors
lantatLordstownwassetuintheearlyI 9/0s,ayoungandrestive
232 The experience of space and time
labourlorcelought seed-u and automatedcontrol tooth and narl.
By the end ol the I 9/0s, however, much ol the resrstance had
crumbled under the ressures ol wrdesread local unemloyment,
lears ollant closure, andco-otatronrnto
.
newrytmsolwor.
j We can track srmrlar rocesses and arrve at similar conclusions
wrth resect to the exerrence ol sac

. The rncentrve o create the

world market, to reduce satral arrers, and to antiihiate sa

e
through trme rs omnr-resent, asrstherncentrveto

atronal

zesatial
organizatronrntoelncrentconnguratronsolroduction|seraIorgan-
rzatron olthedetarldrvrsronollabour,lactory systems, andassembly
lrne terrrtorral drvrsronollabour, andagglomeratronrnlargetowns),
crrclatron networks |transort and communrcatrons systems), and
consumtron |household and domestrc layout,
.
communrty
`
rgan
rzatron and resrdentral drllerentratron, collective consumtion m
crtres).Innovatronsdedrcatedtotherem

val
.
olsatr

l barrrer

rnallol
these resects have been ol rmmense sigtiincance i

the hi

tory ol
cartalrsm, turnrng that hrstory rnto av

ry geo

rahicalallair - the
rarlroad and the telegrah, the automobile, radio and

ele
P
hone, the
jet arrcralt and televrsron, and the recent telecommut:ications revol
utron are cases rn ornt.
. . .
Buthere, too,cartalrsmencountersmultilecontr
.
adictions.S
.
_tia
barrrers can b red only through t e oo!articular
na>iI\s, hrg, ar ttc.) !
therm

, a
satral ratronalrzatronolroduction,circulation, andconsum

ionat
one ornt rn trme may not be surted to the l

rther accumul
.
ation ol
cartal at a later ornt rn trme. The roduction, restru

turng, and
growth ol rs a highly

roblem
.
atic
.
and
expenallare yvasti

ve

ments H hysical mlrastruc-

turesthatcannot be moved, andsocial mlrastructures thatarealways
slow tochange.The contrnuousrncentivelo

rndr

rdalc

rtalrststo
i relocate rn lowcr-cost or hrgher-rontlocations is likewise checled
bythe_cs|xcimo:ement. Consequentlythe rntensrncatron olcoi-
etrtron and the onset ol crses tend to accel

erate thea

ce olatial
restructurrngthroughselectrveandlacesecincdevaluatis
These general trends andtensrons havetobeset, howeve

, aga
.
m

t
I
the backgro

nd ol drvergent rnte

est

and class s

ruggle
:
smce i is
almostrnvarably the case that shilts m temo orm satial orderng
redrstrrbute socral ower by changrng the condrtrons ol monetary
( garn |rn the lorm ol wages, ronts, cartal garr

s, and the lrke).

Suerrorcommandoversacehas always beenavitalasectolcl

ss
|and rntra-class) struggle. In I 3 I 5, lor examle, Mathan Kothschild
used hrs unrrvalled rnlormatron network to get the nrst news ol
Wellrngton'svrctoryoverMaoleon atWaterloo,rom

tly sol, and

trrggered suchamarketanrc that hecould then move H to icku
Time and space as sources of social power 233
all
manner ol market bargarns, so earnrng 'the qurckest unearned
lortune on record' |avrdson and Rees-Mogg, I 933). Caprtalrsts, \
lurthermore, are not averse to usrng satral strategres rncometrtron

wrth each other. The struggle between drverse rarlroad rnterests rn

the nrneteenth century rovrdes abundant examles ol thrs ractrce,
whrle Tarbell | I 90+, I +6) dercts Rockeleller 'bent over a ma and
wrthmrlrtarv recrsron 'lannrng| the aptuoJsratcgocatons
on the ma ol ast Coast orl rennerres. ' omrnatron ol marketrng
'

networksandsaces remarns alundamental cororatearm, andmany

a brtterstrugglelormarket share rs lought outwrththerecrsron ol
a mrlrtary camargn to cature terrrtory and sace. Accurate geo-
grahrcal rnlormatron |rncludrng rnsrde rnlormatron on everythrng
lrom olrtrcal develoment to cro yrelds or labour struggles) be-
comes a vrtal commodrty rn suchstruggles.
For these reasons also, the abrlrty to rnlIuence theroductron ol

sace rs an rmortant means to augment socral ower. In materral

terms thrs means thatthosewhocan allectthe satral drstrrbutron ol
rnvestments rn transort and communrcatrons, rn hysrcal and socra
rnlrastructures, or theterrrtorral drstrrbutron ol admrnrstratrve, oli
trcal, and economrc owers can olten rea materral rewards . The
range olhenomenato be consrdered here rs vast rndeed rtvarres
all the way lrom one nerghbour rncrtrng another to hel rmrove
local roerty values by arntrng the orch, through systematrc
ressures bylandandroertydeveloers to utrnwaterandsewer
connectrons thatwrllrmrovethevalueolthelandstheyhold, to the
rnterest olmrlrtary contractors rn exacerbatrng geoolrtrcal tensrons
|such as the Cold War) a a )+ns to sur iggvnd better
armamentscon::ats.Inuenceoverthewaysolreresentrac
. eIIascver thes ontatron_
ei
woHeersuadedlor examle, thatsacers an oenneldol
lay lor cartal but a closed terrarn lor themselves, then a crucral
advantage accrues to the cartalrsts. Workers, rn concedrng greater
owers olmobrlrty to cartal |see Part II), mrght be more lrable to
concede belore the threat ol cartal llrght than would be the case rl
they were convrnced that cartalrsts could not move. Il, to take an
examle lrom the neld ol satral reresentatron, geoolrtrcal threats
' can be artrally manulactured wrth the hel olthe arorrate krnds
ol ma rojectron |whrch merge the rmage ol an 'evrl emrre' lrke(
Russra wrth a threatenrng geoolrtrcal osrtron), then consrderable
owergoestothosewho commandthetechnrquesolreresentatron.
Il aurcture or ma rs worth a thousand words, then ower rn the
realms ol reresentatron may end u berng as rmortant as ower
over the materralrty ol satral organrzatron rtsell.
Suchconsrderatronshavelongenteredrnascrucraldetermrnantsrn
23+ The experience of space and time
thedynamrcs olclass struggle. We canhere, I thrnk,rnvokea srmle
rule. uat thosewho comman c canantrol theo1rcs
ollace even though, and thrs rs avr:_llac,t taLeontrolol
mc uacco.commanchinstce. The relatrve
owers olworkrng-classmovements andthebourgeorsretocommand
sace had long been an rmortant constrtuent element rn the ower
relatrons between them. |ohn Foster, rn Class struggle in the in
dustrial revolution, lor examle, recounts several rncrdents rn whrch
local mrll owners lound rt drlncult to control therr work-lorce be-
causethelocallorces ollaw andorderwereroneto symathrze|rl
only throughkrnshr connectrons) wrth themrlrtants, and becausert
was drlncult to summon external assrstancewrththe reqursrte seed.
In the massrve rarlroad strrke that shook the ast Coast ol the
Lnrted States, on the other hand, a drllerent story was to unlold.
The rarlroadowners lrkewrse lound themselves lacrng a local mrlrtra
reluctantto act. Butthetelegrahnotonlyallowedlederalassrstance
to be summoned wrth great drsatch, but also lacrlrtated the trans-
mrssron ol lalse messages to the ellect thatworkershadreturnedto
workrn St Lours orBaltrmore, andthatthestrrkewas collasrng at
drllerent ornts along the lrne. ven though the ress layed an
rmortant rogress role durrng thrs rncrdent |berng rather more
ro-labour then than tiow), the suerror ower to command sace
gave the cartalrsts an added advantage rn whatwas an uneven but
tenseower struggle.
The drllerentral owers ol geograhrcal mobrlrty lor cartal and
labour have not remarned constant over trme, nor are they evenly
avarlable to drllerent lactrons ol cartal and labour. When erther
cartalrsts or workers have rmortant assets nxed and rmmobrle rn
sace, then nerther srde rs rn a good osrtron to use owers ol
geograhrcal mobrlrty agarnst the other. The skrlled rovrng cralt-
workersrn, say, the rronrndustry rnthe early years olthe rndustrral
revolutronmovedlarandwrde acrossuroeandused therrsuerror
owers ol geograhrcal mobrlrty to therr own nnancral advantage.
Modern, debt-encumbered homeowners m weak housrng market
srtuatrons,wrthstrong socralrnterestsrnstayrngrnaartrcularmrlreu,
are much more vulnerable. Whrle some cartalrsts are larnly more
mobrle than others, they are all lorced to some degree or other to
'ut down roots, ' and many can rll allord to change locatrons as a
result. There are, however, varrous lacets ol the cartalrsts' condrtron
that olten lorce therr hand. Accumulatron rovrdes them wrth the
wherewrthallor exansron, and the otrons are always to exandin
situ ortosetu a branchlantelsewhere.Therncentrveto golorthe
latter rncreases over trme srmly by vrrtue ol the congestron costs
Time and space as sources of social power 235
assocratedwrthexansrononorrgrnalsrtes.Inter-cartalrstcometrtron
and the llurdrty ol money cartal over sace also lorce geograhrcal
ratronalrzatrons rn locatron as art ol the accumulatron dynamrc.
Such rocesses lrequently get caught u rn the dynamrcs ol class
struggle.Cordon| I 9/3)records,lorexamle,casesolsuburbanrzatron
olrndustry rn Mewngland at the begrnnrng olthecenturylor the
drrect urose ol avordrng the stronger labour organrzatron rn the
larger crtres. More recently, under condrtrons ol herghtened com-
etrtron, technologrcal change and rard restructurrng, rnnumerable
casescan becrted olrndustrralrelocatron decrsrons takenwrthan eye
to achreving better labour drscrlrne. Il cartalrsts wrsh to avord
unronrzatronrntheLnrtedStates,arecentconsultant'sreortadvrsed,
they should try to slrt therr labour rocess rnto comonents em-
loyrngnomorethannltyworkers, andlocate theunrtsatleasttwo
hundred mrles aart lrom each other. The condrtrons ol llexrble
accumulatron make the exloratron ol such otrons more, rather
than less, ossrble.
Prrorto thecomrngoltherarlroad andthe telegrah, theowers
ol cartal and labour rn terms olthe abrlrtyto command sacewere
notradicallydillerent.The bourgeorsrelarnlylearedtherevolutron-
ary threat ol that ower. When, lor examle, the Luddrtes took to
machrne-breakrng rn many drsarate rncrdents, or agrrcultural la-
bourers srmultaneously took to rrck-burnrng and other lorms ol
rotest rnmanydrllerentlocales rn ngland rn I 330, thebourgeorsre
became onlytoo ready to accet the theory thatmysterrous ngures
suchasMedLuddorCatarnSwrngwereassrngundetectedthrough
the land, lomentrng drscontent and revolutronary sentrments as they
went. The bourgeorsre soon learned to use rts suerror tradrng con-
nectrons and command over sace as a means to establrsh socral
controL In I 3+3, lorexamle, theFrench bourgeorsre used rts com-
mercral tres to mobrlrze a petit bourgeois mrlrtra lrom rovrncral
France rn order to crush the revolutron rnParrs |atactrc thatwas to
be reeated wrtheven more horrendous ellectsrnthe suressronol
the Parrs Commune). Selectrve control over the rard means ol
communrcatron was deloyed to great advantage to counter the
Chartrst movement rnBrrtarn rnthe I 3+0sandto suress workrng
class discontentrnFrancealterthecoup d'etat olI 35 I . 'Thesureme
glory ol Maoleon III,' wrote Baudelarre, 'wrll have been to rove
that anybody can govern a great natron as soon as they have got
control ol the telegrah and the natronal ress.'
The workrng-class movement, lor rts art, accumulated srmrlar
rnsrghts. Mot only drd the Frrst Internatronal seek to unrte workers
lrom many drllerent laces and rndustrres, workrng under qurte
236 The experience of space and time
drllerent socral relatrons, rnto a common cause, but rtalso began, rn
the I 360s to translerlunds andmaterralardlrom one sace olclass ,
.
struggle to another. Il the bourgeorsre could command sace lor its
own classuroses,then theworkers'movementcoulddothesame.
Andto thedegreethattheFrrstInternatronal aeared tocommand
genurneower,the bourgeorsrehadeveryreasontolearrt|asrneed
theydrd)rnexactlythesamewaythattheyhadlearedthe

yster

us
roamrngs ol Catarn Swrng decades belore. The caacit
`
to lmk
workers rn unrted actron across sace hasalways been an imortant
varrable rn class struggle. To some degree Marx seemed to belreve
thatthemassrngolworkersrnthe lactorres andthecrtresolrndustrral
cartalrsm would by rtsell rovrde a sulncrent g

oolrtrcal p

wer
base lor class actron. But the whole thrust ol First International
geoolrtrcs was to broaden that base rn as systematrc a way as
ossrble.
.
It rs rare rndeed lor class actron not to have to lace u to its
secrnc geograhrcal constrarnts. In the rolon

ed mners' strrke
.
rn
Brrtarn rn I 93+, lor examle, the so-called 'llymg ickets' movmg
qurcklylrom onert-headtoanotherosedanacutrobl
'
ml
9
rthe
state owers, whrch had to devse eq

ally m
.
obne
.
tactics m

e-
sonse. Legrslatron to outlaw secondary mdustral action andllymg
rckets was desrgned to curbworkrng-cla

sowerove

ce andto
weakentheotentrallorcoherent class actionbyconnt:in

ittola

e.
The crushrngolthe Parrs Commune, and the I 3// railroad strke
rn the Lnited States, demonstratedearly on, however, that suerror
command over sacewouldusuallylrewrththe bourgeorsre. ever-
theless ,theworkers' movementersrstedrnrtsrnternatronalrstvrson
|thoughwrth weak actualorganrzatron) u untrlthe eve olthe First
World War, when the Second Internatronal slrt essentrally on the
questronolloyaltytonatron|sace)versusloyaltytoclass|hrstorrcal)
rnterests. The vrctory ol the lormer current not only had workers
nghtrng on both srdes ol what most recognrzed as a war
.
betwe

n
cartalrsts, but rnrtrated a hase ol workers' movement history m
whrch roletarran rnterests always ended u, no matter what the
rhetorrc, servrng at the leet ol natronal rnterests.
Workrng-class movements are, rn lact, generally better
.
at organ-
rzrng rn and domrnatrngplace than they are at commandmg space.
The varrous revolutrons that broke out rn Parrs rn the nrneteenth
century loundered on the rnabrlrty to consolrdate natr
`
nal ower
through a satral strategy that would command the national sace.
Movements suchas theSeattlegeneralstrrke ol I 9I 3 |whenworkers
ellectrvely took control ol the crtylornearlya week), the St Peters-
burg urrsrng ol I 905, couledwrth a long and detarledhrstory ol
Time and space as sources of social power
23/
munrcral socralrsm, communrty organrzatron around strrk

.
actron
|such as the Flrnt strrke ol I 933), through to the urban ursmgs ol
the Lnrted States olthe I 960s, allrllustrate the ornt. n the other
hand, srmultanerty ol revolutronary usurges rn drllere

t locatrons,
as rn I 3+3or I 963, strrkeslearrntoanyrulrngclassreciselybecause
rts suerrorcommand over sacers threatened. It rs exactly rn
.
such
srtuatrons that rnternatronal cartalrsm rarses the sectre ol 3 mter
natronal consrracy, deely ollensrve to natronal rnterests,and olten
rnvokes the ower ol the latter to reserve rts abrlrty to command
sace.
.
What rs even more rnterestrng rs the olrtrcal resonse to this
latent owerolrevolutronary andworkermobrlrzatronrnlace. ne
olthe rrncral tasks olthe cartalrst state rs to locate owerrn the
saceswhrchthe bourgeorsre controls, and drsemowe

tosesaces
whrchoosrtronalmovementshavethegreatestotentialitytocom-
mand.ThrswastherrncrlethatledFrancetodenysell-government
to Parrs untrl the total embourgeoisement ol the crty allowed rt to
become the neldom ol Chrrac's rrght-wrng olrtrcs. Thrs was the
same strategy that lay behrnd Thatcher's abolrtron ol metroolrtan
governments lrke the Creater London Councrl |contr

lled

by a
Marxrst lelt durrng theerrod I 93 I -35). Itwas also manilest m the
slow erosron ol munrcral and urban owers rn the Lnrted States
durrngthe 'rogressrveera' whenmunrcral socralrsm aeared as a
real ossrbrlrty, thus makrng a lederalrzatron ol state owers more
accetable to the large-scale cartalrsts. It rs r

such a contex

th

t
classstruggle also assumesrts global role. Henr Lelebvreuts itthis
way.
Today, more than ever, the class struggle rs rnscrrbed rn sace.
Indeed, rt rs thatstruggle alone whrchrevents abstract sace
lrom takrng over the whole lanet and aerrng over all drl-
lerences. nlytheclassstrugglehasthecaacrtytodrllerentrate,
to generate drllerences whrch are not rntrrnsrc to economrc
growth . . . that rs to say, drllerences whrch are not erther
rnduced by or accetable to that growth.
Thewhole hrstory olterrrtorral organrzatron |see Sack, I 93 /),colon
rzatron and rmerralrsm, ol uneven geograhrcal dev
.
eoment,
.
ol
urban and rural contradrctrons, as well as ol geoolitical conict
testrnes to the rmortance ol such struggles wrthrn the hrstory ol
cartalrsm.
Ilsace rs rndeed to bethought ol as a system ol 'contarners' ol
socralower |to use the rmagery ol Foucault), thenrtlollows that
t
233 The experience of space and time
the accumulatron ol cartal rs eretually deconstructrng that socral
owerbyre-sharngrtsgeograhrcal bases.Puttheotherwayround,
any struggle to reconstrtute ower relatrons rs a struggle to re-
organrze therr satral bases. It rs rn thrs lrght that we can better
understand 'whycartalrsmrs contrnually reterrrtorralrzrngwrthone
hand what rt was deterrrtorralrzrng wrth the other' |eleuze and
Cuattarr, I 93+).
Movementsoloosrtrontothedrsrutronsolhome,communrty,
terrrtory, and natron by the restless llow ol cartal are legron. But
then so too are movements agarnst the trghtconstrarnts ol aurely
monetary exressron olvalue and the systematrzed organrzatron ol
sace and trme. What rs more, such movements sread lar beyond
therealms olclassstrugglernanynarrowly dennedsense. Therrgrd
drscrlrneoltrme schedules, oltrghtlyorganrzedroerty rrghts and
other lorms olsatral de:ermrnatron, generatewrdesreadresrstances
on theart olrndrvrdualswho seekto utthemselves outsrde these
hegemonrcconstrarnts rnexactlythesamewaythatothers relusethe
drscrlrneol money. And lromtrme to trme these rndrvrdual resrst-
ancescan coalesce rnto socral movements wrththe arm ol lrberatrng
sace and trme lrom therr currentmaterralrzatrons and constructrng
an alternatrve krnd ol socrety rn whrch value, trme, and money are
understoodrnnew and qurte drllerent ways. Movements olall sorts
- relrgrous, mystrcal, socral, communrtarran, humanrtarran, etc. -
denne themselves drrectly rn terms olanantagonrsmto the ower ol
money and olratronalrzed conceptrons ol sace and trme over darly
lrle. Thehrstoryolsuchutoran,relrgrous, andcommunrtarranmove-
ments testrnes to the vrgour ol exactly thrs antagonrsm. Indeed,
much ol the colour and lerment ol socral movements, ol street lrle
and culture, aswellasolartrstrc and other cultural ractrces, derrves
recrsely lrom the rnnnrtely varred texture ol oosrtrons to the
materralrzatronsolmoney,sace, andtrmeunder condrtrons olcar-
talrst hegemony.
Yet all such socral movements, no matter how well artrculated
therr arms, run u agarnst a seemrngly rmmovable aradox. For not
only does the communrty ol money, couled wrth a ratronalrzed
sace and trme, denne themrn an oosrtronal sense, but the move-
ments have to conlront the questron ol value and rts exressron as
well as the necessary organrzatron ol sace and trme arorrate to
therr own reroductron. In so dorng, they necessarrly oen them-
selves to the drssolvrng ower ol money as well as to the shrltrng
dennrtrons ol sace and trme arrrved at through the dynamrcs ol
cartal crrculatron. Cartal, rn short, contrnues to domrnate, and rt
does sornartthroughsuerror commandoversace andtrme,even
Time and space as sources of social power 239
when oosrtronmovementsgarncontroloveraartrcularlace lor
atr

e. The'oth
.
ernesses'and 'regronalresrstances'thatostmodernrst
olitics emh

sizecan lloursh rn aartrcularlace. Buttheyareall

too olten subject to the ower ol cartal over the co-ordrnatron ol

rve

sal ragmente sace

.
and the march ol cartalrsm's global
historcal timethatlies outside ol theurvrewolanyartrcular one
olthem.
Anumberol
.
generalconclusronscannowbeventured.d
racti

cs.arenc vet*^ ncutralinsocial~-

exress some+ o!a sor other socral content and are more
`
Ilen

not

e

cu

esouob
`
iouswhenweconsrderthe ways rnwhrchsace
andtimeconnectwithmoney, andthewaythatconnectronbecomes
e

en more trghtly organrzed wrth the develoment ol cartalrsm.

Time
.
and sace both get denned through the organrzatron ol socral
ractices lu

damental to

ommodrty roductron. But the dynamrc

lorce
.

l caital ac

umulation |and overaccumulatron), together wrth

conditions ol social struggle, renders the relatrons unstable. As a
consequence,nobodyqurte knows what 'the rrght trme andlace lor
everythr

g' mrght
.
be.Pa
.
rt olthernsecurrtywhrch bedevrls cartalrsm
as a social l

ation arses out ol thrs rnstabrlrty rn the satral and

temo

al

tr:ci
P
les aroundwhrch socral lrle mrght be organrzed |let
aloner

tuahzedthemanne
.
roltradrtronalsocretres) . urrnghases
ol maxim
.
al change, the s
P
atial and temoral bases lor reroductron
olthesocialorderaresubje

tt
.
otheseverestdrsrutron.Insubsequent
ch

rs I shall show that it is exactly at such moments thatmajor

shil

s systems olreresentatron, culturallorms,andhrlosohrcal

sentiment occur.
1 J
The time and s pace of the
Enlightenment proj ect
.
i
L = .`. z
.
In what lollows I shall make lrequent relerence to the concet ol
'tim
_
|
- I
esion.

ean to
.
si
.
gnal by that ter

rocesses
thatsorevolutiot:izetheobjectivequalnesolsaceandtimethatwe
arelorcedto alter, sometrmesrnqurteradrcalways,howwereresent
the world to ourselves. I use the word 'comression' because a
strong case can be made that the hrstory ol ca
P
rtalrsm has b
'
en
characterrzed by sed-u m the ace ol lrle, while so ove

commg
satral barrrers that+te world sometrmes seems to collase itiwards
uonus. Thetrme takentotraverse sace |late3 . I ) andthewaywe
commonly reresent that lact to ourselves |l

te .z, are uselul

rndrcators ol the krnd ol henomena I have m mmd. As sace
aears to shrrnk to a 'global vrllage' ol
.
tel

communrcatro

s and a
'saceshr earth' ol economrc and ecologicaImterdee

dencies
.
- to
use just two lamilrar and everyday r

ages - anas time horzons

shortentotheorntwheretheresentisallthereis|the
.
worldolthe
schrzohrenic), so we have to learn how to coe yith an over-
whelmrng sense olcompression ol our satral and temoral worlds.
The exerrence ol trme-sace comression is challenging,
.
ex-
crtrng,stresslul,andsometrmesdeelytroublrng,ca

leolsarkmg,
therelore, a drversrty ol socral, cultural, and ohtical reson

es.
' Comression' should be understood as
.
relatrve to any
.
re

edmg
stateolallarrs.Inwhatlollows,I shallconsiderthematterhistorcally,
usrng the uroean case |somewhat ethnocentrrcal

) as an examle.
Inthrschater,I shalllook brrellyatthelong transnon

hatreared
the way lor nlrghtenment thinkrng about sace and time.
.
In the relatrvelyrsolated worlds |and I use
.
the lural advi

edly) ol
uroean leudalism, lace assume a dent:ite legal,

Ltical,

and
social meanrng rndrcatrve ol a relative autonomy
.
ol
.
social relati

iis
and ol communrty rnsrde roughly grven terrtoral boundares.
Withrneachknowableworld,satralorganrzatronrellectedaconlused
l
\
HrDDBllBI BItCtf
\
;
1'
UB1 D&$$DOBl &ltCt&"
D 1O p P.
Plate 3. 1 The shrinking map of the world through innovations in transport
which 'annihilate space through time'.
overlarng ol economrc, olrtrcal, andlegaloblrgatrons anrrghts.
xternalsacewasweaklygrasedandgenerallyconcetual

izedas a
mysterrous cosmology oulated by some externa

l aut
.
hor

ty, hea-
venly hosts, or more srnrster ngure

ol
.
myth a

d imagi

ation. The
nnrte centred qualrtres ol lace |an mtrcate terrtory

lmterdeen-
dence oblrgatron, surverllance, and control) matchedtime-honoured
routres ol darly lrle set rn the rnnnrty and
.
unknowabrlr
.
ty

ol 'en-
durrng time' |to use Curvrtch' s term). Mediaeval ar

cialsm and
suerstrtron were aralleled y an 'easy

nd hedotiist

c sych

-
hysiologrcal' aroachtosatialreresentation.Theme

aevalartist
'belreved that he could render what he saw belore his eyes con-
vincrnglybyreresentrngwhatrtleltlrket

walkab

ut,exerrencing
structures, almost tactilely, lrom many dillerent side

, rather than
lrom a srngle overall vantage' |dgerton, I 9/6). Mediaeval art and
2+2 The experience of space and time
Wl$ l$T8fTfkT8fW0kL960I$MUIE.
A L L A T L L
Plate 3. 2 A 1987 advertisement by Alcatel emphasizes a popular image of
the shrinking globe.
cartograhy, rnterestrngly, seemtomatchthesensrbilityortrayedrn
de Certeau's 'satral storres' |see late 3 . 3).
There were, ol course, drsrutrve lorces at work rn thrs leudal
world - class conllrcts, drsutes over rrghts, ecologrcal rnstabrlities,
and oulatron ressures, doctrinal conicts, Saracen rnvasions and
the crusades, and the lrke. Above all, the rogress ol monetizatron
|wrth rts disrutive ellect on the tradrtronal communrty) and com-
modrtyexchange,inthenrstrnstancebetweencommunities butlater
through more rndeendentlorms olmerchanttradrng, suggested an
entrrelydrllerentconcetronoltrmeandsace|seeabove,. 22/-9)
lrom that whrch dominated the leudal order.
The Benarssance, however, saw a radrcal reconstructron ol vrews
ol sace and trme rn the Western world. From an ethnocentrrc
Plate 3.3 The tradition of medieval mapping typically emphasizes the
sensuous rather than the rational and objective qualities of spatial order:
(above) Plan des dimes de Champeaux from the XVth century and (below)
the Vue de Cavaillon et ses environs from the XVIIth century.
2++ The experience of space and time
vrewornt,thevoyages oldrscoveryroduced an astoundrng llowol
knowledge about a wrder world that had somehow to be absorbed
andreresentedTheyrndrcatedaglobethatwasnnrteandotentrally
knowable. Ceograhrcalknowledge becameavalued commodrtyrna
socrety that was becoming more and more ront-conscrous. The
accumulatronolwealth, ower, andcartalbecamelrnked toerson-
alrzed knowledge ol, and rndrvrdual command over, sace. By the
same token, each lace becamevulnerable to the drrect rnlIuence ol
thatwrderworld throughtrade,intra-terrrtorialcometrtron,mrlrtary
actron, the rnllow olnew commodrtres, ol bullron, and the lre. But
byvrrtueolthe recemeal develoment oltherocesses sharng rt,
the revolution rnconcetrons olsace andtimewas slowto unlold.
Fundamentalrules olersectrve - rulesthatbrokeradrcallywrth
the ractices ol medraeval art and archrtecture, and whrch were to
domrnate untrl the begrnnrng ol the twentrethcentury - were ela-
borated in mrd-nlteenth-century Florence by Brunelleschi and
Albertr. Thrs was a lundamental achievement ol the Renaissance; rt
shaed ways ol seerng lor lour centurres. The nxed vrewornt ol
ersectrve mas and arntrngs 'rs elevated and drstant, comletely
out ol lastic or sensory reach.' It generates a 'coldly geometrrcal'
and 'systematrc' sense ol sace which nevertheless grves 'a sense ol
harmony with natural law, thereby underscorrng man's moral re-
sonsrbrlrtywrthrnCod'sgeometrrcally ordered unrverse' |dgerton,
I 9/6, I I+). A concetron ol rnnnrte sace allowed the globe to be
grasedasannitetotalrtywrthoutchallengrng, at leastrntheory,the
innnitewrsdom olthederty. 'Innnrtesacers endowedwrthrnnnite
qualrty, ' wrote Crordano Bruno at the end ol the Renarssance, 'and
rn the rnnnrtequalrtyrslauded the innnrte act olexrstence' |crtedrn
Kostol, I 935, 53/). The chronometer, which gave strength and mea-
sure to the rdea ol trme's arrow,was lrkewrse rendered theoretrcally
comatiblewrthCod'srnnnrtewrsdombyattrrbutrngrnnnrtequalrtres
to trme analogous to those whrch attachedto sace. The attachment
was ol rmmense rmortance. It meant that the rdea ol trme as 'be-
comrng' - averyhumansenseoltrmewhrchrsalsocontarnedrnthe
rdea oltime's arrow - was searatedlrom the analytrcal and 'scren-
trnc' senseoltrmewhrchrestedon a concetion olinnnrtythatwas
relerred|thoughnotbytheauthorrtiesrnRome)broad lylorreligrous
reasons. The Renarssancesearated screntinc and suosedly lactual
senses oltrmeand sacelrom themorellurdconcetrons thatmrght
arrse exerientrally.
Crordano Bruno's concetions, whrch rengured those ol Calrleo
and Mewton, were in ractice so antherstrc that Rome burned hrm
at the stake as a threat to centralrzed authority and dogma. !n so
Time and space of the Enlightenment project
2+5
dorng, theChurchwasrecognrzrngarathersrgnincantchallenge that
rnnnrte trme and sace osed to hrerarchrcally concerved systems ol
authorrty and ower based rn a artrcular lace |Rome)
Persectrvrsm concerves ol the world lrom the standoint ol the
'seeingeye' olthe rndrvrdual. Itemhasrzesthe scrence olotrcs and
the ability ol the ndivrdual to reresent what he or she sees as rn
somesense'truthlul,'comaredtosuerrmosedtruthsolmythology
orreligion. The connection betweenindrvrdualrsmandersectrvrsm
rs rmortant. It rovrded an ellectrve materral loundatron lor the
Cartesran rrncrles ol ratronalrty that became integrated rnto the
nlightenmentroject.Itsrgnalledabreakrnartrstrcandarchrtectural
ractrce lrom artrsan and vernacular tradrtrons towards rntellectual
actrvity and the 'aura' ol the artrst, screntrst, or entrereneur as a
creatrve indrvrdual. There rs also some evidence to connect the lor-
mulatron ol ersectivrst rules wrth the rationalrzrng ractrces em-
ergrng rn commerce, bankrng, book-keerng, trade, and agrrcultural
roductron under centralrzed land management |Kostol, I 935,
+03 -I 0).
ThestoryolRenarssancemas,whrchtookonentrrelynewqual-
rtres ol objectrvrty, ractrcalrty, and lunctronalrty, rs artrcularly re-
vealng|see late 3 .+). bjectrvrtyrnsatralreresentatronbecamea
valued attrrbute becauseaccuracy olnavrgatron,thedetermrnatronol
roerty rrghts rn land |as oosed to the conlused system ol legal
rights and obligatrons that characterrzed leudalrsm), olrtrcal boun-
dares, rrghts olassage and oltransortatron, and the lrke, became
economrcallyaswellas olrticallyrmeratrve. Many secral-urose
ma reresentations, such as theortolan charts used bynavrgators
and estate mas used bylandowners, already exrsted, olcourse, but
thermortatron ol the Ptolemarc ma lrom Alexandrrato Florence
around I +00aearstohavelayedacrucralrole rnthe Renaissance
drscovery and use olersectrvism.
The ortolans drd not lurnish a geometrrcal lramework lor
comrehendrng the whole world. The Ptolemarc grrd, on the
other hand, osed an rmmedrate mathematrcal unrty. The most
lar-llung laces could all be recrsely nxed rn relatron to one
anotherby unchangrng coordrnates so thattheirroortronate
drstance, as well as therr drrectronal relatronshrs, would be
aarent. . . The Ptolemarc system gave the Florentines aer-
lect, exandable cartograhrc tool lor collectrng, collatrng, and
correctrng geograhrcal knowledge. Above all, rt sulred to
geograhy the sameaesthetrcrrncrlesolgeometrrcalharmony
whrch Florentrnes demanded ol all therr art. |dgerton, I9/6)
2+6
The experience of space and time
Plate 3. 4 The rational ordering of space in the renissance maps of England
played an important role in affrming the position of individuals in relation
to territory: John Speed's map of the Isle of Wight, I6I6
The connectron with ersectivrsm lay rn this.
.
that

rn desrgnig
the grid in whrch to locate laces, Ptolemy had ima

ined h
9
t e
lobe as a whole would look to a human eye lookmg
.
at it

m
utside. Anumberolrmlrcatronsthenlollow.Thenrs

is an abiL

y
to see the globe as a knowable totalrty. As Ptole

y himsell p.t
the goal ' ol chorograhy rs to deal searately with a art o
.
t
.
e
whole ' whereas 'the task ol geograhy rsto survey the whole H its
ust

roortion. ' Ceograhy rather than chorograhy ecame

.
a
ienasancemrssion.A secondrmlicationis that mathematcalrn-
cr les could be alied, as rn otrcs, tothewh

leroblem lrere-
setingthe globe on allat surlace. As a resul
'
, it seemed as ilsace,
though rnnnrte, was conquerable and contatt:ab
.
le lo
' P
ur

ses
.
O
humanoccuancyandaction.Itcouldbea

roratedii: im
.
agit:aton
according to mathematrcal rrncrles. Ad it was exacty
.
H suc a
context that the revolutron in natural hilosohy,

so brllan

ly des-
cribedbyKoyre | I 95/), whrchwentlrom CoernicustoCalleo and
ultrmately to Mewton, was to occur.
.
d
.
Persectrvrsm had reverberatrons inall asects ol social lile an H
Time and space of the Enlightenment project 2+/
all nelds ol reresentation. In archrtecture, lor examle, it allowed
the relacement ol Cothic structures 'sun lrom arcane geometrical
lormulae jealously guarded by the lodge' with a building conceived
ol and built 'on a unrtary lan drawn to measure' |Kostol, I 985,
+05). This way ol thinkrng could be extended to encomass the
la nrng andconstructron olwhole cities |lrke Ferrara) according to
a simrlar unitary lan. Persectrvrsm could be elaborated uon in
innumerableways, as,lorexamle,rnthe baroque archrtecture olthe
seventeenth centurywhrch exressed 'acommonlascrnation wrththe
rdea ol the innnrte, ol movement and lorce, and the all-embracrng
but exansive unity ol thrngs. ' Whrle still religrous rn ambrtion and
lntent,sucharchrtecture would havebeen 'unthrnkablern theearlier,
simler days belore rojective geometry, calculus, recrsron clocks,
andMewtonian otics'|Kostol, I 985, 523). Baroquearchrtecture and
Bach lugues are both exressive ol those concets ol rnnnrte sace
andtrme whrch ost-Renaissance science elaborated uonwith such
zeal. The extraordrnary strength ol satral and temoral imagery in
the nglish literature ol the Renarssance likewrse testrnes to the
imact ol this new sense ol sace and trme on literary modes ol
reresentatron. The language ol Shakeseare, or ol oets lrke |ohn
DonneandAndrewMarvell,isrrlewithsuch imagery. Itrsrntriguing
U note, lurthermore, how the image ol the world as a theatre |'all
the world's a stage' layed rn a theatre called 'The Clobe') was
recrrocated in the trtles commonly given to atlases and mas |such
as |ohn Seed's Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain and the
French atlas, Theatre franrais ol I 59+). The construction ol land-
scaes |both rural and urban) accordrng to rincrles ol theatrical
desrgn soon lollowed suit.
Il satial and temoraI exeriences are rrmary vehrcles lor the
codrng and reroductron ol social relatrons |as Bourdieu suggests),
then a change rn the way the lormer get reresented will almost
certarnly generate some kind ol shilt in the latter. This rrncile
hels exlarn the suort that the Renaissance mas ol ngland
sulied to rndividualrsm, natronalrsm, andarliamentary democracy
athe exense oldynastic rivrlege |see late 3.5) . But, as Helgerson
ointsout,mas could just aseasilylunction'rnuntroubledsuort
ol a strongly centralized monarchrc regime,' though Phili II ol
Sain thought hrs mas sulncrently subversrve to kee them under
lock and key as a state secret. Colbert's lans lor a rationalsatral
integratron ol the Irench natron state |locused as much uon the
enhancementoltradeandcommerceasuonadmrnistrativeelnciency)
are tyical ol the deloyment olthe 'cold ratronalrty' ol mas used
lor instrumental ends in suort olcentralized state ower. It was,
Plate 3 5 Dynasty versus the map: the Ditchley Portrait of
.
Queen Elizabet
empha;izing the power of dynasty over individual and natwn as represente
by the Renaissance map
Time and space of the Enlightenment project 2+9
alter all, Colbert, rntheageolIrench Absolutrsm,whoencouraged
the IrenchAcademy olScrences |set u rn I 666) and the nrst olthe
great ma-makrng lamrly, |ean omrnique Cassrnr, to roduce a
coherent and well-ordered ma ol Irance.
The Renarssance revolutronrn concets olsace and trmelard the
concetualloundatronsrn manyresects lor thenlrghtenmentro-
j ect.Whatmanynowlookuon as the nrstgreatsurge olmodernrst
thinkrng, took the domrnatron olnature as a necessary condrtron ol
humanemancratron.Srncesacers a'lact' olnature,thismeantthat
the conquest and ratronal orderrng ol sace became an integralart
ol the modernrzing roject. The drllerence this trme was that sace
andtrmehadto beorganizednotto relIectthegloryolCod, but to
celebrate and lacrlrtate the liberatron ol 'Man' as a lree and actrve
rndrvrdual, endowed wrth conscrousness and wrll It was in thrs
rmage thatanewlandscaewastoemerge.Thetwrstrngersectrves
and intense lorce nelds constructed to the glory ol Cod rn baroque
archrtecture had to grve way to the ratronalrzed structures ol an
archrtect lrke Boulee |whose roject, see late 3 . 6, lor a cenotah
lor Isaac Mewton is a vrsronary rece ol modernrsm). There rs a
contrnuous thread ol thought lrom Voltarre's concern wrth ratronal
crty lannrng through to Sarnt-Srmon's vrsron ol associated cartals
unrlyrng the earth by way ol vast rnvestments rn transort and
communrcatrons, and Coethe's herorc rnvocatron rn Iaust - 'let me
oen saces lor many mrllrons/ to dwell rn, though not secure, yet
actrveandlree' - andtheultrmaterealrzationolexactlysuchrojects
3 art and arcel ol the cartalrst modernrzatron rocess rn the
nrneteenthcentury.nlrghtenmentthrnkerssrmrlarlylookedto com-
mandovertheluturethroughowersolscientrncredrctron,through
socral engrneerrng and ratronal lannrng, and the instrtutronalrzatron
ol ratronal systems ol socral regulatron and controI They rn ellect
arorrated and ushedRenarssance concetions ol sace and trme
to their lrmrt rn the search to construct a new, more democratrc,
healthrer,andmoreallluentsocrety.Accuratemasandchronometers
were essentral tools wrthrn the nlrghtenment vrsron ol how the
world should be organrzed.
Mas, strred ol all elements ol lantasy and relrgrous belrel, as
well as olany srgn ol the exerrences rnvolved rn therr roduction,
had become abstract and strrctly lunctronal systems lor the lactual
orderrng olhenomena rn sace.Thescrenceolmarojectron, and
technrquesolcadastralsurveyrng,madethemmathematrcallyrrgorous
derctions. They denned roerty rrghts rn land, terrrtorral boun-
darres,domarns oladmrnrstratronandsocralcontrol,communicatron
routes, etc. wrth rncreasrng accuracy. They also allowed the whole
250 The experience of space and time
r
Plate 3. 6 Boulee's eighteenth-century design for Newton's Cenotaph
pioneered the rational and ordered sense of architectural space later taken up
b moderism.
oulatron ol the earth, lor the nrst trme rn human hrstory, to be
locatedwrthrna srnglesatrallrame|seelate 3. /).The grrdthatthe
Ptolemarc system had rovrded as a means to absorb the rnlIow ol
newrnlormatronhadbynowbeencorrected andnlled out, so thata
long lrne olthrnkers,lromMontesqureutoRousseau, could begrnto
seculate onthematerral and ratronal rrncrles that mrght order the
drstrrbutronoloulatrons, ways ollrle, andolrtrcalsystems onthe
surlace ol the globe. It was wrthrn the connnes ol such a totalrzrng
vrsron ol the globe that envrronmental determrnrsm and a certarn
concetron ol 'otherness' could be admrtted, even lIourrsh. The dr-
versrty ol eoles could be arecrated and analysed rn the secure
knowledge thattherr 'lace' rn the satral orderwas unambrguously
known. Inexactlythesamewaythatnlrghtenmentthrnkers belreved
that translatron lrom one language to another was always ossrble
wrthoutdestroyrng the rntegrrty olertherlanguage, so the totalrzrng
vrsron ol the ma allowed strong senses ol natronal, local, and
ersonal rdentrtres to be constructed rn the mrdst ol geograhrcal
drllerences. Werenotthe latteralterall entrrelycomatrblewrththe
drvrsron ol labour, commerce, and otherlorms ol exchange? Were
they not also exlrcable rn terms ol drllerent envrronmental con
drtrons ? I do not want to rdealrze the qualrtres ol thought that
252 The experience of space and time
resulted.Theenvironmentalistexlanationsoldillerenceutlorward
by Montesquieu and Rousseauhardly aear enlightened, while the
sordid lacts olthe slave trade and the subjugation olwomenassed
nlightenmentthinkers bywith hardlyamurmurolrotest.Mever-
theless, I do want to insist that the roblem with nlightenment
thoughtwas not that ithad no concetionol'the other' but that it
erceived 'the other' as necessarily having |and sometimes 'keeing
to') a secinc place in a satial order that was ethnocentrically
conceived to have homogeneous and absolute qualities.
Therecordingoltimebythechronometerwasnolesstotalizingin
its imlication lor thought and action. Increasingly seen as a mech-
anicaldivisionnxedbytheswingoltheendulum,time'sarrowwas
conceivedtobelinearbothlorwardsandbackwards.Theconcetion
ol ast and luture as linearly connected by thetickingaway ol the
clock allowed all manner ol scientinc and historical concetions to
lIourish. n such a temoral schema it wasossible to see retro-
dictionandredictionassymmetricalroositions,andtolormulate
a strong sense olotentialityto control theluture. And eventhough
ittook manyyears lor geological andevolutionarytime scales to be
acceted, there is a sense i nwhich such time scales were already
imlicit in the very accetance ol the chronometer as the way ol
telling time. ven more imortant, erhas, was the signincance ol
suchaconcetionolhomogeneousanduniversal timetoconcetions
oltherate olront|returnon stock olcaitalovertime, saidAdam
Smith), the rate ol interest, the hourlywage, and other magnitudes
lundamentaltocaitalistdecision-making.Whatallthisaddsu to is
theby nowwellaccetedlact thatnlightenment thought oerated
withinthe connnes ol arathermechanical'Mewtonian'visionolthe
universe,inwhichtheresumedabsolutesolhomogeneous time and
sace lormed limiting containers to thought and action. The break
down in these absolute concetions under the stress ol time-sace
comression was the central story ol the birth ol nineteenth- and
earlytwentieth-centurylorms ol modernism.
I thinkit uselul, however, to ave the ath to understanding the
break into modernistways ol seeing alter I 3+3with a consideration
ol the tensions that laywithinnlightenment concetions ol sace.
The theoretical, reresentational, and ractical dilemmas are also
instructive in interreting the subsequent move towards ost-
modernism.
Consider, as a startingoint, de Certeau'scontemorarycritique
ol the ma as a 'totalizing device. ' The alication ol mathematical
rinciles roduces 'alormal ensemble ol abstract laces' and 'col-
lates on the same lane heterogeneous laces, some received lrom
Time and space of the Enlightenment project 253
tradition and othersroducedbyobservation.'The ma is,inellect,
a homogenization and reincation ol the rich diversity ol satial
itineraries andsatialstories. It'eliminates littlebylittle' alltraces ol
'the ractices that roduce it.' While the tactile qualities ol the
mediaeval ma reserved such traces, the mathematically rigorous
masolthenlightenmentwereolquitedillerentqualities.Bourdieu's
arguments also aly. Since any system ol reresentation is itseIl a
nxed satial construct, it automatically converts the lluid, conlused,
butnonetheless objective saces and time olwork and social rero-
duction into a nxed schema. '|ust as the ma relaces the discon-
tinuous atchy sace ol ractical aths by the homogeneous, con-
tinuoussaceolgeometry,sothecalendarsubstitutesaIinear,homo-
geneous, continuous time lor ractical time, which is made u ol
incommensurableislandsoldurationeachwithitsownrhythm.'The
analyst, Bourdieu continues, may win 'the rivilege ol totalization'
and secure 'the means lor arehending the logic ol the system
which a artial or discrete view would miss,' but there is also
'everylikelihood thathe will overlook thechange in status towhich
he issubjectingractice anditsroduct,'andconsequently 'insist on
trying to answer questions which are not and cannot be questions
lorractice.' By treating certain idealized concetions olsace and
time as real, nlightenment thinkers ran the danger olconnning the
lree llow ol human exerience and ractice to rationalized con-
ngurations. It is in these terms that Foucault detects the reressive
turn in nlightenment ractices towards surveillance and control
Thisrovides auselul insight into 'ostmodernist' criticism olthe
'totalizing qualities' ol nlightenment thought and the 'tyranny' ol
ersectivism. It also highlights arecurringroblem. Il sociallile is
to be rationally lanned and controlled so as to romote social
equalityandthewellareolall,thenhowcanroduction,consumtion,
and social interaction be lanned and elnciently organized excet
throughthe incororation olthe idealabstractions olsace and time
as giveninthema, thechronometer, andthe calendar? Beyond this
there lies anotherroblem. Ilersectivism, lor all its mathematical
rigour, constructs the worldlrom a givenindividualviewoint, then
lrom whose ersective is the hysical landscae to be shaed? The
architect, designer, lanner could not reserve the tactile sense ol
mediaeval reresentations. ven when not directly dominated by
class interests, the roducer ol sace could only roduce 'alien art'
lromthe standoint olits inhabitants. Insolaras the sociallanning
ol high modernism reincororated these elements into its ractical
alications, itlikewise stood to be accused olthe 'totalizingvision'
ol sace and time to which nlightenment thinking was heir. The
25+ The experience of space and time
mathematrcalunrtresgrvenbyRenarssance ersectrvism could, lrom
thrs standornt, be regarded asj ustas totalrzing andreressrve as the
mas.
Let me lollow this lrne ol argument a brt lurther i n order to
cature the central drlemma oldennrng a roer satial lrame lor
socral actron.
The conquest andcontrol ol sace, orexamle, nrstrequrres that
rt be concerved ol as something usable, malleable, and therelore
caable ol domrnatron through human actron. Persectrvrsm and
mathematrcal marng drd thrs by concervrng ol sace as abstract,
homogeneous, andunrversalinitsqualrtres, alramework olthought
and actron which was stable and knowable. uclrdean geometry
rovrded the basic language ol drscourse. Burlders, engineers, ar-
chrtects, and land managers lor therr art showed how uclrdean
reresentationsolobjectrvesacecouldbeconvertedrnto a satrally
ordered hysrcally landscae. Merchants and landowners used such
ractrces lor their own class uroses, whrle the absolutrst state
|withrts concern lor taxation ol land and the dennrtron ol rts own
domarnoldominatronandsocralcontrol)lrkewiserelrshedthecaacrty
to denne and roduce saces wrth nxed satial co-ordrnates. But
thesewererslands olractrcewithrnaseaolsocralactrvrtresrnwhrch
all manner ol other concetrons ol sace and lace sacred and
rolane, symbolrc, ersonal, animrstrc - could contrnue to lunction
undrsturbed.Ittook somethrng more toconsolrdatethe actualuse ol
sace as unrversal, homogeneous, objective, and abstract rn socral
ractrce. In srte ol the lethora ol utoian lans, the 'somethrng
more' that came to dominate was rivate roerty rn land, and the
buyrng and sellrng ol sace as a commodrty.
Thrsbrrngs us totheheartolthedrlemmasoltheoliticsolsace
rn any krnd ol roject to translorm socrety. Lelebvre | I 9/+, 335)
observes,lorexamle,thatoneolthewaysrnwhichthehomogenerty
ol sace can be achieved rs through rts total 'ulverizatron' and
lragmentatron rnto lreely alrenable arcels olrivateroerty, to be
bought and traded at wrll uon the market. Thrs was, ol course,
exactly the strategy that so lorcelully translormed the Britrsh land-
scae through the enclosuremovements olthe erghteenth and early
nrneteenth centuries, and whrch demanded systematrc marng as
one ol its accoutrements. There rs, Lelebvre suggests, a ermanent
tensron between the lree arorratron ol sace lor rndrvrdual and
social uroses, and the domrnation ol sace through rrvate ro-
erty, the state, and otherlorms ol class and socral ower. ut ol
Lelebvre's roositron we can extractnveexlrcrtdilemmas .
Time and space of the Enlightenment project 255
I Ilrtrstrue that the only way that sacecanbecontrolled and
organrzed rs through rts 'ulverrzatron' and lragmentation, then rt
behoves us to establishtherincrles ol that lragmentation. Ilsace,
asFoucaultwouldhaveit,rsalwaysacontarnerolsocralower, then
the reorganrzatron ol sace is always a reorganrzation olthe lrame-
work through whrch socral ower rs exressed. Polrtrcal economrsts
ol the nlrghtenment errod debated thrs roblem qurte exlrcrtly
underthe ooseddoctrrnes olmercantrlrsm |rnwhich the state was
the relevant geograhicalunit around whrch satial olrcy should be
lormulated)andlrberalrsm|rnwhrchrt wastherrghtsolrndrvrdualrzed
rrvate roerty that were aramount). Turgot, French mrnrster ol
stateandanemrnenteconomrstwrthhysiocratrcandlrberalleanings,
commissioned the accurate cadastral marng ol much ol France
reciselybecause hesoughttosuortrivateroertyrelatrons,the
drsersal ol economic and olitical ower, and to lacrlrtate the lree
crrculatronolcommodrtres bothwrthrnandwrthout France. Colbert,
on the otherhand, had earlrertrred to organrze the French sace to
concentrateonParrs,thecartal,becauseolhrsrnterestrnsuortrng
the absolute state and monarchrcal ower. Both were concerned to
enhancethe nscal basrsolstateower,butsawqurtedrllerentsatral
olrcres as necessary to meet that goal, becausethey envrsaged qurte
drllerent relatrons ol ower between rrvate roerty and the state
|ocks, I 969).
2 What nlrghtenment thrnkers began to grale wrth was the
whole roblem ol 'the roductron ol sace' as a olitrcal and econ-
omrc henomenon. The roductron olturnrkes, canals, systems ol
communicatron and adminrstratron, cleared lands, and the like ut
the questron ol the roduction ol a sace ol transort and com-
munrcatrons clearly on the agenda. Any change rn sace relatrons
wrought by such rnvestments, alter all, allected the rontabilrty ol
economrc actrvity unevenly, and therelore led to a redrstrrbutron ol
wealth and ower. Anyattemtto democratrzeand drserse olitical
ower likewrse entarled some krnd ol satral strategy. ne ol the
nrst rnrtratrves ol the French Revolutron was to devrse a rational
system ol admrnistratron through a highly ratronal and egalrtarran
drvrsron ol the French natronal sace rnto 'deartments' |see late
3. 3). Perhas the clearest examle ol thrs olitrcs rn actron rs the
desrgn ol the homesteading system and the satral grrd lor land
settlementin theLnrtedStates |aroductol|ellersonrandemocratrc
and nlrghtenment thrnkrng). The ulverrzatron and lragmentatron
ol the sace ol the Lnited States along such ratronalistrc lrnes was
Plate 3. 8 The French Revolution emphasized Enlightenment concers for
both the rational mapping of space and its rational division for purposes of
administration: (above) a 1780 prospectus for a 'Nouvelle Topographie' of
France and (below) a 1789 map drawn up b the National Assembly to
T .
Time and space of the Enlightenment project 25/
thought to |and rn some resects rndeed drd) rmly maxrmum rn-
drvrdual lrberty to move and settle rn a reasonably egalrtarran way
rn the srrrt ol a roerty-ownrng and agrarran democracy. The
|ellersonranvrsronwas ultrmately subverted, but atleastu untrlthe
Crvrl War there was enough truth rn rts ractrcal meanrng to grve
somecredencetotherdeathattheLnrted States,recrselybecauseol
rts oen satral organrzatron,was the land where the utoran vrsrons
ol the nlrghtenment mrght be realrzed.
3 There can be no olrtrcs ol sace rndeendent ol socral re-
latrons. Thelattergrvethelormertherr socral contentand meanrng.
Thrs was the rock uon whrch the rnnumerable utoran lans ol
the nlrghtenment loundered. The ulverrzatron ol sace, whrch
|ellersonranland olrtrcs resumedwould oen theway to an egalr-
tarran democracy, ended u berng a means that lacrlrtated the ro-
lrleratronolcartalrstsocralrelatrons. Itrovrdedaremarkably oen
lramework wrthrn whrch money ower could oerate wrth lew ol
the constrarnts encountered rn uroe. In the uroean context rt
wastherdeas olSarnt-Srmon,wrthhrs assocratedcartalsconquerrng
andsubdurng sace rnthename olhumanwellare, thatsrmrlarlygot
subverted. Alter I 3+3, credrtbankers such as thePererre brothersrn
Second mrre France, romoted a hrghly rontable even rl se-
culatrve'satralnx'tothedrlemmasoloveraccumulatronandcartalrst
crrsrs, through a vast wave ol rnvestments rn rarlways, canals, and
urban rnlrastructures.
+ The homogenrzatron ol saceoses serrous drlncultres lor the
concetron ol lace. Il the latter rs the srte ol Berng |as many
theorrsts were later to suose), then Becomrng entarls a satral
olrtrcs that renders lace subservrent to translormatrons ol sace.
Absolute saceyrelds, as rt were, to relatrve sace. It rs recrsely at
thrsorntthattherncrrenttensronbetweenlaceandsacecanget
translormedrntoanabsoluteantagonrsm.Thereorganrzatronolsace
to democratrc ends challenged dynastrc ower embedded rn lace.
'The beatrng down olgates, the crossrng olcastle moats, walkrng at
one's ease rn laces where one was once lorbrdden to enter. the
arorratronolacertarn sace, whrchhadtobe oenedandbroken
rnto, was the nrst delrght olthe 'French| Revolutron.' Moreover, as
'good sons olthenlrghtenment,' zoul| I 933, I 26-3/) goesonto
reort, the revolutronarres 'saw sace and trme as an occasron' to
construct a ceremonral sace thatwas the equrvalentol 'the trme ol
theRevolutron'. But the subversronolthatdemocratrzrngroiect by
money ower and cartal led to the commodrncatron ol sace and
253 The experience of space and time
the roductron olnew but equally oressrve geograhrcal systems
lor the contarnerrzatron olower |as rn the Lnrted States) .
5 Thrs leads us backto the mostserrous drlemma olall . the lact
that sace can be conquered only through the roductron ol sace.
The secrnc saces ol transort and communrcations, ol human
settlement and occuancy, alllegrtrmrzedundersomelegalsystem ol
rrghtsto saces |olthebody, olland, olhome,etc.)whrchguarantees
securrty ol lace and access to the members olsociety, lorm a nxed
lrame wrthrnwhrch the dynamrcs ol a socral rocess must unlold.
When laced rn the context ol cartal accumulatron thrs nxrty ol
satral organrzatron becomes herghtened rnto an absolute contra-
drctron. The ellect rs to unleash cartalrsm's owers ol 'creatrve
destructron' uonthegeograhrcallandscae, sarkrngvrolentmove-
ments oloosrtronlrom all krnds ol quarters.
Thrs last ornt rs sulncrently rmortant to warrant generalrzatron.
Motonlydoesrttaketheroductronolasecrnc, nxed, andrmmov-
able sace to ursue the ' annrhrlatron olsace through trme,' but rt
also takes long-term rnvestments ol slow turnover time |automated
lants, robots, etc. ) rn order to accelerate the turnover trme ol the
massolcartals.Howcatalrsmconlrontsanderiodrcallysuccumbs
to thrs nexus ol contradrctrons rs one olthe major untold storres rn
the hrstorrcal geograhy olcartalrsm. Trme-sace comressronrs a
srgn olthe rntensrty ol lorces atwork atthrs

exus olcontrarctr

n
andrtmaywell be thatcrrsesoloveraccumulauon aswellascrsesin
culturalandolrtrcal lorms are owerlully connected to such lorces.
nlrghtenment thrnkers sought a better socrety. In so dorng they
had to ay attentron to the ratronal orderrng ol sace and trme as
rereqursrtes to the constructron ol a socrety that would guarantee
rndrvrduallrbertres andhumanwellare. The roiectmeanttherecon
structronolthesaces olowerrnradrcallynewterms, butrtroved
rmossrble to secrly exactly what those terms mrght be. State,
communrtarran, and rndrvrdualrstrcrdeaswereassocratedwrthdrller-
ent satral landscaes, just as drllerentral command over trme osed
crucralroblemsolclassrelatrons, oltherrghts tothelrurts olone's
labour, and ol cartal accumulatron. Yetallnlrghtenment rojects
hadrncommonarelatrvelyunrnedcommon-senseolwhatsaceand
trmewereaboutandwhytherrratronalorderrngwasrmortant.Thrs
commonbasrsrnartdeendedontheoularavarlabrlrtyolwatches
andclocks, andonthecaacrtytodrllusecartograhrcknowledgeby
cheaer and more elncrent rrntrng technrques. But rt also rested
uon the lrnk between Renarssance ersectrvsm and a concetion
Time and space of the Enlightenment project 259
ol the rndrvrdual as the ultrmate source and contarner ol socral
ower,albertassrmrlatedwrthrnthenatronstateasacollectrve

ystem
ol authorrty. The economrc condrtrons ol the uroean nlighten-
ment contrrbuted rn no uncertarn measure to the sense ol common
objectrves. Increased cometrtron between states andothereconomrc
unrts created ressure to ratronalrze and co-ordrnate the sace and
trme ol economrc actrvrty, be rtwrthrn a natronal sace oltransort
andcommunrcatrons, oladmrnrstratron andmrlrtaryorganrzatron, or
the more localrzed saces olrrvate estates and munrcralrtres. All
economrc unrtswere caughtu rn aworld olrncreasrngcometrtron
rn whrch the stakes were ultrmately economrc success |measured rn
the bullron so dear to the mercantrlrsts, or by the accumulatron ol
rndrvrdualrzedmoney, wealth, andower as lauded bythe lrberals) .
Theractrcalratronalrzatron ol sace andtrme throughout the erght-
eenth century a rogress marked by the rrse ol the rdnance
Survey orolsystematrccadastralmarngrnFranceattheendolthe
erghteenth century - lormed the context rn whrch nlrghtenment
thrnkerslormulatedtherrrojects.Andrtwasagarnstthrsconcetron
that the second great turn ol modernrsm alter I 3+3 revolted.
J b
Time-s pace compression and the
rise of modernism as a
cultural force
The deressron that swet out ol Brrtarn rn I 3+6-/ and whrch
qurckly engulled the whole ol what was then the caitalrst world,
can justly be regarded as the nrst unambrguous crrsrs ol cartalrst
overaccumulatron. It shook the conndence ol the bourgeorsre and
challenged rts sense ol hrstory and geograhy rn rolound ways.
Therehadbeenmanyeconomrcandolrtrcalcrrses belore, butmost
could reasonably beattrrbuted to natural calamrtres |such as harvest
larlures) or wars and other geoolrtrcal struggles. But thrs one was
drllerent.Though therewerebadharvestshere and there, thrs crrsrs
could not easrly be attrrbuted to Cod or nature. Caitalrsm had
matured by I 3+/-3 to a sulncrentdegree, so that eventhe blindest
bourgeorsaologrstcouldseethatnnancralcondrtrons,recklesssec-
ulatron, andoverroductronhad somethrngto dowrthevents. The
outcome, rn any case, was a sudden aralysrs ol the economy, rn
whrchsurlusesolcartalandlabourlaysrdebysrdewrthaarently
no way to reunrte them rn rontable and socrally uselul unron.
Therewere, olcourse, as manyexlanatrons olthe crrsrs as there
wereclassosrtrons|andagoodlewmorebesrdes).Thecraltworkers
lromParrstoVrenna tended tovrewrtasthernevrtable outcome ola
ramant cartalrst develoment rocess that was changrng emloy-
ment condrtrons, rarsrng the rate ol exlortation, and destroyrng
tradrtronalskrlls, whrlerogressive elementsrnthe bourgeorsre could
vrewrt asa roduct oltherecalcrtrantarrstocratrc and leudal orders
who relused the course olrogress. The latter, lor therrart, could
attrrbute the whole allair to the undermining ol tradrtronal values
and socral hrerarchres bythe materralist values and ractrces olboth
workers and an aggressrve class olcartalrsts and nnanciers.
The thesrs I want to exlore here, however, rs that the crrsrs ol
I 3+/-3created a crrsrs ol reresentatron, andthatthrslatter crrsrs
rtsell derrved lrom a radrcal readjustment rn the sense ol trme and
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 26I
sace rneconomrc, olrtrcal, and cultural lrle. Belore I 3+3, rogres-
srve elements wrthrn the bourgeorsie could reasonably hold to the
nlrghtenment sense ol trme |'trme ressrng lorward' as Curvrtch
would utrt),recognrzrngthat theywere nghtrngabattleagarnstthe
'enduring'andecologrcaltrmeoltradrtronalsocretresandtheretarded
trme' olrecalcitrantlorms olsocial organizatron. ButalterI 3+3, that
rogressrve sense oltrmewascalledrnto questroninmanyrmortant
resects . Too many eole rn uroe had lought on the barrrcades,
or been caught u rn the maelstrom ol hoes and lears, not to
arecrate the strmulus that comes wrthartrcrantactron rn 'exlo-
srvetrme. 'Baudelaire,lorone,couldneverlorgettheexerrence,and
came back to rt agarn and agarn in hrs exloratrons ol a modernrst
language. In retrosect, rt became easrer to rnvoke some cyclical
sense ol time |hence the growrng rnterest rn the rdea ol business
cyclesas necessarycomonents to thecaitalrstgrowth rocess that
would connect back to the economrc troubles ol I 33/, I 326, and
I 3 I /). r, rl eole were mrndlul enough ol class tensrons, they
might rnvoke, as Marx drd rn The eighteenth brumaire of Louis
Bonaparte, a sense ol 'alternatrng trme' rn whrch the outcome ol
brtterstruggles mustalways beseen as arecarrous balancebetween
class lorces. But I thrnkrt true to say that the questron 'What trme
arewern?'camernuonthehrlosohrcalagendaalterI 3+3m ways
that challenged the srmle mathematrcal resuosrtrons ol n-
lrghtenment thrnkrng The sense ol hysrcal and socral trme, so
recently brought together rn nlrghtenment thought, began once
more to drverge. It then became ossrble lor the artrst and the
thrnker to exlore the nature and meanrng oltrme rn new ways.
The events ol I 3+/-3 also challenged certarntres as tothenature
olsaceand the meaning olmoney. vents roved that uroe had
achreved a level ol satral rntegratron rn rts economrc and nnancral
lrlethatwastomake thewhole contrnentvulnerabletosrmultaneous
crrsrs lormatron. The olrtrcal revolutrons that eruted at once
across the contrnent emhasized the synchronrc as well as the dra-
chronrc drmensrons to caitalrst develoment. The certarnty ol ab-
solute sace and lace gave way to the rnsecurrtres ol a shrlting
relative sace, rn which events in one lace could have rmmedrate
and ramrlyrng ellects rn several other laces. Il, as |ameson | I933,
3+9)suggests, 'the truth olexerrence nolonger coincrdes wrth the
lace rn whrch rttakes lace,' but is sreadeagled across the world's
saces, then a situatron arrses 'rnwhrchwe can say thatrlrndividual
exerrence rs authentrc, thenrt cannot be true; and thatilascrentinc
or cognitrve mode ol the same content rs true, then rt escaes rn-
drvrdual exerrence. ' Since rndrvrdual exerrence always lorms the
262 The experience of space and time
rawmaterralolworks olart,thrscondrtronoseddeeroblemslor
artrstrc roductron. But thrs was not the only arena ol conlusron.
rverselocalworkers'movementssuddenlyloundthemselvesswet
u rn a serres ol events and olrtrcal shrlts whrch had no obvrous
boundarres. Matronalrst workers could exhrbrt xenohobra rn Parrs
yet symathrze wrth Polrsh or Vrennese workers strugglrng, lrke
them, lor olrtrcal and economrc emancratron rn therr artrcular
saces. It was rn such a context that the unrversalrstroosrtrons ol
The communist manifesto made more than a lrttIe sense. How to
reconcrle the ersectrve ol lace wrth the shrltrng ersectrves ol
relatrve sace became a serrous rssue to whrch modernrsm was to
address rtsellwrthrncreasrngvrgour uuntrlthe shock ol the Frrst
WorldWar.
uroean sace was becomrng more and more unrned recrsely
because ol the rnternatronalrsm ol money ower. I 3+/-3 was a
nnancral and monetary crrsrs whrch serrously challenged recerved
rdeas as to the meanrng androle olmoney rn socral lrle. Thetensron
betweenthelunctronsolmoneyas ameasureandstore olvalue,and
money as a lubrrcant ol exchange and rnvestment had long been
evrdent.Butrtwasnowregrsteredasadownrrghtantagonrsmbetween
the nnancral system |the whole structure ol credrt moneys and 'nc-
trtrous cartals') and rts monetary base |gold and other tangrble
commodrtres that grve a clear hysrcal meanrng to money). Credrt
money rn ellect came crashrng down, leavrng a shortage ol 'real
money'andsecrernI 3+/-3. Thosewhocontrolledsecrecontrolled
a vrtal source ol socral ower. The Rothschrlds used that ower to
greatellect and, through therr suerror command over sace, came
to domrnate the nnances ol the whole uroean contrnent. Yet the
questron olthe true nature and meanrng olmoneywas not so easrly
resolved. The tensron betweencredrtand secre moneyloomedlarge
m the subsequent years, eventually brrngrng even the Rothschrlds
rnto a bankrng world rn whrch the credrt system and 'nctrtrous
cartallormatron'becamearamount.Thrsrnturnalteredthemeanrng
ol trme |rnvestment trmes, rate olreturn, etc. ) and other vrtal mag-
nrtudes to cartalrsm's domrnant mode ol conductrng busrness. It
wasonlyalter I 350,alterall,thatstockandcartalmarkets|markets
lor 'nctrtrous cartal') were systematrcally organrzed and oened to
general artrcratron under legal rules ol rncororatron and market
contract.
All oltheseshrlts createdacrrsrs olreresentatron. Mertherlrtera-
turenorartcouldavordthequestronolrnternatronalrsm,synchrony,
rnsecure temoralrty, and the tensron wrthrn the domrnant measure
olvaluebetweenthennancralsystemandrtsmonetaryorcommodrty
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 263
base 'Around I 350,' wrrtes Barthes ( I 96/, 9), 'classrcal wrtmg
therelore drsrntegrated, andthewholeollrterature, lromFlaubertto
the resent day, became the roblematrcs ol language. ' It rs no
accrdent that the nrst great modernrst cultural thrust occurred rn
ParrsalterI 3+3. ThebrushstrokesolManetthatbegantodecomose
thetradrtronalsaceolarntrngandto alterrtslrame,to exlorethe
lragmentatrons ol lrght and colour; the oems and reectrons ol
Baudelarre that sought to transcend ehemeralrty and the narrow
olrtrcs ollace rnthe searchloreternalmeanrngs; andthe novels ol
Flaubert rth therr eculrar narratrve structures rn sace and trme
couledwrtha language olrcy aloolness; allolthesewere srgnals ol
aradrcal breakolculturalsentrment thatrelIected arolound ques-
tronrng ol the meanrng ol sace and lace, ol resent, ast and
luture, rn a world ol rnsecurrty and rardly exandrng satral
horrzons.
Flaubert, lor examle, exlores the questron ol reresentatron ol
heterogenerty and drllerence, ol srmultanerty and synchrony, rn a
world where both trme and sace are berng absorbed under the
homogenrzrng owers ol money and commodrty exchange. 'very-
thrng should sound srmultaneously,' he wrote; 'one should hear the
bellowrngolthecattle,thewhrserrngolthe lovers, andtherhetorrc
olthe olncrals all at the same trme.' Lnable to reresent thrs srmul-
tanerty wrth the reqursrte ellect, Flaubert ' drssolves the sequence by
cuttrngback andlorth|the crnematograhrcanalogy rs qurte delrber-
ate)' and rn the nnal crescendo to a scene rn Madame Bovary jux-
taoses two sequences 'rn a srngle sentence to reach aunrned ellect'
|Bell, I 9/3, I I+). FrederrcMoreau,theheroolFlaubert'sL'
E
ducation
sentimentale, moves lrom sace to sace rn Parrs and rts suburbs,
collectrngexerrences olqurtedrllerent qualrtres as he goes.Whatrs
secral rs the way that he glrdes rn and out ol the drllerentrated
saces ol the crty, wrth the same sort ol ease that money and
commodrtres change hands. The whole narratrve structure ol the
book lrkewrse gets lost rn eretual ostonements ol decrsrons
recrsely because Frederrc has enoughrnherrtedmoney to enjoy the
luxury ol not decrdrng, even rn the mrdst ol revolutronary turmorl.
Actronrsreducedtoasetolathsthatmrghthave beenbutwerenot
taken. 'The thought ol the luture torments us, and the ast rs
holdrng us back,' Flaubert ( I 9/9, I 3+) later wrote, addrng, 'that rs
whytheresentrsslrrnglromourgras. ' Yetrtwastheossessron
ol moneythatallowed theresent to slrthroughFrederrc's gras,
whrle oenrng socral saces to casual enetratron. vrdently, trme,
sace,andmoneycouldbernvestedwrthratherdrllerentsrgnincances,
deendrng uon the condrtrons and ossrbrlrtres ol trade-oll be-
26+ The experience of space and time
tween them. Flaubert had to nnd a new language to seak ol such
ossrbrlrtres.
Theseexloratrons olnewculturallormsoccurredrnan economrc
and olrtrcal context whrch rn many resects belred that ol the
economrccollaseand revolutronaryusurgeol I 3+3. venthough,
lorexamle, excessrveseculatronrnrarlroadconstructrontrrggered
the nrsturoean-wrdecrrsrs oloveraccumulatron, theresolutronto
that crrsrs alter I350 rested heavrly uon lurther exloratron ol
temoral and satral drslacement. Mew systems ol credrt and cor-
orate lorms ol organrzatron, ol drstrrbutron |the large deartment
stores), couled wrth technrcal and organizatronal rnnovatrons rn
roductron |rncreasrng lragmentatron, secralrzatron, and de-skrllrng
rnthedrvrsronollabourlorexamle),heledseeduthecirculatron
ol cartal rn mass markets. More emhatrcally, cartalrsm became
embrorledrn anrncredrblehase olmassrvelong-termrnvestmentrn
the conquest ol sace. The exansron ol the rarlway network, ac-
comanred by the advent ol the telegrah, the growth ol steam
shrrng, andthe burldrng olthe Suez Canal, thebegrnnrngs olradro
communrcatron and brcycle and automobrle travel at the end olthe
century, all changed the sense oltrmeandsacern radrcal ways. Thrs
errod also saw the comrng on stream ola whole serres ol technrcal
rnnovatrons. Mewways olvrewrng sace and motron |derrved lrom
hotograhyand exloratronolthelrmrtsolersectrvrsm) beganto
be thought out and alred to the roductron ol urban sace |see
Lelarvre,I 936). Baloontravelandhotograhylromonhrghchanged
ercetronsoltheearth'ssurlace,whrlenewtechnologres olrrntrng
and mechanrcal reroducton allowed a drssemrnaton ol news, rn-
lormatron, andculturalartelactsthroughouteverbroader swathes ol
the oulatron.
Thevastexansronollorergntrade and rnvestment alter I 350ut
the maor cartalrst owers on the ath ol globalrsm, but drd so
through rmerral conquest and rnter-rmerralrst rrvalry that was
to reach rts aogee rn World War I - the nrst global war. n
route, the world's saces were deterrrtorralrzed, strred ol therr
recedrng srgnrncatrons, and then reterrrtorralrzed accordrng to the
convenrence ol colonral and rmerral admrnrstratron. Mot only was
the relatrve sace revolutronrzed through rnnovatrons rn transort
and communrcatrons, but whatthat sace contarnedwas also lunda-
mentally re-ordered. The ma ol domrnatron ol the world's saces
changed out ol all recognrtron between I 350 and I 9I +. Yet rt was
ossrble, grventhellowolrnlormatronandnewtechnrquesolrere-
sentatron,tosamleawrderangeolsrmultaneousrmerraladventures
and conllrcts wrth a mere glance at the mornrng newsaer. And rl

l

The rise of modernism as a cultural force 265

that was not enough, the organrzatron ol a serres ol World xhr-
brtrons,begrnnrngwrththeCrystalPalacernI 35I andassrngthrough
several French ellortstothe grandColumbranxhrbrtronrn Chrcago
m
I 393, celebrated the lact ol globalrsm whrle rovrdrng a lrame-
workwrthrnwhrch what Ben amrn calls 'the hantasmagorra' ol the
world ol commodrtres and cometrtron between natron states and
terrrtorral roductron systems mrght be understood.
So successlul was thrs roect ol subdurng sace and rekrndlrng
cartalrst growth that the economrst Allred Marshall could con-
ndently assert rn the I 3 /0s that the rnuence ol trme rs 'more
lundamental than that ol sace' rn economrc lrle |thus consolrdatrng
that rrvrlegrng ol trme over sace rn socral theory whrch we have
alreadynoted).Yetthrs translormatron also undermrned thecogency
andmeanrngolrealrstnctron andarntrng. Zolaredrctedtheendol
hrsowngenre, aswellas thatolasell-contarnedeasantryrnFrance,
m La Terre when he has the school teacher artrculate the rdea that
the rmort ol chea Amerrcan wheat that then aeared rmmrnent
was bound to bury localrty |rts arochralolrtrcs andculture)wrthrn
allood olrnternatronalrstrnlluences.Frank Morrrs, on theothersrde
ol the Atlantrc, sensed the same roblem rn The octopus - the
wheatlarmersol Calrlornrahad to recognrze thatthey were'merely
a art ol an enormous whole, a unrt rn the vast agglomeratron ol
wheatlandtheworld around, leelrngtheellectsolcauses thousands
olmrles drstant.' How was rtossrble, usrng the narratrve structures
ol realrsm, to wrrte anythrng other than a arochralrst and hence to
some degree 'unrealrstrc' novel rn the lace ol all thrs satral srmul-
tanerty? Realrst narratrve structures assumed, alter all, that a story
could be told as rl rtwas unloldrng coherently, eventalterevent, rn
trme. Such structures were rnconsrstent wrth a realrty rn whrch two
events rn qurte drllerent saces occurrrng at the same trme could so
rntersectastochangehowtheworldworked.Flaubert,themodernrst,
roneeredaaththatZola,therealrst,loundrtrmossrbletoemulate.
It was rnthe mrdst olthrs rardhase oltrme-sacecomressron
that the second greatwaveol modernrstrnnovatronrn the aesthetrc
realmbegan.Towhat degree, then, can modernrsm bernterretedas
a resonse to a crrsrs rn the exerrence ol sace and trme? Kern's
| I 933) study ol The culture of time and space, I 880-I9I8 makes
such a suosrtron more than a lrttle lausrble.
Kernaccetsthat'thetelehone,wrreless-telegrah,X-ray,crnema,
brcycle, automobrle andarrlaneestablrshedthematerralloundatron'
lor new modes olthrnkrng about and exerrencrng trme and sace.
Whrle he rs anxrous to marntarn the rndeendence ol cultural deve-
loments, he does argue that 'the rnterretatron olhenomena such
266
The experience of sace and time
as class structure, drlomacy, and war tactrcs rn terms ol modes ol
trme and sace makes ossrble the demonstratron ol therr essentral
srrlarrty to e
^
lrcrt consrderatrons ol trme and sace rn lrterature,
hilos
.
oh
"
, scien

e, and art' |. I -5). Lackrng any theory ol tech-

nological mnovation, ol cartalrst dynamrcs across sace, or olcul
turalroductron, Kernollersonly'generalrzatrons abouttheessentral
cult

ral d
-
veloment

ol the errod.' But hrs descrrtrons hrghlrght

t-e mcred

ble conlusions and oosrtrons across a sectrum olos-

siblereactionstothegrowrngsenseolcrrsrsrntheexerrenceoltrme
andsace, thathadbeengatherrngsrnceI 3+3andseemedto come to
a head ju

t belore the Frrst World War. I note rn arenthesrs that

I 9I 0-I + is roughly the errod that many hrstorrans ol modernrsm
|begnnr

g wrth Vrrgnra Wooll and . H. Lawrence) ornt to as

crucial m the evolution ol modernrst thrnkrng |see above . 23;
Bradbury and McFarlane, I 9/6, 3 I ). Henrr Lelebvre agrees.
Around I 9I 0a certarn sace was shattered. It was the sace ol
common sense, ol knowledge, ol socral ractrce, ol olrtrcal
l
ower, a sacehrtherto enshrrnedrn everydaydrscourse, just as
m abstract thought, as the envrronment ol and channel lor
communrcatron . . uclrdean and ersectrvrst sace have drs-
aeared as systems ol relerence, along wrth other lormer
'common laces' such as town, hrstory, aternrty, the tonal
system rn musrc, tradrtronalmoralrty, and solorth.Thrs was a
truly crucral moment. |Lelebvre, I 9/+)
Consrder a lew asects ol thrs crucral moment set, srgnrncantly
enough, between rnstern's secral theory ol relatrvrty ol I 905 and

he general theory ol I9I6. Ford, werecall, set u hrs assembly lrne

H I 9I 3. He lragmented tasks anddrstrrbuted them m sace so as to
maxrmrze elncrency andmrnrmrzethe lrrctron olllowrnroductron.
Inellect, heused acertarnlorm ol satralorganrzatronto accelerate
the turnover trme ol cartal rn roductron. Trme could then be
accele

a
.
ted |seed-u) b

vrrtue ol the control establrshed through

orgat:izmg and lragmentmg the satral order olroductron. In that
very same year, however, the nrst radro srgnal was beamed around
the world lro

the rlel tower, thus emhasrzrng the caacrty to

collase sace mto thesimultanerty ol an rnstantrnunrversalublrc
trme. Th

owerol

rreess-ad been clearly demonstratedtheyear

belor

ith the raid dillusion ol news about the srnkrng ol the
!ztamc |itsella symbolol seedandmass motron thatcameto grrel
m much the sameway thattheHerald of Free Enterprise was to keel
over to seedy drsaster some seventy-nve years later). Publrc trme
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 26/
was ecomrng ever more homogeneous and unrversal across sace.
Anditwasnotonlycommerce and rarlways, lortheorganrzatron ol
larg
.
e-sc
.
ale commutrng systems and all the other temoral co-
ordm

ti

ns thatmad

metroolrtanlrlebearablealsodeendeduon
estabhshmg some utiiversal and commonly acceted sense ol trme.
Themorethan33 brlliontelehonecallsmaderntheLnrtedStatesrn
9I +
.
emhasrzd the
.
owerolr
'
terventron olublic trmeandsace
mdailyan
.
drvatehle.Indeed,itwasonlyrntermsolsuchaublrc
sense ol time that relerence to rrvate trme could make sense. e
Chr

rco arorrately celebrated these qualrtres by consrcuously

lacmg clocks |anunusual gesture rn art hrstory) rn hrs arntrngs ol
I 9I 0-I + |see late 3. 9).
The

eactrons ornted rn many drrectrons. |ames |oyce, lor one,

beg

nhis questtocaturethesense olsrmultanertyrnsaceandtrme

durngtiseriod,insistinguontheresentastheonlyreal locatron
ol exerence. He had hrs actron take lace rn aluralrty ol saces,
Kern|. I +9) notes, 'rnaconscrousnessthatleas abouttheunrverse
and mrxes here and there rn denance ol the ordered dragrammrng ol
thecartograhers.'Proust,lorhrsart,trredtorecoverasttrmeand
tocreate
.
asenseolrndrvrdualitya

dlacethatrestedonaconcetron
ol exerence across a sace ol time. Personal concetrons ol trme
became a matter ol ublrc commentary. 'The two most rnnovatrve
novelrsts ol the errod,' Kern contrnues, 'translormed the stage ol
modern Lterature lrom a series ol nxed settrngs rn homogeneous
sac

' |ol the so

hat re

lrst novelrsts tyrcally deloyed) 'rnto a

multitude olquahtatvelydillerentsacesthatvarredwrththeshrltrng
moods and ersectives ol human conscrousness. '
Prcasso and Braque, lor therrart, takrng therr cuelrom Cezanne
whohadbe

untobre

ku t-e sace olarntrngrnnewvaysrnthe

I 330s,ex

rmentedyithcubism,thusabandonrng'thehomogeneous
sace ol lmear ersectrve' that had domrnated srnce the nlteenth
century. elaunay's celebratedworkol I 9I 0 -I I derctrng the rllel
Tower |late3. I 0)waserhas the moststartlrngublrcsymbolola
movement that trred to reresent trme through a lragmentatron ol
sace; the rotagonrsts were robably unaware that thrs aralleled
theractrces onFord's assembly lrne, though the chorce oltherllel
Tower as symbol reected the lact that the whole movement
had somethrng to do wrth rndustrralrsm. It was rn I 9I2, also, that

rkserm's
.
Elementa
?
forms of the religious life was ublrshed
"
ithitsexhcitrecogt:itionthat'theloundatronolthecategorytrme
i

th

rhythm

l socral lrle,' and that the socral orrgrn ol sace

hkewise necessarly entarled the existence olmultrlesatralvrsrons.
rtegay Casset, lollowrng Mretzsche's rnjunctronthat'therers only
263 The experience of space and time
Plte 3. 9 De Chirico's The Philosopher's Conquest (1914) explores
modernist themes of time and space explicitly. (The Art Institute of Chicago,
Joseph Winterbotham Collection)
aersectrve seerng, only aroerersectrve knowrng,' lormulated
a new versron olthe theory olersectrvrsm rn I 9I 0whrch rnsrsted
that'therewere asmanysaces rn realrty as therewereersectrves
on rt,' and that 'there are as many realrtres as ornts ol vrew. ' Thrs
Plate 3. 10 Delaunay's Eifel Tower (transfer lithograph, 1926), frst
exhibited in 1911, uses a familiar image of construction to examine the
fragmentation and break up of space typical of cubism. (Collection, The
Museum f Modern Art, New York, Purchase Fund)
270 The experience of space and time
ut a hilosohical nail in the colnn olrationalist ideals ol homo-
geneous andabsolutesace |Kern, 1 983, 1 50-1 ) .
I have cited iusta lewol the incidents thatKernrecords in order
to convey a sense ol the conlusions ramant in social and cultural
thought in the eriod 1 910-14. But matters can, I think, be taken a
ste lurther, hinging an argument onan idea that Kern launches but
makes very little ol. 'ne resonse was a growing sense ol unity
among eole lormerly isolated in distance and lack ol communi-
cation.Thiswas not,however,unambiguous,becauseroximityalso
generatedanxiety - arehension that the neighbours were seen as
getting a bit too close' |. 88). How was this 'ambiguity' exressed?
Twobroadandratherdistinctivecurrentsolthoughtcanbeidentined
deending uon the emhasis uon unity or dillerence.
Those who emhasized the unity between eoles also acceted
the'unrealityollace'withinalragmentedrelativesace.Celebrating
the annihilation ol sace through time, thetaskwas to re-Iaunchthe
nlightenment roiect oluniversal human emanciation in a global
sace bound together through mechanisms ol communication and
social intervention. Such a roiect imlied, however, satial lrag-
mentation through lanned co-ordination. And how could that be
doneexcetthrough'ulverizing're-existingsacesinsomemanner?
Ford had shown how social rocesses could be seeded u, and
roductive lorces augmented, by the satia lization ol time. The
roblem was to harness this caacity to human emanciation rather
than to some narrow set ol interests, such as those ol caital. A
Cerman grou roosed in 1 91 1 , lor examle, the creation ol a
'world olnce' that would 'unily all the humanitarian tendencies that
run in arallel but disorderly directions, and bring about a concen-
tration and a romotion ol all creative activities' |quoted in Taluri,
1 985, 1 22). It was only in such a context olrationalized and totally
organized external and ublic sace, that interior and very rivate
senses ol time and sace could roerly llourish. The sace ol the
body, ol consciousness, ol the syche - saces ket too long re-
ressed, given the absolute suositions ol nlightenment thought,
but now oening u as a consequence ol sychological and htl
osohical nndings - could be liberated only through the rational
organization ol exterior sace and time. But rationality now meant
something more than lanning with the aid ol the ma and the
chronometer, or subiecting all ol social lile to time and motion
study. !ew senses olrelativismandersectivismcouldbe invented
andaliedtotheroduction olsaceandtheorderingoltme. This
kind ol reaction, which many were later to dub as exclusivelymod-
ernist, tyically entailed a whole set ol accoutrements. esising
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 271
history, it sought entirely new cultural lorms that broke with the
ast and solely soke the language ol the new. Holding that lorm
lollowed lunction and that satial rationality should be imosed on
the externalworld in order to maximizeindividual liberty and wel-
lare, it took elnciency and lunction |and hence the image ol the
metroolis as a well-oiled machine) as its central motil. It had a
dee concern lor urity ol language, no matter whether it was in
architecture, music, or literature.
Itis anoenquestion, olcourse,whetherthisresonsewas aure
bowing down to the lorce ol satial and temoral restructuring ol
theeriod |see above,. 28-31 ) . Fernand Leger, theFrenchcubist
ainter, certainly thought so, observing in 1 91 3 thatlilewas 'more
lragmented andlastermovingthan inreviouseriods' andthatit
was essential to devise a dynamic art to deict it |quoted in Kern,
1983, 1 1 8) . And Certrude Stein certainlyinterreted cultural events,
such as the advent ol cubism, as a resonse to the time-sace
comression towhicheveryonewas exosed and sensitized.This in
noway detracts, ol course,lromthe imortance ol graling with
that exerience in the neld ol reresentation in such a way as to
enhance, suort, and erhas even command the rocesses that
seemed to beescaing lrom all lorms ol collective control |as they
were indeed set to do in World War I). But it does re-locus our
attention on the ractical ways in which that might be done. Le
Corbusier was, inellect,merelylollowingthejellersonianrinciles
ol land artition when he argued that the way to individual liberty
and lreedom lay through the construction ol a highly ordered and
rationalized sace. His roiect was internationalist, and emhasized
thekind olunityinwhich a socially conscious notion olindividual
dillerence could be lully exlored.
The other kind ol reaction bundled together a host ol seemingly
divergent resonses built, however, around one central rincile
which I shall later have lrequent cause to invoke. that the more
unined the sace, the more imortant the qualities ol the lragment-
ations becomelor social identity and action. The lree llowolcaital
across the surlace ol the globe, lor examle, laces strong emhasis
uonthearticularqualities olthe saces towhichthatcaitalmight
be attracted. The shrinkage ol sace that brings diverse communities
across the globe into cometition with each other imlies localized
cometitive strategies and a heightened sense ol awareness ol what
makes alace secial and gives it a cometitive advantage. This kind
ol reaction looks much more strongly to the identincation ollace,
the building and signallingolits unique qualities in an increasingly
homogeneous but lragmented world |see above, . 88-92).
2/2 The experience of space and time
We can sot thrs 'other srde' to modernrsm's exloratrons rn a
numberolcontexts. Foucault'sercetrveremark(quotedrn Crrm,
I 933, +/) that 'Flaubert rs to the lrbrary what Manet rs to the
museum' underlrnes how the rnnovators ol modernrsm rn lrterature
and arntrng, while rnone sense breakrngwrth all astconventrons,
strll had to situate themselves hrstorrcally and geograhrcally some-
where. Boththelrbraryandthemuseumhavetheellectolrecordrng
the ast and derctrng geograhy whrle breakrng wrth rt. The re-
ductron ol the ast to a reresentatron organrzed as a dislay ol
artelacts (books, arntrngs, relrcs, etc.) is just as lormalrstrc as the
reductron ol geograhy to a set ol drslays ol thrngs lrom lar-oll
laces. Modernist artists and wrrters arnted lor the museums or
wrote lor the lrbraries recrsely because to work thrs way allowed
them to break wrth the constrarnts ol therr own lace and trme.
Yet the museum, the lrbrary, and the exhibrtron usually asrre to
somekrndolcoherentorderrng.Theideologrcallabourolrnventrng
tradrtion became ol great srgnrncance rn the late nrneteenth century
recrselybecausethrswas anerawhentranslormatronsrn satral and
temoral ractrces rmlred a loss olidentrtywrth lace and reeated
radrcal breaks wrth any sense ol hrstorical contrnurty. Hrstorrcal
reservatron and the museum culture exerrenced strong bursts ol
lrle lrom the late nrneteenth century on, whrle the rnternational
exosrtronsnotonly celebrated theworld o!rnternatronalcommodr-
ncatron but also exhrbrted the geograhy oltheworld as a serres ol
artelacts lor all to see. It was out ol such a climate that one olthe
most sensrtrve ol modernrst wrrters, Srmmel, could wrrte so er-
suasrvelyonthesrgnincanceolrurns.Theywere,hesard,laceswhere
'the ast wrth rts destrnres and translormatrons has been gathered
rnto thrs rnstant ol an aesthetrcally ercetrble resent' (quoted
rn Kern, I 933, +0). Rurns heled ground our shaken rdentrty rn a
rardly translormrngworld. Thrs was also an age whenthe artelacts
ol the ast orlrom alar began to trade as valued commodrtres. The
emergence ol an actrve antrque and lorergn cralt market (the latter
symbolrzedby the|aaneserrnts that Manet rnsertedrnto hrs ort-
rartolZola, andwhrchtothrsdayadornMonet's housernCrverny)
are rndrcatrve olatrendthatwas consistent, also, wrththerevivalol
the cralt tradrtron ushed by Wrllram Morrrs rn Brrtarn, by the
craltwork movement ol Vrenna, and rn the art noveau style that
swamed France rn the early years ol the century. Archrtects lrke
Lours Sullrvanrn Chrcago and Caudemar rn Parrs lrkewrse searched
lor new and localvernacular styles that could satrsly the new lunc-
tronal needs but also celebrate the drstrnctrve qualrtres ol the laces
they occured. The rdentrty ol lacewas realnrmed rn the mrdst ol
.the growrng abstractrons olsace.
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 2/3
This trend to rrvrlege the satralrzatron oltrme(Berng) over the
annrhrlatron ol sace bytrme(Becoming) rs consrstentwrthmuchol
what ostmodernrsm now artrculates; wrth Lyotard's 'localdeter-
mrnisms',Frsh's'rnterretrvecommunrtres', Framton's 'regronalre-
srstances', and Foucault's 'heterotoias.' It evrdently ollers multrle
ossibrlrtreswrthrnwhrchasatralrzed'otherness' can llourrsh. Mod-
ernrsm, seen as awhole, exlored thedralectrc ollaceversussace,
olresentversusast,inavarretyolways.Whrlecelebratrngunrver-
salrtyandthecollaseolsatialbarrrers,rtalsoexlorednewmeanrngs
lor sace and lace rn ways that tacrtly rernlorced local rdentrty.
By enhancrnglrnks betweenlace and the socral sense olersonal
andcommunalrdentrty, this lacetolmodernrsmwas bound, to some
degree, to entarl the aesthetrcrzatron ol local, regronal, or natronal
olrtrcs. Loyalties to lace then take recedence over loyaltres to
class, satialrzrng olrtrcal actron. At the end ol the rocess lres the
restoratron ol the Hegelran notion ol the state and the resurrectron
ol geoolrtrcs. Marx, ol course, had restored hrstorrcal time (and
class relatrons) to rrmacy ol lace rn socral theory, rn art as a
reactronto Hegel's satialrzed concetron olthe 'ethrcal state' as the
end-ornt olateleological hrstory. Therntroductionolthe state - a
satralrzatron oses rntrrgurng questrons lor socral theory lor as
Lelebvre | I 9/+) ornts out, 'the state crushes trme by reducrng drl-
lerences to reetrtrons ol crrcularrtres (dubbed equrlrbrrum", leed-
back", sell-regulatron", etc. ). ' Il'this modern stateimosesrtsellas
thestablecentre dennrtrvely - ol 'natronal| socretres and saces,'
then geoolrtrcal argumenthas to resort, ashas rn lact always been
the case, to aesthetrc rather than to social values rn rts search lor
legrtimacy.
It rs, therelore, a readrly understandable aradox that rn 3 age
when the annrhrlatron ol sace through trme was roceedrng at a
lurrous ace, geoolrtrcs and the aesthetrcrzatron ol olrtrcs under-
went a strong revrval.
Mretzschecatured the essentral thrust hrlosohicallyin The will
to power. Mrhrlrsm - a conditron rn which 'the hrghest values de-
valuatethemselves'- standsatourdooras'theun cannrestolguests. '
uroean culture, he asserts, 'has been movrng as toward a catas-
trohe, wrth a tortured tensron that rs growrng lrom decade to
decade. restlessly, vrolently, headlong, lrke a river that wants to
reach the end, that no longer rellects, that rs alrard to rellect.' The
drssolutionol'unalrenablelandedroerty,honourrngtheold(orrgrn
ol the beliel rn gods and heroes as ancestors)' rn art arrses, he
suggests (rengurrng Herdegger's arguments exactly, see above .
20/9), wrth the collase ol sace. 'newsaers (in lace ol darly
rayers), rarlway, telegrah.' The consequent 'centralizatron ol a
2/+ The exerience of space and time
tremendousnumberoldrllerentinterestsrna srngle soul, ' means that
rndrvrduals must now be 'very strong and rotean. ' It rs rn such a
circumstancethatthewrll toower 'an attemt at arevolutron ol
all values' - must assert rtsell as a gurdrng lorce in the quest lor a
new moralrty.
And doyouknowwhat'theworld'is to me? ShallI showitto
you rn my mrrror? This world. a monster olenergy, wrthout
begrnnrng, wrthout end; . . . enclosed by 'nothingness' as by a
boundary; not somethrngblurryorwasted,not somethingend-
lessly extended, but set rn a dennrte sace as a dennite lorce,
and nota sace thatmrghtbe 'emty' hereor there, but rather
as lorce throughout, as alay ollorces andwaves ollorces, at
the same trme one and many, rncreasing here, and at the same
timedecreasingthere; a sea ollorces llowrng andrushrngto-
gether,eternallychangrng,eternallyoodrngback,wrthtremen-
dous years ol recurrence, wrth an ebb and a ood ol rts
lorms; out ol the srmlest lorms strivrng toward the most
comlex, out ol the strllest, most rigid, coldest lorms toward
the hottest, most turbulent, most sell-contradictory, and then
agarn returnrng home to the srmle out ol this abundance, out
ol the lay ol contradrctions back to the joy ol concord, strll
alnrmrng rtsell rn this unrlormity ol its courses and rts years,
blessingrtsellasthatwhrchmustreturneternally,asabecoming
thatknowsno satrety,no drsgust, no wearrness. thrs, my ro-
nysran world ol the eternally sell-creatrng, the eternally sell-
destroyrng, thrs mystery world ol the twolold volutuous
delrght, my 'beyond good and evrl,' wrthout goal, unless the
joy olthe circle rs rtsella goal; wrthoutwrll,unless arrngleels
goodwilltoward rtsell - doyouwant a name lor thrs world?
A solution lor all rts riddles ? A light lor you, too, you best-
concealed, strongest, most intrerd, most mrdnightly men? -
This world is the will to power - and nothing besides! Andyou
yourselves are also thrswillto ower - andnothrng besrdes|
The extraordrnary rmagery olsaceandtrme, olsuccessrvewaves ol
comressron and rmlosron, rn assages such as thrs suggests that
Mietzsche'sowerlulinterventronrnthemodernrtydebate|seeabove,
. I 5-20)hadanexerrential basrs rntheworld ollatenrneteenth-
century trme-sace translormatron.
The search lor thrs new moralrty olower and the charisma ol
'very strong and rotean' rndrviduals lay at the heart ol the new
scrence ol geoolrtrcs . Kern ays close attentron to the rrsrng srgnr-
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 2/5
ncance ol such theorres at the turn ol the century. Frredrrch Ratzel
rnCermany,CamrlleVallauxrnFrance,HallordMackrnderrnBrrtarn,
and Admiral Mahan rn the Lnrted States all recognized the srgnr-
ncance olcommand over sace as alundamentalsourceolmrlrtary,
economic, and olrtical ower. Were there, they asked, strategic
saces wrthin the new globalrsm oltrade and olrtrcs, the command
ol which would conler lavoured status uon articular eoles ? Il
there was some arwinian struggle lor survival ol the drllerent
eoles and natrons olthe earth, then what rrncrles governed that
struggle and what would its outcome robably be? ach trlted his
answer towards a natronal rnterest, and in so dorng conceded the
rightolaartrculareole to command rts ownarticularlace and,
rlsurvrval,necessrty,ormoral certrtudes rmelled it, toexandrnthe
nameol'manilestdestrny' |LSA),the'whiteman's burden' |Brrtarn),
the 'mission civilisatrice' |France) or the need lor 'Lebensraum'
|Cermany). In Ratzel's case rn artrcular, we nnd a hrlosohrcal
redrsositionto rnsrstuonaunrtybetween aeole anditslandas
the basis olcultural sohrstrcatron and olrtrcal ower, a unron that
canbe dissolvedonlythroughvrolenceanddrsossessron.Thrsunron
lormedthebasis olanatronalcultureandcrvrlizrngrnlluence,whose
sourceswereradrcallydrllerentlrom thosegrvenbytheunrversalsol
nlrghtenment thrnkrng or ol the conlused but universalrst mod-
ernismthatlormedtheothermajorcurrentinlatenrneteenth-century
thought.
Itwould bewrong to consrderthesetwowings olthought - the
unrversalism and the artrcularrsm - as searate lrom each other.
They should be regarded, rather, as two currents ol sensibrlrty that
llowed along srde by srde, olten within the same erson, evenwhen
one or other sensrbility became domrnant in a artrcular lace and
trme. LeCorbusrerstartedhislrleayrngcloseattentrontovernacular
styles even whrle recognrzrng the imortance ol ratronalrzrng a
homogeneous sace rn ways roosed by utoran lanners. The
lascrnatron ol cultural movements rn Vrenna, artrcularly belore
World War I, derives, I susect, recrsely lrom the conlused ways
rnwhrchthe two currents I haverdentrnedmrxedrn trme, lace, and
erson almost wrthout restraint. The lree-llowrng sensuality ol
Klimt, the agonrzed exressionism ol gon Schrele, the rigorous
rejectron ol ornament and the rational sharng ol sace ol Adoll
Loos . . . all clrngrng together rn the mrdst ol a crisrs ol bourgeors
culture, caught rn rts ownrrgrdrtres but lacedwithwhrrlwrnd shrlts
rn the exerrence ol sace and trme.
Whrle modernrsm always ostensrbly asserted the values ol rnter-
nationalrsmandunrversalrsm,rtcouldneverroerlysettlertsaccount
2/6 The experience of space and time
wrth arochralrsm and natronalrsm. It erther denned rtsell rn oo-
srtron to these all too lamrlrar lorces |strongly rdentrned, though
by no means exclusrvely so, wrth the so-called 'mrddle classes') o:
else rttook the elrtrst and ethnocentrrcroadby resumrngthatParrs,
Berlin,MewYork,London, or wherever,wasrndeedtherntellectual
lount ol allreresentatronal and aesthetrc wisdom. Inthe latter case,
modernrsm stood to be accusedol cultural rmerralrsm rnmuchthe
samewaythatabstractexressronrsmbecamecaughtuwithnational
rnterestsintheLnrtedStatesalterWorldWarII|seeabove,.36-3).
Inuttrngthrngs thrs way I am,to somedegree, dearting lrom the
normal concetion ol what modernrsm was suosed to be about.
Butunlesswearerearedto seeevenrtsuniversalasrratrons as the
outcome ol a eretual dialogue wrth localrsm and natronalrsm, I
thrnk we shall mrss some ol rts more rmortant leatures.
Srnce thrs oosrtron rs rmortant, I shall take u one examole
brrllrantlyexlorted rnCarl Schorske's Fin-de-siecle Vienna: thecon-
trast between Camrllo Srtte's and tto Wagner's aroaches to the
roductron olurban sace. Srtte, rooted rn the cralt workertradrtron
ol late nineteenth-century Vrenna, and abhorrrng the narrow and
technrcal lunctronalrsm that seemed to attach to the lust lor com-
mercialront, soughttoconstructsaces thatwouldmakethecrty's
eole leel 'secure and hay. ' Thrs meant that 'crty burldrng must
be not just a technrcalquestron but an aesthetrc one rn the hrghest
sense.' He therelore set out to create rnterror saces - lazas and
squares - thatwouldromote thereservationandevenre-creatron
olasenseolcommunity. Hesought 'toovercomelragmentatronand
rovrdea communrtylrleoutlook'' lortheeoleas awhole.Thrs
deloyment ol art rn the sharng ol sace to create a real sense ol
communrty was, to Srtte, the only ossrble resonse to modernrty.
AsSchorske |. /2) summarrzes rt. 'In the cold tralnc-swet modern
crtyolthe slrde-rule andthe slum, thercturesquecomlortrngsquare
can reawaken memorres olthe vanrshed burgherast. Thrs satrally
dramatrc memory wrll rnsrre us to create a better luture, lree ol
hilrstrnrsm and utrlrtarranrsm. ' To whatcoherentvalues could Srtte
aeal? Meedrng a newrdeal 'besrde and above thereal world,' Srtte
'exalted Rrchard Wagner as the genrus who recognized thrs re-
demtrve,luture-orrentedworkas the secral taskol the artrst. The
worldthattherootlessseekerolscrence andtrade destroyed,leavrng
the sullerrngVolk wrthout a vrtal myth to lrve by, the artrst must
create anew' |. 69)
Srtte's rdeas |whrch arallel those ol an antr-modernrst lrke |ane
|acobs, andwhrcharequrteoularwithurbanlannerstoday) can
be seenas asecrnc reactronto commercralrzatron, utrlrtarranratron-
The rise of modernism as a cultural force
2//
alrsm, and the lragmentatrons and rnsecurrtres that tyrcally arise
under condrtrons ol trme-sace comression. They also dennrtely
attemttosatralrzetime,butrnsodorngcannothel butaesthetrcrze
olrtrcs, rnSrtte's casethroughaealto theWagnerranmythandrts
notron ol a rooted communrty. Srtte was here concedrng, however,
to a whole set ololrtrcal, cultural, and satral ractrces that sought
to rernlorce local communrty solrdarrty and tradrtron rn the lace ol
the unrversalrsm and globalrsm ol money ower, commodrncatron,
and cartal circulatron. Kern, lor examle, reorts that 'national
lestivals rn Cermany rn this errod were staged rn saces around
natronal monuments where masses ol eole could srng and dance. '
These were the kinds olsaces that Srtte set out torovrde.
What rs terrilyrng about the subsequent hrstory ol thrs sort ol
satral ractrce rs the way that so many ol the Viennese artisans
whom Srtte chamroned |along wrth therr Cerman counterarts)
werelatertomassrnthe squares,razzas,andlrvrngsaces thatSrtte
wanted to create, rn order to exress therr vrrulent oosrtron to
rnternatronalrsm, turning to antr-semrtrsm |attackrng the ethnrc and
relgous grou most reresentatrve olrnternatronalrsm, olboth ca-
rtal and labour,byvrrtue olrts condrtron ol diasora) and thelace-
secrncmyths olMazrsm in oosrtron to theratronalutrlrtarranrsm
ol nlrghtenment thought. The dramatrc sectacles ol the sort the
Mazrs organrzedcertarnly brought sace alive and managed to aeal
to a dee mythology ol lace, symbolrzing 'communrty,' but com-
munrty ol a most reactionary sort. Lnder conditrons ol mass un-
emloyment, the collase ol satral barrrers, and the subsequent
vulnerabrlityollaceandcommunrty to sace andcaital, rtwasall
too easy tolayuonsentrments olthe most lanaticallocalrsmand
natronalrsm. I am not even indrrectly blamrng Sitte or hrs ideas lor
thrs hrstory. But I do thrnk rt rmortant to recognrze the otential
connectron between rojects to shae sace and encourage satral
ractces ol the sort that Srtte advocated, and olrtical rojects that
canbeat bestconservrngand atworstdownrrghtreactronaryrntherr
rmlrcatrons. These were, alter all, the sorts ol sentrments ol lace,
Berng, and communrty that brought Herdeggerrnto the embrace ol
national socralism.
ttoWagner, a contemorary ol Sitte's,accetedthe unrversalrty
ol modernrty with much more elan. Buildrng his rdeas uon the
motto 'necessrty rs art's only mrstress,' he set out to imose order
uonchaos, toratronalrzetheorganrzatronolmovementonthebasrs
ol'elncrency,economy,andthelacilrtatronoltheursurtolbusrness . '
Buthetoohadtoaealtosomekindoldomrnantaesthetrcsensern
order to surmount the 'arnlul uncertarnty' that arose rn a 'last
2/3 The experience of sace and time
movrng world ol trme and motron' |Schorske, I 93I , 35). That un-
certarnty could be overcome only by a clean break wrth the ast,
takrngto the image olthe machrne as theultrmatelorm ol elhcient
ratronalrty, and exlorrng every nook and cranny ol modern tech-
nrques andmaterrals.Wagnerwas,rnshort, alatenrneteenth-century
roneer olthe 'herorc' lorms ol modernrsm that becamelashronable
rn the I 920s wrth Le Corbusrer, Crorus, Mies van der Rohe, and
the lrke.
These two lines - rnternationalrstandlocalized - olcoingwrth
the henomena oltrmesace comressron collrdedvrolently rn the
global war ol I 9I +I 3 . Howthat war was actuallytrrggered rather
than contarned rs ol rnterest recrsely because rt rllustrates how
condrtrons ol trme-sace comressron, in the absence ol a roer
meanslortheirreresentatron,makenatronallrnesolconductrmos-
srbletodetermrne,letalonelollow.Thenewsystemsoltransortatron
and communrcatron, Kern | I 933, 260 -I )notes, 'tightened the skern
ol internatronalrsm andlacrlrtatedrnternational co-oeratron' at the
same trmeas they'drvrdednationsastheyall grabbedloremrreand
clashed rn a series ol crrses.' It rs, he suggests, 'one ol the great
rronies oltheerrodthat aworldwar became ossrbleonlyalterthe
world had become so hrghly unrted.' ven more drsturbrng rs hrs
account olthe|uly crrsrs thatled rnto war. In the summer ol I 9I +,
'the men in ower lost therr bearrngs rn the hectrc rush aced by
lIurrres ol telegrams, telehone conversatrons, memos, and ress
releases;hard-borledolrtrcransbrokedownandseasonednegotrators
cracked under the ressure ol tense conlrontatrons and sleeless
nrghts, agonrzrng over the robable drsastrous consequence oltherr
snajudgements and hasty actrons. ' Mewsaersledoularanger,
swrltmrlitarymobrlizatronsweresetrnmotron,thuscontrrbutrngto
the lrenzy ol drlomatrc actrvity that broke down srmly because
enoughdecrsronscouldnotbemadelastenoughrnenoughlocatrons
tobrrngthewarlrkestressesundercollectrvecontrol. Clobalwarwas
the result. It seemed, to both Certrude Stern and Picasso, a cubist
war and was lought on so many lronts and rn so many saces that
the denotatron aears reasonable even on a global scale.
Itrs hard, evenrnretrosect,to assess thermactolthateventon
thrnkrngaboutsaceandtrme|seeabove,. 30- I) . Somecredence
must be grven to Kern's judgement that 'rn lour years the belrel rn
evolutron, rogress, and history rtsell was wred out' as the war
'rred u the historrcallabrrc and cut everyone olllrom the ast
suddenly and irretrrevably. ' The breakdown echoed the stresses ol
I 3+3 almost exactly and shook u ercetrons ol sace and time.
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 2/9
Taylor's | I 93/, I 26) account olwhat haened tothe Cerman artrst
Beckmann rs rnstructrve here.
Belore the war Beckmannhad delended a sensuous, arnterly
style ol rounded volumes and rrch gradatrons ol sace. . . .
1he
.
n,in thewarrtsell, hrs style changedcomletely. Beckmann
is billeted near the
.
lront lrne rnsomeolthe nercest nghtrng ol
the
.
war, but conti

es

to draw and arnt the harrowrng ex-

erences around himyith almost comulsrve rnterest. . . His
all

gorrcalstylelallsaway . . . toberelacedbyamoreshallow,
slmtered and crowded manner. He wrrtes late rn I 9I +ol the
las

rnated horror he was develorng lor 'sace, distance, rn-

nnity.' By I 9I 5he seaks ol '. . . thrs rnnnrte sace, thelore-
ground ol whrch one must even nll agarn with some sort ol
rubbrsh, so that one wrll not see rts terrrble deth . . . thus to
cover u to some extent that dark black hole. . . . ' Beckmann
then sullered a breakdown alterwhrch hrs art soon took on an
almost unrmagrnably strange drmensron . . quasr-mystrcal
worksoltranscendentgeneralrtywhrchresonded tono actual
events.
But there was also somethrng quite consistentwrththe modernrst
rmulserncreatrngandexlorrngsuch aradrcalbreakwrththeast.
The advent oltheRussianRevolutron allowed some, atleast, to see
ruture as an oortunitylorrogressronandnewcreatron. Lnlor-
tunately, thesocralrst movement rtsell drvrded, rnternalizrng the ten-
sron between rnternatronal and national arms |as evidenced by the
lamous debatesoltheerrod between Lenrn, Luxemburg, andmany
others on the natronal questron and the rosects lor socralrsm rn
one country). The very advent ol revolutron, however, allowed the
overwhelmrngly natronalrst strains olthe SecondInternationalto be
challenged bya new sense olconnectron between the arms olmod-
ernrsmand those ol socralrstrevolutron and rnternatronalrsm.
'Heroic'modernrsmalterI 920canthenbernterretedasadogged
nghtoltheunrversalrstagarnstlocalrstsensrbrlrtywrthrnthearenaol
cultural roductron. The 'herorsm' derived lrom the extraordrnary
rntellectual and artrstic attemt to come to terms with and domrnate
the crrsrs rntheexerrence olsace and trmethathad burltu belore
the FrrstWorldWar, and to nght oll the nationalist and geoolrtrcal
sentimentsthewarexressed.Theherorc modernrsts soughtto show
how the acceleratrons, lragmentatrons, and rmlodrng centralrzatron
|artrcularlyrnurbanlrle)couldbereresentedandtherebycontarned
230 The experience of space and time
within a singular image. Jhey sought to show how localism anJ
nationalism coulJ be overcome anJ how some sense oI a global
roject to aJvancehumanwelIare coulJ be restoreJ. Jhis entaileJa
Jehnite change oI stance with resect to sace anJ time. Jhe shiIt
thatoccurreJinKanJinsky`sainting style between I 9I +anJ I 930is
illustrative. 8eIorethewar, KanJinskyisaintingextraorJinarycan
vases in which violent swirls oI brilliant colour seem to imloJe
simultaneously uon the canvas anJ exloJe beyonJ the eJges oI a
Irame that seems owerless to contain them. Jen years later wehnJ
KanJinsky at the 8auhaus |one oI the key centres oI moJernist
thought anJ ractice) ainting controlleJ ictures oI saces neatly
organizeJ within a secure Irame, in some cases clearly taking the
IormoIJiagrammeJcitylans vieweJ Iromaersectivehigh above
the earth |see lates 3 I I anJ 3. I 2) !I moJernism meant, among
other things, the subj ugation oI sace to humanuroses, then the
rationalorJeringanJcontroloIsace asartanJarceloIamoJern
culture IounJeJ on rationality anJ technique, the suression oI
satial barriers anJ JiIIerence, haJ to be mergeJwith some kinJ oI
historicalroject. !icasso`sevolutionis alsoinstructive. banJoning
cubism aIter the 'cubist war,` he turneJ to classicism Ior a brieI
erioJaIterI 9I 9,robablyoutoIsomesearchtoreJiscoverhumanist
values. 8ut he returns shortly thereaIter to his exlorations oI in-
terior saces through their total ulverization, only to recou the
Jestruction in a creativemasteriece, Guernica, in which the moJ-
ernist sty le is useJ as a 'lIexible instrument Ior the connection oI
multile temporal anJ satial viewoints within the scoe oI the
rhetorically owerIul image' |Jaylor, I 93/, I 50).
nlightenment thinkers haJ ostulateJ human welIare as their
goal.Jhatobjectivewas neverIarIromthe surIace oIthe rhetoricoI
inter-war moJernism. Jhe roblem was to hnJ ractical circum
stancesanJthehnancialresources torealizesuchgoals.JheKussians,
obviouslyattracteJtothemoJernistethosoIaraJicalbreakwiththe
ast Ior iJeological reasons, roviJeJ a sace withinwhich a whole
setoIexeriments - KussianIormalismanJconstructivism beingby
Iarthemostimortant - coulJunIolJ, anJoutoIwhichcamewiJe-
ranginginitiativesincinema,ainting,literature,anJmusicas wellas
architecture. 8ut the breathing sace Ior such exerimentation was
relatively short, anJ the resources were harJly munihcent, even Ior
those most committeJ to the cause oI the revolution. Cn the other
hanJ, this connection between socialism anJ moJernism, however
slenJer, laceJ a clouJ over moJernism`s reutation in the caitalist
West,wheretheturn tosurrealism |alsowitholiticalovertones)JiJ
not hel matters. !n societies where the accumulation oI caital -
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 23I
Plate 3. 1 1 Kandinsky's paintings of the pre-1914 war period, such as the
Jugement Dernier of 1912, exhibit such an explosive sense of space that they
appear to spill off the canvas with an uncontrollable dynamism
that'historicalmissionoIthebourgeoisie`asMarxcalleJit- remaineJ
the eIIective ivot oI action, there was only lace Ior machine-style
moJernism oI the 8auhaus sort.
MoJernism`s travails were also internal. Jo begin with, it coulJ
never escae the roblem oI its own aesthetic as a satialization oI
sorts. However exible CttoWagner`s or Le Corbusier`slans were
intheircaacityto absorbIutureJevelomentsanJ exansions,they
necessarily hxeJ sace in the miJst oI a historical rocess that was
highly Jynamic.
Howto contain lIowing anJ exanJingrocesses inahxeJ satial
IrameoIower relations, inIrastructures anJthelike coulJ noteasily
be resolveJ. Jhe resultwas a social system that was all toorone to
creative Jestruction oI the sort that unIolJeJ mercilessly aIter the
caitalist crash oI I 929 s satializations, the arteIacts roJuceJ by
themoJerns |withexcetions, oI course, suchas the LaJaists) con-
veyeJ some ermanent iI not monumental sense oI suoseJly un-
iversalhumanvalues. 8ut even Le CorbusierrecognizeJ thatsuchan
232 The experience of space and time
Plate J. 12 After the trauma of World War I, Kandinsky shifts to a much
more controlled and rationalized imager of spatial organization, as in Les
Deux of 121 which bears more than a casual resemblance to a stylized
urban map.
act had to invoke the ower oI myth. nd here the real tragedy oI
modernism begins. 8ecause it was not the myths Iavoured by Le
Corbusier or Ctto Wagner or Walter Groius that in the end do-
minated matters. !t was either the worshi oI Mammon or, worse
still, themythsstirredu by an aestheticizedoliticsthatcalledthe
tune. Le Corbusier uirted with Mussolini and comromised with
!tain`s !rance, Cscar iemeyer lanned 8rasilia Ior a oulist
residentbutbuiltitIorruthlessgenerals,theinsightsoIthe8auhaus
were mobilized into the design oI thedeathcams, and the rule that
Iorm Iollows roht as well as Iunction dominated everywhere. !t
was, in the end, the aestheticizations oI olitics and the ower oI
money caital that triumhed over an aesthetic movement that had
shown how time-sace comression could be controlled and res-
ondedto rationally. !ts insights, tragically,wereabsorbedIorur-
oses that were not, by and large, its own. Jhe trauma oI World
War !! showed, iIIurtherrooIwereneeded oI such a roosition,
that it was all too easy Ior Hegel's satializations to subvert the
nlightenment`s |and Marx`s) historical roject. Geoolitical and
The rise of modernism as a cultural force 233
aesthetic interventions always seem to imly nationalist, and hence
unavoidably reactionary, olitics.
Jhe oositionbetween 8eing and 8ecoming has been central to
modernism's history. Jhat oosition has to be seen in olitical
terms as a tension between the sense oItime and the Iocus oIsace.
Iter I 3+3, modernism as a cultural movement struggled with that
oosition, oIten in creative ways. Jhe struggle was wared in all
sorts oI resects by the overwhelming ower oI money, roht,
ca

ital accumulation, and state ower as Irames oI reIerence within

wich all Iorms oI cultural ractice had to unIold. ven under
conditions oI widesread class revolt, the dialectic oI 8eing and
8ecoming has osed seemingly intractable roblems. bove all, the
changing meaning oI sace and time which caitalism has itselI
wrought, has Iorced eretual re-evaluations in reresentations oI
theworld in culturalliIe. !t was only in an eraoIseculationonthe
Iuture and hctitious caital Iormation that the concet oI 3 avant-
garde |both artisticandolitical) couldmakeany sense.Jhechanging
exerience oI sace and time had much to do with the birth oI
modernism and its conIusedwanderings Iromthis to that sideoIthe
satial -temoral relation. !I this is indeed the case, then the ro-
osition that ostmodernism is some kind oI resonse to a new set
oI exeriences oI sace and time, a new round oI 'time-sace com-
ression,' is well worth exloring.
1 /
Time-s pace compres son and the
pos tmodern condition
Howhave the uses anJ meanings oIsace anJ time shiIteJ with the
transition Irom !orJism to llexible accumulation? ! want to suggest
' that we have been exeriencing, these last two JecaJes, an intense
hase oI time-sace comression that has haJ a Jisorienting anJ
Jisrutive imactuon olitical -economicractices, the balance oI
class ower, as well as uon cultural anJ social liIe. While historical
analogies are always Jangerous, ! think it no acciJent that ost-
moJern sensibility eviJences strong symathies Ior certain oI the
conIuseJ olitical, cultural, anJ hilosohical movements that oc-
curreJ atthe beginningoIthis century |inViennaIorexamle)when
the sense oI time-sace comression was also ecuIiarly strong. !
also note the revival oI interest in geoolitical theory since arounJ
I 9/0, the aesthetics oIlace, anJareviveJwillingness |eveninsocial
theory) to oentheroblemoIsatialityto ageneralreconsiJeration
|see, e. g. , Gregory anJ \rry, I 985, anJ Soja, I 988).
Jhe transition to exible accumulation was i nart accomlisheJ
throughthe raiJJeloymentoI neworganizationalIorms anJ new
technologiesinroJuction.JhoughthelattermayhaveoriginateJin
the ursuit oImilitary sueriority, their alication haJ everything
to Jowithbyassing therigiJities oI!orJism anJ acceIerating turn-
over time as a solution to the grumbling roblems oI !orJism-
Keynesianism that eruteJ into oen crisis in I 9/5. SeeJ-u was
achieveJ in roJuction by organizational shiIts towarJs vertical Jis-
integration - sub-contracting, outsourcing, etc. - thatreverseJthe
!orJist tenJency towarJs vertical integration anJ roJuceJ an in-
creasingrounJaboutnessinroJuctioneven in theIaceoIincreasing
hnancial centralization. Cther organizational shiIts - such as the
'just-in-time` Jelivery systemthat reJuces stockinventories - when
couleJwith thenewtechnologies oIelectroniccontrol, small-batch
roJuction, etc. , all reJuceJ turnover times in many sectors oIro-
The postmodern condition 285
Juction |electronics, machine tools, automobiles, construction,
clothing, etc. ). !or the labourers this all imlieJ an intensihcation
|seeJ-u) in Iabour rocesses anJ an acceleration in the Je-skilling
anJ re-skilling requireJ to meet new labour neeJs |see !art !!).
ccelerating turnover time i nroJuction entails arallel acceler-
ations in exchange anJ consumtion. !mroveJ systems oI com-
munication anJ inIormation llow, couleJ with rationalizations in
techniques oI Jistribution |ackaging, inventory control, container-
ization, market IeeJ-back, etc. ), maJe it ossible to circulate com-
moJities through the market system with greater seeJ. lectronic
banking anJ lastic money were some oI the innovations that im-
roveJ the seeJ oI the inverse llow oI money. !inancial services
anJmarkets |aiJeJ by comuterizeJ traJing) Iikewise seeJeJ u, so
as to make, as thesayinghas it, 'twenty-Iourhoursaverylongtime`
in global stock markets.
CI the many Jeveloments in the arena oI consumtion, two
stanJ out as being oI articular imortance. Jhe mobilization oI
Iashion in mass |as ooseJ to elite) markets roviJeJ a means to
accelerate the ace oI consumtion not only in clothing, ornament,
anJ Jecoration but also across a wiJe swathe oI IiIe-styles anJ
recreational activities |leisure anJ sorting habits, o music styles,
viJeo anJ chilJren`s games, anJ the like). seconJ trenJwas a shiIt
away Irom the consumtion oI gooJs anJ into the consumtion oI
services- notonIyersonal,business,eJucational,anJhealthservices,
but also into entertainments, sectacles, haenings, anJ Jis-
tractions.Jhe 'liIetime` oI suchservices|avisitto a museum,going
to a rock concert or movie, attenJing lectures or health clubs),
thoughharJtoestimate, is Iar shorter than thatoIanautomobileor
washingmachine.!ItherearelimitstotheaccumulationanJturnover
oI hysical gooJs |even counting the Iamous six thousanJ airs oI
shoes oI !melJa Marcos), then it makes sense Ior caitalists to turn
to the rovision oI very ehemeral services in consumtion. Jhis
questmay lie at the root oIthe raiJ caitalistenetration, noteJ by
ManJel anJ jameson |see above, . 65), oI many sectors oI cultural
roJuction Irom the miJ-I 960s onwarJs .
CI the innumerable consequences thathave lloweJ Irom this gen-
eral seeJ-u in the turnover times oIcaital, ! shall Iocus on those
thathavearticularbearingonostmoJernwaysoIthinking,Ieeling,
anJ Joing.
Jhe hrst major consequence has been to accentuate volatility anJ
ehemerality oI Iashions, roJucts, roJuction techniques, labour
rocesses, iJeas anJ iJeologies, values anJ establisheJractices. Jhe
sense that 'all that is soliJ melts into air` has rareIy been more
286 The experience of space and time
ervasive |which robably accounts Ior the volume oI writing on
thatthemeinrecentvears). Jhe eIIect oIthisonlabourmarketsanJ
skillshas alreaJy beenconsiJereJ|see!art!!). Myinteresthereisto
look at the more generalsociety-wiJe eIIects.
!n the realm oI commoJity roJuction, the rimary eIIect has
beento emhasizethevaluesanJvirtuesoIinstantaneity|instantanJ
IastIooJs, meals, anJ othersatisIactions)anJ oI Jisosability |cus,
lates,cutlery,ackaging,nakins, clothing, etc. ). JheJynamics oIa
'throwaway` society, as writers like lvin JoIller | I9/0) JubbeJ it,
began to become eviJent Juring the I 960s. !t meant more than just
throwing away roJuceJ gooJs |creating a monumental waste-
Jisosal roblem), but also being able to throw away values, liIe-
styles, stablerelationshis, anJattachments to things, builJings, laces,
eole, anJ receiveJ ways oI Joing anJ being. Jhese were the
immeJiate anJ tangible ways inwhich the 'accelerative thrust in the
larger society` crasheJ u against 'the orJinary Jaily exerience oI
the inJiviJual` |JoIller, . +0). Jhrough such mechanisms |which
roveJ highlyeIIectiveIrom the stanJoint oI accelerating the turn-
over oIgooJs in consumtion) inJiviJuals were IorceJ to coe with
Jisosability, novelty, anJ the rosects Ior instant obsolescence.
'ComareJ to theliIein a less raiJly changing society, more situ-
ations now llow through the channel in any given interval oI time
- anJ this imlies roIounJ changes in human sychology. ` Jhis
transcience, JoIller goes on to suggest, creates 'a temorariness in
the structure oI both ublic anJ ersonal value systems` which in
turn roviJes a context Ior the 'crack-u oI consensus` anJ the
Jiversihcation oIvalueswithina Iragmenting society. Jhe bombarJ-
mentoIstimuli, simly onthecommoJityIront,createsroblemsoI
sensory overloaJ thatmakes Simmel`s Jissection oIthe roblems oI
moJernisturbanlivingat the turn oIthecentury seem toale into
insignihcance by comarison. Yet, recisely because oI the relative
qualitiesoItheshiIt,thesychological resonses existroughlywithin
the range oI those which Simmel iJentiheJ - the blocking out oI
sensory stimuli, Jenial, anJ cultivation oI the blas attituJe, myoic
secialization,reversiontoimagesoIalostast|hencetheimortance
oI mementoes, museums, ruins), anJ excessive simlihcation |either
in the resentation oIselIor in the interretationoI events) . !nthis
regarJ, it is instructive to see how JoIller |. 526-9), at a much
later moment oI time-sace comression, echoes the thinking oI
Simmel, whose iJeas were shaeJ at a moment oI similar trauma
more than seventy years beIore.
Jhe volatility, oIcourse, makes itextremelyJiIhcult to engage in
any long-term lanning. !nJeeJ, learning to lay the volatility right
The postmodern condition 28/
is now just as imortant as accelerating turnover time. Jhis means
either being highly aJatable anJIast-moving in resonse U market
shiIts,ormasterminJingthevolatility.Jhehrststrategyointsmainly
towarJs short-term rather than long-term lanning, anJ cultivating
the art oI taking short-term gains wherever they are to be haJ. Jhis
has been a notorious Ieature oI\S managementin recent times. Jhe
average tenure oI comany executive oIhcers has come Jown to hve
years, anJ comanies nominally involveJ in roJuction Irequently
seek short-termgains through mergers, acquisitions, or oerations in
hnancial anJ currency markets. Jhe tension oI managerial erIor-
manceinsuchan environment isconsiJerable,roJucingallkinJs oI
siJe-eIIects, such as the so-calleJ 'yuie lIu` |a sychological stress
conJition that aralyses the erIormance oI talenteJ eole anJ
roJuceslong-lastingllu-likesymtoms)orthe IrenzieJliIe-style oI
hnancial oerators whose aJJiction to work, long hours, anJ the
rush oI ower makes them excellent canJiJates Ior the kinJ oI
schizohrenic mentality that jameson Jeicts .
Mastering or intervening actively in the roJuction oI volatility,
on the other hanJ, entails maniulation oI taste anJ oinion, either
through being a Iashion leaJer or by so saturating the market with
images as to shae the volatility to articular enJs. Jhis means, in
either case, the constructionoInew sign systems anJ imagery, which
is itselI an imortant asectoItheostmoJernconJition - one that
neeJs to be consiJereJ Irom several JiIIerent angles. Jo begin with,
aJvertisinganJmeJiaimages |as we saw in !art !) havecometolay
a very much more integrative role in cultural ractices anJ now
assume a much greater imortance in the growth Jynamics oI ca-
italism. Jvertising, moreover, is no longer built arounJ the iJea oI
inIorming or romoting in the orJinary sense, but is increasingly
geareJtomaniulatingJesires anJ tastes through images thatmay or
may nothaveanythingto Jowith the roJuct to be solJ |seelate
I . 6). !I we strieJ moJern aJvertising oI Jirect reIerence to the
three themes oI money, sex, anJ ower there woulJ be very little
leIt. Iurthermore, images have, in a sense, themselves become com-
moJities. Jhis henomenon has leJ 8auJrillarJ | I 98I ) to argue that
Marx`s analysis oIcommoJityroJuctionis outJateJ because cait-
alismis nowreJominantly concerneJwiththeroJuction oI signs,
images, anJ sign systems rather than with commoJities themselves.
Jhe transition heoints to isimortant, though there are inIactno
serious JiIhculties in extenJing Marx`s theory oI commoJity ro-
Juction to coewith it. Jo be sure, the systems oI roJuction anJ
marketing oIimages |like markets Ior lanJ, ublic gooJs, or labour
ower) Jo exhibit some secial Ieatures that neeJ to be taken into
288 The experience of space and time
account. Jhe consumer turnover time oI certain images can be very
short inJeeJ |close to that iJeal oI the 'twinkling oI an eye' that
Marx saw as otimal Irom the stanJoint oI caital circulation) .
Many images can also be mass-marketeJ instantaneously over sace.
Given the ressures to accelerate turnover time |anJ to overcome
satial barriers), the commoJihcation oI images oI the most
ehemeral sort woulJ seem to be a goJsenJIromthestanJoint oI
caital accumulation, articularly when other aths to relieve over-
accumulation seem blockeJ. hemerality anJ instantaneous com-
municability over sace then become virtues to be exloreJ anJ
aroriateJ by caitalists Ior their own uroses.
8utimageshavetoerIormotherIunctions . Cororations,govern-
ments, olitical anJ intellectual leaJers, all value a stable |though
Jynamic) image as art oI their aura oI authority anJ ower. Jhe
meJiatizationoIoliticshasnowbecomeallervasive.Jhisbecomes,
in eIIect, the lleeting, suerhcial, anJ illusory means whereby an
inJiviJualisticsocietyoItransientssetsIorthitsnostalgiaIorcommon
values.JheroJuctionanJmarketing oIsuchimages oIermanence
anJowerrequireconsiJerable sohistication, becausethecoi

tinuity
anJ stability oI the image have to be retaineJ while stressing the
aJatability, exibility, anJ Jynamism oI whoever or whatever is
beingimageJ.Moreover,imagebecomesall-imortantincometition,
not only through name-branJ recognition but also because oI
variousassociationsoI'resectability,''quality,`'restige,`'reliability,`
anJ'innovation.` Cometitionintheimage-builJingtraJe becomes a
vital asectoIinter-hrm cometition. Successis so lainly rohtable
that investment in image-builJing |sonsoring the arts, exhibitions,
television roJuctions, new builJings, as well as Jirect marketing)
becomes as imortant as investment in new lant anJ machinery.
Jhe image serves to establish aniJentityinthemarket lace. Jhis is
also true in labour markets. Jhe acquisition oI an image |by the
urchase oI a sign system suchas Jesigner clothes anJtheright car)
becomes a singularly imortant elementin theresentation oIselIin
labour markets anJ, by extension, becomes integral to the quest Ior
inJiviJual iJentity, selI-realization, anJ meaning. musing yet saJ
signals oIthis sort oIquest abounJ. CaliIornia hrm manuIactures
imitation car telehones, inJistinguishable Irom the real ones, anJ
they sell like hot cakes to a oulace Jeserate to acquire such a
symbol oI imortance. !ersonal image consultants have become big
business in ew York City, the International Herald Tribune has
reorteJ, as a million or so eole a yearin the city region sign u
Ior courses with hrms calleJ !mage ssemblers, !mage 8uilJers,
!mage CraIters, anJ !mage Creators. '!eole make u their minJs
The postmodern condition 289
about you i n arounJ one tenth oI a seconJ these Jays,` says one
image consultant. 'Iakeit tillyoumake it,` is the slogan oI another.
!t has always been the case, oI course, that symbols oI wealth,
status, Iame, anJ ower as well as oI class have been imortant in
bourgeois society, but robably nowhere near as wiJely in the ast
as now. Jhe increasingmaterial aIlIuence generateJJuringtheost-
war IorJist boom oseJ the roblem oI converting rising incomes
into aneIIectiveJemanJthat satisheJtherisingasirations oIyouth,
women, anJ theworking class. Given the ability to roJuce images
as commoJities more or less at will, it becomes Ieasible Ior ac-
cumulation to roceeJ at least in art on the basis oI ure image
roJuction anJ marketing. ]he ehemerality oI such images can
then be interreteJ inart as a struggle on theart oIthe oresseJ
grous oIwhatever sort to establish their own iJentity |in terms oI
street culture, musical styles, IaJs anJ Iashions maJe u Ior them-
selves) anJ the rush to convert those innovations to commercial
aJvantage |Carnaby Street in the late I 960s roveJ an excellent
ioneer). Jhe eIIectis to make it seem as iIwe are living in aworlJ
oI ehemeral createJ images. Jhe sychological imacts oI sensory
overloaJ, oI the sort that Simmel anJ JoIller iJentiIy, are thereby
ut to work with a reJoubleJ eIIect.
Jhematerials to roJuceanJreroJucesuch images, iItheywere
notreaJilytohanJ,havethemselves beentheIocusIorinnovation -
the better the relication oI the image, the greater the mass market
Ior image making coulJ become. Jhis is in itselI an imortant issue
anJitbringsusmoreexlicitlytoconsiJertheroleoIthe'simulacrum`
in ostmoJernism. 8y 'simulacrum' is meant a state oI such near
erIect relication that the JiIIerence between the original anJ the
coy becomes almost imossible to sot. JheroJuction oI images
as simulacra is relatively easy, given moJern techniques. !nsoIar as
iJentity is increasingly JeenJent uon images, this means that the
serial anJ recursive relications oI iJentities |inJiviJual, cororate,
institutional, anJolitical) becomes averyrealossibilityanJrob-
lem. We can certainly see it atworkintherealm oI olitics as the
image makers anJ the meJia assume a more owerIul role in the
shaing oI olitical iJentities. 8ut there are many more tangible
realms where the simulacrum has a heighteneJ role. With moJern
builJing materials it is ossible to relicate ancient builJings with
such exactituJe that authenticity or origins can be ut into Joubt.
Jhe manuIacture oI antiques anJ otherart objects becomes entirely
ossible, making the high-class Iorgery a serious roblem in the art
collection business. We not only ossess, thereIore, the caacity to
ile images Irom the ast or Irom other laces eclectically anJ
290 The experience of space and time
simultaneously uon the television screen, but even to transIorm
those images into material simulacra in the Iorm oI built environ-
ments, events anJ sectacles, anJ the like, which become in many
resectsinJistinguishableIromtheoriginals.Whathaenstocultural
Iorms when the imitations become real, anJ the real takes on many
oI the qualities oI an imitation, is a question to which we shall
return.
Jhe organization anJconJitions oI labourrevailingwithinwhat
we mightbroaJlyreIertoas the'imageroJuctioninJustry`are also
quite secial. ninJustry oIthis sorthas to rely, alter all, uonthe
innovativeowersoltheJirectroJucers. Jhelatterhaveaninsecure
existence, temereJ by very high rewarJs Ior the successIul anJ at
least a semblance oI commanJ over their own labour rocess anJ
creative owers. Jhe growth ol cultural outut has in Iact been
henomenal. Jaylor | I 98/, //) contrasts theartmarket conJition in
ew York in I 9+5, when there were a hanJIul oI galleries anJ no
morethanascoreoIartistsreguIarlyexhibititrg,anJthetwothousanJ
orsoartistswhoractiseJ in orarounJ!aris in themiJ-nineteenth
century, with the I 50,000 artists in the ewYork regionwho claim
roIessional status, exhibiting at some 680 galleries,roJucing more
than I 5 million art-works in a JecaJe |comareJ to 200,000 in late
nineteenth-century !aris). nJ this is only the ti oI an iceberg oI
cultural roJuction that encomasses local entertainers anJ graphic
Jesigners, street anJ ub musicians, hotograhers, as well as the
more establisheJ anJ recognizeJ schools Ior teaching art, music,
Jrama, anJ the like. Lwarhng all oI this, however, is what Laniel
8ell | I9/8, 20) calls 'the cultural mass` JehneJ as .
not the creators oI culture but the transmitters . those working
in higher eJucation, ublishing, magazines, broaJcast meJia,
theater, anJ museums, who rocess anJinlIuencethe recetion
oIserious culturalroJucts. !t is in itselIlarge enough to be a
market Ior culture, urchase books, rints anJ serious music
recorJings.nJitis alsothegrouwhich,aswriters,magazine
eJitors, movie-makers, musicians, anJ so Iorth, roJuce the
oularmaterials Ior thewiJer mass-culture auJience.
Jhis whole inJustry secializes in the acceleration oI turnover
time through the roJuction anJ marketing oI images. Jhis is an
inJustry where reutations are maJe anJ lost overnight, where big
moneytalks in nouncertain terms, anJwhere there is a Ierment oI
intense, oIten inJiviJualizeJ, creativity oureJ into the vast vat oI
serializeJ anJ recursive mass culture. !t is theorganizer oIIaJsanJ
The postmodern condition 29I
Iashions anJ, assuch,itactivelyroJuces thevery ehemeralitythat
has always been IunJamental to the exerience oI moJernity. !t
becomes a social means to roJuce that sense oI collasing time
horizons which it in turn so aviJly IeeJs uon.
Jhe oularity oI a work like lvin JoIller`s Future shock lay
recisely in its rescient areciation oI the seeJ with which the
Iuture has come to be JiscounteJinto theresent. Cut oI that, also,
comes a collase oI cultural Jistinctions between, say, 'science` anJ
'regular'hction|intheworks oI, Iorexamle,Jhomas!ynchonanJ
LorisLessing), aswell asamerging oIthecinemaoIJistractionwith
the cinema oI Iuturistic universes. We can link the schizohrenic
Jimension to ostmoJernity which |ameson emhasizes |above,
. 55-5) with accelerations in turnover times in roJuction,
exchange, anJ consumtion that roJuce, as it were, the loss ol a
sense oItheIuture excet anJ insoIar as theIuturecan be JiscounteJ
into the resent. Volatility anJ ehemerality similarly make it harJ
to maintain any hrm sense oI continuity. !ast exerience gets com-
resseJ into some overwhelming resent. !talo Calvino | I98I, 8)
reorts the eIIect on his own craIt oI novel writing this way.
long novels written toJay are erhas a contraJiction. the Ji-
mension oI time haJ been shattereJ, we cannot live or think
excet in Iragments oI time each oI which goes oII along its
own trajectory anJ immeJiately Jisaears. We can reJiscover
the continuity oI time only in the novels oI that erioJ when
time no longer seemeJ stoeJ anJ JiJ not yet seem to have
exloJeJ, a erioJ that lasteJ no more than a hunJreJ years.
8auJrillarJ| I 986),neveraIraiJtoexaggerate, consiJers the\niteJ
States asa society so givenover to seeJ, motion, cinematicimages,
anJ technological hxes as to have createJ a crisis oI exlanatory
logic. !t reresents, he suggests, 'the triumh oIeIIectover cause, oI
instantaneity over time as Jeth, the triumhoI surIace anJ oIure
objectivization overthe Jeth oIJesire.` Jhis, oI course, is the kinJ
oI environment in which Jeconstructionism can llourish. !I it is
imossible to say anything oI soliJity anJermanence in the miJst
oI this ehemeral anJ IragmenteJ worlJ, then why not join in the
language| game? verything,Iromnovel writing anJhilosohizing
to the exerience oI labouring or making a home, has to Iace the
challenge oI accelerating turnover time anJ the raiJ write-olI oI
traJitional anJ historically acquireJ values. Jhe temorary contract
in everything, as LyotarJ remarks |see above, . I I 5), then becomes
the hallmark oIostmoJern living.
292 The experience of space and time
8ut, as so oIten haens, the lunge into the maelstrom oI eh-
emeralitv has rovoked an exlosion oI oosed sentiments and
tendencies. Jo begin with, all sorts oI technical means arise to guard
against Iuture shocks. !irms sub-contract orresort to lIexible hiring
ractices to discount the otential unemlovment costs oI Iuture
market shiIts. !utures markets in evervthing, Irom corn and ork
bellies to currencies and government debt, couled with the 'se-
curitization` oI all kinds oI temorarv and oating debts, illustrate
techniques Ior discounting the Iuture into the resent. !nsurance
hedges oI all kinds against Iuture volatilitv become much more
widelv available.
Leeer questions oI meaning and interretation also arise. Jhe
greaterthe ehemeralitv, the more ressing the need to discover or
manuIacture some kind oI eternal truth thatmightlie therein. Jhe
religiousrevival thathas becomemuch strongersince thelate sixties,
and the search Ior authenticitv and authoritv in olitics |with all oI
its accoutrements oI nationalism and localism and oI admiration Ior
those charismatic and 'rotean` individuals with their ietzschian
'will to ower`) are cases in oint. Jhe revival oI interest in basic
institutions |such as the Iamilv and communitv), and the search Ior
historicalrootsareallsignsoIa searchIormoresecuremooringsand
longer-lasting values in a shiIting world. Kochberg-Halton | I 986,
I /5), in a samle studv oIorth Chicago residents in I 9//, hnds,
Ior examle, that the objects actuallv valued in the home were not
the 'ecuniarv trohies` oIa materialist culture which acted as 'reli-
able indices oI one`s socio-economic class, age, gender and so on,`
but the arteIacts that embodied 'ties to loved ones and kin, valued
exeriences and activities, andmemoriesoIsignihcantliIeevents and
eole.` !hotograhs, articular objects |like a iano, a clock, a
chair), and events |the laving oI a record oI a iece oI music, the
singing oIa song) becometheIocus oIa contemlative memorv, and
hence a generator oI a sense oI selI that lies outside the sensorv
overloading oIconsumeristculture andIashion. Jhe home becomes
a rivate museum to guardagainsttheravages oItime-sace com-
ression. t the verv time, Iurthermore, that ostmodernism ro-
claimsthe ' death oItheauthor` andtherise oI anti-auratic artin the
ublic realm, the art market becomes ever more conscious oI the
monoolv ower oI the artist`s signature and oI questions oI au
thenticitv and Iorgerv |no matter that the Kauschenberg is itselI a
mere reroduction montage). !t is, erhas, aroriate that the
ostmodernist develoer building, as solid as the ink granite oI
!hilijohnson`sJJbuilding, shouldbedebt-hnanced, builton
the basisoIhctitious caital, andarchitecturallvconceived oI, atleast
on the outside, more in thesirit oI hctionthan oI Iunction.
The postmodern condition 295
Jhe satial adjustments have beennoless traumatic. Jhesatellite
communicationssvstems delovedsincetheearlvI 9/0shaverendered
the unit cost and time oI communication invariant with resect to
distance. !t costs the same to communicate over 500 miles as it does
over 5,000 via satellite. ir Ireight rates on commodities have like-
wise come down dramaticallv, while containerization has reduced
the cost oIbulk sea androad transort. !tis nowossibleIora large
multinational cororation like Jexas !nstruments to oerate lants
withsimultaneous decision-makingwith resect to hnancial, market,
inut costs, qualitv control, and labour rocess conditions in more
than hItv diIIerent locations across the globe |Licken, I 986, I I 0-
I5) . Masstelevision ownershi couledwith satellitecommunication
makes it ossible to exerience a rush oI images Irom diIIerent
saces almost simultaneouslv, collasing the world`s saces into a
series oI images on a television screen. Jhe whole world can watch
the Clvmic Cames, the World Cu, theIall oIa dictator, aolitical
summit, a deadlv tragedv . . while mass tourism, hlms made in
sectacular locations, make a wide range oI simulated or vicarious
exeriences oI what the world contains available to manv eole.
Jhe image oIlaces and saces becomes as oen to roduction and
ehemeral use as anv other.
We have, in short, witnessed another herce round in that rocess
oI annihilation oI sace through time that has alwavs lain at the
center oI caitalism`s dvnamic |see late 5 . 2). Marshall McLuhan
described how he thought the 'global village` had now become a
communications realitv in the mid-I 960s.
Iter three thousand vears oIexlosion, bv means oIIragmen-
tarv and mechanical technologies, the Western World is im-
loding.Luringthemechanical ageswehadextendedourbodies
in sace. Jodav, aIter more than a centurv oI electronic tech-
nologv,wehaveextendedourcentralnervoussvstemitselIin a
global embrace, abolishing both sace and time as Iar as our
lanet is concerned.
!n recentvears awholesateoIwritinghastakenthis ideaonboard
and tried to exlore, as Ior examle Virilio | I 980) does in his
Esthhique de La disparition, theculturalconsequencesoIthesuosed
disaearance oI time and sace as materialized and tangible di-
mensions to social liIe.
8ut the collase oI satial barriers does not mean that the signi-
hcance oI sace is decreasing. ot Ior the hrst time in caitalism`s
historv,wehndthe evidenceointingto theconverse thesis.Heigh-
tened cometition under conditions oI crisis has coerced caitalists
291 The exerience of space and time
into aying much cIoser attention to reIaiive locationaI aJvantages,
reciseIybecauseJiminishingsatiaIbarriersgivecaitaIiststheower
to exIoit minute satiaI JiIIerentiations to gooJ eIIect. SmaII JiI-
Ierences in what the sace contains in the way oI Iabour suIies,
resources, inIrastructures, anJ the Iike become oI increaseJ signi-
hcance. Suerior commanJoversacebecomesanevenmoreimor-
tantweaonincIass struggIe. !t becomes oneoIthemeanstoenIorce
seeJ-u anJ the reJehnition oI skiIls on recaIcitrant work Iorces.
GeograhicaI mobiIity anJ JecentraIization areuseJ againsta union
owerwhichtraJitionaIlyconcentrateJinthe Iactories oImass ro-
Juction. CaitaI lIight, JeinJustriaIization oI some regions, anJ the
inJustriaIization oI others, the Jestruction oI traJitionaI working-
cIass communities asower bases incIass struggIe, becomeIeitmotiIs
oI satiaI transIormation unJer more lIexibIe conJitions oI accumu-
Iation |Martin anJ Kowthorn, I 986, 8Iuestone anJ Harrison, I 982,
Harrison anJ 8Iuestone, I 988).
s satiaI barriers Jiminish sowebecome much more sensitizeJ
to what the worIJ`s saces contain. !IexibIe accumulation tyicaIIy
exIoits a wiJe range oI seemingIy contingent geograhicaI circum-
stances, anJ reconstitutes them as structureJ internaI eIements oI its
own encomassing Iogic. !or examIe, geograhicaI JiIIerentiations

in the moJe anJ strengths oIIabour controI togetherwithvariations

inthequaIityas weII as thequantityoIIabourower assume amuch
greater signihcance in cororate IocationaI strategies. ewinJustriaI
ensembIes arise, sometimes out oI aImost nothing |as the various
siIicon valIeys anJ glens) but more oIten on the basis oI some
re-existing mix oI skiIIs anJ resources. Jhe'JhirJ!taIy` |miIia-
Komagna) buiIJs uonaecuIiarmixoIco-oerative entrereneur i-
aIism, artisan Iabour, anJ Iocal communist aJministrations anxious
to generate emloyment, anJ inserts its cIothing roJucts with in-
creJibIe success into a highIy cometitive worIJ economy. !IanJers
attracts outsiJe caitaI on the basis oI a JiserseJ, lIexibIe, anJ
reasonabIy skiIIeJ labour suIy with a Jee hostiIity to unionism
anJ sociaIism. Los ngeIes imorts the highIy successIuI atriarchaI
Iabour systems oI South-astsia through mass immigration, whiIe
the ceIebrateJ aternaIistic IabourcontroIsystem oIthe|aanese anJ
Jaiwaneseis imorteJ into CaIiIornia anJSouthWaIes.Jhestoryin
each case is JiIIerent, making it aear as iIthe uniqueness oIthis or
thatgeograhicaI circumstance matters more thaneverbeIore. Yetit
Joes so, ironicaIIy, onIy because oI the coIIase oIsatiaI barriers.
WhiIeIabourcontroIisaIwayscentral,therearemanyotherasects
oI geograhicaI organization that have risen to a new rominence
unJer conJitions oI more lIexibIe accumuIation. Jhe neeJ Ior ac-
curateinIormationanJseeJycomunicationhasemhasizeJtheroIe
The postmodern condition 295
oI so-caIIeJ 'worlJ cities' in the hnanciaI anJ cororate system
|centresequieJwithteIeorts,airorts,hxeJcommunicationIinks,
as weII as a wiJe array oIhnanciaI, IegaI, business, anJ inIrastruc-
turaI services). Jhe Jiminution oI satiaI barriers resuIts in the re
aIhrmationanJreaIignment oIhierarchywithinwhatisnowagIobaI
urban system. Jhe IocaI avaiIabiIity oI materiaI resources oI secial
qualities, or even at marginaIIy Iower costs, starts to be ever more
imortant,as Jo IocaIvariationsin markettaste that aretoJaymore
easiIyexIoiteJunJerconJitionsoIsmalI-batchroJuctionanJlIex-
ibIe Jesign. LocaI JiIIerences in entrereneuriaI ability,venture ca-
itaI,scientihcanJtechnicaIknow-how, sociaI attituJes, aIsoenterin,
whiIe the IocaI networks oI inlIuence anJ ower, the accumuIation
strategies oI IocaI ruIing eIites |as ooseJ to nation state oIicies)
aIso become more JeeIy imIicateJ in the regime oI lIexible
accumuIation.
8ut this then raises another Jimension to the changing roIe oI
satiaIity incontemorary society. !IcaitaIists become increasingly
sensitive to the satiaIIy JiIIerentiateJ quaIities oIwhich the worIJ`s
geograhy is comoseJ, then it is ossibIe Ior the eoIes anJ
owersthatcommanJthosesacestoaItertheminsuchawayas to
be more rather than Iess attractive to highIy mobiIe caitaI. Local
ruIing eIites can, Ior examIe, imlement strategies oI IocaI Iabour
controI, oI skiIl enhancement, oI inIrastructuraI rovision, oI tax
oIicy, state reguIation, anJ so on, in orJer to attract JeveIoment
within theirarticuIar sace. Jhe quaIities oIIace stanJ thereby to
be emhasizeJ in the miJst oI the increasingabstractions oI sace.
Jhe active roJuction oI Iaces with seciaI quaIities becomes an
imortant stake in satiaI cometition between IocaIities, cities, re-
gions, anJ nations. Cororatist Iorms oI governance can lIourish in
such saces, anJ themselves take on entrereneuriaI roIes in the
roJuctionoIIavourabIebusinesscIimatesanJotherseciaIquaIities.
nJitis inthis context thatwecan better situate the striving, noteJ
in !art ! |. 88 -92), Ior cities to Iorge a Jistinctive image anJ to
create anatmoshereoIIace anJ traJition thatwiIIact as aIure to
bothcaitaIanJeoIe 'oItherightsort` |i. e. weaIthy anJinuentiaI).
HeighteneJinter-lacecometition shouIJ IeaJ tothe roJuction oI
more variegateJ saces within the increasing homogeneity oI inter-
nationaI exchange. 8ut to the Jegree that this cometition oens u
cities to systems oI accumulation, it enJs u roJucingwhat 8oyer
| I 988) caIls a 'recursive` anJ 'seriaI` monotony, 'roJucing Irom
aIreaJy knownatterns or molJs Iaces aImostiJenticaIinambience
Iromcitytocity. ewYork`s SouthStreetSeaort, 8oston`sCuincy
Market, 8aItimore`s Harbor !Iace.`
We thus aroach the centraI araJox. the Iess imortant the
296 The experience of space and time
satial barriers, the greater the sensitivity oIcaital to the variations
oI lace within sace, anJ the greater the incentive Ior laces to be
JiIIerentiateJ in ways attractive to caital. Jhe result has been the
roJuction oI Iragmentation, insecurity, anJ ehemeral uneven
Jevelomentwithin ahighly uniheJ global sace economy oIcaital
lIows. Jhe historic tension within caitalism between centralization
anJ Jecentralization is now being workeJ out in new ways. xtra-
orJinary Jecentralization anJ roliIeration oI inJustrial roJuction
enJs u utting 8enetton orLaura shley roJucts in almost every
serially roJuceJ shoing mall in the aJvanceJ caitalist worlJ.
!lainly,thenewrounJoItime-sacecomressionisIraughtwithas
many Jangers as itoIIersossibilities Iorsurvival oIarticularlaces
or Ior a solution to the overaccumulation roblem.
Jhe geograhy oI devaluation through JeinJustrialization, rising
local unemloyment, hscal retrenchment, write-oIIs oI local assets,
anJthelike,isinJeeJasorryicture.8utwecanatleastseeitslogic
withintheIrameoIthesearchIorasolutionto theoveraccumulation
roblem through the ush into llexible anJ more mobile systems oI
accumulation. 8ut there are also a riori reasons to susect |as well
assomematerialeviJencetosuorttheiJea)thatregionsoImaximum
churning anJ Iragmentation are also regions that seem best set to
survive the traumas oI Jevaluation in the long run. Jhere is more
than a hint that a little Jevaluation now is better than massive
Jevaluation later in the scramble Ior local survival in the worlJ oI
severely constraineJ oortunities Iorositive growth. KeinJustrial-
izinganJrestructuringcannotbeaccomlisheJwithoutJeinJustrial-
izing anJ Jevaluing hrst.
one oI these shiIts in the exerience oI sace anJ time woulJ
make the sense orhavethe imacttheyJowithouta raJicalshiItin
the manner inwhich value gets reresenteJ as money. Jhough long
Jominant, money has never been a clear or unambiguous rere-
sentation oI value, anJ on occasion it becomes so muJJleJ as to
become itselI a major source oI insecurity anJ uncertainty. \nJer
the terms oI the ostwar settlement, the question oI worlJ money
wasuton aIairlystable basis. Jhe\SJollarbecamethemeJiumoI
worlJ traJe, technically backeJ by a hxeJ convertibility into golJ,
anJbackeJoliticallyanJeconomicallybythe overwhelmingower
oI the \S roJuctive aaratus. Jhe sace oI the \S roJuction
systembecame, ineIIect,theguarantoroIinternationalvalue. 8ut, as
we have seen, one oI the signals oI the breakJown oI the IorJist-
Keynesian system was the breakJown oIthe8rettonWooJs agree-
ment,oIconvertibilityoI\S Jollarsto golJ,anJtheshiItto aglobal
system oI lIoating exchange rates. Jhe breakJown in art occurreJ
The postmodern condition 29/
because oIthe shiIting Jimensionalities oIsace anJ time generateJ
out oIcaital accumulation. Kising inJebteJness |articularlywithin
the \niteJ States), anJ hercer international cometition Irom the
reconstructeJ saces oI the worlJ econouy unJer conJitions oI
growingaccumulation,haJmuchto JowithunJerminingtheower
oI the \S economy to oerate as an exclusive guarantor oI worlJ
money.
Jhe eIIects have been legion. Jhe question oI howvalue shoulJ
nowgetreresenteJ,whatIormmoneyshoulJtake,anJthemeaning
thatcan beutuonthevariousIormsoImoneyavailable tous, has
never been Iar Irom the surIace oI recent concerns. Since 9/5,
money has been 'Je-materializeJ` inthe sense thatitno longerhasa
Iormal or tangible link to recious metals |though the latter have
continueJ to lay a role as one otential Iorm oI money among
many others), or Ior that matter to any other tangible commoJity.
or Joes it rely exclusively uon roJuctive activity within a ar-
ticular sace. Jhe worlJ has come to rely, Ior the hrst time in its
history, uon immaterial Iorms oI money - i. e. money oI account
assesseJ quantitatively in numbers oI some JesignateJ currency
|Jollars, yen, Leutsch Marks, sterling, etc. ). xchange rates between
theJiIIerentcurrencies oItheworlJhave also beenextremelyvolatile.
IortunescoulJ be lost ormaJesimlybyholJingtherightcurrency
Juring the right hases. Jhe question oI which currency ! holJ is
Jirectly linkeJ to which lace ! ut my Iaith in. Jhat may have
something to Jo with the cometitive economic osition anJ ower
oI JiIIerent national systems. Jhat ower, given the llexibility oI
accumulation over sace, is itselI a raiJly shiItingmagnituJe. Jhe
eIIect is to renJer the saces that unJerin the Jetermination oI
value as unstable as value itselI. Jhisroblemis comounJeJ bythe
way that seculative shiIts byass actual economic ower anJ er-
Iormance,anJthentriggcrselI-Iulhllingexectations. JheJe-linking
oIthe hnancial systemIromactiveroJuction anJIromanymaterial
monetarybasecallsintoquestionthereliabilityoIthebasicmechanism
whereby value is suoseJ to be reresenteJ.
Jhese JiIhculties have been most owerIully resent in the ro-
cessoIJevaluationoImoney,themeasureoIvalue,throughination.
Jhe steaJy inllation rates oI the IorJist-Keynesian era |usually in
the 5 er cent range, anJ rarely above 5 er cent) gave way Irom
969 onwarJs, anJ then accelerateJ in all the major caitalist coun-
tries Juring the 9/0s into Jouble-Jigit rates |see hgure 2. 8). Worse
still, i

llation became highly unstable, between as well as within

countries, leaving everyone in Joubt as to what the true value |the
buying ower) oI a articular money might be in the near Iuture.
298 The experience of space and time
Money consequently became useless as a means oI storing value Ior
any length oItime |the real rate oI interest, measureJ as the money
rate oI interest minus the rate oI ination, was negative Ior several
yearsJuringthe I 9/0s,soJisossessingsaversoIthevaluetheywere
seeking to store). lternative means haJ to be IounJ to store value
eIIectively. nJ so began the vast inllation in certain kinJs oI asset
rices - collectibles, art objects, antiques, houses, anJ the like.
8uying a Legas or Van Gogh in I 9/5 woulJ surely outstri almost
any otherkinJ oIinvestment in terms oI caital gain. !nJeeJ it can
be argueJ that the growth oI the art market |with its concern Ior
authoriaI signature) anJ the strong commercialization oI cultural
roJuctionsince arounJ I 9/0have haJalotto Jowiththe search to
hnJ alternative means to store value unJer conJitions where the
usual money Iorms were Jehcient. CommoJity anJ general rice
inllation, though to some Jegree brought unJer control in the aJ-
vanceJ caitalist countries Juring the I 980s, has by no means Ji-
minisheJ as a roblem. !t is ramant in countries like Mexico,
rgentina, 8razil, anJ !srael |allwithrecentrates inhunJreJs oIer
cent),anJtherosectoIgeneralizeJinllationlooms intheaJvanceJ
caitalistcountries,whereitisinanycasearguable that the inllation
ol asset rices |housing, works oI art, antiques, etc.) has taken over
where commoJity anJ labour market inllation leIt oII in the early
I 980s.
JhebreakJownoImoney as a securemeans oIreresentingvalue
has itselIcreateJ a crisis oI reresentation in aJvanceJ caitalism. !t
has also been reinIorceJ by, anJ aJJeJ its very consiJerable weight
to, the roblems oI time-sace comression which we earlier
iJentiheJ. JheraiJitywithwhichcurrencymarkets lluctuateacross
theworlJ`s saces, theextraorJinaryoweroImoneycaitalllowin
whatisnowa global stockanJhnancialmarket, anJthevolatility oI
what the urchasing ower oI money might reresent, Jehne, as it
were, a highoint oIthathighlyroblematic intersection oImoney,
time, anJ sace as interlocking elements oI sociaI ower in the
olitical economy oI ostmoJernity.
!t is, Iurthermore, not harJ to see how all oI this might create a
more general crisis oI reresentation. Jhe central value system, to
whichcaitalismhasalways aealeJ tovaliJate anJgauge its actions,
is JematerializeJ anJ shiIting,time horizons are collasing, anJit is
harJto tellexactlywhatsacewe areinwhenit comes to assessing
causes anJelIects, meanings or values. Jhe intriguing exhibition at
the!omiJouCentrein I 985 on'Jhe!mmaterial' |anexhibitionIor
which none other than LyotarJ acteJ as one oI the consultants) was
erhas a mirror image oI the JissoIution ol the material rere-
The postmodern condition 299
sentations oI vaIue unJer conJitions oI morellexible accumulation,
anJ oI the conIusions as to what it might mean to say, with !auI
Virilio, that time anJ sace have JisaeareJ as meaninglul Jimen-
sions to human thought anJ action.
Jhere are, ! woulJ submit, more tangible anJ materialways than
this to go about assessing the signihcance oI sace anJ time Ior the
conJition oI ostmoJernity. !t shoulJ be ossible to consiJer how,
Ior examle, the changing exerience oI sace, time, anJ money has
IormeJ a Jistinctive material basis Ior the rise oI Jistinctive systems
oIinterretationanJreresentation,aswellasoeningaaththrough
which the aestheticization oIolitics might once more reassert itselI.
!I we view culture as that comlex oI signs anJ signihcations |in-
cluding language) that mesh into coJes oI transmission oI social
values anJ meanings, then we can at least begin uon the task oI
unravelling its comlexities unJer resent-day conJitions by recog-
nizing that money anJ commoJities are themselves the rimary
bearers oIcultural coJes. Since money anJcommoJities are entirely
bounJ u with the circulation oI caital, it Iollows that cultural
Iorms are hrmly rooteJ in the Jaily circulationrocess oIcaital. !t
is, thereIore, withthe Jaily exerience oImoney anJ thecommoJity
that we shoulJ begin, no matter iI secial commoJities or even
whole sign systems may be extracteJ lrom the common herJ anJ
maJe the basis oI 'high' culture or that secializeJ 'imaging' which
we have alreaJy haJ cause to comment uon.
Jhe annihilation oI sace through time has raJically changeJ the
commoJity mix that enters into Jaily reroJuction. !nnumerable
local IooJ systemshave been reorganizeJthroughtheirincororation
into global commoJity exchange. !rench cheeses, Ior examle, vir-
tually unavailable excet in a Iew gourmet stores in large cities in
I 9/0, are now wiJely solJ across the \niteJ States. nJ iI this is
thought a somewhat elite examle, the case oI beer consumtion
suggests that the internationalization oI a roJuct, that traJitional
location theory always taught shoulJ be highly market-orienteJ, is
now comlete. 8altimore was essentially a one-beer town |locally
breweJ)inI 9/0,buthrsttheregionalbeersIromlaceslikeMilwaukee
anJ Lenver, anJ then CanaJian anJ Mexican beers IolloweJ by
uroean, ustralian, Chinese, !olish, etc. beers became cheaer.
!ormerly exotic IooJs became commonlace while oular local
Jelicacies |in the 8altimore case, blue crabs anJ oysters) that were
once relatively inexensive jumeJ in rice as they too became
integrateJ into long-Jistance traJing.
Jhe market lace has always been an 'emorium oI styles' |to
quote Kaban`s hrase) buttheIooJmarket, justtotakeoneexamle,
300 The experience of space and time
nowlooks veryJiIIerentIromwhatitwastwentyyears ago. Kenyan
haricot beans, CaliIornian celery anJ avocaJos, orthIricanota-
toes, CanaJian aIes, anJ Chilean graes all sit siJe by siJe in a
8ritish suermarket. Jhis variety also makes Ior a roliIeration oI
culinary styles, even among the relatively oor. Such styles have
always migrateJ, oI course, usuallyIollowingthe migration streams
oI JiIIerent grous beIore JiIIusing slowly through urban cultures.
Jhe new waves oI immigrants |such as the Vietnamese, Koreans,
Iiliinos,Centralmericans,etc.thathaveaJJeJtotheolJergrous
oI |aanese, Chinese, Chicanos, anJ all the uroean ethnic grous
that have also IounJ their culinary heritage can be reviveJ Ior Iun
anJ roht) make a tyical\niteJ States city suchas ewYork, Los
ngeles,orSanIrancisco|wherethelastcensusshoweJthemajority
oI the oulation to be maJe u oI minorities) as much an em-
orium oI culinary styles as it is an emorium oI the worlJ's com-
moJities. 8ut here, too, there has been an acceleration, because
culinary styles have moveJ Iaster than the immigration streams. !t
JiJ nottake alargeIrenchimmigrationto the\niteJStates to senJ
the croissant raiJly sreaJingacross merica to challenge the tra-
Jitional Joughnut, nor JiJ it take a largeimmigration oI mericans
to uroe to bringIast-IooJhamburgers to nearlyall meJium-sizeJ
uroeancities. Chinesetakeaways,!talianizza-arlours|runby a
\S chain), MiJJle astern IelaIel stalls,jaanese sushi bars . . the
list is now enJless in the Western worlJ.
JhewholeworlJ'scuisineisnowassembleJinonelaceinalmost
exactly the same way that the worlJ's geograhical comlexity is
nightly reJuceJ to a series oI images on a static television screen.
Jhis same henomenon is exloiteJ in entertainment alaces like
cott anJLisneyworlJ, itbecomesossible,asthe\Scommercials
ut it, 'to exerience the ClJ WorlJ Ior a Jay without actually
having to go there. ' Jhe general imlication is that through the
exerience oI everything Irom IooJ, to culinary habits, music, tele-
vision, entertainment, anJ cinema, it is now ossible to exerience
theworlJ's geograhyvicariously, asasimulacrum.Jheinterweaving
oI simulacra in Jaily liIe brings together JiIIerent worlJs |oI com-
moJities)inthe same sace anJ time. 8ut it Joes soin such awayas
toconcealalmosterIectlyanytraceoIorigin,oIthelabourrocesses
that roJuceJ them, or oI the social relations imlicateJ in their
roJuction.
Jhesimulacracaninturn become thereality. 8auJrillarJ ( 1 986) in
L'Amerique even goes so Iar, somewhat exaggerateJly in my view,
to suggest that \Sreality is now constructeJ as a giant screen. 'the
cinemaiseverywhere,mostoIallinthecity,incessantanJmarvellous
The postmodern condition 301
hlmanJ scenario. ' !laces ortrayeJ ina certain way, articularly iI
they have the caacity to attract tourists, may begin to 'Jress them-
selves u' as the Iantasy images rescribe. MeJiaeval castles oIIer
meJiaeval weekenJs |IooJ, Jress, but not oI course the rimitive
heatingarrangements).VicariousarticiationinthesevariousworlJs
has real eIIects on the ways in which these worlJs get orJereJ.
|encks ( 1 984, 1 27) rooses that the architect shoulJ be an active
articiant in this .
ny miJJle class urbanite in any large city Irom Jeheran to
Jokyo is bounJ to have a well-stockeJ, inJeeJ over-stockeJ
'image bank' that is continually restuIIeJ by travel anJ maga-
zines. His musee imaginaire may mirror theot-ourri oI the
roJucersbutitisnonethelessnaturaltohiswayoIliIe. 8arring
some kinJ oI totalitarian reJuction in the heterogeneity oI
roJuction anJ consumtion, it seems to be Jesirable that
architectsl earn tousethisinevitableheterogeneityoIlanguages.
8esiJes, it is quite enjoyable. Why, iI one can aIIorJ tolive in
JiIIerent ages anJ cultures, restrict oneselI to the resent, the
locale ? clecticism is the natural evolution oI a culture with
choice.
Much the same canbe saiJ oIoularmusic styles. Commenting
on how collage anJ eclecticism have recently come to Jominate,
Chambers ( 1987) goes on to showhow oositional anJ subcultural
musics like reggae, Iro-merican anJ Iro-Hisanic have taken
their lace 'in the museum oI hxeJ symbolic structures' to Iorm a
lIexible collage oI 'the alreaJy seen, the alreaJy worn, the alreaJy
layeJ, the alreaJy hearJ. ' strong sense oI 'the Cther' is relaceJ,
he suggests, by a weak sense oI 'the others. ' Jhe loose hanging
together oI Jivergent street cultures in the IragmenteJ saces oIthe
contemorary city re-emhasizes the contingent anJ acciJental as-
ects oI this 'otherness' in Jaily liIe. Jhis same sensibility exists in
ostmoJern hction. !t is, says McHale ( 1 987), concerneJ with
'ontologies,'withaotentialaswellasanactuallurality oIuniverses,
Iorming an eclecticanJ' anarchic lanJscae oIworlJs in thelural'
LazeJ anJ JistracteJ characters wanJerthroughthese worlJs with-
out a clear sense oI location, wonJering, 'Which worlJ am ! in anJ
which oI my ersonalities Jo ! Jeloy?' Cur ostmoJern onto-
logicallanJscae, suggests McHale, 'is unreceJenteJ in human his-
tory - atleastintheJegreeoIitsluralism.' Saces oIvery JiIIerent
worlJs seem to collase uon each other, much as the worlJ's
commoJities are assembleJ in the suermarket anJ all manner oI
502
The experience of space and time
sub-cultures get juxtaoseJ in the contemorary city. Lisrutive
satiality triumhs overthecoherenceoIersectiveanJnarrativein
ostmoJern hction, in exactly the same way that imorteJ beers
coexistwithlocalbrews,localemloymentcollasesunJertheweight
oIIoreign cometition, anJallthe Jivergent saces oIthe worlJ are
assembleJ nightly as a collage oI images uon the television screen.
Jhere seemto betwo JivergentsociologicaleIIects oI alloIthisin
JailythoughtanJ action. Jhe hrst suggeststaking aJvantage oI all oI
the Jivergent ossibilities, much as |encks recommenJs, anJ cul-
tivatingawhole series oIsimulacraas milieuxoIescae,Iantasy, anJ
Jistraction.
ll arounJ us - on aJvertisement hoarJings, bookshelves,
recorJ covers, television screens - theseminiature escae Ian-
tasies resent themselves. Jhis, it seems, ishowwe are JestineJ
tolive,asslitersonalitiesinwhichtherivateliIeisJisturbeJ
bytheromise oI escaeroutes to anotherreality. |Cohen anJ
Jaylor, I 9/8, quoteJ in McHale, I 98/, 58)
!romthis stanJoint! thinkwehavetoaccetMcHale`sargument
that ostmoJern hction is mimetic oI something, much as ! have
argueJ that the emhasis uonehemerality, collage, Iragmentation,
anJ Jisersal in hilosohical anJ social thought mimics the con-
Jitions oI lIexible accumulation. nJ it shoulJ not be surrising
eitherto see howalloIthis hts inwiththeemergence since I 9/0oIa
IragmenteJ olitics oI Jivergent secial anJ regional interest grous.
8ut it is exactly at this oint that we encounter the oosite
reaction that can best be summeJ u as the search Ior ersonal or
collectiveiJentity,thesearchIorsecuremooringsinashiItingworlJ.
!lace-iJentity, in this collage oI suerimoseJ satial images that
imloJe in uon us, becomes an imortant issue, because everyone
occuies a sace oIinJiviJuation|aboJy, aroom, a home, a shaing
community, a nation), anJ how we inJiviJuate ourselves shaes
iJentity.!urthermore, iI no one 'knows theirlace` in this shiIting
collage worlJ, then how can a secure social orJer be IashioneJ or
sustaineJ?
Jhere are two elements within this roblem that Jeserve close
consiJeration. !irst, thecaacity oI most socialmovements to com-
manJ lace better than sace uts a strong emhasis uon theo-
tential connectionbetweenlace anJ socialiJentity. JhisismaniIest
in olitical action. Jhe JeIensiveness oI municial socialism, the
insistence on working-class community, the localization oI the hght
against caital, become central Ieatures oI working-class struggle
The postmodern condition 505
within an overall atterning oI uneven geograhical Jeveloment.
JheconsequentJilemmas oI socialist orworking-classmovementsin
theIaceoIauniversalizingcaitalismareshareJbyotheroositional
grous - racial minorities, colonizeJ eoles, women, etc. - who
are relatively emowereJ to organize in lace but JisemowereJ
when it comes to organizing over sace. !n clinging, oIten oI neces-
sity, to a lace-bounJ iJentity, however, such oositional move-
ments become a art oI the very Iragmentation which a mobile
caitalism anJllexible accumulation canIeeJuon. 'Kegionalresist-
ances,` the struggle Ior local autonomy, lace-bounJ organization,
may be excellent bases Ior olitical action, but they cannot bearthe
burJen oI raJical historical change alone. 'Jhink globally anJ act
locally`was therevolutionaryslogan oIthe I 960s. !tbearsreeating.
Jhe assertion oI any lace-bounJ iJentity has to rest at some
ointonthemotivationalower oItraJition. !tisJiIhcult,however,
to maintain any sense oI historical continuity in the Iace oI all the
lIux anJ ehemerality oI exible accumulation. Jhe irony is that
traJition is nowoItenreserveJby being commoJiheJanJmarketeJ
as such. Jhe search Ior roots enJs u at worst being roJuceJ anJ
marketeJ as an image, as a simulacrum or astiche |imitation com-
munitiesconstructeJto evoke images oI some Iolksyast, theIabric
oI traJitional working-class communities being taken over by an
urban gentry). Jhe hotograh, the Jocument, the view, anJ the
reroJuction become history recisely because they are so over-
whelmingly resent. Jhe roblem, oI course, is that none oI these
areimmuneIromtameringorJownrightIakingIorresenturoses.
t best, historical traJition is reorganizeJ as a museum culture, not
necessarily oI high moJernist art, but oI local history, oI local
roJuction, oIhowthings once uona timewere maJe, solJ, con-
sumeJ, anJ integrateJ into a long-lost anJoIten romanticizeJ Jaily
liIe |one Irom which all trace oI oressive social relations may be
exungeJ). Jhrough the resentation oI a artially illusory ast it
becomes ossibletosigniIy somethingoIlocal iJentity anJerhas
to Jo it rohtably.
Jhe seconJ reaction to the internationalism oI moJernism lies in
thesearchtoconstructlaceanJits meanings qualitatively. Caitalist
hegemony over sace uts the aesthetics oIlace very much back on
the agenJa. 8utthis, as wehaveseen, meshes onlytoo wellwiththe
iJea oI satial JiIIerentiations as lures Ior a eriatetic caital that
values the otion oImobilityvery highly. !sn`tthis lace better than
that lace, not only Ior the oerations oI caital but also Ior living
in, consuming well, anJ Ieeling secure in a shiIting worlJ: Jhe
constructionoIsuchlaces,the IashioningoIsome localizeJaesthetic
304 The experience of space and time
image, allows the construction oI some limiteJ anJ limiting sense oI
iJentity in the miJst oI a collage oI imloJing satialities.
Jhe tension in these oositions is clear enough but it is harJ to
areciate their intellectual anJ olitical ramihcations. Iere, Ior
examle, is !oucault ( 1 984, 253) aJJressing the issue Irom his own
ersective.
Sace is IunJamental in any Iorm oI communal liIe, sace is
IunJamental inany exercise oI ower. . . ! recallhaving been
inviteJin 1 966, by agrou oIarchitects, toJo a stuJyoIsace,
oI something that ! calleJ at the time 'heterotoias,' those
singular saces to be IounJ in some given social saces whose
Iunctions are JiIIerent or even the oosite oI others. Jhe
architectsworkeJonthis,anJat theenJoIthestuJysomeone
soke u - a Sartrean sychologist - who hrebombeJ me,
saying that space is reactionary anJ caitalist but history anJ
becoming are revolutionary. Jhis absurJ Jiscourse was not at
all unusual at the time. JoJay everyone woulJ be convulseJ
with laughter at sucha ronouncement, but not then.
Jhe roosition the Sartrean critic oIIers is, though cruJe anJ
oositional, nowhere near as laughable as !oucault avers. Cn
the other hanJ, ostmo!ernist sentiment Jehnitely leans towarJs
!oucault`s osition. Whereas moJernism lookeJ uon the saces oI
the city, Ior examle, as 'an eihenomenon oI social Iunctions,`
ost moJernism'tenJsto JisengageurbansaceIromitsJeenJence
on Iunctions, anJ to see it as an autonomous Iormal system` incor
orating 'rhetorical anJ artistic strategies, which are inJeenJent oI
anysimlehistorical Jeterminism` |Colquhoun, 1 985). !tisrecisely
thisJisengagementthatermits!oucaulttoJeloysatialmetahors
so extensively in his stuJies oI ower. Satial imagery, liberateJ
Irom its roots in any social Jetermination, becomes a means to
Jeict the Iorces oI social Jetermination. !t is a short ste, however,
Irom !oucault`s metahors to reinIorcement oI a olitical iJeology
thatseeslaceanJBeing withallits associateJaestheticqualities as a
roer basisIor social action. Geoolitics anJ the IeiJeggeriantra
come not too IarbehinJ.jameson( 1 988, 351 ), Iorhisart, views the
satialeculiaritiesoIost-moJernismassymtomsanJexres-
sions oI a new anJ historically original Jilemma, one that
involves our insertion as inJiviJual subjects into a multiJimen-
sional set oI raJically Jiscontinuous realities, whose Irames
range Irom the still surviving saces oI bourgeois rivate liIe all
The postmodern condition 305
the way to the unimaginable Jec entering oI global caitalism
itselI. ot eveninsteinianrelativity, orthemultilesubj ective
worlJsoItheolJermoJernists,iscaableoIgivinganyaJequate
hguration to thisrocess,whichinliveJexeriencemakes itselI
Ielt by the so-calleJ Jeath oI the subject, or, more exactly, the
IragmenteJ anJ schizohrenic Jecer:tering anJ Jisersion oI
this last . . . nJ although you may not have realizeJ it, ! am
taIking aboutractical olitics here. since the crisis oI socialist
internationalism, anJ the enormous strategic anJ tactical JiI-
hculties oI coorJinating local anJ grassroots or neighborhooJ
olitical actionswithnationalorinternationalones, suchurgent
olitical Jilemmas are all immeJiately Iunctions oI the enor-
mously comlex new international sace ! have in minJ.
|amesonexaggeratessomewhatwithresectto theuniquenessanJ
newness oI this exerience. StressIul though the current conJition
unJoubteJly is, it is qualitatively similar to that which leJ to Ke-
naissance anJ various moJernist reconcetualizations oI sace anJ
time. evertheless, the Jilemmas which |ameson Jeicts are exact
anJ cature the JriIt oI ostmoJern sensibility as to the meaning oI
sace in contemorary olitical anJ cultural as well as economic
liIe. !I, however, we have lost the moJernist Iaith in becoming, as
!oucault's Sartrean critic argueJ, is there anyway out excetviathe
reactionary olitics oIan aestheticizeJ satiality? re we saJly Jes-
tineJ to enJ u on the track that Sitte began with, in his turn to
Wagnerian mythology as suortIorhis assertion oItherimacy oI
lace anJ community in a worlJ oI changing saces? Worse still, iI
aesthetic roJuction hasnowbeen so thoroughly commoJiheJ anJ
therebybecomereallysubsumeJwithinaoliticaleconomyoIcultural
roJuction, how can we ossibly sto that circle closing onto a
roJuceJ, anJ hence all too easily maniulateJ, aestheticization oI a
globally meJiatizeJolitics ?
Jhis shoulJ alertus to the acute geoolitical Jangers that attach to
theraiJityoItime-sacecomressioninrecentyears.Jhetransition
Irom !orJism to lIexible accumulation, such as ithas been, ought to
imly atransitioninourmental mas, olitical attituJes, anJolitical
institutions. 8utolitical thinking Joes notnecessarilyunJergo such
easy transIormations, anJ is in any case subject to the contraJictory
ressures that Jerive Irom satial integration anJ JiIIerentiation.
Jhere is an omni-resent Janger that our mental mas will not
match current realities. Jhe serious Jiminution oI the ower oI
inJiviJualnationstatesoverhscalanJmonetaryolicies,Iorexamle,
hasnot beenmatcheJ byanyarallel shiIt towarJs aninternational-
506 The experience of space and time
ization oIolitics. !nJeeJ, there are abunJantsigns that localism anJ
nationalism have become stronger recisely because oI the quest Ior
the security that lace always oIIers in the miJst oI all the shiIting
that lIexible accumulation imlies.Jhe resurgence oI geoolitics anJ
oI Iaith in charismatic olitics |Jhatcher's IalklanJs War, Keagan's
invasion oI GrenaJa) hts only too well with a worlJ that is in-
creasingly nourisheJ intellectually anJ olitically by a vast ux oI
ehemeral images.
Jime-sace comression always exacts its toll onour caacityto
grale with the realities unIolJing arounJ us. LnJer stress, Ior
examle, itbecomesharJeranJharJerto react accurately to events.
Jhe erroneous iJentihcation oI an !ranian airbus, ascenJing within
an establisheJ commercial ight corriJor, with a hghter-bomber
JescenJingtowarJsatargeteJLSwarshi - aninciJentthatresulteJ
in many civilian Jeaths - is tyical oI the way that reality gets
createJ rather thaninterreteJunJerconJitions oI stress anJ time-
sace comression.Jhearallel with Kern's account oIthe outbreak
oI WorlJ War ! |citeJ above, . 2/8) is instructive. !I 'seasoneJ
negotiators crackeJ unJer the ressure oI tense conIrontations anJ
sleelessnights,agonizingovertherobableJisastrousconsequences
oI their sna juJgements anJ hasty actions, ' then how much more
JiIhcult must Jecision-making now be? Jhe JiIIerence this time is
that there is not even time to agonize. nJ the roblems are not
conhneJto therealms oIolitical anJmilitary Jecision-making, Ior
the worlJ's hnancial markets are on the boil in ways that make a
snajuJgementhere,anunconsiJereJworJ there, anJagutreaction
somewhere else thesli thatcanunravelthewhole skeinoI hctitious
caital Iormation anJ oI interJeenJency.
JheconJitions oIostmoJerntime-sacecomression exaggerate
in many resects the Jilemmas that have Irom time to time beset
caitalist roceJures oI moJernization in tbe ast | I 8+8 anJ the
hase just beIore the IirstWorlJ War sring articularly to minJ).
While the economic, cultural, anJ olitical resonses may not be
exactly new, the rangeoI those reonses JiIIers incertainimortant
resects Irom those which have occurreJ beIore. Jhe intensity oI
time-sace comression in Western caitalism since the I 960s,
with all oI its congruent Ieatures oI excessive ehemerality anJ
Iragmentation in the olitical anJ rivate as well as in the social
realm, Joes seem to inJicate an exeriential contextthat makes the
conJition oI ostmoJernity somewhat secial. 8ut by utting this
conJition into its historicalcontext, as artoI a history oIsuccessive
waves oI time -sace comression generateJ out oI the ressures oI
caital accumulation with its eretual search to annihilate sace
The postmodern condition
50/
through time anJ reJuce turnover time, we can at least ull the
conJition oIostmoJernity into the range oI a conJition accessible
tohistoricalmaterialistanalysisanJinterretation. Howto interret
anJ react to it will be taken u in !art !V.
1
Time and s pace In the pos tmodern
CInema
Postmodern cultural artelacts are, by virtue ol the eclecticism ol
ther conce

tion
.
andtheanarchy oltheirsubectmatter, immensely
vared. I thmk it uselul, however, to illustrate how the themes ol
time-sac comression that have been elaborated on here get re-
resented m ostmodern works. For this urose I choose to look
at
.
the cinema, in art because this is an art lorm which |together
with hotograhy) arose in the context ol the nrst great burst ol
cultural modernism, but also because, ol all the art lorms, it has
erhas th mst
.
robust
.
caacity to handle intertwining themes ol
s

ce and time m mstructive ways. The serial use olimages, and the
ability tocut back and
.
lorth across saceandtime, lreeitlrommany
ol the normal constramts, even though it is, in the nnal analysis, a
sectacle rojected within an enclosed sace on a dethless screen.
Thetwonlms I shallconsiderareBlade Runner andHimmel iiber
Berlin |alled Wings of Desire in nglish). Ridley Scott's Blade
Runner is a oular science nction movie, considered an excellent
examle ol its genre by many, and a nlm that still circulates in the
late-nightcinemas ollargemetroolitan areas.Itisaieceoloart
that neverthles exlores imortant themes. I am articularly in-
debted to Cmhano Bruno's ercetive analysis ol its ostmodern
aesthetics. Wim Wenders's Wings of Desire, on the other hand, is a
ice ol'highbrow'cinema,very lavourably received bythe critics |a
'bittersweetmasteriece' onecritic wrote), buthardtogras atnrst
viewing. It is the kind ol nlm that has to be worked at to be
understoodandareciated. However, itexlores similar themes to
those
.
set out
.
in Blade unner, though lrom a rather dillerent er-
sective and

n
.
a very dillerent style. Bothnlms exemlily manyol
thecaracterstics olostmodernism, andin additionayarticular
attention to the concetualization and meanings ol time and sace.
Thestory olBlade Runner concerns a smallgrou ol genetically
Time and space in the postmodern cinema 509
roduced humanbeings, called 'relicants,' who return to lace their
makers. The nlm is set in Los Angeles in the year 20I9 and hinges
around the search ol the 'blade runner' eckard to uncover the
resence
9
l the relcants and to eliminate or 'retire' them |as the
nlm has it) as a serous danger to the social order. The relicants
hae been c

eated or the secinc urose ol working on highly

skilled tasks m articularly dilncult environments at the lrontiers ol
sace exloration. They ae ndowed with strengths, intelligence,
andowe

s thatare at the limit ol, or even beyond thatol, ordinary

human bemgs. They are also endowed with leelings; only in this
way,it seems,canthey adattothe dilnculty oltheirtasks in such a
way as to make judgements consistent with human requirements .
However, learing that they might at someointose a threattothe
established order, their makers have given them a lile-san ol only
loury

ars. Il

hey escae ontrol dring these lour years they have

to bc retired. But to retire them is both dangerous and dilncult
recisely because ol their suerior endowments.
The relicants are, it should be noted, not mere imitations but
totally authentic reroductions, indistinguishable in almost all re-
sects lrom human beings. They are simulacra rather than robots.
Teyhavebeen designed as the ultimate lorm olshort-term, highly
skilled and llexible labour ower |a erlect examle ol a worker
end
`
wedwith all

lthe qualitiesnecessaryto adattoconditions ol

llexible accumulation). Butlikeallworkers lacedwiththethreatola
short
.
en

d workin
.
g lile, the relicants do not take kindly to the
resrctionsotheirlour-yearlile-san.Theiruroseinreturningto
theirmakersistotryto nndwaystorolongtheir lile, byinnltrating
to the heart ol the roductive aaratus that made them, and there
ersuading or

lorci

g their makers to re-rogramme their genetic

make-u. Their
.
designer, Tyrell |head ola vast cororate emire ol
th

t name), omts out to Roy, the leader ol the relicants, who

ultimately enetrates into his inner sanctum, that therelicants have
more

han adequate rcomense lor the brevity ol their lilesan -

they live, alter all, yith the most incredible intensity. 'Revel in it,'
saysTyrcll, 'alla

e
.
that bur

s twiceas intensely lives hallas long.'

Therelicantsexist,m short,\ that schizohrenicrusholtimethat
|ameson,cleuze and Cuattari, and others see as so central to ost-
m

rn hvmg.
.
The also move across a breadth ol sace with a
uidity that g

ms them an immense lund ol exerience. Their er-

sona matches m many resects the time and sace ol instantaneous
global communications.
In revolt again

t their cond
.
itions ol 'slave labour' |as Roy, the
leader ol the relicants, calls it) and seeking to rolong their lile-
5 I 0 The exerience of space and time
sans, Iourrelicants hghtanJkilltheirwaybackinto Los ngeles,
wherethe 'blaJerunner'LeckarJ, anexertinmethoJs oIJetecting
anJ retiring escaeJ relicants, is summoneJ to Jeal with them.
JhoughtireJoIallthekilling anJviolence,LeckarJisIorceJoutoI
retirementanJgivennootionbytheauthoritiesexcettounJertake
the task, on ain oI his own reJuction in status to that oI 'little
erson.'8othLeckarJanJtherelicants,thereIore, existinasimilar
relationtotheJominantsocialowerinsociety.JhisrelationJehnes
a hiJJen bonJ oIsymathy anJ unJerstanJingbetween the hunteJ
anJ the hunter. Luring the hlm, LeckarJ`s liIe is twice saveJ by a
relicant, while he, in turn, savestheliIe oIahIth, a recently createJ
anJ even more sohisticateJ relicant calleJ Kachel, with whom
LeckarJ eventuallyIalls in love.
Jhe Los ngeles towhichtherelicantsreturnisharJlya utoia.
Jhe lIexibility oIthe relicants` caacityto labour in outer sace is,
as we have recently come to exect, matcheJ in Los ngeles by a
Jecreit lanJscae oI JeinJustrialization anJ ost-inJustrial Jecay.
mtywarehouses anJabanJoneJinJustriallantJriwithleaking
rain. Mist swirls, rubbish iles u, inIrastructures are in a state oI
Jisintegration that makes the ot-holes anJIailing briJges oI con-
temoraryewYorklookmilJbycomarison.!unksanJscavengers
roam among the garbage, stealingwhateverthey can. |. I. Sebastian,
one oI the genetic Jesigners who will eventually roviJe access to
Jyrell Ior the relicants |anJ who himselIsuIIers Irom a Jisease oI
remature aging calleJ 'accelerateJ JecreituJe') lives alone in such
anemtysace |actually a JeserteJ versionoIthe8raJbury builJing
built in Los ngeles in I 895), surrounJing himselIwith a Iantastic
array oI mechanical anJ talking toys anJ Jolls Ior comany. 8ut
above the scenes oI street-level anJ interior chaos anJ Jecay, there
soars a high-tech worlJ oI zooming transorters, oI aJvertising |'a
chance to buyagain ina golJen lanJ,' roclaims one aJvertisement
circulatinginthe sky oImistanJouringrain), oIIamiliar images oI
cororate ower |!an m, surrisingly still in business in 20I 9,
Coca-Cola, 8uJweiser, etc.), anJ the massive yramiJal builJing oI
the Jyrell Cororation that Jominates one art oI the city. Jhe
Jyrell Cororation secializes in genetic engineering. 'Commerce,`
saysJyrell, 'morehumanthanhuman,that`sourbusiness. ' CoseJ
to these images oI overwhelming cororateower, however, is an-
other street-level scene oI seething small-scaleroJuction. Jhe city
streets are Iull oI all sorts oI eole - Chinese anJ siatics seem
reJominant, anJ it is the smiling Iace oI a |aanese woman that
aJvertises the Coca-Cola. 'city-seak` language has emergeJ, a
hybriJ oI|aanese, German, Sanish, nglish, etc. ot only has the
Time and space in the postmodern cinema 5 I I
'thirJ worlJ' come to Los ngeles even more than at resent, but
signs oI thirJ worlJ systems oI labour organization anJ inIormal
labourracticesareeverywhere. JhescalesIora geneticallyroJuceJ
snake are roJuceJ in a tiny worksho, anJ human eyes are ro-
JuceJ in another |both run by Crientals), inJicating intricate re-
lations oIsub-contractingbetweenhighlyJisaggregateJhrms aswell
as with the Jyrell Cororation itselI. Jhe sense oIthe city at street
level is chaotic in every resect. rchitectural Jesigns are a ost-
moJernmish-mash - theJyrell CororationishouseJinsomething
that looks like a relicaoIan gytian yramiJ, Greek anJ Koman
columns mix in the streets with reIerences to Mayan, Chinese,
Criental, Victorian anJ contemorary shoing mall architecture.
Simulacraareeverywhere.GeneticallyreroJuceJowlsy,anJsnakes
slither across the shoulJers oI Zhora, a genetically reroJuceJ re-
licant, as she erIorms in a cabaret that looks like a erIect I 920s
imitation.JhechaosoIsigns, oIcometing signihcations anJmess-
ages,suggestsa conJition oIIragmentation anJuncertainty atstreet
level that emhasizes manyoIthoseIacets oIostmoJern aesthetics
that were JescribeJ in !art . Jhe aesthetic oI Blade Runner, says
8runo, is the result 'oI recycling, Iusion oI levels, Jiscontinuous
signihers, exlosion oIbounJaries, anJ erosion.` Yet there is also an
overwhelming sense oI some hiJJen organizing ower - the Jyrell
Cororation, the authorities who commission LeckarJ to his task
without oIIering any choice, the raiJ Jescent oI the owers oI law
anJ orJer when necessary to establish street control. Jhe chaos
is tolerateJ, recisely because it seems so unthreatening to overall
control.
!mages oI creative Jestruction are everywhere. Jhey are most
owerIully resent, oI course, in the hgure oI the relicants them-
selves, createJ with marvellous owers only to be rematurely Jes-
troyeJ, anJmostcertainly tobe 'retireJ' shoulJ theyactuallyengage
their own Ieelings anJ try to Jevelo their own caacities in their
ownway.Jheimages oIJecayeverywhereinthelanJscae reinIorce
exactly that same structure oI Ieeling. Jhe sense oI shattering anJ
Iragmentationin social liIeis highlighteJ inan increJiblesequencein
whichLeckarJursuesone oIthewomenrelicants,Zhora,through
the crowJeJ, incoherent, anJ labyrinth-like saces oIthe city. Iin-
ally tracking her Jown in an arcade Iull oI stores exhibiting their
commoJities, he shoots her in the back as she goes crashing though
layer aIter layer oI glass Joors anJ winJows, Jying as she senJs
sharJs oI glass Ilying in a million anJ one Jirections in the hnal
lunge through a huge winJow.
Jhe searchIor the relicants JeenJs uon a certaintechnique oI
5 I 2 The experience of space and time
interrogation, which rests on the Iact thatthey have no real history,
they have, aIter all, been genetically created as Iull adults and lack
the exerience oI human socialization |a Iact which also renders
them otentially dangerous should they evade control). Jhe key
question that exoses one oI the relicants, Leon, is 'Jell me about
yourIeelings aroundyour mother?' Jo which Leonrelies, 'Let me
tellyou aboutmy mother,'andshootshis interrogatordead. Kachel,
the most sohisticated oIthe relicants, tries toconvinceLeckardoI
herauthenticityas aerson |aItershe susects thatLeckardhas seen
throughher otherdeIences) byroducingahotograhoI a mother
and a little girl which she claims is her. Jhe oint here, as 8runo
ercetively observes, is that hotograhs are now construed as
evidence oI a real history, no matterwhatthetruth oIthathistory
may have been. Jhe image is, in short, rooI oI the reality, and
images can be constructed and maniulated. Leckard discovers a
whole range oIhotograhsinLeon'sossession, rcsumablymeant
to documentthathehasahistorytoo. ndKachel, seeingLeckard's
hotograhsoIhisIamily |and itis interestingthattheonlysenseoI
history that we have Ior Leckard is rovided by his hotograhs),
tries to integrate with them. She uts her hair in the style oI the
hotograhs, lays the iano as iI in a icture, and acts as iI she
knowswhathome means. !tis thiswillingnessto search Ior identity,
home, and history |the match with 8achelard's views on the oetics
oIsace is almost erIect here) that ultimately leads to her rerieve
Irom'retirement. ' Leckard is certainlytouchedbyit. 8ut shecanre-
enter the symbolic realm oIa trulyhuman society only by acknow-
ledging the overwhelming ower oI the Cedial hgure, the Iather.
Jhatis the only route shecan take in orderto be able to resond to
thequestion,'Jellmeaboutyourmother?' !nsubmittingtoLeckard
|trusting him, deIerring to him, and ultimately submitting to him
hysically),shelearns themeaningoIhumanloveandthe essenceoI
ordinary sociality. !nkilling the relicant Leon as heis abouttokill
Leckard, sherovides the ultimateevidenceoIthecaacity to act as
Leckard's woman. She escaes the schizoid world oI relicant time
and intensity to enter the symbolic world oI Ireud.
! donotthink8runoiscorrect, however,whenhecontrasts Koy's
with Kachel'sIateas hinging uonKachel'swillingness to submit to
the symbolic order and Koy's reIusal so to do. Koy is rogrammed
to die shortly, and norerieve or salvation is ossible. His demand
to overcome all the waste oI his own condition simly cannot be
met. His anger, as well as that oI the other relicants, is huge.
Gaining access to Jyrell, Koy hrst kisses him beIore tearing out
Jyrell'seyes andkillinghismaker. 8runoquitereasonably interrets
Time and space in the postmodern cinema 5I 5
this as a reversal oI the Cedial myth and a clear sign that the
relicants do not live within the Irame oI the Ireudian symbolic
order. Jhis does not mean, however, that relicants have no human
Ieelings. We have already seen something oI Koy's caacity to Ieel,
in his moving and deely aIIectionate resonse to the death oI the
woman relicant !ris, shot down by Leckard in the midst oI |. I.
Sebastian's relicas. Koy's subsequent ursuit by Leckard, which
quickly reverses into the hunted ursuing the hunter, culminates
with Koy at the last minute rescuing Leckard Irom Ialling into the
canyon oI a street below. nd it is almost exactly at that moment
that Koy reaches his own rogrammed end.
8ut beIore he dies, Koy recounts something oI the wondrous
eventshehasarticiatedinandthe sightshehas seen. Hevoiceshis
anger at his condition oI enslavement, and the waste that allows all
hisincredibleintensityoIexerienceto be 'washedawayintimelike
tears in rain.' Leckard acknowledges theoweroIthose asirations.
Jherelicants,herellects, arejustlike most oIus. Jheysimlywant
to know 'where they have come Irom, where they are going to and
how much time they've got.' nd it is with Kachel, who has not
been rogrammed to die in the Iour years, that Leckard escaes,
aIter the Iour other relicants are dead, into a natural landscae oI
Iorests and mountains where the sun, never seen in Los ngeles,
shines. Jhe relicant has become the simulacrum to such erIection
that she and the human can set oII into their own Iutures, though
with both oIthem 'wondering how much time we've got. '
Blade Runner isa science hction arable inwhich ostmodernist
themes, set in a context oI llexible accumulation and time-sace
comression, are exlored with all the imaginary ower that the
cinema can command. Jhe conllict is between eole living on
diIIerent time scales, and seeing and exeriencing the world very
diIIerently as a result. Jhe relicants have no real history, but can
erhas manuIacture one, history Ior everyone has become reduced
to the evidence oI the hotograh. Jhough the socialization is still
imortant to ersonal history, that too, as Kachel shows, can be
relicated. Jhe deressing side oI the hlm is recisely that, in the
end, the diIIerence between the relicant and the human becomes so
unrecognizablethattheycanindeedIallinlove |oncebothgeton the
same time scale). Jhe ower oIthe simulacrum is everywhere. Jhe
strongestsocial bond between Leckard andthe relicants inrevolt-
the Iac that they are both controlled and enslaved by a dominant
cororate ower - never generates the slightest hint that a coalition
oIthe oressed might beIorged between them. While Jyrell's eyes
are indeed torn out during his killing, this is an individual rather
5 I + The exerience of space and time
than a class act oI rage. Jhe hnale oI the hlm is a scene oI sheer
escaism|tolerateJ,itshoulJbenoteJ,bytheauthorities)thatleaves
unchangeJthelightoIrelicants aswell as theJismalconJitionsoI
theseething mass oI humanity that inhabits the Jerelict streets oI a
Jecreit, JeinJustrializeJ, anJ Jecaying ostmoJernistworlJ.
!n Wings of Desire, we similarlyencountertwo grous oI actors
living on JiIIerent time scales. ngels live in enJuring anJ eternal
time, anJhumans livein theirown social time, anJ, oI course, they
each see the worlJ very JiIIerently. Jhe hlm articulates that same
senseoIIragmentationthatsuIIusesBlade Runner, whilethequestion
oI the relations between time, sace, history, anJ lace is Jirectly
ratherthaninJirectlyoseJ.JheroblemoIimage,articularly that
imlieJ by thehotograh, versus the tellingoIa story in real time,
is central to the construction oI the hlm.
Jhehlmbeginswitha Iairy-tale-likenarration oIwhatitwaslike
when chilJren were chilJren. !t was a time, we are tolJ, when
chilJrenthoughteverythingwasIulloIliIeanJliIewasas one,when
they haJ no oinion on anything |incluJing, resumably, having
oinions, which woulJ be totally accetable to a ostmoJernist
hilosoherlikeKorty), anJwhentheywerenotevenJisturbeJ by
hotograhs. evertheless, chilJren ask imortant questions such
as. 'Whyam!meanJnotyou?` 'Whyam!hereanJnotthere?` anJ,
'When JiJ time begin anJ where Joes sace enJ?` Jhese questions
are reeateJ at severalkeyointsinthe hlm, anJIramethe thematic
material ChilJren, at various oints in the hlm, look uwarJs or
arounJ them as iItheyare artially aware oIthe angels`resence in
waysthat the reoccuieJ anJ selI-reIerential aJults seem incaable
oI Joing. Jhe questions chilJren ask are, oI course, IunJamental
questions oI iJentity, anJ the hlm exlores two arallel tracks Ior
Jehning answers.
Jhe lace is 8erlin. !n a sense it is a ity that 8erlin Jisaears
Irom the nglish title because the hlm is a wonJerIul anJ sensitive
evocation oIthe sense oIthatlace.We are quicklygiven to unJer-
stanJ, however, that 8erlin is one city among many in a global
interactive sace. !eter Ialk, an instantly iJentihable international
meJia star |many will recognize him as the Jetective Columbo in a
meJia series oIthat name, anJ that role is Jirectly reIerenceJ several
times) lIies inbyair.Histhoughts go'Jokyo, Kyoto, !aris, LonJon,
Jrieste,. . 8erlin' ` as he locates the lace Iorwhich he is bounJ.
Shots m airliners leaving or arriving unctuate the hlm at various
key oints. !eole think their thoughts in German, Irench, anJ
nglish, with other languages occasionally useJ |language has not
yet JegenerateJ to the conJition oI 'city-seak` in Blade Runner).
Time and space in the postmodern cinema 5 I 5
KeIerences to the international sace oI the meJia are everywhere.
8erlin is, eviJently, just one lace oI many, anJ it exists in a cos-
moolitanworlJoIinternationalism.Yet8erlinisstilltheJistinctive
lacetobe exloreJ. momentbeIorewelistenintoIalk'sthoughts,
we overhear a young girl thinking about how to Jraw the sace oI
home. JherelationbetweensaceanJlaceisearlyutstraightonto
the agenJa.
Jhe hrst art oI the hlm examines 8erlin through the mono-
chromatic eyes oI a air oI angels. CutsiJe the human time oI
becoming, they exist in the realm oI ure sirit, in inhnite anJ
eternal time. Jhey can also move eIIortlessly anJ instantaneously in
sace. Ior them, time anJ sace just are, an inhnite resent in an
inhnite sace which reJuces the whole worlJ to a monochromatic
state. verything seems to lIoat in the same unJiIIerentiateJresent,
much as contemorary social liIe lIoats in the unJiIIerentiateJ anJ
homogenizing stream oI international money. Jhe angels cannot,
however, get insiJe the roblem oI human Jecision-making. Jhey
cannotresonatewith 'here` anJ 'now' recisely becausetheylive ina
worlJ oI 'always' anJ 'Iorever. `
Jhe icture oI 8erlin that emerges Irom their ersective is an
extraorJinarylanJscaeoIIragmenteJsacesanJehemeralinciJents
that has no binJing logic. Jhe oening shots take us Irom on high,
Jown into the inner courtyarJs anJ JiviJeJ saces oI nineteenth-
century worker housing. Irom there we go into labyrinth-like in-
teriorsaces, listeninginwiththe angels, toeole`sinnerthoughts.
!solateJ saces, isolateJthoughts, anJisolateJ inJiviJuals are allwe
can see. youth in a room contemlates suiciJe over a lost love,
while his Iather anJ mother think quite Jisarate thoughts about
him. !n the unJergrounJ, on a bus, in cars, in an ambulance racing
with a regnant woman, on the street, on a bicycle, everything
aears as IragmenteJ anJ ehemeral, each inciJentrecorJeJ in the
same monotoneanJmonochromeasthe other. 8eing outsiJe human
sace anJ time, all the angels can Jo is to oIIer some siritual
comIort, try to soothethe IragmenteJanJoIten shattereJ Ieelings oI
the inJiviJuals whose thoughts they monitor. Jhey sometimes suc-
ceeJ, anJ just as oItenIail|theyouthcommits suiciJe, anJ thehigh
schoolstuJenttakingtorostitutionisinconsolableattheloss oIher
JeaJ boy IrienJ) . s angels, one oI them comlains, we can never
really particiate, only retenJ.
Jhis extraorJinary evocation oI an urban lanJscae, oI alienateJ
inJiviJuals in IragmenteJ saces caught in an ehemera oI unat-
terneJ inciJents, has a owerIul aesthetic eIIect. Jhe images are
stark, colJ, but enJoweJ with all oI the beauty oI olJ-style still
5I 6 The experience of space and time
hotograhy, though set in motion through the camera lens. !t is a
selective lanJscae that we see. Jhe Iacts oI roJuction, anJ the
necessary class relations that attach thereto, are noticeable by their
absence. We are treateJ to a icture oI the urban that is, in the
Iashion oI ostmoJern sociology, entirely declasse, much closer to
Simmel |in his 'Metroolis anJ Mental LiIe` essay) than to Marx.
Leath, birth, anxiety,leasure,loneliness`are allaestheticizeJonthe
same lane, emty oI any sense oI class struggle or oI ethical or
moral commentary.
Jhe iJentityoIthis lace caIIeJ8erlin is constituteJ through this
alien but quite beautiIul imagery. Jhe Jistinctive organization oI
sace anJ time is, moreover, seen as the Iramework within which
inJiviJual iJentities are IorgeJ. Jhe image oI JiviJeJ saces is art-
icularlyowerIul, anJ theyare suerimoseJuoneachotherinthe
IashionoI montage anJ collage. Jhe 8erlinWallis one such JiviJe,
anJ itis again anJagain evokeJ as a symbol oI overarching Jivision.
!sthiswhere sacenowenJs : '!tis imossibleto getlostin8erlin,`
someone says, 'bccause you can always hnJ the wall. ` More hne-
graineJJivisionsexist,however. Germany,theJriveroIacarreects
ashetracksthroughstreetscenesthatconjureu images oIwar-time
Jestruction, has become IragmenteJ to the oint where every in-
JiviJual constitutes a mini-state, where each street has its barriers
surrounJeJ by a no man`s IanJ through which one can ass only iI
one has the rightassworJ. ven access Irom any oneinJiviJualto
another JemanJs ayment oI a toll. ot only may this extreme
conJition oI alienateJ anJ isolateJ inJiviJualism |oI the sort that
Simmel JescribeJ) be consiJereJ a gooJ thing |comareJ with the
coIlective liIe oI azism that haJ gone beIore) but inJiviJuals may
seek it out. 'Get a gooJ costume, that`s halI the battle,` says !alk
thinkingabouttheartheistolay,anJ,inawonJerIullyhumorous
scene he tries on hat aIter hat in orJer, he says, to be able to ass
unrecognizeJ among the crowJ anJachieve the anonymity he Je-
sires. Jhehats he uts on turn into virtual masks oI characters, in
much the same way that CinJy Sherman hotograhs mask the
erson. Jhis hat makes him look like Humhrey 8ogart, this one is
Iorgoingto theraces,thatoneIor goingto the oera, anJ anotheris
Ior getting marrieJ in. Jhe act oI masking anJ Jisguising connects
with satial Iragmentation anJ alienateJ inJiviJualism.
Jhis lanJscae bears all the marks oI high ostmoJernist art as
!Ieil| I 988, 5 8+)IoronehasrecentlyJescribeJit. 'CneisconIronteJ
not with a uniheJ text, much less by the resence oI a Jistinct
ersonality anJ sensibility, but by a Jiscontinuous terrain oI hete-
rogeneous Jiscourses uttereJ by anonymous, unlaceable tongues, a
Time and space in the postmodern cinema 5 I /
chaos JiIIerent Irom that oI the classic texts oI high moJernism
recisely insoIar as it is not recontaineJ or recuerateJ within an
overarchingmythicIramework.`JhequalityoIutteranceis'JeaJan,
inJiIIerent, JeersonalizeJ, eIIaceJ,` so as to cancel out 'the ossi-
bility oItraJitional auJience articiation.` Cnlythe angels have an
overaIl view, anJ they, when they erch onhigh, hear only a babble
oI intersecting voices anJ whisers, anJ see nothing but a mono-
chromatic worlJ.
Howcan some sense oIiJentity beIorgeJ anJ sustaineJin such a
worlJ? Jwo saces assumeaeculiarsignihcanceinthis regarJ. Jhe
library - areositoryoIhistoricalknowleJgeanJcollectivememory
- is a sace intowhich many are eviJentlyJrawn |even angels seem
to take their rest there). n olJ manentersthe library. He is tolay
an extremely imortant, though ambiguous role. He sees himselI as
thestory-telIer,themuse,theotentialguarJianoIcollectivememory
anJ history, the reresentative oI 'everyman. ` 8ut he is JisturbeJ at
the thought that the tight circle oI listeners who useJ to gather
rounJ him has been broken u anJ JiserseJ, he knows notwhere,
as reaJers who Jo not communicate with each other. ven language,
the meanings oIworJs anJsentences,he comlains, seemtosli anJ
sliJe into incoherent Iragments. !orceJ now to live 'Irom Jay to
Jay,` he uses the library to try anJ recuerate a roer sense oI the
history oI this Jistinctive lace calleJ 8erlin. He wants to Jo it not
Irom the stanJoint oI leaJers anJ kings, but as a hymn oI eace.
Jhe books anJ hotograhs, however, conjure u images oI the
JeathanJ Jestruction wrought inWorlJWar !!, a traumato which
the hlm again anJ again makes reIerence, as iI this was inJeeJ when
this time began anJ when the saces oI the city were shattereJ. Jhe
olJ man, surrounJeJ by moJel globes in the Iibrary, sins a wheel,
thinkingthatthe wholeworlJisJisaearinginthe Jusk. Heleaves
the library anJwalks in searchoIthe !otsJamer !Iatz |one oIthose
urban saces thatSitte woulJ surelyhave aJmireJ), the heart oIolJ
8erlin, withitsCaI|ostiwherehe useJ to take colIee anJa cigar
anJwatch the crowJ. Walking alongsiJe the 8erlin Wall, all he can
hnJ is an emty weeJ-strewn lot. !uzzleJ, he collases into an
abanJoneJ armchair, insisting that his quest is neither hoeless nor
unimortant. venthough he Ieels like a oet ignoreJ anJ mockeJ
on the eJge oIno man`s lanJ, hecannotgiveu, he says, because iI
mankinJlosesitsstory-tellerthenitIosesits chilJhooJ. venthough
the story may in arts be ugly - anJ he recalls how when lIags
aeareJ in the !otsJamer !latz the crowJ turneJ unIrienJly anJ
theolicebrutish- itstillhastobetolJ. 8esiJes,heIeelsersonally
rotecteJ, saveJ, he says, 'Irom resent anJ Iuture troubles by the
5 I 8 The experience of space and time
tale.` His search to reconstruct anJ tell this tale oI salvation anJ
rotection is a subtle sub-lot throughout the hlm that assumes its
imortance only at the very enJ.
8ut there is a seconJsitewhereaIragilesenseoIiJentrtyrevals.
Jhe circus, a sectacle helJ togetherwithinthe encloseJ sace oI a
tent, oIIers a venue oI secial interactionwithinwhich some kinJ oI
human relating can go on. !t is within this sace that the traeze
artist,Marion,acquiressomesenseoIherselI,aossibilityoIachieving
anJ belonging. 8utthe news thatthecircus is out oImoney anJ has
to close shows immeJiately how ehemeral anJ contingent that
iJentity is. Jhe short-term contract revails here too. Yet Marion,
whilelainly JistresseJat thisnews, insists shehas a story, anJthat
sheis goingto gooncreatingone,thoughnotinthecircus. Sheeven
imagines going into a hoto-automat anJ emerging with a new
iJentity |theower oI thehoto image, once more), taking u a job
aswaitress orwhatever. Herownhistory,wearereminJeJasoneoI
the angels watches her in her caravan, caninany case be collaseJ
|likethatoILeckarJ) intoIamilyhotograhsinneJtothewall, so
why not builJ a new history with the aiJ oI hotograhs? These
Iantasies are suIIuseJ, however, with a owerIul aura oI Jesire to
become a whole rather than a IragmenteJ anJ alienateJ erson. She
longs to be comlete, but recognizes that this can come to be only
through a relation with another. Iter the tent is Jown anJ the
circus is gone, she stanJs alone on the emty site, Ieeling herselI a
erson without roots, without history, orwithout country. Yet that
very emtiness seems to holJ out the ossibility oI some raJical
transIormation. '! can become theworlJ,` she says, as she watches a
jet airliner cruise across the sky.
Cne oIthe angels, Lamiel, alreaJychahng athisowerlessness to
resonate with thehereanJnow, is attracteJby Marion`s energyanJ
beauty, articularly in the erIormance oI her traeze act. ie be-
comes caughtuinherinnerlongings to become ratherthan j ustto
be. !orthehrsttimehegets aglimseoIwhattheworlJwoulJlook
like in colour, anJ he is increasingly Jrawn to the iJea oI entering
the ow oIhuman time, leaving behinJ the time oIthe sirit anJoI
eternity. Jwo catalytic moments trigger his Jecision. She Jreams oI
him as the reslenJent 'other,' anJ he sees himselI reecteJ in her
Jream. !nvisiblestill,heIollows Marion intoanightclub anJ, as she
Jances Jreamily by herselI, he touches her thoughts. She resonJs
with a sense oIraturouswell-being, as iI, she says, a hanJ is soItly
tightening within her boJy. Jhe seconJ catalytic moment is with
!eter !alk who, it latertransires, is an angel come to grounJ some
timeago. HesensestheresenceoItheinvisibleLamielashetakesa
Time and space in the postmodern cinema
5 I 9
cu oI coIIee at a street stall. ' ! can't see you, but ! know you're
there,`hesays toasurriseJLamiel,anJthengoes ontoseakwith
warmth anJ humour oIhow gooJ it is to live in the lIow oIhuman
time, to Ieel material events, anJ take tangible account oIthe whole
range oIhuman sensations.
Lamiel`s Jecision to come insiJe is taken in the no man`s lanJ
between two lines oI the 8erlin Wall, atrolleJ by solJiers. !or-
tunately, hisIellowangelhas theowertolacehimonthewestern
siJe. Jhere Lamiel wakes uto aworlJ oIrich anJvibrantcolours.
He has to navigate the city in real hysical terms, anJ in so Joing
exeriences the exhilaration that comes with creating a satial story
|in the manner oI Je Certeau) simly by traversing the city, which
then no longer seems as IragmenteJ but which assumes a more
coherent structure. Jhis human sense oI sace anJ motion contrasts
with that oI angels, earlier JeicteJ as a hyer-sace oI seeJing
llashes, eachimagelikeacubistainting, suggesting atotallyJiIIerent
moJe oI satial exerience. Lamiel shiIts Irom one moJe to the
other as he enters the ow oI time. 8ut he neeJs money, now, to
survive. He borrows enough Irom aasser-byto buy a cu oIcoIIee
anJ traJes inaieceoIancient armour |whichwesubsequentlylearn
is the initial enJowment oI all angels who come to earth) anJ
emerges Irom the sho with a colourIul set oIclothes anJ a watch
which he insects with the greatestinterest. He comes across the set
where !eter !alk is hlming, anJ here exeriences a major check
becausethe guarJwillnotlethimenter. Cursing theguarJ,hehas to
shout to !alkthrough achainlinkIence. !alk, who guesses immeJi-
ately who he is, asks him, 'How long?' Lamiel relies, 'Minutes,
hours, Jays, weeks,. . . J!M' ` towhich!alk immeJiatelyresonJs,
withkinJ anJgentlehumour, 'Here, letmegiveyou some Jollars | '
Lamiel`s entry into this human worlJi s now hrmly locateJ within
the co-orJinates oI social sace, social time, anJthe social ower ol
money.
JhecomingtogetheroI Lamiel anJMarionisclearlymeantasthe
climactic oint oI the hlm. Jhe two circle each other in the same
night-club she haJ been in beIore, watcheJ tireJly by Lamiel's
earlierangelcomanion,beIorecomingtogetherinthebar close by.
Jhere they meet in an almost ritualistic way, she reaJy anJ Jeter-
mineJ to make her history, to suerseJe being with becoming, he
JetermineJtolearn the meaningoIthe ow oIhumanexeriencein
saceanJ time. !nthelengthymonologuethatIollows, sheinsistson
the seriousness oI their common roject even though the times
themselves may not be serious. She insists on Joing away with
coinciJence anJ contingency. Jhe temorary contracts are over. She
520
The experience of space and time
tries to Jehne away oIcomingtogetherthathas auniversalmeaning
beyonJ this articularIac

eanJti

Jheretnotb

any

Jesti

y,
she says, but thereis certamIyJecision.nJ itis a Jecisi

mwhich
aII the eoIe oI the city, even oI the worIJ, can a

ticiate. She
imagines a square IuII oIeoIe, anJthat she anJ LamieI are so IuII
oIthat Iace that they can make a JecisionIor aII. !t is a Jecisio

to
Iorge a bonJ between amananJawoman arounJ a commonroject
oIbecoming, inwhicha womancan say 'my man' in such a way as
to oen u a whoIe worIJ to Iresh insight anJ interretation.

!t
meansenteringtheIabyrinthoIhainessthroughthetran

Iormation
oIJesire into Iove, sothatshecanhnaIIy be truIy aIonewithherselI,
because to be truIy aIone resuoses a whoIeness that can come
onIy througha non-contingent reIation toanother. !tseems shenow
has answers to the comeIIing questions. 'Why am ! me anJ not
you?`'Whyam ! hereanJnotthere?' anJ'WhereJiJtimebeginanJ
where Joes sace enJ?' What is born oI their coming togethe
'
,
rellects LamieI as he heIs her to ractiseher traeze act aIter their
hrst night together, is not a chilJ but an immortaI image that aII can
share anJ Iive by.
!tis harJtoreventthis enJingsIiingintobanality |resageJ by
the kitschy Jream sequencein which the angeIcomes to Marionin
resIenJent siIver costume) re we to concIuJe, aIter aIl, thatit is
mereIy romantic IovethatmakestheworIJgo rounJ? charitabIe
reaJing might be that we shouIJ not Iet our j aJeJ exerience oI
kitschanJastiche stanJintheway oIIiberatingromantic Jesire anJ
unJertakingmajorrojects.8utthehnaIshots areortentous inJeeJ.
Jhe hIm switches back into the monochrome oIenJuring time. Jhe
oIJ man, with whom we have Iost aII contact in the coIoureJ se
quences oIthehIm, shuIlIes towarJs the 8erIin WaII, saying, 'Who
wiII Iook Ior me, their story-teIIer? Jhey neeJ me more than ever.'
Jhe camera suJJenIy zooms ast him anJu into the cIouJs, as iI
taking oIIin lIight. 'We are on ourway,`says Marion. More is to
IoIIow, the hnaI creJit assures us.
! reaJ this seconJ art oI the hIm as an attemt to resurrect
something oI the moJernist sirit oI human communication, to-
getherness, anJ becoming, out oItheashesoIa monochromatic anJ
JeaJ-an ostmoJernist IanJscae oI IeeIing. WenJers is IainIy
mobiIizing aII his artistic anJ creative owers in a roject oI re
Jemtion. He rooses, in eIIect, a romantic myth that can reJeem
us 'IromtheIormIessuniverseoIcontigency`|seeabove, . 206).Jhe
Iact that many angeIs, accorJing to !alk, have chosen to come to
earth, suggests thatit is better aIways to be insiJethan outsiJethe
uowoIhumantime,thatbecomingaIways hastheotentiaIto break
Time and space in the postmodem cinema 52I
with the stasis oIbeing. Sace anJ time are constituteJ inraJicaIIy
JiIIerent ways in the two arts oI the hIm, anJ the resence oI
coIour, creativity, anJ, we shouIJ not Iorget, money as a Iorm oI
sociaIbonJing,roviJesthenecessaryIrameworkwithinwhichsome
sense oI common urose can be IounJ.
Yet there are serious JiIemmas to be resoIveJ. LamieI has no
history, anJMarionis cutoIIIromher roots, herhistoryreJuceJ to
asetoIhotograhs anJ aIew other 'obj ects oI memory` oIthe sort
thatnowconstitutethe senseoIhistorybothin thehome|seeabove,
. 292) anJ in the museum |see above, . 62). !s it ossibIe to set
about the roject oI becoming a-historicaIIy? Jhe oIJ man`s er
sistent voice seems to question the viabiIity oI that. Jhe sheer ro
manticism oIthe enJing, he seems to say, has to be temereJ by a
reaI sense oI history. !nJeeJ, Marion's image oI a whoIe '!Iatz` oI
eoIe articiating in their Jecision, raises the sectre oIwhenthe
!otsJamer!IatzturneJuglyasithIIeJwithllags. !utmoreIormalIy,
there is a tension in the hIm between the ower oI satiaI images
|hotograhs, the hIm itseII, the striving oI LamieI anJ Marion at
the enJ to make an image the worIJ can Iive by) anJ the ower oI
the story. Jhe oIJ man |JescribeJ as Homer, the story-teIIer in the
creJits) is in many resects marginaIizeJ within the hIm, anJ com-
Iains exIicitIy atthatveryIact.8ecoming,accorJingtohim,has to
be more than creating just another set oIJethIess images. !thas to
be situateJ anJ unJerstooJ historicaIIy. 8ut that resuoses that
history can becatureJ without the use oIimages. Jhe oIJ man leaIs
through a book oI hotograhs, wanJers into the !otsJamer !Iatz
tryingtoreconstituteits senseoIIaceIrommemory, anJremembers
it when it turneJ ugly, not conJucive to that eic oI eace that he
seeks.Jhis JiaIoguebetweenimageanJstoryroviJesanunJerlying
Jramatic tension in the hIm. !owerIuI images |oI the sort that
WenJers anJ his brilliant cameraman, Henri Iekan, know how to
wieIJ onIy too weII) can both iIIuminate anJ obscure stories. !n the
hlm they overwheIm the verbal messages the oIJ man tries to com-
municate. !t is aImost as iI the hIm gets caught in the circuIarity
|known in the ostmoJernist Iexicon as 'intertextuaIity`) oI its own
images. Within this tension Iies the whoIe issueoIhow to hanJIe the
aesthetic quaIities oI sace anJ time in a ostmoJern worIJ oI
monochromatic Iragmentation anJ ehemeraIity. '!erhas,' says
Marion, 'time itseII is the sickness,' Ieaving us to wonJer, as in the
hnaI sequence oI Blade Runner, 'how much time we've got.` 8ut
whatever that may mean to the articiants, the monochromatic
IanJscae oI eternaI time anJ inhnite but IragmenteJ sace IainIy
wiII not Jo.
522 The experience of space and time
!t is both intriguing anJ interesting that two hlms otherwise so
Jisarate shoulJ Jeict such similar conJitions. ! Jo not believe the
similarity is acciJental or contingent. !t suorts the iJea that the
exerience oI time-sace comression in recent years, unJer the
ressures oI the turn to more lIexible moJes oI accumulation, has
generateJa crisis oI reresentation incultural Iorms, anJthat this is
a subjectoI intense aesthetic concern, either in toto |as ! think is the
case in Wings of Desire) or in art |as woulJ be true oI everything
Irom Blade Runner to CinJy Sherman's hotograhs anJthe novels
oI !talo Calvino or !ynchon). Such culturalractices are imortant.
!Ithereis acrisis oIreresentation oIsaceanJtime, thennewways
oIthinkinganJIeelinghaveto becreateJ. !artoIanytrajectory out
oI the conJition oI ostmoJernity has to embrace exactly such a
rocess.
JheJistressingsiJe oIboth hlms,in site oItheovertotimismoI
WenJers`senJing,istheinabilitytogomuchIurtherthanromanticism
|inJiviJualizeJ anJ strongly aestheticizeJ) as a solution to the con
Jitions thatboth hlm makers so brilliantlyortray. !tseems as iIthe
hlm makers are unable to break Iree Irom the ower oI the images
they themselves create. Marion anJLamiel seek an image torelace
images, anJ seem to see that as an aJequate concetion oI how to
change the worlJ. Jhe turn in both cases to romanticism is, Irom
this stanJoint, Jangerous recisely because it resages the con-
tinuationoIa conJitioninwhichaestheticsreJominatesoverethics.
Jhe qualities oI the romanticism on oIIer vary oI course. Jhe tireJ
machismo oI LeckarJ anJ the submission oI Kachel are entirely
JiIIerent Irom the meeting oI minJs anJ oI souls in the case oI
MarionanJLamiel|bothoIwhomare setto learnIromeachother).
Yetevenherethereis asensethatBlade Runner seakswitharather
more authentic |though not necessarilyraiseworthy) voice, because
itis atleastconcerneJwithwhatnatureoIsymbolicorJerwe might
be in |aquestionthatWenJers evaJes) . WenJerslikewiseevaJes the
question oI class relations anJ consciousness entirely by casting the
social roblem as the unmeJiateJ relationshi between inJiviJuals
anJ collectivity |the state). While signs oI objective class relations
abounJ inBlade Runner, the articiants in the action eviJently see
no urose in relating to them even iI they are, like LeckarJ,
vaguely aware oI their existence. 8rilliant ortrayals though both
hlms are oI the conJitions oI ostmoJernity, anJ in articular oI
the conlIictual anJ conIusing exerience oI sace anJ time, neither
has the ower to overturn establisheJ ways oI seeing or transcenJ
the conlIictual conJitions oI the moment. Jhis must, in art, be
attributeJtothecontraJictions inherenti nthe cinematic Iorm itselI.
Time and space in the postmodern cinema
525
Cinema is, aIter all, the sureme maker anJmaniulator oIimages
Ior commercial uroses, anJ the very act oI using it well always
entails reJucing the comlex stories oI Jaily liIe to a sequence oI
images uon a Jethless screen. Jhe iJea oI a revolutionary cinema
has always run agrounJ on the rocks oI exactly this JiIhculty.
evertheless, the malaise lies rather Jeeer than that. !ostmoJern
art Iorms anJ cultural arteIacts by their very nature must selI-
consciously embrace the roblem oI imagecreation, anJ necessarily
turninwarJsuonthemselves as aresult. !tthenbecomesJiIhcultto
escaebeingwhatisbeingimageJwithintheartIormitselI. WenJers,
! think, really struggles with thatroblem anJ the Iact that he Joes
not, inthe enJ, succeeJ, iserhas most clearlysignalleJinthehnal
cation that 'more is to Iollow.' Within these limits, however, the
mimeticqualities oIcinemaoI this sort are extraorJinarilyrevealing.
8oth Wings of Desire anJ Blade Runner holJ u to us, as in a
mirror, many oI the essential Ieatures oI the conJition oI ost-
moJernity.
or/ \
The condition of postmodernity
The new value placed on the transitory, the elusive and the ephemeral,
the very celebration of dynamism, discloses a longing for an undefled,
immaculate and stable present. ] urgen Habermas
The Enlightenment is dead, Marxism is dead, the working class
movement is dead . . . and the author does not feel very well
either. Neil Smith
1 V
Postmodernity as a historical
condition
esthetic anJ culturaI ractices are eculiarly suscetible to the
changing exerience oI sace anJ time recisely because they entail
the construction oI satial reresentations anJ arteIacts out oI the
llow oI human exerience. Jhey always broker between 8eing anJ
8ecoming.
!tisossibletowritethehistoricalgeograhyoItheexerience oI
sace anJ time in social IiIe, anJ to unJerstanJ the transIormations
that both have unJergone, by reIerence to material anJ social con-
Jitions. !art !!! rooseJ an historical sketch oIhow that might be
Jone with resect to the ost-Kenaissance Western worlJ. Jhe Ji
mensions oIsaceanJtimehavetherebeen subjectto theersistent
ressure oIcaitaI circulation anJ accumulation, culminating |arti-
cularly Juring the erioJic crises oI overaccumulation that have
arisen since the miJ-nineteenth century) in Jisconcerting anJ Jis-
rutive bouts oI time-sace comression.
Jheaestheticresonses to conitions oI time-sace comression
are imortant anJ have been so ever since the eighteenth-century
searation oI scientihc knowIeJge Irom moraljuJgement oeneJ u
a Jistinctive role Ior them. Jhe conhJence oI an era can be assesseJ
by the wiJth oI the ga between scientihc anJ moraI reasoning. !n
erioJs oI conIusion anJ uncertainty, the turn to aesthetics |oI
whatever Iorm) becomes more ronounceJ. Since hases oI time-
sacecomressionareJisrutive,wecanexecttheturntoaesthetics
anJ to the Iorces oI culture as both exlanations anJ loci oI active
struggle to be articularly acute at such moments. Since crises oI
overaccumulationtyically sark the search Ior satial anJ temoral
resolutions, which in turn create an overwhelming sense oI time-
sace comression,wecan also exect crises oI overaccumulation to
be IolIoweJ by strong aesthetic movements.
Jhe crisis oI overaccumulation that began in the late I 960s anJ
528
The condition of postmodernity
which came to a heaJ in I 9/5 has generateJ exactly such a result.
Jhe exerience oI time anJ sacehas changeJ,theconhJenceinthe
association between scientihc anJ moral juJgements has collaseJ,
aesthetics has triumheJ over ethics as a rime Iocus oI social anJ
intellectual concern, images Jominate narratives, ehemerality anJ
IragmentationtakereceJenceovereternaltruthsanJunieJolitics,
anJ exlanations have shiIteJ Irom the realm

I mat
.
eral anJ ol
itical -economic grounJings towarJs a consiJeration oI auto
nomous culturalanJoliticalractices.
Jhehistoricalsketch! havehererooseJ suggests, however, that
shiIts oI this sort are by no means new, anJ that the most recent
version oI it is certainly within the gras oI historical materiaist
enquiry, even caable oI theorization byway oI the meta-narrative
oI caitalist Jeveloment that Marx rooseJ.
. .
!ostmoJernism can be regarJeJ, in short, as a historcal -geo-
grahical conJitionoIa certain sort. 8utwhatsortolconJitionis it
anJwhatshoulJwemakeoIit? !sitathologicalorortentous oIa
Jeeer anJevenwiJer revolutioninhuma

aIairs than

hosealre

Jy
wroughtin the historicalgeograhy olcaitalism? !n this conclusion
! sketch in some ossible answers to those questions.
ZU
Economics with mIrrors
'VooJooeconomics` anJ'economics withmirrors'saiJGeorge8ush
anJ|ohn nJerson resectively oI KonalJ Keagan's economicro
grammetorevivealIaggingeconomyintherimaryanJresiJential
election camaigns oI I 980. sketch on the back oI a nakin by a
little-known economistcalleJ LaIIerurorteJ to showthat tax cuts
were bounJ to increase tax yielJs |at least u to a certain oint)
because they stimulateJ growth anJ, hence, the base uon which
taxes were assesseJ. So was the economicolicy olthe Keagan years
to be justiheJ, a olicy that inJeeJ workeJ wonJers with mirrors
eveniIitbroughtthe\niteJStatesseveralstesclosertointernational
bankrutcy anJ hscal ruin |see hgures 2. I 5 anJ 2. I +) . Jhe strange
anJ uzzling thing is that such a simlistic iJea coulJ gain the
urchase it JiJ anJ seem to work so well olitically Ior so long.
ven stranger, is the Iact that Keagan was re-electeJ when all the
olls showeJ that the maj ority oIthe \S electorate |to say nothing
oIthemajority oIeligible voters, who JiJnot vote) JisagreeJIunJa-
mentally with him on almost allmajorissues oIsocial,olitical, anJ
even Ioreign olicy. Strangest oI all is how such a !resiJent coulJ
leave olhce riJing so high on the wave oI ublic aIIection, even
though morethan a Jozenseniormembers oIhis aJministration haJ
either been accuseJ or been lounJ guilty oI serious inIringement oI
legal roceJures anJ blatant JisregarJ lor ethical rinciles . Jhe
triumh oI aesthetics over ethics coulJ not belainer.
!mage-builJing in olitics is nothing new. Sectacle, om anJ
circumstance, Jemeanour, charisma, atronage, anJ rhetoric have
long been art oI the aura oI olitical ower. nJ the Jegree to
which these coulJ be bought, roJuceJ, or otherwise acquireJ has
also long been imortant to the maintenance oI that ower. 8ut
something has changeJ qualitatively about that in recent times. Jhe
meJiatizationoIoliticswas givena new Jirection in the KenneJy-
350 The condition of postmodernity
ixon television Jebate, in which the latter`s loss oI a resiJential
election was attributeJ by many to the untrustworthy look oI his
hve o'clock shaJow.Jheactiveuse oIublicrelationshrmsto shae
anJ sell a olitical image quickly IolloweJ |the careIul imaging oI
Jhatcherism by the now all-owerIul hrm ol Saatchi anJ Saatchi is
a recent examle, illustrating how mericanizeJ in this regarJ
uroean olitics is becoming) .
Jhe election oI an ex-movie actor, KonalJ Keagan, to one oI the
most owerIul ositions in the worlJut a new gloss on the ossi-
bilities oI a meJiatizeJ olitics shaeJ by images alone. His image,
cultivateJ over many years oI olitical ractice, anJ then careIully
mounteJ, craIteJ, anJ orchestrateJ with all the artihce that con-
temorary imageroJuction coulJcommanJ, as a tough butwarm,
avuncular,anJwell-meaningersonwhohaJ an abiJingIaithinthe
greatness anJ gooJness oI merica, built an aura oI charismatic
olitics. Carey McWilliams, an exerienceJ olitical commentator
anJ long-time eJitor oItheNation, JescribeJ it as 'theIrienJlyIace
oI Iascism.' Jhe 'tellon resiJent,' as he came to be known |simly
because no accusation thrown at him,howevertrue, ever seemeJ to
stick), coulJ make mistake aIter mistake but never be calleJ to
account. His image coulJ be JeloyeJ, unIailingly anJ instantane-
ously, to Jemolish any narrative oI criticism that anyone careJ to
construct. 8ut the image concealeJ a coherent olitics. !irst, to
exorcize the Jemon oI the JeIeat in Vietnam by taking assertive
action in suort oI any nominally anti-communist struggle any-
where in the worlJ |icaragua, GrenaJa, ngola, Mozambique,
Ighanistan, etc. ). SeconJ to exanJ the buJget Jehcit through
JeIence senJing anJ Iorce a recalcitrant Congress |anJ nation) to
cut again anJ again into the social rogrammes that the reJiscovery
oI overty anJ oI racial inequality in the \niteJ States in the I 960s
haJ sawneJ.
Jhis oen rogramme oI class aggranJizementwas artially suc-
cessIuL ttacks uon union ower |leJ by the Keagan onslaught
uonthe airtraIhccontrollers), the eIIects oIJeinJustrializationanJ
regional shiIts |encourageJ by taxbreaks), anJoIhighunemloyment
|legitimizeJ as roermeJicineinthe hght againstinllation), anJ all
the accumulateJ imacts oI the shiIt Irom manuIacturing to service
emloyment, weakeneJ traJitional working-class institutions suI-
hciently to renJer much oIthe oulation vulnerable. rising tiJe
oI social inequality engulIeJ the \niteJ States in the Keagan years,
reaching a ost-war high in I 986 |see hgure 2. I 5) ; by then the
oorest hIth oI the oulation, which haJ graJually imroveJ its
shareoInationalincometoahighoIointoInearly/ercentinthe
Economics with mirrors 55I
early I 9/0s, IounJ itselI with only +. 6er cent. 8etween I 9/9 anJ
I 986, the number oI oor Iamilies with chilJren increaseJ by 55 er
cent, anJ in some large metroolitan areas, such as ew York,
Chicago, 8altimore, anJ ew Crleans, more than halI the chilJren
were living in Iamilies with incomes below theoverty line. !n site
oI surging unemloyment |cresting at over I 0 er cent by oIhcial
hgures in I 982) the ercentage oI unemloyeJ receiving anyIeJeral
beneht Iell to only 52 er cent, the lowest level in the history oI
social insurance since its incetion in the ew Leal |see hgure 2. 9).
n increase in homelessness signalleJ a general state oI social Jis-
location, markeJ by conIrontations |many oI them with racist or
ethnicovertones). JhementallyillwerereturneJtotheircommunities
Ior care,which consisteJ largely oI rejection anJ violence, theti oI
aniceberg oIneglectwhich leItnearly +0million citizens in one oI
the richest nations oI the worlJ with no meJical insurance cover
whatsoever.While jobs wereinJeeJcreateJJuringtheKeaganyears,
many oI them were low-wage anJ insecure service j obs, harJly
suIhcientto oIIsetthe I 0er cent Jecline inthe realwageIrom I 9/2
to I 986. !IIamily incomes rose, that simly signiheJ that more anJ
more women were entering the workIorce |see hgures 2. 2 anJ 2. 9) .
YetIortheyounganJtherichanJthe eJucateJ anJ therivilegeJ
things coulJ nothave been better. Jhe worlJ oIreal estate, hnance,
anJ business services grew, as JiJ the 'cultural mass` given over to
the roJuction oI images, knowleJge, anJ cultural anJ aesthetic
Iorms |see above, . 290). Jhe olitical-economic base anJ, with
it, the whole culture oI cities were transIormeJ. ew York lost its
traJitional garment traJe anJ turneJ to the roJuction oI Jebt anJ
hctitious caital insteaJ. '!n the last seven years, ' ran a reort by
ScarJino | I 98/) in the New York Times,
ewYork has constructeJ /5 newIactories to house the Jebt
roJuction anJ Jistribution machine. Jhese towers oI granite
anJ glass shine through the night as some oI this generation's
most talenteJ roIessionals invent new instruments oI Jebt to
ht every imagineJ neeJ. !eretual !loating Kate otes, YielJ
Curve otes anJ Lual Currency otes, to name a Iew, now
traJeJ as casually as the stock oI the StanJarJ Cil Comany
once was.
Jhe traJe is as vigorous as that which once JominateJtheharbour.
8ut'toJay, thetelehonelines JelivertheworlJ`s cashto beremixeJ
as iI in a bottling lant, squirteJ into JiIIerent containers, caeJ
anJ shieJ back out. ' Jhe biggest hysical exortIrom ew York
552 The condition of postmodernity
City v now waste aer. Jhe city`s economy m Iact rests on the
roJuction oI hctitious caitaI to IenJ to the reaI estate agents who
cutJealsIorthehighIyaiJroIessionaIswhomanuIacturehctitious
caitaI. Likewise,whentheimageroJuctionmachineoILosngeles
came to a grinJing haIt Juring the Writers' GuiIJ strike, eoIe
suJJenIyreaIizeJ'howmuchoIits economicstructureis baseJ on a
writer teIIing a roJucer a story, anJ that hnaIIy it`s the weaving oI
thattaIe |into images) thatays the wages oIthe manwho Jrives the
van that JeIivers the IooJ that`s eateninthe restaurant thatIeeJs the
IamiIy who make the Jecisions that kee the economy running`
|reort oI Scott Meek in The Independent, I+ |uly I 988).
Jhe emergence oI this casino economy, with aII oI its hnanciaI
secuIation anJ hctitious caitaIIormation |muchoIitunbackeJ by
anygrowth in reaI roJuction) roviJeJ abunJantoortunities Ior
ersonaI aggranJizement |Iate+. I anJ hgure+. I ) . Casino caitaIism
haJ come to town, anJ many Iarge cities suJJenIy IounJ they haJ
commanJoIanewanJowerIuIbusiness. Cnthe backoIthis boom
inbusinessanJhnanciaIservices,awhoIenewYuiecuIture IormeJ,
with its accoutrements oI gentrihcation, cIose attention to symboIic
caitaI, Iashion, Jesign, anJ quaIity oI urban IiIe.
Jhe obverse siJe oIthis aIlIuencewas the Iague oIhomeIessness,
Jisemowerment, anJ imoverishment that enguIIeJ many oI the
centraI cities. 'Ctherness` was roJuceJ with a vengeance anJ a
vengeIuIness unaralIeIeJ in the ost-war era. Jhe Iorgotten voices
anJ unIorgettabIe Jreams oI ew York`s homeIess were recorJeJ
thisway |CoaIition Ior the HomeIess, I 98/) .
! am 5/ years oIJ. ! Iook Iike 52 years oIJ. Some eoIe say
thatstreetIiIeisIreeanJeasy. . . . !t`snotIreeanJit`snoteasy.
You Jon`t ut no moneyJown. Yourayment is your heaIth
anJ mentaI stabiIity.
My country`s nameisaathy. My IanJis smeareJwith shame.
My sightscae moves its homeIess horJes through weIIare`s
turgiJ ame.Jhesearch goes onIorroomsanJwarmth, some
cIosethooks, a Jrawer, a hotIacejustIorone`s sou - what
Iiberty is Ior.
|ustbeIore Christmas I 98/,the\niteJStatesGovernmentcut$55
miIIion IromthebuJgetIor emergency heI tothehomeIess. Mean-
whiIeersonaIinJebteJnesscontinueJtoacceIerate,anJresiJentiaI
canJiJates began to hght over who couIJ enunciate the IeJge oI
1I1lfilll!lll!lllljllillll!!l1 I 1
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Economics with mirrors 335
allegiance i n more convincing tones. Jhe voices oI the homeless
saJly wentunhearJ in a worlJ 'cluttereJwithillusion, Iantasy anJ
retence. `
Figure 4. 1 The seculative world of voodoo economics 1960-1987:
(a) nominal interest payments for U non-fnancial corporations
(Source: Department of Commerce)
(b) nominal interest payments as percentage of pre-tax profts in the United
States
(Source: Deartment of Commerce)
(c) total capital of New York Stock Exchange frms
(Source: New York Times)
(d) daily trading volume on the New York Stock Exchange
(Source: New York Times)
(e) index of U manufacturing production (after Harrison and Bluestone,
1988)
i index offutures trading volume in New York (after Harrison and
Bluestone, 1988)
Z1
Pos tmodernism as the mIrror of
mIrrors
Cne oItherime conditions oIostmodernity is that no one canor
shouId discuss it as a historicaI-geograhical condition. !t is never
easy, oIcourse, to construct a criticaI assessment oI a conditron that
is overwheImingly resent. Jhe terms oI debate, descrition, and
reresentation are oIten so circumscribed that there seems to be no
escae Irom evaIuations that are anythingother than seII-reIerentiaI.
!tisconventionaIthese days,IorexamIe, to dismiss outoIhandany
suggestion that the 'economy' |however that vague word is under-
stood) might be determinant oI culturaI IiIe even in |as ngels and
later Ithusser suggested) 'the Iast instance. ' Jhe odd thing about
ostmodernculturaIroduction is howmuch sheerroht-seekingis
determinant in the hrst instance.
!ostmodernism has come oI age in the midst oI this cIimate oI
voodoo economics, oIoliticaIimageconstructionand deIoyment,
and oI new sociaI cIass Iormation. Jhat there is some connection
between this ostmodernist burst and the image-making oI KonaId
Keagan, the attemt to deconstruct traditional institutions oI work-
ing-cIass ower |the trade unions and the oliticaI arties oI the
IeIt), the masking oI the sociaI elIects oI the economic oIitics oI
riviIege,oughtto be evidentenough. rhetoricthatjustihes home-
Iessness, unemIoyment, increasing imoverishment, disemower
ment, andthe Iikebyaealto suosedlytraditionaIvaIues oIselI-
reIiance andentrereneuriaIismwilIjust asIreeIyIaudthe shiItIrom
ethics to aesthetics as itsdominantvalue system. Jhe streetscenes oI
imoverishment, disemowerment, graIhti and decay become grist
Ior the cuIturaI roducers` miII, not, as Leutsche and Kyan | I 98+)
oint out, inthe muckraking reIormist styIe oItheIate nineteenth
century, but as a quaint and swirIing backdro |as inBlade Runner)
uon which no sociaI commentary is to b made. 'Cnce the oor
become aestheticized, overty itselI moves outoIourheId oI sociaI
Postmodernism as the mirror of mirrors 55/
vision' , excet as a assive deiction oI otherness, alienation and
contingency within the human condition. When 'overty and home-
lessness are served u Ior aesthetic Ieasure', then ethics rs indeed
submerged by aesthetics, inviting, thereby, the bitter harvest oI
charismatic oIitics and ideoIogicaI extremism.
!Ithere is ameta-theorywithwhichto embraceaIIthese gyrations
oI ostmodern thinking and cultural roduction, then why shouId
we not deIoy it?
ZZ
Fordist modernism versus fexible
pos tmodernism, or the
interpenetration of opposed
tendencies in capitalism as a whole
Collage, though ioneered by the m
'
dernists, is a
.
techniq
.
u

that
ostmodernism has very much made its own. Jhe juxtaosition oI
diverse and seemingly incongruous elements can be Iun an
.
oc-
casionaIly instructive. !n this sirit ! have taken the oositions
rovided by !hab Hassan |table I . I ) and by Halal, Lash and \rry,
and Swyngedouw |tables 2. 6, 2. /, and 2. 8) and jumbled u their
terms |adding in a Iew oI my own Ior good measure) to roduce a
collage oI terms in table +. I .
. .
Lown the leIt-hand side are ranged a seres oI ir:tersecting terms
to describe the condition oI '!ordist modernity, ' while the right-
handcolumnreresents'!lexibleostmodernism.`Jhetables

ggests
amusing associations. 8ut it also indicates how two rather diIIer

nt
regimes oI accumulation and ther associated
.
modes
'
I r
.
egulation
|including the materializations oI cultural habits, motivati

n
`
, a

d
styles oI reresentation)
.
might ha

g togeth

r, each as a dist

irictive
and relatively coherentkir:d oI sociaI Iormation. Jwo re

e
'
vation
.
s to
that idea immediately come to mind. !irst, the oositions, high-
lightedIordidacticuros
'
s, areneversoclear
.
-cut,andthe'structure
oI Ieeling` in any society is always a synthetic moment so

ewh
.
ere
between the two. Second, associations are no rool oI historcal
causation or even oI necessary or integral relations. ven iI the
associations look lausible - and many oI them do -

some
otherwayhas to beIound to establishthattheyIorma mear:inglul
conhguration.

Jhe oositionswithin eachrohleare

.
noteworthy. !ordi
.
stmod
ernity is Iar Irom homogeneous. Jhere is i

uc here that is aout

relative hxity and ermanence - hxed caital H mass roducti

n,
stable,standardized,andhomogeneousmarkets,ahxedconhguration

Fordist modernism/fexible postmodernism 559

oI olitical-economic inIluence and ower, easily identihable au-
thorityandmeta-theories,securegroundinginmaterialityandtechnical-
scientihc rationality, and the like. 8ut all oI this is ranged around
a social and economic roject oI 8ecoming, oI growth and trans-
Iormation oI social relations, oI auratic art and originality, ol re
newal and avant-gardism. !ostmodernist exibility, on the other
hand,is dominated by hction, Iantasy, theimmaterial|articularlyoI
money),hctitiouscaital,images,ehemerality,chance,andIlexibility
in roduction techniques, labour markets and consumtion niches,
yet it also embodies strong commitments to 8eing and lace, a
enchant Ior charismatic olitics, concerns Ior ontology, and the
stable institutions Iavoured by neo-conservatism. Habermas`s judge-
ment that the value laced on the transitory and the ehemeral
'discloses a longing Ior an undehled, immaculate and stable resent`
is everywhere in evidence. !t seems as iI ostmodernist llexibility
merelyreversesthedominant ordertobeIoundin!ordistmodernity.
Jhe latter achieved relative stability in its olitical-economic a-
aratusinordertoroducestrong socialandmaterialchange,whereas
theIormerhas been dogged bydisrutiveinstabilityinitsolitical -
economic aaratus, but sought comensation in stable laces ol
being and in charismatic geoolitics.
8ut what iI the table as a whole itselI constitutes a structural
descrition oI the totality oI olitical -economic and cultural-
ideological relations within caitalism? Jo view it this way requires
that we see the oositions across as well as within the rohles as
internal relations within a structured whole. Jhat idea, outrageous
by ostmodernism`s own standards |because it resurrects the ghost
oI Marxist thinkers like Lukacs andaeals to a theory oI internal
relations oIthe sort that 8ertell Cllman advances) makes more than
a little sense. !t hels exlain how itis that Marx`s Capital is sorich
in insights into what the current status oI thinking is all about. !t
also hels us understandhow the cultural Iorces at work in, say,fn
de siixle Vienna constituted such a comlex mix that it is almost
imossible to tell where the modernist imulse begins or ends. !t
helsusdissolvethecategoriesoIbothmodernismandostmodernism
into a comlex ol oositions exressive oI the cultural contra-
dictions ol caitalism. We then get to see the categories oI both
modernism and ostmodernism as static reihcations imosed uon
thelIuidinterenetrationoIdynamicoositions.Withinthismatrix
oI internal relations, there is never one hxed conhguration, but a
swaying back and Iorth between centralization and decentralization,
between authority and deconstruction, between hierarchy and anar-
chy, between ermanence and llexibility, between the detail and the
Table 1. I Fordist modernity versus fexible postmoderity, or the
interpenetrtion of opposed tendencies in capitalist society as a whole
Fordist moderity
economies ol scaIe/master coJe/hierarchy
homogeneity/JetaiI Jivision ol Iabour
aranoia/aIienation/symtom
ubIic housing/monooIy caitaI
urose/Jesign/mastery/Jeterminacy
roJuction caitaI/universaIism
state ower/traJe unions
state weIlarism/metrooIis
ethics/money commoJity
CoJ the Iather/materiaIity
roJuction/originality/authority
bIue coIlar/avant-garJism
interest grou oIitics/semantics
cen traIization/totaIization
synthesis/colIective bargaining
oerational management/master coJe
haIIic/single task/origin
metatheory/narrative/Jeth
mass roJuction/cIass oIitics
technicaI-scientinc rationaIity
utoia/reJemtive art/concentration
seciaIizeJ work/coIIective consumtion
lunction/reresentation/signineJ
inJustry/rotestant work ethic
mechanical reroJuction
becoming/eistemoIogy/reguIation
urban renewaI/reIative sace
state interventionism/inJustrialization
internationaIism/ermanence/time
Flexible postmodernity
economies ol scoe/iJioIect/anarchy
Jiversity/sociaI Jivision ol labour
schizohrenia/Jecentering/Jesire
homelessness/entrereneurialism
lay/chance/exhaustion/inJeterminacy
nctitious caital/locaIism
nnancialower/inJiviJualism
neo-conservatism/counterurbanization
aesthetics/moneys ol account
Jhe IoIy Chost/immateriaIity
reroJuction/astiche/ecIecticism
white coIIar/commerciaIism
charismatic oIitics/rhetoric
JecentraIization/Jeconstruction
antithesis/locaI contracts
strategic management/iJioIect
anJrogynous/muItiIe tasks/trace
Ianguage games/image/surlace
smaII-batch roJuction/social
movements/Iuralistic otherness
heterotoias/sectacIe/JisersaI
IIexibIe worker/symboIic caitaI
nction/seIl-relerence/signiner
services/temorary contract
eIectronic reroJuction
being/ontoIogy/Jeregulation
urban revitalization/Iace
Iaissez-laire/JeinJustrialization
geooIitics/ehemeraIity/sace
5+2 The condition of postmoderity
social division oI labour |to list but a Iew oI the many oositions
that can be identihed). Jhe shar categorical distinction between
modernism and ostmodernism disaears, to be relaced by an
examination oI the llux oI internal relations within caitalism as a
whole.
8utwhythellux?Jhis bringsus backtotheroblemoIcausation
and historical trajectory.
'

ZJ
The transformative and s peculative
logic of capital
Caital isarocess andnot a thing. ItisarocessoIreroductionoI
social liIe through commodity roduction, in which all oI us in the
advanced caitalist world areheavily imlicated. !ts internalized rules
oI oeration are such as to ensure that it is a dynamic and revo-
lutionary mode oI social organization, restlessly and ceaselessly
transIorming the society withinwhich it is embedded. Jhe rocess
masks and Ietishizes, achieves growth throughcreative destruction,
creates newwants and needs, exloits thecaacityIor human labour
and desire, transIorms saces, and seeds u the ace oI liIe. !t
roduces roblems oI overaccumulation Ior which there are but a
limited number oIossible solutions.
Jhrough these mechanisms caitalism creates its own distinctive
historical geograhy. Its develomental trajectory is not in any or-
dinary sense redictable, recisely because it has always been based
on seculation - on new roducts, new technologies, new saces
and locations, new labour rocesses |Iamily labour, Iactory systems,
quality circles, workerarticiation), and the like. Jhere are many
waystomakearoht.Post hoc rationalizations oIseculativeactivity
deend on a ositive answer to the question. 'Was it rohtable?`
LiIIerent entrereneurs, wholesacesoItheworldeconomy, gener-
ate diIIerent solutions to that question, and new answers overtake
the old as one seculative wave engulIs another.
Jhere are laws oI rocess at work under caitalism caable oI
generatinga seeminglyinhnite range oI outcomes outoIthe slightest
variation ininitial conditions or oIhuman activity and imagination.
In the same way that the laws oI lluid dynamics are invariant in
every river in the world, so the laws oI caital circulation are con
sistent Irom one suermarket to another, Irom onelabourmarket to
another, Irom one commodity roduction system to another, Irom
one country to another and Irom one household to another. Yet
5++ The condition of postmodernity
ew York anJ LonJon are 3 JiIIerent Irom each other as the
HuJson is Irom the Jhames.
Cultural liIe is oIten helJ to be outsiJe rather than within the
embrace oI this caitalist logic. !eole, it is saiJ, make their own
historv inthese realms invervsecihcanJ quiteunreJictablewavs,
JeenJing uon their values anJ asirations, their traJitions anJ
norms. conomicJeterminationis irrelevant,evenintheIamouslast
instance. ! holJ thisargumentto be erroneous in two senses. !irst,
! see no JiIIerence in rincile between the vast range oI secu-
lative anJ equallv unreJictable activities unJertaken bv entrere-
neurs |new roJucts, new marketing stratagems, new technologies,
new locations, etc. ) anJ the equallv seculative Jeveloment oI
cultural, olitical, legal, anJ iJeologicalvalues anJ institutions unJer
caitalism. SeconJlv, while it is inJeeJ ossible that seculative
Jeveloment in these latter Jomains woulJ not be reinIorceJ or
JiscarJeJaccorJingto thepost hoc rationalizations oIroht-making,
rohtabilitv |ineither the narrow or the broaJer sense oIgenerating
anJacquiringnewwealth)haslongbeenimlicateJintheseactivities,
anJ with the assing oI time the strength oI this connection has
increaseJ ratherthanJiminisheJ. !reciselv because caitalismis ex
ansionarv anJ imerialistic, cultural liIe in more anJ more areas
gets brought within the gras oI the cash nexus anJ the logic oI
caital circulation. Jo be sure, this has sarkeJ reactions varving
Irom anger anJ resistance to comliance anJ areciation |anJ there
isnothingreJictable about that either). 8utthewiJening anJ Jee-
ening oI caitalist social relations with time is, surelv, one oI the
mostsingular anJ unJisutableIacts oI recenthistorical geograhv.
Jhe oositional relations JeicteJ in table+. I are alwavs subject
to the restless transIormative activitv oI caital accumulation anJ
seculative change. xact conhgurations cannot be reJicteJ in aJ-
vance, even though the law-like behaviour oI the transIormative
Iorcecan.!utmoreconcretelv,theJegreeoI!orJismanJmoJernism,
or oI llexibilitv anJ ostmoJernism, is bounJ to varvIrom time to
time anJ Irom lace to lace, JeenJing on which conhguration is
rohtable anJwhichisnot.8ehinJalltheIermentoImoJernitvanJ
ostmoJernitv, we can Jiscern some simle generative rinciles
thatshaeanimmenseJiversitvoIoutcomes. Yetthelatterstrikinglv
Iail |as in the case oI the seriallv roJuceJ Jowntown renewals) to
create unreJictable noveltv, even though the seeminglv inhnite
caacity to engenJer roJucts IeeJs all the illusions oIIreeJom anJ
oI oen aths Ior ersonal Iulhlment. Wherever caitalism goes, its
illusorv aaratus, its Ietishisms, anJits svstem oImirrors come not
Iar behinJ.
The logic of capital 5+5
!tisherethatwecaninvoke, oncemore,8ourJieu's thesis |above,
.2I 9) thatweeachoIusossessowers oIregulateJimrovisation,
shaeJ bv exerience, which allow us 'an enJless caacitv to en-
genJer roJucts - thoughts, ercetions, exressions, actions -
whose limits are set bv the historically situateJ conJitions' oI their
roJuction, the 'conJitioneJ anJ conJitional IreeJom' this secures
'is as remoteIrom the creation oIunreJictablenoveltvas itis Irom
simle mechanical reroJuction oI the initial conJitionings. ' !t is,
8ourJieu suggests, through mechanisms oI this sort that everv es-
tablisheJorJertenJstoroJuce'thenaturalization oIits own arbi-
trariness' exresseJ in the 'sense oI limits' anJ the 'sense oI realitv'
which in turn Iorm the basis Ior an 'ineraJicable aJherence to the
establisheJorJer' .JhereroJuctionoIthesocialanJsvmbolic orJer
throughtheexlorationoIJiIIerenceanJ'otherness'is alltooeviJent
in the climate oI ostmoJernism.
So where, then, can real change come Irom? Jo begin with, the
contraJictorvexeriencesacquireJunJercaitalism- manvoIwhich
are set out in table +. I renJer the noveltv a little less thoroughlv
reJictable than was the case in 8ourJieu's encounter with the
Kabvles. Mechanical reroJuction oI value svstems, belieIs, cultural
reIerences, anJ the like is imossible, not in site oI but reciselv
because oI the seculative grounJing oI caitalism's inner logic. Jhe
exloration oI contraJictions alwavs lies at the heart oI original
thought. 8ut it is also eviJent that the exression oIsuch contraJic-
tionsinthe Iorm oIobj ective anJ materializeJ crises lavs akev role
in breaking the owerIul link 'between the subjective structures anJ
the objective structures' anJ therebv lav the grounJwork Ior a
critique that 'brings the unJiscusseJ into Jiscussion anJ the unIor-
mulateJ into Iormulation' . While crises in the exerience oI sace
anJ time, in the hnancial svstem, or in the economv at large, mav
Iorm a necessarv conJition Ior cultural anJ olitical changes, the
suIhcient conJitions lie more Jeelv embeJJeJ in the internalizeJ
Jialectics oI thought anJ knowleJge roJuction. !or it is ever the
case that, as Marx | I 96/, I /8) has it, 'we erect our structure in
imagination beIore we erect it in realitv' .
Z+
The work of art in an age of
electronic rep rod uction and image
banks
'!n rincile a work oI art has always been reroJucible,` wrote
Walter 8enjamin,butmechanical reroJuction 'reresentssomething
new. ' !t maJe concrete the oet !aul Valry's reJiction. '|ust as
water, gas, anJ electricity are broughtinto ourhousesIrom IaroIIto
satisIy our neeJs in resonse to minimal eIIort, so we shall be
sulieJ with visual or auJitory images, which will aear anJ
Jisaear at a simle movement olthe hanJ. ' Jhe consequences that
8enjamin Ioresaw have been emhasizeJ many times over by the
aJvances in electronic reroJuction anJ the caacityto store images,
tornout oItheiractualcontextsin saceanJtime,Ior instantaneous
use anJ retrieval on a mass basis.
Jhe increaseJ role ol the masses in cultural liIe has haJ both
ositive anJ negative consequences. 8enj amin IeareJ their Jesire to
bringthingsclosersatiallyanJhumanly, becauseitinevitablyleJto
transitoriness anJ reroJucibility as hallmarks oI a cultural ro
JuctionsystemthathaJhithertoexloreJuniquenessanJermanence.
Jhe ease with which lascism coulJ make use oI that was a signal
warning that the Jemocratization oI working-class culture was not
necessarily an unmitigateJ blessing.
What is really at stake here, however, is an analysis oI cultural
roJuction anJ the Iormation oI aesthetic juJgements through an
organizeJsystem oIroJuction anJconsumtionmeJiateJbysoh-
isticateJ Jivisions oI labour, romotional exercises, anJ markeing
arrangements. nJ these Jays thewhole system is JominateJ by the
circulation oI caital |more oIten than not oI a multinational sort).
s a roJuction, marketing, anJ consumtion system, it exhibits
many eculiarities in the Iorm its labour rocess takes, anJ in the
manner oI linkage between roJuction anJ consumtion. Jhe one
thing that cannot be saiJ oI it is that the circulation oI caital is
absent, anJ that the ractitioners anJ agents at work within it are
The work of art in a postmoderist age 51/
unaware oI the laws anJ rules oI caital accumulation. nJ i t is
certainly notJemocratically controlleJ anJ organizeJ, even though
consumers are highly JiserseJ anJ have more than a little say in
whatis roJuceJ anJ what aesthetic values shall be conveyeJ.
Jhis is notthe lace to launch into anyextensiveJiscussionoIthe
various moJes oI organization oI this sectoroIeconomic activity, or
oIthewaysinhichaestheticanJculturaltrenJs getwovenintothe
IabricoIJailyliIe. Suchtoics havebeenthoroughlyinvestigateJ by
others |KaymonJ WilliamsroviJing a host oI thoughtIul insights) .
8uttwo imortant issues Jo stanJ out as Jirectly relevant to unJer-
stanJing the conJition oI ostmoJernity as a whole.
Iirst,theclassrelationsrevailingwithinthissystemoIroJuction
anJconsumtionareoIaeculiarsort.What stanJs outhere is sheer
money ower as a means oI Jomination rather than Jirect control
over the means oIroJuction anJ wage labour in the classic sense.
Cne siJe-eIIect has been to rekinJle a lot oI theoretical interest ln
thenatureoImoney|asooseJto class)oweranJtheasymmetries
that can arise thereIrom |H. Simmel`s extraorJinary treatise on The
philoso
p
hy of money). MeJia stars, Ior examle, can be highly aiJ
yet grossly exloiteJ by their agents, the recorJ comanies, the
meJia tycoons, anJ the like. Such a system oI asymmetrical money
relations relates to the neeJ to mobilize cultural creativity anJ aes
thetic ingenuity, notonlyin theroJuctionoIa cultural arteIact but
also in its romotion, ackaging, anJ transIormation into some kinJ
oI successIul sectacle. 8ut asymmetrical money ower Joes not
necessarilyromote class consciousness. !t is conJucive to JemanJs
Ior inJiviJual liberty anJ entrereneurial IreeJom. Jhe conJitions
revailing within what Laniel 8ell calls 'the cultural mass` oI ro-
Jucers anJ consumers oI cultural arteIacts shae attituJes JiIIerent
Irom those that arise out oIconJitions oIwage labour. Jhis cultural
mass aJJs yet another layerto that amorhous Iormation known as
'the miJJle class. `
Jhe olitical iJentity oI such a social stratum has always been
notoriously shaky, varying Irom the white-collar workers who
IormeJthe backbone oI Germanazism |see Seier, I 986) to those
who layeJ such an imortant role in re-shaing the cultural anJ
oliticalliIe oIlatenineteenth-century!aris.WhileitisJangerousto
aJvance any general rulesin this regarJ, suchstratatenJtolack 'the
reassuring suort oI a moral traJition that they coulJ call their
own` |Seier) . Jhey either become 'value arasites` - Jrawingtheir
consciousness Irom association with one or other oI the Jominant
classes in society - or cultivate all manner oI hctitious marks oI
their own iJentity. !t is in these strata that the quest Ior symbolic
5+8 The condition of postmoderity
caital is most markeJ, anJ Ior them that movements oI IasLion,
localism, nationalism, language, anJ even religion anJ myth can be
oI the greatest signihcance. What ! am roosing here is to look
careIully at the kinJ oI circularity within the cultural mass which
bringstogetherroJucershelJinthrallbyuremoneyoweronthe
one hanJ, anJ on the other hanJ relatively aIlIuent consumers,
themselvesart oIthe cultural mass, who lookIor a certainkinJ oI
cultural outut as a clear mark oI their own social iJentity. !n the
same way that the new social layers roviJeJ the mass auJience to
which the !aris !mressionists, themselves art oI that social Ior-
mation,coulJaeal, sothenewsociallayerstbatcameintoexistence
with the Iormation oI the cultural mass anJ the rise oI new white
collaroccuationsinhnance, real estate, law,eJucation, science, anJ
business services roviJeJ a owerIul source oI JemanJ Ior new
cultural Iorms baseJ on Iashion, nostalgia, astiche, anJ kitsch - in
short, all that we associate with ostmoJernism.
Jhe olitics oI the cultural mass are, however, imortant, since
they are in the business oI Jehning the symbolic orJerthrough the
roJuction oIimages Ior everyone. Jhe more itturnsin uonitselI,
or the more it siJes with this or that Jominantclass in society, the
more the revailing sense oI the symbolic anJ moral orJer tenJs to
shiIt. ! think it Iair to say that the cultural mass Jrew heavily uon
the working-class movement Ior its cultural iJentity in the I 960s,
but that the attack uon, anJ Jecline oI, the latter Irom the early
I 9/0s onwarJs cut loose the cultural mass, which then shaeJ its
own iJentity arounJ its own concerns with money ower, inJivi-
Jualism, entrereneurialism, anJ the like |the changing olitics oI a
newsaer like Liberation in Irance, which began as an iconoclastic
butleIt-wingnewsaerinthe I 960s, anJnowreresentsanequally
iconoclastic cultural entrereneurialism, is a erIect examle). Jhe
imaging oI olitics by the ublic relations agencies matcheJ the
olitics oI imaging in owerIul ways.
SeconJ,theJevelomentoIcultural roJuctionanJmarketingon
a global scale has itselI been a rimary agent in time-sace com-
ressioninart becauseitrojecteJa musee imaginaire, ajazz club,
or a concert hall into everyone`s living room, but also Ior a set oI
other reasons that 8enjamin consiJereJ.
Cur taverns anJ our metroolitan streets, our oIhces anJIur-
nisheJ rooms, our railroaJ stations anJ our Iactories aeareJ
to have us lockeJ u hoelessly. Jhen came the hlm anJ burst
this rison-worlJ asunJer by the Jynamite oI a tenth oI a
seconJ, so that now, in the miJst oI its Iar-llung ruins anJ
The work of art in a postmodernist age 5+9
Jebris, we calmly anJ aJventurously go travelling. With the
close-u sace exanJs, with slow motion, movement is ex-
tenJeJ . viJently a JiIIerent nature oens itselI to the
camera than oens to the nakeJ eye - iI only because an
unconsciously enetrateJ sace is substituteJ Ior a sace con
sciously exloreJ. |8enjamin, I 969, 256)
ZJ
Responses to time-s pace
B
compres sI on
Jhere ha
`
e been vario

s resonses to the travails oI time-sace

comression. Jhe hrst lme oIdeIenceis to withdraw into a kind oI
shell-shocked, blas, or exhausted silence and to bow down beIore

he
.
o
.
verwhelming sense
'
I how vast, intractable, and outside any
mdividual or even collective control everything is. xcessive inIor
mation, t
.
transires, is one oI

the best inducements to Iorgetting.

Jhe qualities oIostmodernhction - 'the attestossible characters
i

t-e

attest ossible landscae r

ndered in the lIattest ossible

diction |above, . 58) - aresuggestive oIexactlythatreaction. Jhe
ersonal world thatWenders deicts in Paris, Texas does likewise.
Wings of Desire, though more otimistic, still relies in the aIhr
mative to the other questionwhich ewman oses. 'Have thevelo-
cities oIrecent change been so great that we do not know how to
tracetheirlines oIIorce, thatno sensibility, least oI allnarrative, has
been able to articulate them?`
Jhis asectoIostmodernismhasbeenreinIorcedbythe activities
oI

he deconstructionists. !n their susicion oI any narrative that

asires to co
.
herence, and in their rush to deconstruct anything that
even looks like meta-theory, they challenged all basic roositions.
Jo the degree that all the narrative accounts on oIIer contained
hidden resuositions and simlihcations, they deserved critical
scrutiny, iIonly to emerge the strongerIorit

8ut in challenging all

onsens

alstanda

dsoI

ruthandjustice, oIethics,andmeaning,and
m ursumgthe dissolution oI allnarratives and meta-theories into a
diIuse universe oI
.
langu

ge gam

s, deconstructionism ended u, in
site

oI the best mtentions oI its more radical ractitioners, by

reducmgknowledgeandmeaningto arubbleoI signihers. !tthereby
roduced a condition oI nihilism that reared the ground Ior the
re-emergence oI a charismatic olitics and even more simlistic ro-
ositions than those whichwere deconstructed.
Responses to time-space compression 55I
Jhe s

cond reaction amounts t o a Iree-wheeling denial oI the

comlexity oIthe world, and a enchantIorthe reresentation oI it
intermsoIhighlysimlihedrhetoricalroositions.Slogansabound,
IromleItto right oI the oliticalsectrum, and dethless images are
d

yed

o cature comlex meanings. Jravel, even imaginary and

vicarous, is suosed to broaden the mind, but it just as Irequently
ends u conhrmingrejudices.
Jhe third resonse has been to hnd an intermediate niche Ior
olitical andintellectualliIewhichsurnsgrandnarrative butwhich
does cultivatetheossibilityoIlimited action. Jhis is therogressive
angle to os
'
modernsm which emhasizes community and locality,
laceandregionalresistances, socialmovements, resectIorotherness,
and the like |above, . I I5) . !tis an attemttocarve out at least one
knowableworldIromtheinhnityoIossibleworldswhich are daily

howntouso

thetelevisionscreen.titsbestitroducestrenchant
images oI

rble other worlds, andeven begins to shae the actual

world. 8ut i

ha

dto sto the slide intoarochialism, myoia, and

s

lI-reI

rentiality m the Iace oI the universalizing Iorce oI caital

circulation. t worst, it brings us back to narrow and sectarian
olitics in which resect Ior others gets mutilated in the hres oI
co

metition between theIragments. nd, it shouldnotbeIorgotten,

thiswastheaththatallowedHeideggertoreachhisaccommodation
with azism, andwhichcontinues to inIorm the rhetoric oIIascism
|witness the rhetoric oI a contemorary Iascist leader like !e !en).
Jhe Iourth resonse has been to try and ride the tiger oI time-
sacecom

essionthroughconstructionoIalanguageandanimagery
th

t
.
can mirror and hoeIully command it. ! lace the Irenetic
wrtmgs oI8audrillard and Virilio in this category, since they seem
ell-b

nt on Iusing with time-sace comression and relicating it

m their ownlIamoyant r-etor
.
ic. Wehave seen this kindoIresonse
beIore,

most secihcally m ietzsche's extraordinary evocations in

The wtll to power |above, . 2/+). Comared to that, however, it
seems as iI8audrllard reduces ietzsche's tragic sense to Iarce |but
then ostmoderriis
.
m al
^
ys has
.
tro

ble in taking itselI seriously).

jameson, Ior all his brlliance, likewise loses his hold on both the
reality he is seeking to reresent and on the language that might
roerly be deloyed to reresent it in his more rotean writings.
!ndeed,thehyer-rhetoricoIthiswingoItheostmodernreaction
can diss
'
lve into the m
'
st alar

ing irresonsibility. !n reading

jamesons account oI schizohreria, Ior examle, it is hard not to
imu

e euhorc qualities to the hallucinogenic rush oI intoxicating

exerence behmd the surIace aearance oI anxiety and neurosis.
8ut as Jaylor | I 98/, 6/) oints out,jameson`s selective quotations
552 The condition Opostmoderity
Irom the autobiograhy oI a schizohrenic girI eIiminate the terror
that attaches to her unreaIity states, making it alI seem Iike a weII-
controIleJLSLtriratherthanasuccessionoIstatesoIguiIt,Iethargy,
anJheIlessnesscouIeJwith anguisheJ anJ sometimes temestuous
JisIocation. LeIeuze anJ Guattari, aIauJeJ by IoucauIt, Iikewise
recommenJthatweaccommoJatetotheIactthat'everywherecaitaIism
sets inmotion schizo-lIows that animate our" arts anJ our" sciences,
just as they congeal into the roJuction oI "our own" sick, the
schizohrenics. ` KevoIutionaries, they aJvise, 'shouIJ carry outtheir
unJertakings along the Iines oI the schizo rocess,` because the
schizohrenic 'hasbecomecaughtuinalIuxoIJesirethatthreatens
thesociaIorJer.` !IthisisinJeeJthecase, then ! IeIt contemIating
theIoIIowingaccountIrom thessociateJ!ress, 2/ Lecember I 98/,
as aossibIe eitah on 'our` civilization.
Mr Lobben haJ been JiagnoseJ as a schizohrenic . . . . Cn
Jhanksgiving Lay, the oIice say, Mr Lobben took his two
sons,8artIey|oeI, 2 years oIJ, anJ!eterLaviJ, I5monthsoIJ,
to the Cannon-Muskegon Cororation IounJry where he
workeJ anJuttheminsiJea giantIaJIe useJto carry moIten
metaI. He then heateJ it to I ,500 Jegrees whiIe his wiIe, un-
knowing,waiteJoutsiJeinthecar.ow8artIey|amesLobben,
26, sits unJersuiciJe surveiIIance.
!n case this be thought a too extreme vision, ! quote aIso Kenny
ScharI |an ast ViIIage 'Lay-GIo` ainter) whose sequence oIain-
tings oI steIIe escaing time-sace comression with a one-way
ticketto outersacehasher, in the hnaIicture,'justkinJoIhaving
Iun by herseII, lIoating anJ watching the worIJ blow u` |JayIor,
I 98/, I 25) . nJ iI that is juJgeJ too imaginary, then ! quote lan
Sugar, ChairmanoIthemstraJCororation. ' !Itherewas amarket
in mass-roJuceJortabIe nucIear weaons then we'J market them
too. `
Zb
The crISIS of historical materialism
Jhe oJJ thing is how raJicaI some oI these Jiverse resonses a-
eareJ, anJ how JiIhcuIt ithas been Ior the IeIt, as ooseJ to the
right, to coe with them. Cn relIection, the oJJity Jisaears easiIy
enough. moJeoIthoughtthatisanti-authoritariananJiconocIastic,
that insists on the authenticity oI other voices, that ceIebrates JiI-
Ierence, Jecentralization, anJ JemocratizationoItaste, as weII as the
ower oI imagination over materiaIity, has to have a raJicaI cutting
eJge even when inJiscriminateIy useJ. !n the hanJs oI its more
resonsibIe ractitioners, thewhoIe baggage oIiJeas associateJwith
ostmoJernism couIJ be JeIoyeJ to raJicaI enJs, anJ thereby be
seenasartoIaIunJamentaIJrivetowarJs amore IiberatoryoIitics,
in exactIy the same way that the turn to more lIexibIe Iabour ro-
cesses couIJ be seen as an oening to a new era oI Jemocratic anJ
highIy JecentraIizeJ Iabour reIations anJ co-oerative enJeavours.
Irom the stanJointoI the traJitionalist right, the excesses oIthe
I 960s anJ the vioIence oI I 968 aeareJ subversive in the extreme.
!erhas Ior that reason, LanieI 8eII`s Jescrition in The cultural
contradictions Ocapitalism, though IauncheJ entireIy Irom a right-
wingersectivethatsought the restoration oIresect Ior authority,
was robabIy more accurate than many oItheIeIt attemts to gras
whatwas haening. Cther writers, IikeJoIlIeranJeven McLuhan,
sawthe signihcance oItime-sacecomressionanJtheconIusionsit
generateJ inwaysthattheIeItcouIJnotsee, reciseIy becauseitwas
so JeeIy embroiIeJ increatingthe conIusion. CnIyrecentIyhas the
IeIt come totermswith some oItheseissues,anJ! thinkitsignihcant
that 8erman`s book, ubIisheJ in I 982, recuerates some oI these
themes onIy by treating Marx as the hrst great moJernist writer
ratherthanas aMarxistwho couIJ see throughwhatmoJernismwas
aIl about.
Jhe ew LeIt was reoccuieJ with a struggIe to Iiberate itseII
IromtheJuaIshackIesoIolJIeItoIitics |articuIarIy as reresenteJ
55+ The condition of postmoderity
by traJitionaI communist arties anJ 'orthoJox' Marxism) anJ the
reressiveowers oIcororatecaitaIanJbureaucratizeJinstitutions
|the state, the universities, the unions, etc. ). !t saw itseII Irom the
very outset as a cuIturaI as weII as a oIiticaI-economic Iorce, anJ
heIeJ Iorce the turn to aesthetics that ostmoJernism has been
about.
8uttherewere unintenJeJconsequences oI such a Iine oI action.
Jheush into cuIturaIoIiticsconnecteJbetterwithanarchism anJ
Iibertarianism thanwith traJitionaI Marxism, anJ set the ew LeIt
againsttraJitionaIworking-cIassattituJanJinstitutions. Jhe ew
LeIt embraceJ the new sociaI movements which were themseIves
agents oIIragmentation oI oIJ IeIt oIitics. Jo the Jegree that the
Iatterwereatbestassive,anJatworst reactionary,intheirtreatment
oI race anJ genJer issues, oI JiIIerence, anJ oI the robIems oI
coIonizeJeoIes anJreresseJminorities,oIecoIogicaIanJaesthetic
issues, some kinJ oI oIiticaI shiIt oI the sort that the ew LeIt
rooseJwas sureIyjustiheJ. 8utinmakingits move, the ewLeIt
tenJeJ to abanJon its Iaith both in the roIetariat as an instrument
oI rogressive change anJ in historicaI materiaIism as a moJe oI
anaIysis. nJr Gorz rocIaimeJ IareweII to the working cIass, anJ
ronowitz announceJ the crisis oI historicaI materiaIism.
Jhe ew LeIt therebycutitseIIoIIIromits ownabiIitytohave a
criticaI ersective on itseII or on the sociaI rocesses oI transIor-
mation thatunJerIay the surge into ostmoJernistways oI thought.
!n insisting that it was cuIture anJ oIitics thatmattereJ, anJ that it
was neither reasonabIenorroertoinvoke economicJetermination
evenintheIastinstance|IetaIoneinvoketheoriesoIcaitaIcircuIation
anJ accumuIation, or oI necessary cIass reIations in roJuction), it
wasunabIe to sto its ownJriItinto iJeoIogicaI ositions thatwere
weak in contest with the new-IounJ strength oI the neo-conser-
vatives, anJwhichIorceJittocometeonthesameterrain oIimage
roJuction, aesthetics, anJ iJeoIogicaI ower when the means oI
communication Iay in its oonents' hanJs. !n a I 985 symosium,
Marxism and the inte1pretation of culture, Ior examIe, most oI the
authors aiJ Iar more attention to !oucauIt anJ LerriJa than they
JiJ to Marx |eIson anJ Grossberg, I 988). !ronicaIIy, it was an
oIJ IeIt hgure |noticeabIy absent Irom that symosium), KaymonJ
WiIIiams, a Iong-time stuJent oI working-cIass cuIturaI Iorms anJ
vaIues, who crosseJ the tracks oI the ew LeIt anJ trieJ to re-
estabIishthe materiaI grounJings oIwhat cuIturaI ractices might be
about.WiIIiamsnot onIyrejecteJmoJernism as avaIiJ category but,
by extension, saw ostmoJernism as itseII a mask Ior the Jeeer
transIormations in the cuIture oI caitaIism which he sought to
iJentiIy.
The crisis of historical materialism 555
Jhe interrogation oI'orthoJox` Marxian IormuIations |bywriters
in the traJition oI !anon or Simone Je 8eauvoir as weII as by the
Jeconstructionists) was both necessary anJ ositive in its imIi-
cations. !mortant transitions were inJeeJ aIoot in oIiticaI econ-
omy, inthenature oIstate Iunctions,incuIturaIractices, anJ in the
time-saceJimension acrosswhichsociaI reIationshaJtobeassesseJ
|the reIation between, say, aartheiJ in South Irica anJ working-
cIass movements in uroe or orth merica became even more
signihcant as a oIiticaI issue than it haJ been at the high oint oI
Jirect imeriaIism). !t took a roerIy Jynamic rather than static
concetion oI both theory anJ historicaI materiaIism to gras the
signihcance oI these shiIts. CI the areas oI greatest JeveIoment !
wouIJ Iist Iour.
I Jhe treatmentoIJiIIerenceanJ'otherness`notassomethingto
be aJJeJ on to more IunJamentaI Marxist categories |Iike cIass anJ
roJuctive Iorces), but as something that shouIJ be omni-resent
Irom the very beginning in any attemt to gras the JiaIectics oI
sociaI change. JheimortanceoIrecuerating such asects oI sociaI
organization as race, genJer, reIigion, within the overaII Irame oI
historicaI materiaIist enquiry |with its emhasis uon the ower oI
money anJ caitaI circuIation) anJ cIass oIitics |with its emhasis
uontheunityoItheemanciatorystruggIe)cannotbeoverestimateJ.
2 recognition that the roJuction oIimages anJ oIJiscourses
is an:mortantIacet oI activity that has to be anaIyseJ as art anJ
arceIoIthereroJuctionanJtransIormationoIanysymboIicorJer.
esthetic anJ cuIturaI ractices matter, anJ the conJitions oI their
roJuction Jeserve the cIosest attention
5 recognition that the Jimensions oI sace anJ time matter,
anJ that there are reaI geograhies oI sociaI action, reaI as weII as
metahoricaI territories anJ saces oI ower that become vitaI as
organizingIorces in the geooIitics oIcaitaIism, atthe same time as
they are the sites oI innumerabIe JiIIerences anJ othernesses that
haveto be unJerstooJ both in their own right anJwithinthe overaII
Iogic oI caitaIist JeveIoment. HistoricaI materiaIism is hnaIIy be-
ginning to take its geograhy seriousIy.
+ HistoricaI-geograhicaI materiaIism is an oen-enJeJ anJ
JiaIecticaI moJe oI enquiryratherthan a cIoseJ anJ hxeJ boJy oI
unJerstanJings. Meta-theoryis not a statement oItotaI truthbut an
attemtto cometo terms with thehistoricaIanJ geograhicaItruths
that characterize caitaIism both in generaI as weII as m its resent
hase.
Z/
Cracks in the mIrrors, fusions at the
edges
'WeIeelthatostmodernismisover,`amajor\nitedStatesdeveloer
told the architect Moshe SaIdie (New York Times, 29 May I 988).
' Iorrojects which are going tobereadyi nhve years, weare now
considering new architectural aointments. ' He said this, reorted
SaIdie, 'with the naturalness oI a clothing manuIacturer who tells
youthat he does notwantto bestuckwithalineoIbluecoatswhen
red is in.` !erhas Ior this very reason, !hili|ohnson has ut his
considerable weight behind the newmovement oI 'deconstructivism`
with all its high-brow aeal to theory. !I this is where the devel
oers are heading, can the hilosohers and literary theorists be Iar
behind?
Cn I9 Cctober I 98/, someone eeked behind therelIectingmir-
rors oI \Seconomicolicyand, Irightened atwhattheysaw there,
lunged the world`s stock markets into such a IearIul crash that
nearly a third oItheaervalueoI assets worldwidewas written oII
withinaIewdays|seetable2. I 0). Jhe eventrovokeduglymemories
oI I 929,ushed most hnance houses to draconian economies, others
into hasty mergers. Iortunes made overnight by the young, the
aggressive, and the ruthless traders in the hyer-sace oI instant
hnancial dealing were lost even more seedily than they had been
acquired.JheeconomyoIewYorkCityandother majorhnancial
centres was threatened bytheraidIallinthevolumeoItrading.Yet
therestoItheworldremainedstrangelyunmoved.'LiIIerentworlds`
wastheheadlineinthe Wall Street Journal, asitcomaredthe'eerily
detached' view Irom Main Street, \S, with that oI Wall Street.
'JhecrashaItermathis thetaleoItwocultures- rocessingdiIIerent
inIormation, oerating on diIIerent time horizons, dreaming diIIer-
ent dreams. . . . Jhe hnancial community - living bythe minute and
trading by the comuter - oerates on one set oIvalues,` while 'the
rest oImerica - living by the decade, buying andholding - has a
Cracks in the mirrors, fusions at the edges 55/
diIIerent code` which might bccalled 'the ethic oIthose who have
their hands on shovels. `
Main Street mayIeel justihed in its indiIIerence because the dire
redictions intheaItermathoIthe crashhavenot asyetmaterialized.
8ut the mirrors oI accelerating indebtedness |ersonal, cororate,
governmental) continue to workovertime |see hgure2. I5) . Iictitious
catal isevenmorehegemonicthan beIoreinits inlluence. !tcreates
its own Iantastic world oI booming aer wealth and assets. sset
inllationtakesoverwhere the commodity inllation oI the I 9/0s leIt
oIIuntil the mass oIIunds thrown into the markets to ward oIIthe
crash in Cctober I 98/ works its way through the economy to
roduce a resurgence oI wage and commodity inllation two years
later. Lebts getre-scheduledandrolled overateverIaster rates, with

heaggregateeIIectoIre-schedulingthecrisis-tendenciesoIcaitalism
mto the twenty-hrst century. Yet cracks in the reecting mirrors oI
economic erIormance abound. \S banks write oIIbillions oI dol-
larsoIbadloans,governmentsdeIault,internationalcurrencymarkets
remain in eretual turmoil.
CnthehilosohicalIront,deconstructionismhasbeenuton the
deIensive bythecontroversiesovertheazisymathiesoIHeidegger
and !auldeMan.JhatHeidegger, the insirationoIdeconstruction,
should have had such an unreentant attachment to azism, and
that !aul de Man, one oI deconstructionism`s most accomlished
ractitioners, should have had such a murky ast oI anti-semitic
writing, hasroved a major embarrassment. Jhe charge that decon-
struction is neo-Iascist is not in itselIinteresting, but the manner oI
deIence againstthe charge is.
Hillis Miller| I 988), Iorexamle, aealstothe'Iacts` |aositivist
argum

nt), to rinciles oI Iairness and reasonableness |liberal

humamstargument),andtohistoricalcontext|anhistoricalmaterialist
argument) in his deIence oI de Man`s 'aalling` interventions. Jhe
irony, oI course, is that these are all ways oI arguing that Iillis
Miller had ulled aart in the work oI others. Korty, on the other
hand, takes his ownositionto its logical conclusion, declaringthat
the oliticaloinions oIa greathilosoherdo nothaveto betaken
any more seriously than hilosohy itselI |which is hardly at all),
and that any relationshi between ideas andreality, moralositions
and hilosohical writings is urely contingent. Jhe llagrant irres-
onsibility oI that osition is almost as embarrassing as the trans-
gressions that set the whole debate rolling.
Jhe cracks in an intellectual edihce that oens the way to the
emowerment oI aesthetics over ethics are imortant. Leconstruc-
tionism, like any system oI thought and any dehnition oI an over-
558 The condition of postmodernity
whelming symbolic orJer, internalizes certain contraJictions which
atacertainointbecomemoreanJmoreselI-eviJent. WhenLyotarJ,
Ior examle, seeks to kee his raJicalhoes aliveby aeal to some
ristine anJ unsullieJ concet oI justice, he rooses a truth state-
mentthatlies abovethemcle oIinterestgrousanJtheircacohony
oI language games. When Hillis Miller is IorceJ to aeal to liberal
anJositivistvalues to JeIenJhis mentorPaulJe Man againstwhat
he consiJers the calumny oIIalse accusations, then he, too, invokes
universals .

nJattheeJgesoIthese trenJs there areall sorts oIIusions oIthe

Iragmentsinrogress.|esse|ackson emloys charismatic olitics ina
olitical camaign which nevertheless begins to Iuse some oI the
social movements in the \niteJ States that have long been aathetic
to each other. Jhe very ossibility oI a genuine rainbow coalition
Jehnes a uniheJ olitics which inevitably seaks the tacit language
oIclass, becausethisisreciselywhatJehnesthecommonexerience
withinthe JiIIerences. \StraJeunion leaJershnallybegin to worry
that their suort Ior Ioreign Jictatorshis in the name oI anti-
communism since I 950,hasromoteJ theunIairlabour ractices anJ
lowwagesinmanycountrieswhichnowcometeIorjobsanJinvest
ment. nJ when British !orJcar workers struck anJ stoeJ car
roJuction in Belgium anJ West Germany, they suJJenly realizeJ
that satial Jisersal in the Jivision oI labour is not entirely to the
caitalists` aJvantage anJ international strategies are Ieasible as well
as Jesirable. Signs oI a newinternationalism in the ecological shere
|IorceJ by events Ior the bourgeoisie, sought out actively by many
ecological grous) anJ in the hght against racism, aartheiJ, worlJ
hunger, uneven geograhical Jeveloment, are everywhere, even iI
much oI it still lies in the realm oI ure image making |like BanJ
iJ) rather than in olitical organization. Jhe geoolitical stress
betweenastanJWestalsounJergoesanotableamelioration|again,
no thanks to the rulingclasses in the West, butmore because oI an
evolution in the ast) .
Jhe cracks in the mirror may not be too wiJe, anJ the Iusions at
the eJges may not be too striking, but the Iact that all are there
suggests that the conJition oI ostmoJernity is unJergoing a subtle
evolution,erhasreachingaointoIselI-Jissolutionintosomething
JiIIerent. But what?
nswers to that cannot berenJereJ m abstraction Irom the olitical-
economic Iorces currently transIorming the worlJ oI labour, hn-
ance, uneven geograhical Jeveloment, anJ the like. Jhe lines oI
tension are clear enough. Geoolitics anJ economic nationalism,
localism anJ the olitics oIlace, are all hghting it outwith a new
internationalism in the most contraJictory oI ways. Jhe Iusion oI
Cracks in the mirrors, fusions at the edges 559
the uroean conomic Community asa commoJity traJing block
takes lace in I 992, takeovers anJ merger manias will swee the
continent, yet Jhatcherism still roclaims itselI as a Jistinctive
national roject resting uon the eculiarities oI the British |a ro
osition which both leIt anJ right olitics tenJ to accet). !nter-
national control over hnance caital looks inevitable, yet it seems
imossible to arrive at that through the collectivity oI national in-
terests. !n the intellectual anJ cultural sheres similar oositions
can be iJentiheJ.
WenJers seems to roose a newromanticism, the exloration oI
global meanings anJ the rosects Ior Becoming through the release
oI romantic Jesire out oI the stasis oI Being. Jhere are Jangers in
releasing an unknown anJ erhas uncontrollable aesthetic ower
intoanunstablesituation.BranJonJaylorIavours areturntorealism
as a means to bringculturalractices backinto a realm where some
kinJ oI exlicitethical content can be exresseJ. ven some oI the
Jeconstructionists seem to be reverting to ethics.
BeyonJ that there is a renewal oIhistoricalmaterialism anJ oIthe
nlightenmentroject.Jhroughthehrstwecan begin to unJerstanJ
ostmoJernity as an historical -geograhical conJition. Cn that
critical basis it becomes ossible to launch a counter-attack oI nar-
rative against the image, oI ethics against aesthetics, oI a roject oI
BecomingratherthanBeing,anJto searchIorunitywithinJiIIerence,
albeit in a context where the ower oI the image anJ oI aesthetics,
the roblems oI time-sace comression, anJ the signihcance oI
geoolitics anJ otherness are clearly unJerstooJ. renewal oI his-
torical-geograhical materialism can inJeeJ romote aJherence to
a new version oI the nlightenment roject. Poggioli | I 968, /5)
catures theJiIIerence thus.
!nthe consciousness oItheclassicaleoch, itis nottheresent
that brings the ast into culmination, but the ast that cul
minates in the resent, anJthe resent is in turnunJerstooJ as
a new triumhoI ancient anJeternalvalues, as a return to the
rincile oI thetrue anJthejust, as a restoration orre-birth oI
those rinciles. But Ior the moJerns, the resent is valiJ only
byvirtueoItheotentialities oIthe Iuture, as thematrixoIthe
Iuture, insoIar as it is the Iorge oI history in continueJ meta-
morhosis, seen as a ermanent siritualrevolution.
Jhereare somewhowoulJhaveus returnto classicism anJothers
who seek to treaJ the ath oIthe moJerns. Irom the stanJoint oI
the latter, every age is juJgeJ to attain 'the Iullness oIits time, not
by being but by becoming.` ! coulJ not agree more.
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Index
Adorno, J. 1 3
Aglietta, M. 1 21
Alberti, L. - 1. 244
Alekan, H. 321
Althusser, L. 1 1 5, 336
Anderson J. 329
Anderson, P. 1 1 5
Aragon, L. 29-30
Armstrong, P. 1 33
Arnold, M. 28
Aronowitz, S. 47
Augustine, St 42
Babbage, C. 125
Bac, J. 247
Bachelard, G. 213, 21 7, 31 2
Bacon, F. 1 4
Banham, R. 23
Barthes, R. 6, 57-9, 67, 263
Bartok, B. 28
Baudelaire, C. 1 0-1 1 , 1 5-16, 20, 27, 28,
30, 32, 38, 44, 83, 1 00, 1 1 6, 206,
209, 235, 261 , 263
Baudrillard, J. 1 02, 287, 291, 300, 351
Beckmann, M. 278-9
Bell, D. 20, 60, 137, 201, 263, 290, 347,
353
Bellamy, E. 27, 49, 1 1 3, 127
Benjamin, W. 1 1 , 22, 1 1 5, 265, 346, 348
Bentham, J. 28
Berg, A. 28
Bergson, H. 201 , 206
Berman, M. 1 0-1 1 , 1 6, 99, 1 00, 201
Bernstein, R. 13, 15, 41
Biely, A. 1 1
Blitz, M. 208
Bluestone, B. 294
Bonaparte, L. 1 08, 1 09, 261
Borges, J. 41, 56
Boulee, E. -L. 249
Bourdieu, P. 77, 79, 206, 213-16, 21 9,
247, 253, 345
Bove, P. 47
Boyer, C. 295
Boyer, R. 1 21 , 136
Bradbury, M. 1 5, 20, 24-5, 28, 266
Brancusi, C. 28
Braque, G. 28, 267
Braverman, H. 134
Brunelleschi, J. 244
Bruno, Giordano 244
Bruno, Giulliano 308, 31 1-13
Burawoy, M. 133
Burger, P. 1 2
Burke, E. 1 5
Burnham, D. 25, 27, 40
Bush, G. 329
Buttiglione, R. 41
Byron, Lord 19
Calvino, I. 291 , 322
Caro, R. 69, 127
Cassini, J. -D. 249
Cassirer, E. 12
Cezanne, P. 267
Chambers, . 60
Index 569
Charles, Prince 40, 67, 1 1 6
Clark, J. 25, 55
Cohen-Solal, A. 207, 302
Colbert, J. -B. 247, 249, 255
Coleman, A. 1 1 6
Colquhoun, A. 304
Comte, A. 28
Condorcet, M. -J. 13, 1 5, 19, 27
Cook, D. 42
Crimp, D. 54-5, 62, 1 14, 271
Dahrendorf, R. 1 92
d' Alembert, J. -L. 27
Daniels, P. 157
Da vidson, J. 233
de Beauvoir, S. 355
de Benedetti, C. 158
de Certeau, M. 26, 21 3-14, 242, 252, 3 1 9
de Chirico, G. 28, 33, 267
de la Blache, Vidal 85
de Man, P. 357-8
de Sade, M. 15
Delaunay, R. 267
Deleuze, G. 53, 238, 309, 352
Derrida, J. 49, 51 , 53, 1 1 7, 208, 354
Descartes, R. 19, 52
Dewey, T. 52
Dicken, P. 293
Dickens, C. 1 04
Diderot, D. 27
Dilthey, W. 204
Dockes, P. 255
Donne, ]. 247
Dos Passos, ]. 31
Dostoevsky, F. 1 1
Duchamp, M. 28
Durkheim, E. 204, 267
Eagleton, J. 7, 9, 53, 1 1 7, 210
Eco, U. 85
Edgerton, S. 241 , 245
Edwards, R. 128
Einstein, A. 28, 266, 304
Eliot, J. S. 21 , 34, 36, 206
Engels, F. 29, 99, 21 9, 336
Fanon, F. 355
Faulkner, W. 36
Fayol, H. 128
Feyerabend, P. 9
Firey, W. 79
Fish, S. 47, 273
Fishman, R. 23
Flaubert, G. 28, 264-5, 272
Ford, H. 28, 125-8, 1 35, 266-7, 270
Foster, J. 51 , 234
Foucault, M. 9, 44-8, 55, 1 02, 205,
21 3-14, 230, 237, 253-4, 272-3,
304-5, 352, 354
Frampton, K. 30, 35, 273
Freud, S. 30, 42, 45, 1 02, 1 1 5, 31 2
Frisby, D. 1 1 , 26
Galileo 244, 246
Gaudemar, A. 272
Geddes, P. 127
Giddens, A. 1 02, 222
Giedion, S. 36
Gilbreth, F. 125
Gilligan, C. 48
Glyn, A. 133
Goethe, W. 1 1 , 16, 249
Goldthorpe, J. 134
Gordon, D. 1 90-1 , 235
Gorz, A. 354
Gottlieb, A. 36
Gramsci, A. 1 26, 133, 135
Gregory, D. 284
Gropius, W. 22, 278, 280-1
Guattari, F. 53, 238, 309, 352
Guilbaut, S. 25, 36-7
Gurvitch, G. 223, 241 , 261
Habermas, J. 1 2-13, 52
Higerstrand, T. 21 1-13
Halal, W. 1 73-4, 338
Hall, E. 214
Hareven, J.202
Harries, K. 206
Harrington, M. 1 38
Harrison, B. 133, 294
Hartsock, N. 48
Harvey, D. 92, 1 79, 1 82, 227
Hassan, I . 42, 44, 51, 53, 63, 338
5/0
Index
Haussmann, \ 1 6, 25, 204
Heath, T. 167
Hegel, G. 273, 282
Heidegger, M. 20, 35, 49, 207-9, 21 7,
273, 277, 304, 351, 357
Helgerson, R. 228, 247
Hemingway, E. 3 1
Hewison, R. 62, 85-7
Hitler, A. 13, 33, 1 14, 208
Horkheimer, M. 1 3
Howard, E. 69, 71 , 1 27
Hume, D. 27
Huyssens, A. 36-9, 47-8, 58, 1 1 3
Isaacs, W. 169
Jackson, J. 358
Jacobs, J. 3, 40, 71, 76-7, 82, 1 39, 276
Jager, M. 79
Jameson, F. 37, 42, 53-4, 58, 62-3, 83,
88, 1 1 7, 201, 261 , 285, 287, 291 ,
304, 309, 351
Jefferson, T. 255, 257, 271
Jencks, c. 7, 39, 75, 77, 82-3, 87,
1 1 5-16, 301-2
Jessop, B. 168
John Paul II, Pope 41
Johnson, P. 71, 1 14, 292, 356
Joyce, J. 20, 28, 30, 36, 201, 267
Kandinsky, W. 28, 280
Kant, I . 1 9, 207
Kennedy, J. 329
Kern, S. 265-7, 270-2, 274, 277-8, 306
Keynes, J. 1 29
King, M. L. 88
Klee, P. 1 2, 28
Klimt, G. 30, 275
Klotz, H. 93, 97
Kostof, S. 244-5, 247
Koyre, A. 246
Kracauer, S. 1 1
Krier, L. 67-8, 77, 79, 82-3, 97
Kroker, A. 42
Kropotkin, Prince 1 27
Kuhn, T. 9
Lacan, J. 53
Laffer, T. 329
Landes, D. 226, 228
Lane, B. 33
Lash, S. 135, 159, 1 73-4, 338
Lawrence, D. H. 28, 36, 266
Le Corbusier 6, 21-3, 26, 30-1, 34-6,
39, 68-71 , 1 1 5-16, 1 27-8, 204, 271,
275, 278, 281
Le Goff, J. 227-8, 230
Lee, D. 40
Lefaivre, M. 264
Lefebvre, H. 21 8-19, 223, 226, 237, 254,
266, 273
Leger, F. 29, 271
Lenin, I. 30, 88, 127, 279
Lessing, D. 291
Lipietz, A. 121-2, 1 55
Loos, A. 275
Lukacs, G. 16, 341
Lunn, E. 20
Luxemburg, R. 279
Lyotard, J. 44-7, 49, 52, 87, 1 1 3, 1 1 7,
210, 273, 292, 299, 357
McCarthy, J. 37
McFarlane, J. 15, 20, 24-5, 28, 266
McHale, T. 48, 56, 206, 301-2
McLuhan, M. 293, 353
McWilliams, C. 330, 354
Mach, E. 30
Mackinder, H. 275
Malthus, T. 15
Mandel, E. 63, 285
Manet, E. 21, 28, 54-5, 263, 272
Mann, T. 28
Mao Zedong 1 6
Marshall, A. 205, 265
Martin, R. 294
Marvell, A. 247
Marx, K. 1 1 , 14, 29, 42, 45, 47, 51 , 53-4,
99-102, 104-5, 107-12, 1 1 5-1 6,
1 25, 1 79-80, 1 86-8, 1 91 , 205, 227,
230-1 , 236, 261, 273, 280, 282, 287-
8, 31 6, 328, 341, 353-4
Matisse, H. 28
Mill, J. 28
Index 5/I
Miller, J. H. 357-8
Monet, J. 272
Montesquieu, c. -L. 250, 252
Moore, C. 93-4, 97, 216
Morris, W. 24, 272
Moses, R. 16, 69, 127
Murray, F. 189
Mussolini, B. 33, 126-7
Napoleon I 232
Napoleon III 235
Newman, C. 42, 58, 60-2, 350
Newton, I . 244, 246-7, 249, 252
Niemeyer, O. 281
Nietzsche, F. 15, 1 8-19, 30, 42, 44, 52,
209, 267, 273-4, 292, 351
Nixon, R. 167, 330
Noble, D. 1 60
Norris, F. 265
Noyelle, T. 1 57
O'Connor, J. 1 38
Offe, C. 1 59
Ollman, B. 51, 341
Ortega y Gasset, J. 267
Ozouf, M. 257
Pater, W. 207
Pereire, E. 257
Petain, M. 282
Pfel, F. 31 6
Philip II 247
Picasso, P. 1 7, 28-9, 34, 51 , 267, 280
Piore, M. 1 89-90
Pis sarro, C. 21
Poe, E. A. 27
Poggioli, R. 12, 20, 22, 359
Pollert, A. 190-1
Pollock, J. 21, 36-7
Pope, A. 13
Pound, E. 28, 3 1 , 33, 36
Proudhon, P. -J. 1 89
Proust, M. 20, 28, 36, 201, 267
Pynchon, T. 291 , 322
Raban, J. 3-5, 7, 9, 12, 26, 58, 67, 83, 97,
299
Raphael, M. 34, 1 1 0
Ratzel, F. 275
Rauschenberg, R. 55, 292
Reagan, R. 166, 168, 202, 306, 329-30,
331 , 336
Rees-Mogg, W. 233
Reich, R. 158, 163
Relph, T. 23
Rivera, D. 31
Rochberg-Halton, E. 292
Rockefeller, J. 71, 233
Roderick, J. 1 58
Rohatyn, F. 1 63
Roosevelt, F. 1 26, 129
Rorty, R. 9, 52, 56, 314, 357
Rossi, A. 40, 83, 85, 97
Roszak, T. 3
Rothko, M. 36
Rothschild, N. 232, 262
Rousseau, J. -J. 14, 1 9, 250, 252
Rowe, C. 76
Rowthorn, R. 294
Rubens, P. 55
Sabel, C. 1 89-90
Sack, R. 237
Safdie, M. 356
Saint-Simon, H. 1 9, 27, 29, 249, 257
Salle, D. 48, 63
Sartre, J. -P. 207
Saussure, F. 28
Saxton, C. 228
Sayer, A. 1 90
Schiele, E. 275
Schoenberg, E. 28
Schorske, C. 1 1 , 25, 276, 278
Schumpeter, J. 16, 1 8, 32, 1 05, 129, 1 74
Scott, A. 1 90
Scott, R. 308
Shakespeare, W. 247
Sharf, K. 352
Shelley, P. B. 19
Sherman, C. 7, 58-9, 101, 31 6, 322
Simmel, G. 1 1 , 26, 79, 171, 272, 286,
289, 3 16, 347
Sitte, C. 25, 276, 305, 3 1 7
Smith, A. 1 , 27, 29, 1 22, 205, 252
5/2
Soja, E. 284
Sorel, G. 34
Speed, J. 247
Speer, A. 33, 1 14
Stalin, J. 1 3
Stanback, T. 1 5 7
Stein, G. 1 8, 271, 278
Stravinsky, I. 28
Sugar, A. 352
Sullivan, L. 27, 272
Swyngedouw, E. 1 73, 1 76, 338
Tarbell, I . 233
Index
Valery, P. 346
Vallaud, C. 275
van der Rohe, M. 21, 23, 31, 35, 42, 68,
70, 89, 1 14, 278
VeLizquez 55
Venturi, R. 40, 59, 60, 68, 82
Virilio, P. 293, 299, 351
Voltaire, F. 27
agner, (. 25, 276-7, 282
agner, R. 277
alker, R. 1 57
alton, J. 1 70
Taylor, B. 30, 51 , 85, 278, 290, 351-2,
Weber, M. 15, 45, 205
elles, (. 37
359
Taylor, F. 28, 1 25, 127-8
Thatcher, M. 1 66, 1 68, 237, 306
Therborn, G. 1 68
Thompson, E. 1 1 5, 230-1
Tichi, C. 23
Titian 54
Toffler, A. 286, 289, 291
Tomlins, C. 133
Touraine, A. 49
Trilling, L. 1 0
Turgot, A. -R. 255
Ure, A. 125
Urry, J. 135, 1 59, 1 73-4, 284, 338
enders, . 320-3, 350, 359
illiams, R. 347
illiams, . 31
ilson, . 165, 1 92
inder, . 308
ittgenstein, L. 46
oolf, V. 28, 266
right, F. 1 9, 26, 69, 127
Yeats, . B. 1 1
Zola, E. 265, 272
Zukin, S. 82
Subj ect index
absolute surplus value 1 86-7
advertising 23, 39, 59-60, 63, 1 02, 123,
1 5 1 6 22 28 330
aestheticization of politics 31 -5,
1 09-10, 1 1 7, 207-10, 273, 281-2,
299, 304-5
aesthetics 3, 8, 10, 12, 1 8, 1 9, 27-33,
36-7, 56, 58, 60-3, 66-100, 1 02,
1 1 2, 1 14, 1 16-1 8, 126, 1 36, 1 56,
1 72, 201, 205-10, 245, 265, 277,
280-4, 303-5, 308, 3 1 1 , 321-2, 327,
329, 336-7, 347-7, 354, 357, 359
architecture 5-7, 1 8-21, 27, 30-1, 36,
38-40, 42, 51 , 54, 59, 60, 62, 66-98,
1 1 4-15, 205-6, 209, 21 7-18, 244-7,
255, 271, 280, 292, 301, 3 1 1 , 356
art 5, 10, 12, 1 9-24, 28-9, 33-7, 42, 48,
54-6, 61 , 98, 206-7, 244-5, 267-83,
290, 292, 298, 303, 339, 346-9
art market 7, 33, 62, 272, 290-2, 298
artists 1 9-24, 28-9, 35, 60-1 , 241-2,
261-83, 290-2, 298, 346-9
avant-garde 12, 1 9-22, 27, 29, 35, 59, 76,
97, 109, 283, 339, 341
Becoming 205, 207-10, 213, 244, 257,
273, 283, 304, 31 31 8-2 339,
341 , 359
Being 205, 207-10, 21 3, 21 7-18, 257,
273, 277, 283, 304, 3 1 8-21, 341, 359
capital 51 , 1 1 1, 1 37, 1 42, 1 64-5, 1 82-4,
257, 262, 277, 296, 299, 302, 343-5
capital accumulation (circulation) 77,
1 03-9, 1 21 , 1 24, 1 42, 1 80-97,
201-2, 21 7, 238-9, 244, 257-8, 280,
282-3, 288, 297, 303, 306, 327,
343-6, 351
capitalism 1 7, 27, 29, 35, 39, 42, 45-6,
51 , 53, 60-1, 63, 68, 70, 71, 80,
99-1 12, 1 1 5, 121-97, 204, 209-10,
214, 21 6-1 7, 223, 226-39, 240-1,
252, 260, 264-5, 287, 293-7, 303,
332, 345-5
centralization 158-9, 341
chaos 6, 9, 1 1 , 1 6, 20, 44, 74, 86, 98, 277,
3 1 1 , 3 1 7
chronometers 242-53, 270
cinema 23, 37, 48, 207, 280, 291 , 293,
300-1 , 308-23, 348
cities 3, 5, 6, 20, 26-3 1, 35, 66-98,
21 3-14, 228, 232, 247, 271 , 276-7,
295, 301-2, 304, 309-1 1 , 31 4-17,
331 , 356
class 3, 1 0, 1 4, 24, 27, 29, 33-5, 45, 47,
59-61, 7 80, 82, 1 02-1 1 13, 133,
1 80, 191-2, 203, 223, 227, 234-9,
242, 253-4, 258, 260, 266, 273, 276,
289, 3 14, 31 6, 322. 33 336, 347-
355, 358
class struggle 1 02-4, 108, 127-9, 1 33,
153, 1 67-8, 1 80, 1 84, 1 86, 205, 21 0,
227-8, 231-9, 242, 261-2, 294, 303,
31 6, 355, 358
collage 21, 40, 48, 51 , 61, 82-3, 98,
302-3, 338
5/+
Index
collective memory 85, 21 7-18, 31 7
commercialism 7, 22, 33, 42, 58-65, 97,
1 02, 1 1 3, 1 56, 276-7, 286-7,
298-301
commodities 7, 22-3, 59, 61-5, 1 00-5,
1 36, 1 56, 1 8 1 , 229, 239, 244, 254,
259, 263, 265, 277, 286-7, 298-301,
343
communication 46, 49, 52-3, 59, 67,
1 1 2, 1 47, 1 65-6; seea/sotransport
and communications
community 5, 1 4, 41, 47, 52, 67, 76-7,
82, 89, 1 00, 108, 204, 218, 238,
240-2, 273, 276-7, 292, 351
competition 105-9, 126, 1 38, 140, 145,
1 50, 1 58-60, 168, 1 70-1, 1 83-7,
235, 244, 258-9, 265, 288-9, 293-7,
351
constructivism 9, 59
consumption 22, 59-63, 1 05-8, 121,
125-40, 147, 1 56-7, 1 64-5, 204,
285, 291, 299-301, 339-41, 346
contradictions 1 1 , 1 5, 99-107, 142,
1 80-1, 1 86-9, 205, 232, 257-8, 322,
339, 341 , 345
corporate powers 35-8, 47, 61-3, 70-1,
1 1 4, 1 22, 125-40, 1 58-60, 1 70, 1 84,
1 86, 1 8 23 288, 31 31 3, 354
counter-culture 38, 63, 80, 82, 88, 139
creative destruction 1 6-1 8, 22, 83, 99,
1 05-8, 1 1 0-1 1 , 230, 274-5, 281,
3 1 1 , 343
credit 87, 1 07-8, 1 41 , 161, 1 82-3, 229,
257, 262, 264; seea/so debt aa
fctitious capital
crises 1 06-7, 1 10, 1 1 3, 1 1 6, 1 27, 128-9,
145, 1 64, 1 67, 1 69, 1 80-9, 201-2,
230, 232, 257, 260-2, 264, 266, 284,
293, 327, 345, 356-7
cubism 22, 29, 58, 271
cultural imperialism 37, 276
cultural mass 60, 290-1 , 331 , 347-8
cultural production 1 1 , 22-4, 29, 31 ,
36-8, 49-53, 56-63, 219, 279,
285-91 , 298-9, 336-7, 346-8,
354-5
culture 7, 19, 24, 37-9, 42, 49, 52, 56-9,
77-9, 82-3, 86, 1 09, 136-7, 1 56,
1 70-3, 201, 207, 2 1 1-25, 239, 240,
263-72, 277-85, 290-300, 336,
344-9
Dada 22, 42, 59, 206, 281
debt 1 61-5, 1 84, 1 86, 1 94-5, 202, 223,
292, 297, 357; seea/so credit aa
fctitious ca pi tal
decentralization 76, 159, 1 89, 294-6,
339, 341 , 353
deconstruction 49-51, 56, 97-8, 1 16-1 7,
208, 291, 336, 339, 350, 355, 357
deindustrialization 92, 1 85-6, 1 91 , 232,
294, 296, 31 31 4, 330
desire 61, 63, 77, 80-2, 1 02, 123, 213,
287, 21 8-20, 343, 352
deskilling 105, 125, 1 34, 138, 1 50, 230,
260, 264, 285, 294
devaluation 1 81 , 1 84-7, 1 92, 206, 230,
232, 296
discourse 9, 39, 45, 51 , 53, 67, 82, 87, 96,
218, 254, 31 6, 355
division of labour 1 03-6, 1 1 0-1 1 , 1 1 7,
165, 1 96, 202, 215, 230, 232, 250,
264, 358
domination of nature 13, 16, 1 1 1 , 249
domination of space 222-3, 249, 252-9
ecology 67, 1 22, 1 80, 202, 223, 240, 242,
354, 358
effective demand 1 26-8, 132-5, 1 41 , 289
Enlightenment 1 2, 1 3-1 5, 1 8, 27-31 , 35,
41-2, 51 , 54, 99, 1 1 1 , 21 3-14,
240-59, 261 , 270, 275, 277, 280,
282, 359
entrepreneurialism 3, 6, 1 7, 92, 1 03,
105-7, 1 1 3, 1 22, 157, 1 62, 168, 1 73,
1 92, 223, 295, 343-
ephemerality 10, 16, 1 8, 20-1, 44, 59, 91 ,
98, 108, 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 5 1 71 , 21 6-1
263-4, 288-9, 291-3, 296, 302, 306,
31 5, 339
eternal truths 9-12, 1 6-1 8, 20-1 , 3 1-2,
34, 38, 44-5, 83, 1 1 6, 205-7, 292
ethics 9, 14, 1 6, 1 02, 31 6, 322, 327-8,
329, 336-7, 350, 357, 359
Index 5/5
ethnicity 10, 76, 87, 89-90, 104, 1 1 7,
138, 152, 223, 227, 277, 300,
31 0-1 1 , 331
exchange 100-5, 21 6-1 7, 227-9, 242,
247, 250, 285, 291
exchange rates 1 09, 141, 164, 169, 297
exchange value 1 00-5
expressionism 22, 36-7, 59, 275-6
fascism 33-6, 45, 85, 1 09, 129, 208-1 0,
21 7, 277, 31 6, 330, 346-7, 351, 357
fashion 6-7, 22-3, 26, 59-63, 1 56, 229,
285, 291, 332, 348; seea/so taste
feminism 42, 46, 48
fetishism 77, 100-1 , 1 1 0, 1 1 7, 343-4
feudalism 29, 41, 1 05, 228-30, 240-2,
245, 260
fction 36, 41 , 48, 56, 98, 1 1 3-1 5, 263-6,
291, 302, 350
fctitious capital 1 07-8, 1 82-5, 1 94-5,
262, 292, 306, 331-2, 339, 341 , 357;
seea/so credit aadebt
flm 23, 37, 48, 59-61 , 85, 87
fnance 92, 1 07-9, 1 1 7, 132, 141, 145,
147, 1 50, 1 56, 1 60-6, 1 70-1 , 1 92-6,
235, 260, 282, 284-5, 287, 297, 307,
331 , 358-9
flexibility 1 42, 1 50-1 , 1 55-7, 1 86-7,
1 89-96, 229, 288, 292, 295, 309-10,
338-9, 341, 344, 353
flexible accumulation 124, 147-97, 201,
230, 284, 294-5, 297, 299, 302-3,
305, 309, 31 3, 322
Fordism 125-97, 201 , 223, 230, 284,
297-8, 305, 338, 341, 344
fragmentation 9, 1 1 , 1 8 , 44, 49, 59, 75,
82-3, 97-8, 1 03-7, 1 09, 1 1 1 , 1 1 6,
1 71 , 21 6-1 7, 264, 271, 296, 302-3,
306, 31 5, 354
freedom 5, 10, 15, 21 , 37, 41, 76, 1 1 1 ,
271, 344-5, 347
futurism 33, 206
gender 1 04, 1 1 3, 1 92, 223, 227, 354-5;
seea/so women
geography 1 0, 61, 87-8, 1 06-7, 1 1 3, 1 21 ,
132, 145, 147, 1 57, 1 61 , 1 83-4,
1 89-92, 202-3, 209, 232-4, 244-6,
258, 260, 272, 294-6, 300, 328, 358
geopolitics 121, 1 37, 1 39-40, 1 80, 1 86,
208-1 0, 233, 237, 260, 273, 279,
282, 304, 339, 358
habitus 21 9, 345
heritage culture 62-3, 85-7
historical geographical materialism 328,
355, 359
historical materialism 47-8, 222-5, 307,
328, 353-5, 359
history 9, 1 1-12, 53-5, 61-2, 66, 76, 82,
85-8, 97, 1 1 0-1 1 , 204, 209-1 0, 212,
21 7-1 8, 260, 303-4, 307, 312-13,
3 1 7-1 8, 321 , 344, 359
identity 5-6, 53, 60, 82, 86-7, 123, 209,
21 7, 228, 250, 271-2, 288-9, 292,
302-4, 31 4, 31 6-1 8, 347-8
ideology 5, 1 0, 37, 70-1 , 78, 83, 1 70,
190-2, 21 7-1 8, 226, 228, 272, 285,
304, 339, 354
images 3, 23, 31 , 54-5, 59, 61 , 85, 87,
92-3, 97, 1 02, 278, 280, 286-93,
308-9, 3 1 1 , 3 14-1 5, 3 1 8, 321 , 323,
328, 330-2, 336, 339, 346, 351,
354-5, 358-9
imperialism 30, 47, 1 04, 209, 264, 344,
355
impressionism 22, 348
individualism 3, 5, 19, 26, 29, 37, 103,
108, 1 1 3, 1 23, 1 71 , 247, 249, 258,
31 6
industrial organization 145, 1 52-5,
186-8, 1 89-92, 229-32
industry 126-34, 141 , 1 45, 147, 155-8,
165-7
inflation 42, 61, 141, 142, 145, 167, 171,
1 8 1 , 1 94, 357
information 49, 128, 1 37, 1 56, 1 58-60,
232-3, 264, 294-5
innovation 1 7, 27, 1 05-6, 1 56-7, 1 94-5,
229, 264, 266, 285, 289-91
internationalism 24, 33, 35-8, 75, 87-8,
99, 1 41 , 160-5, 236-7, 262, 265,
271, 275-9, 304, 31 5, 358
376
Index
)o :ssaace57-8, 91 , 97, 1 1 6
Keynesianism 124, 130, 135-40, 142,
164-5, 1 67, 1 70, 1 73-4, 1 82, 1 84,
223, 297-8
knowledge 9, 1 2-14, 20, 28, 35, 45-7,
49, 105, 123, 1 59-60, 204, 208, 226,
244-5
labour 51 , 1 00-5, 1 09, 126-9, 1 41 ,
1 80-93, 227, 229-33, 309, 358
labour control 123, 125-7, 133, 138,
145, 1 47, 1 53, 1 55-6, 1 70-1 , 1 80-1,
1 86-7, 1 89-96, 230-7, 293-5
labour markets 1 03-5, 128, 1 38-9, 1 47,
1 50, 1 53-6, 1 89-92, 286, 288, 298,
341 , 343
labour organization 1 3 1-6, 1 38-9, 147,
168, 1 89, 230-3, 235, 3 1 1
labour process 1 06, 1 21 , 123, 1 25-8,
1 38-9, 1 74, 1 86-7, 229-33, 285,
290, 293, 300, 343, 346
land 245, 254-5, 271
language 7, 23-4, 28, 30, 46-7, 49, 51-4,
67, 82, 1 02-3, 1 1 3, 1 1 7, 206,
216-17, 222-3, 225, 250, 263, 271,
291, 299, 301 , 3 1 0, 3 14, 3 1 7, 350-1,
358
liberty 6, 1 2-1 6, 26, 31 , 103, 249, 257-8,
271 , 347
l ocality 45-7, 66, 87, 1 1 1 , 1 1 3, 1 1 7, 139,
21 7-18, 228-9, 265, 276-7, 295,
306, 348, 351
machine 23-6, 28, 31 -2, 35-6, 39,
1 04-5, 209, 21 7, 278, 280
maps 5, 24, 203, 206, 222, 228-9, 233,
242, 245-6, 249-52, 258, 264, 305
market 14, 42, 59, 73, 77, 82, 100-1 , 1 22,
1 91-6, 21 7, 227-8, 285-8
mass consumption 3, 23, 51 , 134-7,
1 38-40, 1 84, 264, 288
mass production 3, 68, 76, 126-33,
1 38-40, 142, 1 84, 338
mathematics 9, 28, 206, 245-55
media 59-63, 85, 124, 1 60, 232, 264,
266-7, 287-90, 31 5, 329
mergers 1 25, 158-60, 163, 1 70, 359
meta-theory 9, 45, 52, 55, 1 1 3-1 8, 328,
337, 339, 341 , 350, 355
militarism 47, 1 08, 129, 1 37, 139-40,
233
minorities 42, 76-7, 87, 1 38-9, 1 52, 203,
300
mobility of capital 106-9, 1 63-8,
1 85-91 , 234, 294
modernization 99-1 12, 21 6, 225, 230,
249
modernism 44, 66-100, 1 04, 127, 1 36,
139, 1 56, 1 72, 201, 206-7, 209, 21 6,
222-3, 249, 252, 260-83, 286, 303,
305, 3 1 7, 338-9, 341-2, 344
modernity 9-38, 99-112, 127, 201, 205,
214
money 26, 99-105, 1 07, 1 1 7, 1 22, 142,
1 61-5, 1 80, 216, 226-9, 235, 238-9,
257, 261-3, 277, 283, 285, 287, 290,
296-8, 315, 31 9, 341, 347-8, 355
monopoly 1 22, 1 34, 138, 1 42, 1 52,
1 58-9, 171, 1 84, 1 89
monuments 67, 71, 83-4, 272
morality 12, 14-16, 1 9-20, 244, 327
multinationals 141, 1 53, 1 63, 1 89, 345
museum 62, 85-8, 272, 292, 301, 303,
321
music 28, 207, 266, 280, 300-1
myth 5, 16, 18, 30-5, 85, 1 09-10, 1 29,
209, 214, 21 6-1 7, 241, 276-7, 282,
3 1 7, 320, 348
nation 10, 47, 138, 236-8, 258, 275, 306
nationalism 24, 33-4, 37, 129, 139,
207-9, 247, 262, 276-8, 283, 292,
306, 358-9
Nazism seefascism
needs 15, 61 , 63, 66, 1 02-4, 1 06, 1 09-1 1 ,
123, 1 26, 1 56, 1 59, 343, 346
New Deal 127-9
otherness 9, 42, 46-9, 1 01 , 1 03-4,
1 1 3-16, 239, 250, 273, 301, 31 8,
332, 337, 351, 353, 355
overaccumulation 1 06, 108, 1 80-97, 239
257, 260, 264, 296, 327, 343
Index 377
part-time work 152-3
patriarchy 152, 158, 1 92, 294
perspectivism 30-1 , 245-53, 258, 264,
266-7
philosophy 9, 14, 1 6-19, 41-4, 52, 56,
98, 1 87, 1 97, 206-9, 284, 302
photograph 7, 23, 55, 58-9, 206, 21 8,
292, 303, 308, 3 1 3-14, 31 6-1 8,
321-2, 356-8
place 5, 9, 25, 47, 1 07, 1 1 2, 206, 21 2, 214,
216-19, 227-8, 232, 234, 236-7, 239,
240, 244, 246, 250, 252, 257, 261-3,
267, 270, 275, 284, 286, 295-6,
302-4, 306, 314, 339, 351 , 358
planning 5, 27, 35, 40, 44, 66-98, 1 1 5,
127, 204-5, 21 8, 247, 253, 286
politics 9, 1 8-19, 29-30, 33-5, 42,
68-70, 88-90, 1 1 4-1 8, 124, 126-30,
1 33, 136, 142-3, 1 66-8, 1 70-3, 1 81 ,
226-7, 239, 254, 257, 302, 304-7,
328-30, 336-7, 341, 358-9
popular culture 22, 53-65, 76, 87, 94, 97,
299-303
postmodernism 39-102, 1 1 1-18, 1 56,
1 72, 1 87, 201, 21 0, 222-3, 239, 252,
273, 285-359
poststructuralism 41 , 49
power 12, 14, 24, 35-6, 41 , 45-7, 71, 77,
1 01-3, 1 14, 1 1 7, 1 22, 133-6, 142,
1 53, 1 70, 1 73, 21 3, 225-39, 233,
244-5, 255-9, 262, 273-4, 281 ,
287-9, 292, 297-8, 304, 3 1 0,
339-40, 355
pragmatism 9, 41, 52
private property 1 03, 238, 245, 249,
254-5, 273
production 23, 61 , 76, 98, 100-1 1 ,
1 21-9, 1 41 , 1 57, 1 63-4, 1 71-7, 1 86,
1 88 , 204, 232, 264, 286-7, 297, 301,
303, 3 1 6, 339, 341, 346
production of space 136-7, 1 82-6, 222,
233, 254-5, 257-8, 270
proft 99, 103-5, 122, 134, 150, 1 58, 1 73,
1 80-5, 1 92, 229, 231-2, 244, 252,
283, 336, 343
progress 9, 12, 13, 14, 1 7, 29, 35, 1 41 ,
202, 278-9
race 89, 1 04, 1 1 3 , 1 1 7, 129, 1 38, 1 52,
223, 303, 330-1 , 354, 358
rationality 3, 9, 1 2-15, 1 8-19, 26, 31-2,
35-6, 44-5, 52, 66-9, 128, 134, 214,
244-7, 253-8, 270-1 , 275, 278, 280,
339
realism 20, 31 , 34, 36-7, 265, 267, 359
reason 1 3-16, 29, 41 , 54
regime of accumulation 1 21-4, 145-7,
1 72-4, 1 89-96
regulation 1 21-3, 128, 1 72-6, 1 8 1 , 1 84,
295
relative surplus value 1 86-7
religion 10, 12, 16, 41-2, 1 71 , 238,
244-5, 247, 277, 292, 348
Renaissance 242-9
representation 5, 20-1 , 27-30, 36, 51-4,
204-7, 214-16, 21 8-19, 228, 233-4,
239-40, 244-58, 260-83, 298-9,
327, 336
revolutionary movement 25, 29, 33, 42,
44, 8 8-9, 1 08-9, 138, 1 8 1 , 235-6,
257, 260-, 279, 352
romanticism 19, 24, 43, 320-1 , 359
schizophrenia 7, 53, 58, 83, 97, 203, 240,
287, 291, 305, 309, 312, 351-2
science 9, 12-14, 1 8-20, 28, 41 , 1 05-6,
1 1 0, 1 59, 201-5, 244-7, 261 , 266
service sector 1 47, 1 56-9, 285, 346-8
signs 3, 6, 34, 76, 83, 1 02, 21 8, 287, 299,
3 1 1
simulacrum 63, 300-3, 309, 3 1 1 , 3 1 3
social control 45-7, 88, 21 3-14, 253-4,
31 1-12
social movements 1 1 6, 1 38-9, 1 71 ,
238-9
social relations 1 76, 204, 21 4-25, 239,
247, 339
social theory 1 02, 205-1 0, 265, 273, 302
socialism 21-2, 29, 33-4, 36-7, 1 1 0, 138,
1 70, 237, 279-80, 302-3, 305
space 1 0-12, 16, 21 , 26, 28, 35-6, 48, 61 ,
66, 68, 75, 82, 88, 97-98, 107, 145,
1 47, 1 64, 1 82-6, 1 96, 201-323,
327-8, 343, 346, 348-52, 355
spectacle 39, 54, 56, 59, 8 8-92, 97, 1 56,
5 /8 Index
277, 290, 308, 3 1 8, 329, 347
speculation 83, 1 07-9, 1 1 1 , 1 946, 223,
264, 297, 332, 343-5
speed-up 1 82, 21 0-1 1 , 229-31 , 240, 266,
270-1, 284-5, 343
state power 37-8, 45, 68-70, 1 08-1 0,
121, 1 24, 127, 132-40, 142, 164,
1 68-9, 1 71 , 1 80, 1 83, 1 86, 1 94, 21 3,
228-9, 236, 247, 255, 258, 273,
281-3, 288, 295, 31 6, 354-5
strikes 142, 234, 332
sub-contracting 138, 150-3, 155-7, 1 91 ,
292, 31 1
suburbanization40, 68-71 , 82, 1 32, 1 85,
1 91 , 235
surfaces 6-7, 15, 58, 61, 77-8, 88, 93,
1 00-3, 1 1 7, 1 88, 288-92, 336-7,
344, 351
surplus 1 07, 1 41 , 1 45, 1 66, 1 80-7, 191,
260
surrealism, 21-2, 30, 33, 36, 59
sweatshops 1 52-3, 1 87
symbolic capital 77-80, 82, 332
symbols 67, 77-80, 82, 1 01 , 214-16,
21 9, 289, 3 1 3, 322
taste 6, 76-8, 82-3, 106-7, 1 59, 1 8 7,
287-8, 353
Taylorism 28, 125, 127-8
technology 31 , 41 , 49, 60-1 , 75, 76,
103-7, 1 1 0, 124-5, 132-3, 1 34, 1 45,
147, 1 55-6, 1 73, 1 80, 1 82, 1 83,
1 86-7, 1 89-91 , 202, 208-9, 229-30,
235, 264-6, 284
telecommunications 161, 165, 232, 240,
293
television 23, 59-61 , 63, 85, 87, 232, 290,
302
text 49-51 , 98, 216, 31 6
time 1 0, 1 1 , 12, 21 , 26, 28, 35-6, 53-4,
59, 61 , 75, 88, 97, 1 07, 164, 1 82-6,
1 96, 201-323, 327-8, 346, 350-2,
355
time geography 21 1-13
time-space compression 1 47, 240-2,
265, 274, 276-8, 283-4, 286, 292,
298, 305-8, 3 1 3, 322, 327, 348,
350-3
totality 9, 44, 5 1-2, 67, 210, 214, 244,
246, 250-4, 339
trade unions 38, 122, 1 27, 133-5,
137-40, 1 45, 1 50, 1 52-3, 167-8,
191-2, 234-5, 294, 336
transport and communications 26, 75,
1 32, 147, 1 65, 220-2, 232-3, 249,
255, 258, 264, 270, 278
turnover time 145, 156-7, 1 82-3,
229-3 1 , 266, 284-8, 291, 307
unemployment 68, 147-8, 150, 1 80,
232, 277, 296, 330-1
uneven development 1 37, 1 47, 1 92, 209,
237, 294-7
universality 9-1 0, 20, 24-5, 30-3, 38, 45,
52, 83, 1 02, 1 1 6-1 8, 207, 21 7, 262,
273, 275, 277, 292, 320, 328, 351
urban design 65-98, 21 7, 276-7
urban living 3-7, 12, 20-8, 40, 59-61 ,
63, 67-98, 1 14, 21 3-14, 267, 286,
300, 304, 33 1-2
urban renewal 25, 35, 40, 68-9, 88, 90
urbanization 25-6, 40, 44, 71, 1 1 4-16,
276-7
use value 1 00
utopianism 14-15, 23, 45, 1 27, 21 8, 239,
257, 275, 31 0
value 51 , 98, 1 00, 107-8, 1 22, 1 81-7,
227-8, 230, 238, 262, 296-9
values 3, 6, 16, 35, 37, 41 , 51 , 56, 68, 1 1 2,
1 71 , 205-6, 209, 21 5-17, 273-4,
285-6, 297-8, 336, 339, 344-5, 347,
359
wage labour 1 03-4, 1 08, 1 86, 216
wages 1 21-2, 1 26, 1 33-5, 1 38, 167-8,
1 70-1 , 1 87, 232
welfare state 68-70, 135-6, 1 68
women 42, 45, 47-8, 1 04, 1 38, 1 52-5,
203, 215-1 6, 252, 303 ; seea/so
gender
working class 36, 48, 104-5, 108, 1 26-8,
1 42, 153, 1 73-5, 1 87, 1 90-1 ,
229-39, 260, 303, 330, 336, 354-5
world market 99, 1 09, 132, 1 36-8, 1 85,
190-2, 232, 264, 275, 299-300
:
i