Fuksrausch Esc

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Relativity - gauge theories
The Standard Model of particle physics
Beyond the Standard Model
Summary
The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg
IPHC Strasbourg / University of Strasbourg. benjamin.fuks@iphc.cnrs.fr & michel.rausch@iphc.cnrs.fr Slides available on http://www.cern.ch/fuks/esc.php
6-13 July 2011
Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 1
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Outline.
1 2 Context. Special relativity and gauge theories. Action and symmetries. Poincar and Lorentz algebras and their representations. e Relativistic wave equations. Gauge symmetries - Yang-Mills theories - symmetry breaking. Construction of the Standard Model. Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). Scattering theory - Calculation of a squared matrix element. Weak interactions. The electroweak theory. Quantum Chromodynamics. Beyond the Standard Model of particle physics. The Standard Model: advantages and open questions. Grand unied theories. Supersymmetry. Extra-dimensional theories. String theory. Summary.
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Building blocks describing matter.
Atom compositness. * Neutrons. * Protons. * Electrons.
Proton and neutron compositness. * Naively: up and down quarks. * In reality: dynamical objects made of Valence and sea quarks. Gluons [see below...].
Beta decays. * n p + e + e . * Needs for a neutrino.

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond. Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 3
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Three families of fermionic particles

Quarks: Family generation 2nd generation 3rd generation Leptons: Family generation 2nd generation 3rd generation 1st Charged lepton electron muon tau e 1st Up-type quark up quark u charm quark c top quark t
[Why three?].
Down-type quark down quark d strange quark s bottom quark b
Neutrino electron neutrino e muon neutrino tau neutrino
In addition, the associated antiparticles. The only dierence between generations lies in the (increasing) mass. Experimental status [Particle Data Group Review]. * All these particules have been observed. * Last ones: top quark (1995) and tau neutrino (2001).
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Fundamental interactions and gauge bosons.

Electromagnetism. * Interactions between charged particles (quarks and charged leptons). * Mediated by massless photons (spin one). Weak interaction. * Interactions between the left-handed components of the fermions. * Mediated by massive weak bosons W and Z 0 (spin one). * Self interactions between W and Z 0 bosons (and photons) [see below...]. Strong interactions. * Interactions between colored particles (quarks). * Mediated by massless gluons g (spin one). * Self interactions between gluons [see below...]. * Hadrons and mesons are made of quarks and gluons. * At the nucleus level: binding of protons and neutrons. Gravity. * Interactions between all particules. * Mediated by the (non-observed) massless graviton (spin two). * Not described by the Standard Model. * Attempts: superstrings, M-theory, quantum loop gravity, ...
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The Standard Model of particle physics - framework (1).

Symmetry principles elementary particles and their interactions. * Compatible with special relativity. Minkowski spacetime with the metric = diag(1, 1, 1, 1). Scalar product x y = x y = x y = x 0 y 0 x y . Invariance of the speed of light c. Physics independent of the inertial reference frame. * Compatible with quantum mechanics. Classical elds: relativistic analogous of wave functions. * Quantum eld theory. Quantization of the elds: harmonic and fermionic oscillators. * Based on gauge theories [see below...]. Conventions. * = c = 1 and , = diag(1, 1, 1, 1). * Raising and lowering indices: V = V and V = V . * Indices. Greek letters: , . . . = 0, 1, 2, 3. Roman letters: i, j, . . . = 1, 2, 3.
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What is a symmetry? * A symmetry operation leaves the laws of physics invariant. 2 x e.g., Newtons law is the same in any inertial frame: F = m d 2 . dt Examples of symmetry. * Spacetime symmetries: rotations, Lorentz boosts, translations. * Internal symmetries: quantum mechanics: | e i | . Nther theroem. * To each symmetry is associated a conserved charge. * Examples: electric charge, energy, angular momentum, . . .
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Dynamics is based on symmetry principles. * Spacetime symmetries (Poincar). e Particle types: scalars, spinors, vectors, ... Beyond: supersymmetry, extra-dimensions. * Internal symmetries (gauge interactions). Electromagnetism, weak and strong interactions. Beyond: Grand Unied Theories.
Importance of symmetry breaking and anomalies * Masses of the gauge bosons. * Generation of the fermion masses. * Quantum numbers of the particles.
[see below...].
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Outline.
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Euler-Lagrange equations - theoretical concepts.

We consider a set of elds (x ). * They depend on spacetime coordinates (relativistic). A system is described by a Lagrangian L(, ) where = * Variables: the elds and their rst-order derivatives . Action. * Related to the Lagrangian S = Equations of motion. * Dynamics described by the principle of least action. * Leads to Euler-Lagrange equations: L L =0 ( ) where and are taken independent. R d4 x L.
. x
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Euler-Lagrange equations - example.

The electromagnetic potential A (x) = V (t, x), A(t, x) . External electromagnetic current: j (x) = (t, x), (t, x) . The system is described by the Lagrangian L (the action S =
0
d4 x L). E 2 B 3 0 B1 E 3 C B2C C 1 C. B A 0
1
1 L = F F A j 4
with
F = A A =
B 1 BE B B 2 @E E3
E 1 0 B3 B 2
[Einstein conventions: repeated indices are summed.]
Equations of motion. * The Euler-Lagrange equations are L L =0 A ( A ) ( F
=j
E B
= =
+
E t
* The constraint equations come from ( F + F + F = 0

B E
= =
0 B t
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Symmetries.
What is an invariant Lagrangian under a symmetry?. * We associate an operator (or matrix) G to the symmetry: (x) G (x) * The action is thus invariant. Symmetries in quantum mechanics. * Wigner: G is a (anti)-unitary operator. * For unitary operators, g , hermitian, so that G = exp ig = exp ii gi . i are the transformation parameters. gi are the symmetry generators. * Example: rotations R() = exp[i J] (J angular momentum). Symmetry group and algebra. * The product of two symmetries is a symmetry {Gi } form a group. * This implies that {gi } form an algebra. gi , gj gi gj gj gi = ifij k gk . * Rotations: [Ji , Jj ] = iJk with (i, j, k) cyclic.
and
L L + (. . .) .
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Outline.
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The Poincar group and quantum eld theory. e
Quantum mechanics is invariant under the Galileo group. Maxwell equations are invariant under the Poincar group. e
Consistency principles. * Relativistic quantum mechanics. Relativistic equations (Klein-Gordon, Dirac, Maxwell, ...) * Quantum eld theory The eld are quantized: second quantization. (harmonic and fermionic oscillators).
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The Poincar algebra and the particle masses. e

The Poincar algebra reads (, = 0, 1, 2, 3) e i h = i L L + L L , L , L i h = i P P , L , P i h = 0, P, P where * L = L is antisymmetric.. * Lij = J k rotations; (i, j, k) is a cyclic permutation of (1, 2, 3). * L0i = K i boosts (i = 1, 2, 3). * P spacetime translations. Beware of the adopted conventions (especially in the literature). The particle masses. * A Casimir operator is an operator commuting with all generators. quantum numbers. * The quadratic Casimir Q2 reads Q2 = P P = E 2 p p = m2 . * The masses are the eigenvalues of the Q2 operator.
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Reminder: the rotation algebra and its representations.

The rotation algebra reads i h iJk J i , J j = iij k J k = iJk The operator J J. * Dening J = (J 1 , J 2 , J 3 ), we have J J, J i = 0. * J J is thus a Casimir operator (commuting with all generators). Representations. * A representation is characterized by Two numbers: j 1 N and m {j, j + 1, . . . , j 1, j}. 2 i matrices are (2j + 1) (2j + 1) matrices. * The J j = 1/2: Pauli matrices (over two). j = 1: usual rotation matrices (in three dimensions). * A state is represented by a ket j, m such that p J j, m = j(j + 1) m(m 1)j, m 1 , J 3 j, m = mj, m and J J j, m = j(j + 1)j, m .
with (i, j, k) a cyclic permutation of (1, 2, 3). with (i, j, k) an anticyclic permutation of (1, 2, 3).
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The Lorentz algebra and the particle spins.

The Lorentz algebra reads i h L , L = i L L + L L , * We dene N i = 1 (J i + iK i ) and N i = 1 (J i iK i ). 2 2 i j i j One gets N , N = iNk , N , N = iNk and Denition of the spin. Ni Ni = sl(2) sl(2) so(3) so(3) .
i j N ,N = 0 .
The representations of so(3) are known: i N i S J i = N i + N i spin = S + S . N S The particle spins are the representations of the Lorentz algebra. * (0, 0) scalar elds. * (1/2, 0) and (0, 1/2) left and right spinors. * (1/2, 1/2) vector elds.
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Representations of the Lorentz algebra (1).

The (four-dimensional) vector representation (1/2, 1/2). * Action on four-vectors X . * Generators: a set of 10 4 4 matrices (J ) = i . * A nite Lorentz transformation is given by i hi ( 1 , 1 ) = exp J , 2 2 2 where R are the transformation parameters. * Example 1: a rotation with = 12 = 21 , 0 1 1 0 0 0 h i B C B0 cos sin 0C C . R() = exp iJ 12 = B B 0 sin cos 0C @ A 0 0 0 1 * Example 2: a boost of speed v = tanh with = 01 = 10 , 0 1 0 cosh sinh 0 0 h i B C B B sinh cosh 0 0C B C=B B() = exp iJ 01 = B B 0 0 1 0C B 0 0 @ A @ 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 C 0C C. 0C A 1
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Pauli matrices in four dimensions. * Conventions: 1 0 0 0 = , 1 = 0 1 1 * Denitions: = ( 0 , i ) ,
= ( 0 , i )
1 0 , 2 = 0 i
i 0
, 3 =
1 0
0 , 1
with = 1, 2 and = 1, 2. The (un)dotted nature of the indices is related to Dirac spinors
[see below...].
Beware of the position (lower or upper, rst or second) of the indices. Beware of the types (undotted or dotted) of the indices.
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The left-handed Weyl spinor representation (1/2, 0). * Action on complex left-handed spinors ( = 1, 2). * Generators: a set of 10 2 2 matrices i ( ) = . 4 * A nite Lorentz transformation is given by i hi ( 1 ,0) = exp . 2 2 The right-handed Weyl spinor representation (0, 1/2). * Action on complex right-handed spinors ( = 1, 2). * Generators: a set of 10 2 2 matrices i ( ) = . 4 * A nite Lorentz transformation is given by hi i . (0, 1 ) = exp 2 2 Complex conjugation maps left-handed and right-handed spinors.
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Lowering and raising spin indices. * We can dene a metric acting on spin space = = * One has: = , = , = ,
= . [Beware of the conventions],
0 1 0 1
1 0
and
0 1 0 1
1 . 0 1 . 0
1 0
and
Beware of the adopted conventions for the position of the indices (we are summing on the second index). = .
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Four-component fermions: Dirac and Majorana spinors (1).
Dirac matrices in four dimensions (in the chiral representation). * Denition: = 0 0 .
* The (Cliord) algebra satised by the -matrices reads , = + = 2 .
* The chirality matrix, i.e., the fth Dirac matrix is dened by 5 = i 0 1 2 3 = 1 0 0 1 and 5, = 0 .
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Four-component fermions: Dirac and Majorana spinors (2).

A Dirac spinor is dened as D = ,
which is a reducible representation of the Lorentz algebra. * Generators of the Lorentz algebra: a set of 10 4 4 matrices i 0 = , = 0 4 * A nite Lorentz transformation is given by ( 1 ,0)(0, 1 ) = exp
2 2
hi 2
( 1 ,0)
2
0 (0, 1 )
2
! .
A Majorana spinor is dened as M = ,
a Dirac spinor with conjugate left- and right-handed components. . = with =

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Summary - Representations and particles.

Irreducible representations of the Poincar algebra vs. particles. e Scalar particles (Higgs boson). * (0, 0) representation. Massive Dirac fermions (quarks and leptons after symmetry breaking). * (1/2, 0) (0, 1/2) representation. * The mass term mixes both spinor representations. Massive Majorana fermions (not in the Standard Model dark matter). * (1/2, 0) (0, 1/2) representation. * A Majorana eld is self conjugate (the particle = the antiparticle). * The mass term mixes both spinor representations. Massless Weyl fermions (fermions before symmetry breaking). * (1/2, 0) or (0, 1/2) representation. * The conjugate of a left-handed fermion is right-handed. Massless and massive vector particles (gauge bosons). * (1/2, 1/2) representation.
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Relativistic wave equations: scalar elds.

Denition: * (0, 0) representation of the Lorentz algebra. * Lorentz transformation of a scalar eld (x) (x ) = (x) . Correspondence principle. * P i . * Application to the mass-energy relation: the Klein-Gordon equation. P 2 = m2 ( + m2 ) = 0. * The associated Lagrangian is given by LKG = ( ) ( ) m2 , cf. Euler-Lagrange equations: L L =0 ( ) Scalar elds in the Standard Model. The only undiscovered particle is a scalar eld: the Higgs boson. Remark: in supersymmetry, we have a lot of scalar elds
The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond. [see below...].
where and are taken independent .
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Relativistic wave equations: vector elds (1).

Denition: * (1/2, 1/2) representation of the Lorentz algebra. * Lorentz transformation of a vector eld A ` A (x) A (x ) = ( 1 , 1 ) A (x) .
2 2
Maxwell equations and Lagrangian. * The relativistic Maxwell equations are F = j . * F = A A is the eld strength tensor. * j is the electromagnetic current. * The associated Lagrangian is given by 1 LEM = F F A j . 4 * This corresponds to an Abelian U(1) (commutative) gauge group.
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The non-abelian (non-commutative) group SU(N). * The group is of dimension N 2 1. * The algebra is generated by N 2 1 matrices Ta (a = 1, . . . , N 2 1), Ta , Tb = ifab c Tc , where fab c are the structure constants of the algebra. Example: SU(2): fab c = ab c . * Usually employed representations for model building. Fundamental and anti-fundamental: N N matrices so that Tr(Ta ) = 0 and T = Ta . a
Adjoint: (N 2 1) (N 2 1) matrices given by (Ta )b c = ifab c . * For a given representation R: ` Tr Ta Tb = R ab , where R is the Dynkin index of the representation.
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Application to physics. * We select a gauge group (here: SU(N)). * We dene a coupling constant (here g ). * We assign representations of the group to matter elds. * The N2 1 gauge bosons are given by A = Aa Ta . * The eld strength tensor is dened by F = A A ig[A , A ] h i = Ac Ac + g fab c Aa Ab Tc . * The associated Lagrangian is given by LYM =
[Yang, Mills (1954)]
1 Tr(F F ) . 4R
* Contains self interactions of the vector elds. Vector elds in the Standard Model. The gauge group is SU(3)c SU(2)L U(1)Y
[see below...].
The bosons are the photon, the weak W and Z 0 bosons, and the gluons.
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Relativistic wave equations: Dirac spinors.

Denition: * (1/2, 0) (0, 1/2) representation of the Poincar algebra. e * Lorentz transformations of a Dirac eld D D (x) D (x ) = ( 1 ,0)(0, 1 ) D (x) .
2 2
Diracs idea. * The Klein-Gordon equation is quadratic particles and antiparticles. * A conceptual problem in the 1920s. * Linearization of the dAlembertian: (i m)D = 0 where D = D 0 . ( )2 = { , } = 2 . LD = D (i m)D ,
Fermionic elds in the Standard Model. Matter Dirac spinors after symmetry breaking. Matter Weyl spinors before symmetry breaking
The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond. [see below...].
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Summary - Relativistic wave equations.
Relativistic wave equations. General properties. * The equations derive from Poincar invariance. e Scalar particles (Higgs boson). * Klein-Gordon equation. Massive Dirac and Majorana fermions (quarks and leptons). * Dirac equation. Massless and massive vector particles (gauge bosons). * Maxwell equations (Abelian case). * Yang-Mills equations (non-Abelian case).
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Outline.
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Global symmetries for the Dirac Lagrangian.

Toy model. * We select the gauge group SU(N) with a coupling constant g . * We assign the fundamental representations to the fermion elds , 0 1 1 ` B . C =@ . A , = 1 N . . N * The Lagrangian reads L = i m . The global SU(N) invariance. * We dene a global SU(N) transformation of parameters a , h i fund (x) (x) = exp + ig a Ta U , h i a fund (x) (x) = exp ig Ta U . * The Lagrangian is invariant, LL.
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Gauge symmetries for the Dirac Lagrangian (1).

Local (internal) SU(N) invariance. * Promotion of the global invariance to a local invariance. * We dene a local SU(N) transformation of parameters a (x), (x) (x) = U(x) , (x) (x) = U (x) .
* The Lagrangian is not invariant anymore. (x) L = i m
U(x) (x) L.
* Due to: The spacetime dependence of U(x). The presence of derivatives in the Lagrangian. * Idea: modication of the derivative. Introduction of a new eld with ad hoc transformation rules. Recovery of the Lagrangian invariance.
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Gauge symmetries for the Dirac Lagrangian (2).

Local (internal) SU(N) invariance. * Local invariance is recovered after: fund with The introduction of a new vector eld A = Aa Ta h i i A (x) A (x) = U(x) A (x) + U (x) , g ` ` F (x) U(x)F (x)U (x) Tr F F Tr F F . The modication of the derivative into a covariant derivative, h i (x) D (x) = igA (x) (x) . Transformation laws: D (x) U(x) D (x) L L.
This holds (and simplies) for U(1) gauge invariance. In particular: A (x) A (x) = A (x) + (x) . Example: Abelian U(1)e.m. gauge group for electromagnetism.
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Symmetry breaking - theoretical setup.

Let us consider a U(1)X gauge symmetry. * Gauge boson X gauge coupling constant gX . Matter content. * A set of fermionic particles j of charge qj . X * A complex scalar eld with charge q . Lagrangian. * Kinetic and gauge interaction terms for all elds. Lkin = 1 F F + j i D j + (D ) (D ) 4 1 = X X X X 4 h` ih` i j + j i +gX qX X j + +igX q X igX q X .
* A scalar potential (LV = Vscal ) and Yukawa interactions. Vscal = 2 + ( )2 LYuk = yj j j + h.c. with >0, 2 > 0 ,
with yj being the Yukawa coupling.

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Symmetry breaking - minimization of the scalar potential.

The system lies at the minimum of the potential. s 1 2 i0 dVscal =0 = e . d 2 v = 2 is the vacuum expectation value (vev) of the eld . We dene such that 0 = 0. We shift the scalar eld by its vev i 1 h = v +A+i B , 2 where A and B are real scalar elds.
Vscal = 2 + ( )2 .
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Symmetry breaking - mass eigenstates (1).
We shift the scalar eld by its vev. i 1 h = v+A+i B . 2
Scalar mass eigenstates. * The scalar potentiel reads now Vscal = v 2 A2 + h1 4 A4 + i 1 4 1 B + A2 B 2 + vA3 + vAB 2 . 4 2
* One gets self interactions between A and B. * A is a massive real scalar eld, m2 = 22 , the so-called Higgs boson. A * B is a massless pseudoscalar eld, the so-called Goldstone boson.
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Gauge boson mass mX . * The kinetic and gauge interaction terms for the scalar eld read now h` ih` i D D = +igX q X igX q X 1 1 1 2 A A + B B + gX v2 X X + . . . 2 2 2 * One gets kinetic terms for the A and B elds. = * The dots stand for bilinear and trilinear interactions of A, B and X . * The gauge boson becomes massive, mX = gX v. * The Goldstone boson is eaten the third polarization state of X . * The gauge symmetry is spontaneously broken.
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Fermion masses mj . * The Yukawa interactions read now 1 1 LYuk = yj j j yj v j j + yj (A + i B) j j . 2 2 * One gets Yukawa interactions between A, B and j . * The fermion elds become massive, mj = yj v.
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Summary - Nther procedure.

Nther procedure to get gauge invariant Lagrangians.
1 2 3 4 5
Choose a gauge group. Setup the matter eld content in a given representation. Start from the free Lagrangian for matter elds. Promote derivatives to covariant derivatives. Add kinetic terms for the gauge bosons (LYM or LM ).
Some remarks: * The Nther procedure holds for both fermion and scalar elds. * This implies that the interactions are dictated by the geometry. * The gauge group and matter content are not predicted. * The symmetry can be eventually broken. * The theory must be anomaly-free. * This holds in any number of spacetime dimensions. * This can be generalized to superelds (supersymmetry, supergravity).
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Outline.
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Theoretical setup.
The electromagnetism is the simplest gauge theory. We consider an Abelian gauge group, U(1)e.m. . * Gauge boson: the photon A . * Gauge coupling constant: the electromagnetic coupling constant e. We relate e to =
e2 . 4
Both quantities depend on the energy (cf. renormalization): (0) Matter content. Name Charged lepton Neutrino Up-type quarks Down-type quarks Field 2nd gen. c s Electric charge q 1 0 2/3 1/3 1 137 and (100GeV) 1 . 128
1st gen. e e u d
3rd gen. t b
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Lagrangian.
We start from the free Lagrangian, Lfree = X
j=e,e ,u,d,...
j i j .
The Nther procedure leads to LQED = X

j=e,e
1 j i D j F F 4 ,u,d,...
( with
D = ieqA , F = A A .
The electromagnetic interactions are given by Lint = X

j=e,u,d,...
j eq A j .
photon-fermion-antifermion vertices: * * q the fermions couple through their spin. the fermions couple through their electric charge.
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From Lagrangians to practical computations (1).

Scattering theory. * Initial state i(t) at a date t. * Evolution to a date t * Transition to a nal state f (t ) (at the date t ). * The transition is related to the so-called S-matrix: D E D E S = f (t ) i(t ) = f (t ) S i(t) . Perturbative calculation of S . * S is related to the path integral Z ` R d elds e i
d4 xL(x)
* S can be perturbatively expanded as: Z Z n o 1 + ... S = + i d4 xL(x) d4 xd4 x T L(x)L(x ) 2 = no interaction + one interaction + two interactions + . . . = + iT . We need to calculate T .
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Example in QED with one interaction: the e + e process. * The Lagrangian is given by X 1 LQED = j i D j F F 4 j=e, ,u,d,...
e
( with
D = ieqA , F = A A .
* Initial state i = e + e and nal state: f = . * One single interaction term containing the e , e and A elds. LQED e e A e . * The corresponding contribution to S reads Z Z h i i d4 xL(x) = i d4 x e e A e .
fi
More than one interaction. * Intermediate, virtual particles are allowed. e.g.: e + e + e + e + . * Same principles, but accounting in addition for chronology.
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We consider the specic process i1 (pa ) + i2 (pb ) f1 (p1 ) + . . . + fn (pn ). * The initial state is i(t) = i1 (pa ), i2 (pb ) (as in colliders). * The n-particle nal state is f (t ) = f1 (p1 ), . . . , fn (pn ). * pa , pb , p1 ,. . ., and pn are the four-momenta. We solve the equations of motion and the elds are expanded as plane waves. Z h i = d4 p (. . .)e ipx + (. . .)e +ipx . . . * The unspecied terms correspond to annihilation/creation operators of (anti)particles (harmonic and fermionic oscillators). We inject these solutions in the Lagrangian. * Integrating the exponentials leads to momentum conservation. Z i h Y X d4 x e ipa x e ipb x e ipj x = (2)4 (4) pa + pb pj .
j j
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We dene the matrix element. X pj iM . iT = (2)4 (4) pa + pb
j
By denition, the total cross section: * Is the total production rate of the nal state from the initial state. * Requires an integration over all nal state congurations. * Requires an average over all initial state congurations. 1 F Z 2 dPS(n) M .
The dierential cross section with respect to a kinematical variable is d 1 = d F Z 2 dPS(n) M (pa , pb , p1 , . . . , pn ) .
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Total cross section. Z 2 1 dPS(n) M . = F The integration over phase space (cf. nal state) reads Z Z X Y d4 pj pj dPS(n) = (2)4 (4) pa + pb (2)(p2 m2 )(p0 ) . j j j 4 (2) j j * It includes momentum conservation. * It includes mass-shell conditions. * The energy is positive. * We integrate over all nal state momentum congurations. The ux factor F (cf. initial state) reads 1 1 = q . F 2 2 4 (pa pb )2 ma mb * It normalizes with respect to the initial state density by surface unit.
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The squared matrix element |M |2 * Is averaged over the initial state quantum numbers and spins. * Is summed over the nal state quantum numbers and spins. * Can be calculated with the Feynman rules derived from the Lagrangian. External particles: spinors, polarization vectors, . . .. Intermediate particles: propagators. Interaction vertices. External particles. * Rules derived from the solutions of the equations of motion. Propagators. * Rules derived from the free Lagrangians. Vertices. * Rules directly extracted from the interaction terms of the Lagrangian.
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Feymman rules for external particles (spinors, polarization vectors).
vs (p) us (p) (p) us (p) (p) vs (p)
* Obtained after solving Dirac and Maxwell equations. Z = h i d4 p (. . .)e ipx + (. . .)e +ipx . . .
* They are the physical degrees of freedom (included in the dots). * We do not need their explicit forms for practical calculations [see below...].
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Interactions and propagators.
QED Lagrangian. LQED = X

j=e,e
1 j i ieqA j F F . 4 ,u,d,...
(p1 ) A ( ieq (p2 )
(p)
p + m p2 m2
A(p)
i p2
We need to x the gauge to derive the photon propagator. Feynman gauge: A = 0. Any other theory would lead to similar rules.
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Example of a calculation: e + e + (1).

Drawing of the Feynman diagram, using the available Feynman rules.
e (pb ) (p2 )
A e+ (pa ) + (p1 )
Amplitude iM from the Feynman rules (following reversely the fermion lines). h ih i iM = vsa (pa ) (ie ) usb (pb ) us2 (p2 ) (ie ) vs1 (p1 ) i . (pa + pb )2
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Derivation of the conjugate amplitude iM . h ih i iM = vsa (pa ) (ie ) usb (pb ) us2 (p2 ) (ie ) vs1 (p1 ) i , (pa + pb )2 h ih i i . iM = usb (pb ) (ie ) vsa (pa ) vs1 (p1 ) (ie ) us2 (p2 ) (pa + pb )2 * Denitions: u = u 0 and v = v 0 . * We remind that ( ) = 0 0 . * We remind that 0 0 = 1 and ( 0 ) = 0 . Computation of the squared matrix element |M|2 . |M|2 = 1 1 ` ` iM iM . 2 2 1/2. 1/2.
* We average over the initial electron spin * We average over the initial positron spin
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Computation of the squared matrix element |M|2 . |M|2 = h i h i e4 Tr (p b +me ) (p a me ) Tr (p 1 m ) (p 2 +m ) . / / / / 4 4(pa + pb )
* We have performed a sum over all the particle spins. * We have introduced p = p , the electron and muon masses me and m . / * We have used the properties derived from the Dirac equation X
s
us (p)s (p) = p + m u /
and
X
s
vs (p)s (p) = p m . v /
* For completeness, Maxwell equations tell us that X

(p) (p)
= .
[This relation is gauge-dependent.]
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Summary

Simplication of the traces, in the massless case. |M|2 = h i 8e 4 (pb p1 )(pa p2 ) + (pb p2 )(pa p1 ) . 4 (pa + pb )
* We have used the properties of the Dirac matrices h i Tr 1 . . . 2k+1 = h i Tr = h i Tr = h i Tr 5 = h i Tr 5 = h i Tr 5 = 0, 4 , 4 + , 0, 0, 4i
with
0123
=1.
Context
Summary

Mandelstam variables and dierential cross section. |M|2 = 2e 4 2 d e4 2 t + u2 = t + u2 . 2 s dt 8s 4
* We have introduced the Mandelstam variables s = (pa + pb )2 = (p1 + p2 )2 , t = (pa p1 )2 = (pb p2 )2 , u = (pa p2 )2 = (pb p1 )2 . Remark: sub-processes names according to the propagator.
pb p2 pb p2 pb p2
pa + pb pa p1 pa
pa p1
pa p2
p1
pa
p1
s-channel
t-channel
u-channel
Context
Summary
Summary - Matrix elements from Feynman rules.
Calculation of a matrix element.

1 2 3 4
Extraction of the Feymman rules from the Lagrangian. Drawing of all possible Feynman diagrams for the considered process. Derivation of the transition amplitudes using the Feyman rules. Calculation of the squared matrix element. * Sum/average over nal/initial internal quantum numbers. * Calculation of traces of Dirac matrices. * Possible use of the Mandelstam variables.
Context
Summary
Outline.
Context
Summary
The Fermi model of weak interactions (1).

Proton decay (Hahn and Meitner, 1911). p n + e+ . * Momentum conservation xes nal state energies to a single value (depending on the proton energy). * Observation: the energy spectrum of the electron is continuous. Solution (Pauli, 1930): introduction of the neutrino. p n + e + + e u d + e + + e * Reminder: p = uud (naively). * Reminder: n = udd (naively). * 1 3 particle process: continuous electron energy spectrum. How to construct a Lagrangian describing beta decays?. at the quark level.
Context
Summary

Phenomenological model based on four-point interactions (Fermi, 1932). ih i h 1 5 1 5 LFermi = 2 2GF d u e e + h.c. . 2 2
e
GF d
e+
* Phenomenological model reproducing experimental data. * Based on four-fermion interactions. * The coupling constant GF is measured. * GF = 1.1637105 GeV2 is dimensionful.
Context
Summary

The Fermi Lagrangian can be rewritten as h ih i 1 5 1 5 LFermi = 2 2GF d u e e + h.c. 2 2 = 2 2GF H L + h.c. . * It contains a leptonic piece L and a quark piece H . * Both pieces have the same structure. The structure of the weak interactions * The leptonic piece L has a V A structure: L = e 1 1 1 5 e = e e e 5 e . 2 2 2
* Similarly, the quark piece H has a V A structure. * The Fermi Lagrangian contains thus VV , AA and VA terms. Behavior under parity transformations. * Under a parity transformation: V V and A A. * The VA terms (and thus weak interactions) violate parity. * Parity violation has been observed experimentally (Wu et al., 1956).
Context
Summary

Analysis of the currents L and H . 1 L = e e 2
5
and
1 H = d u . 2
* Presence of the left-handed chirality projector PL = (1 5 )/2. Projectors and their properties. * The chirality projectors are given by PL = 1 5 2 and PR = 1 + 5 . 2
* They fulll the properties PL + PR = 1 ,

2 PL = PL
and
2 PR = PR .
* If is a Dirac spinor, left and right associated spinors are recovered by L L 0 D = , L = PL D = , R = PR D = . R 0 R Only left-handed fermions are sensitive to the weak interactions.
Context
Summary

Introducting the left-handed chirality projector PL = 1/2(1 5 ): L = e PL e = e ,L e,L H = d PL u = d,L u,L and and (L ) = e PL e = e,L e ,L , (H ) = u PL d = u,L d,L .
Behavior of the elds under the weak interacions. * Left-handed electron and neutrino behave similarly. * Up and down quarks behave similarly. Idea: group into doublets the left-handed components of the elds: e ,L u,L Le = and Q= . e,L d,L The currents are then rewritten as: L = e ,L e,L = Le (L ) = e,L e ,L
[Similar expressions hold for the quark piece]. The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond. Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 65
0 0 0 = Le 1
1 Le , 0 0 Le . 0
Context
Summary
From Fermi model to SU(2)L gauge theory (1).

Problems of the Fermi model. LFermi = 2 2GF H L + h.c. . * Issues with quantum corrections, i.e., non-renormalizability. * Eective theory valid up to an energy scale E mw 100 GeV. * Fermi model is not based on gauge symmetry principles. Solution: a gauge theory (Glashow, Salam, Weinberg, 60-70, * Introduction of a new gauge boson W . * This boson couples to fermions with a strength gw .
GF
[Nobel prize, 1979]).
* Four fermion interactions can be seen as a s-channel diagram.
gw
gw
GF * Prediction: gw O(1) mw 100 GeV.

2 gw 2 p 2 mw
mw 2
g2
Context
Summary

Choice of the gauge group: suggested by the currents: L = Le (L ) = Le 0 0 0 1 1 + i 2 1 Le , Le = Le 0 2 1 i 2 0 Le . = Le Le . 0 2
[Similar expressions hold for the quark piece].
* Two Pauli matrices appear naturally. * i /2 are the generators of the SU(2) algebra (in the fundamental (dimension 2) representation). We choose the SU(2) gauge group to describe weak interactions.
Context
Summary

We choose the SU(2)L gauge group to describe weak interactions.
1/2 i are the generators of the fundamental representation. h1 2 i , 1 ji =i 2

ij k
1 k , 2
The left-handed doublets lie in the fundamental representation 2. e * The left-handed elds are the only ones sensible to weak interactions. * A doublet is a two-dimensional object. * The Pauli matrices are 2 2 matrices. * This explains the L-subscript in SU(2)L . The right-handed leptons lie in the trivial representation 1. e * Non-sensible to weak interactions. SU(2)L
i three gauge bosons W with i = 1, 2, 3. Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 68
Context
Summary
The SU(2)L gauge theory for weak interactions (1).

How to construct the SU(2)L Lagrangian? We start from the free Lagrangian for fermions. * Simplication-1: no quarks here. * Simplication-2: no right-handed neutrinos. Lfree = Le i Le + eR i eR . * A mass term mixes left and right-handed fermions. * The mass term are forbidden since Le 2 and eR 1. e e We make the Lagrangian invariant under SU(2)L gauge transformations. * SU(2)L gauge transformations are given by h i i Le exp igw i (x) Le = U(x)Le and eR eR . 2 * Gauge invariance requires covariant derivatives, h i i Le D Le = igw Wi Le and eR D eR = eR . 2 * We have introduced one gauge boson for each generator three Wi .
Context
Summary

The matter sector Lagrangian reads then. Lweak,matter = Le i D Le + eR i D eR . with h i i Le D Le = igw Wi 2
and
D e R = e R .
We must then add kinetic terms for the gauge bosons: 1 i Lweak,gauge = W Wi . 4 * The eld strength tensor reads:
i i i W = W W + gw i j k jk W W
* Gauge invariance implies the transformation laws: h i i i i Wi U Wi + U . 2 2 gw

Context
Summary

The weak interaction Lagrangian for leptons. 1 i Lweak,e = Le i D Le + R i D eR W Wi . e 4 with h i i Le , D Le = igw Wi 2 D eR = eR ,
i i i W = W W + gw i Observation of the weak W -bosons: i j k jk W W
* The experimentally observed W -bosons are dened by 1` 1 2 W = W iW . 2 * The W 3 -boson cannot be identied to the Z 0 or : Both couple to left-handed and right-handed leptons. SU(2)L gauge theory cannot explain all data...
Context
Summary
Summary - A gauge theory for weak interactions.
A gauge theory for weak interactions. Based on the non-Abelian SU(2)L gauge group. Matter (1): doublets with the left-handed component of the elds. * Fundamental representation. * Generators: Pauli matrices (over two). Matter (2): the right-handed component of the elds are singlet. Three massless gauge bosons.
1 2 + * (W , W ) = (W , W ). 0 3 * W = Z , A need for another theory: the electroweak theory.
Context
Summary
Outline.
Context
Summary
The electroweak theory (1).
Electromagnetism and weak interactions: * SU(2)L : what is the neutral boson W 3 ? * How to get a single formalism for electromagnetic and weak interactions? Idea: introduction of the hypercharge Abelian group: * U(1)Y : we have a neutral gauge boson B B = B B . * U(1)Y : we have a coupling constant gY . * SU(2)L U(1)Y : W 3 and B mix to the Z 0 -boson and the photon. Quantum numbers under the electroweak gauge group: * SU(2)L : left-handed quarks and leptons 2. e * SU(2)L : right-handed quarks and leptons 1. e * U(1)Y : xed in order to reproduce the correct electric charges.
Context
Summary

Nther procedure leads to the following Lagrangian. LEW = 1 1 i B B W Wi 4 4 3 i Xh f + Lf i D Lf + eRf i D eR
f =1 3 Xh f =1
i f f Qf i D Q f + uRf i D uR + dRf i D dR .
* We have introduced the left-handed lepton and quark doublets ,L e ,L ,L L1 = , L2 = , L3 = , e,L ,L ,L u,L c,L t,L Q1 = , Q2 = , Q3 = . d,L s,L b,L * We have introduced the right-handed lepton and quark singlets
1 2 3 eR = e,R , eR = ,R , eR = ,R , 1 2 3 1 2 3 uR = u,R , uR = c,R , uR = t,R , dR = d,R , dR = s,R , dR = b,R . The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond. Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 75
Context
Summary

Nther procedure leads to the following Lagrangian. LEW = 1 1 i B B W Wi 4 4 3 i Xh + Lf i D Lf + eRf i D e f
R f =1 3 Xh f =1
i f f Qf i D Q f + uRf i D uR + dRf i D dR .
* The covariant derivatives are given by D = igY YB igw Ti Wi Y is the hypercharge operator (to be dened). The representation matrices Ti are
i 2
and 0 for doublets and singlets.
Context
Summary
Gauge boson mixing.

The neutral gauge bosons mix as ! A cos w = Z sin w ! ! .
sin w cos w
B 3 W
where the weak mixing angle w will be dened later
[see below...].
The neutral interactions (for the electron) are given by 3 W3 Le + eRf gY YeR B eRf Lint = Le gY YLe B + gw 2 3 = Le cos w gY YLe + sin w gw A Le + eRf cos w gY YeR A eRf 2 3 + Le sin w gY YLe + cos w gw Z Le eRf sin w gY YeR Z eRf . 2 To reproduce electromagnetic interactions, we need e = gY cos w = gw sin w and Q = Y + T3 .
This denes the hypercharge quantum numbers.

Context
Summary
Field content of the electroweak theory.

Field SU(2)L rep. Quantum numbers Y T3 Q
0 Lf = @
1 2 e
ef ,L
,L f A
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
0 1
f eR
1 e 1 A 2 e
0 Qf =@
uf ,L df ,L
1 6 1 6
1 2 1 2
2 3 1 3
f uR f dR The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.
1 e 1 e
2 3
0 0
2 3
1 3
1 3
Context
Summary
Electroweak symmetry breaking (1).

The weak W -bosons and Z 0 -bosons are observed as massive. * The electroweak symmetry must be broken. * The photon must stay massless. Breaking mechanism: we introduce a Higgs multiplet . * We need to break SU(2)L cannot be an SU(2)L -singlet. * The Z 0 -boson is massive U(1)Y must be broken Y = 0. * U(1)e.m. is not broken one component of is electrically neutral. We introduce a Higgs doublet of SU(2)L with Y = 1/2. ! ! + h1 h1 = . 0 h2 h2 The Higgs Lagrangian is given by . ` 2 LHiggs = D D + 2 = D D V (, ) . i i * The covariant derivative reads D = 2 gY B igw Wi . 2 * The scalar potential is required for symmetry breaking.
Context
Summary
Electroweak symmetry breaking (2).
At the minimum of the potential, the neutral component of gets a vev. 1 = 2 We select the so-called unitary gauge. 1 = 2 0 v +h . 0 . v
* The three Goldstone bosons have been eliminated from the equations. They have been eaten by the W and Z 0 bosons to get massive. * The remaining degree of freedom is the (Brout-Englert-)Higgs boson.
Context
Summary
Mass eigenstates - gauge boson masses (1).

We shift the scalar eld by its vev. 1 0 = . 2 v +h The Higgs covariant derivative reads then: 0 gY gw 3 B 1 i @ 2 + 2 W 0 D = gw v +h 2 2 W 1 + iW 2
2
gw 2 gY 2
1 2 W iW gw 2
1 A
3 W
0 v +h
From the kinetic terms, one obtains the mass matrix, in the W 3 B basis. ! ! 1 2 2 3 g v 1 gY gw v 2 W 3 4 w 4 D D W B . 1 1 2 2 4 gY gw v 2 g v B 4 Y * The physical states correspond to eigenvectors of the mass matrix. * The mass matrix is diagonalized after the rotation B A cos w sin w = , 3 W Z sin w cos w with cos2 w =
2 gw 2 2 gw +gY
.
Context
Summary
Mass eigenstates - gauge boson masses (2).

The mass matrix is diagonalized after the rotation B A cos w sin w = . 3 W Z sin w cos w
1 2 As for the weak theory, we rotate W and W . W =
1` 1 W 2
2 iW .
After the two rotations, the Lagrangian reads D D = e2v 2 e2v 2 + W W + Z Z + . . . . 2 2 4sin w 8sin w cos2 w
ev . 2sin w ev 2sin w cos w
* We obtain a W -boson mass term, mw = * We obtain a Z 0 -boson mass term, mz = * The photon remains massless, m = 0.
Context
Summary
Mass eigenstates - Higgs kinetic and interaction terms.

The Higgs kinetic and gauge interaction terms lead to D D = e2v 2 1 e2v 2 + h h + W W + Z Z 2 4sin2 w 8sin2 w cos2 w e2v e2v + W W h + Z Z h + 2sin2 w 4sin2 w cos2 w e2 e2 + + W W hh + Z Z hh . 4sin2 w 8sin2 w cos2 w
* We obtain gauge boson mass terms. * We obtain a Higgs kinetic term. * We obtain trilinear interaction terms. * We obtain quartic interaction terms. * Remark: no interaction between the Higgs boson and the photon.
Context
Summary
Mass eigenstates - fermion masses (1).

The fermion masses are obtained from the Yukawa interactions. ` ` ` LYuk = R yu Q dR yd Q eR ye L + h.c. u * We have introduced the SU(2) invariant product A B = A1 B2 A2 B1 . * Flavor (or generation) indices are understood:
3 X ` dRf (yd )f dR yd Q f ,f =1
` f Q
* The Lagrangian terms are matrix products in avor space. The mass matrices read v v v Lmass = uR yu uL dR yd dL eR ye eL + h.c. , 2 2 2 0 1 where we have performed the shift = , 2 v +h f and introduced uL = uf ,L , . . ..
Context
Summary
Mass eigenstates - fermion masses (2).

The fermion mass Lagrangian read: v v v Lmass = uR yu uL dR yd dL eR ye eL + h.c. . 2 2 2 * The physical states correspond to eigenvectors of the mass matrices. * Diagonalization: any complex matrix fulll y = VR y U L , with y real and diagonal and UL , VR unitary. Diagonalization of the fermion sector: we got replacement rules, 0 1 uL ` u u t uL = @ cL A UL uL , uR = uR cR R uR (VR ) , tL
...
* The up-type quark mass terms become ih ih i v h v v u u u u uR yu uL uR (VR ) VR yu (UL ) UL uL = uR yu uL 2 2 2 where uL , uR are gauge-eigenstates and uL , uR mass-eigenstates.
Context
Summary
Mass eigenstates - avor and CP violation.

The neutral interactions are still diagonal in avor space, e.g., Lint = i h i 2 2 2 h u u e uL A uL e uL (UL ) A UL uL = e uL A uL . 3 3 3
u due to unitarity of UL .
The charged interactions are now non-diagonal in avor space, e.g., Lint = e 2sin w
+ uL W dL
e 2sin w e 2sin w
i h i u + d uL (UL ) W UL dL
h i u d + uL (UL ) UL W dL .
* Charged current interactions become proportionnal to the CKM matrix, VCKM = (Uu ) Ud L L
[Nobel prize, 2008]
* One phase and three angles to parameterize a unitary 3 3 matrix. Flavor and CP violation in the Standard Model.
Context
Summary
Summary - The electroweak theory.

The electroweak theory. Based on the SU(2)L U(1)Y gauge group. * SU(2)L : weak interactions, three W i -bosons acting on left-handed fermions and on the Higgs eld. * U(1)Y : hypercharge interactions, one B-bosons acting on both leftand right-handed fermions and on the Higgs eld. The gauge group is broken to U(1)e.m. . * The neutral component of the Higgs doublet gets a vev. * Hypercharge quantum numbers are chosen consistently. The elds get the correct electric charge (Q = T 3 + Y ). * W 1 and W 2 bosons mix to W . * B and W 3 bosons mix to Z 0 and . Yukawa interactions with the Higgs eld lead to fermion masses. Experimental challenge: the discovery of the Higgs boson.
Context
Summary
Outline.
Context
Summary
The SU(3)c gauge group.

Discovery of the color quantum numbers.
[Barnes et al. (1964)]
* The predicted | = |sss baryon is a spin 3/2 particle. * The | wave function is fully symmetric (spin + avor). * This contradicts the spin-statistics theorem.
Introduction of the color quantum number.
The SU(3)c gauge group. * Observed particles are color neutral. * The minimal way to write an antisymmetric wave function for | is | =
mn
|s m s n s
* The quarks lie thus in a 3 of the new gauge group SU(3)c . e

Context
Summary
Field content of the Standard Model and representation.

Field Lf eRf Qf uRf dRf B W g SU(3)c rep. 1 e 1 e 3 e 3 e 3 e 1 e 1 e 1 e 8 e SU(2)L rep. 2 e 1 e 2 e 1 e 1 e 2 e 1 e 3 e 1 e U(1)Y charge
1 2
1
1 6 2 3 1 3 1 2
0 0 0
* The matter Lagrangian involves the covariant derivative

i a D = igY YB igw T i W igs T a g . * We introduce a kinetic term for each gauge boson.
* The Higgs potential and Yukawa interactions are as in the electroweak theory.
Context
Summary
QCD factorization theorem (1)
Quarks and gluons are not seen in nature due to connement. In a hadron collision at high energy, they can however interact. Predictions can be made thanks to the QCD factorization theorem. hadr = XZ
ab
dxa dxb fa/A (xa ; F ) fb/B (xb ; F )
dpart (xa , xb , pa , pb , . . . , F ) d
where hadr is the hadronic cross section (hadrons any nal state). P * ab all partonic initial states (partons a, b = q, q , g ). * xa is the momentum fraction of the hadron A carried by the parton a. * xb is the momentum fraction of the hadron B carried by the parton b. * If the nal state contains any parton: Fragmentation functions (from partons to observable hadrons).
Context
Summary
QCD factorization theorem (2)

Predictions can be made thanks to the QCD factorization theorem. hadr = XZ
ab
dxa dxb fa/A (xa ; F ) fb/B (xb ; F )
dpart (xa , xb , pa , pb , . . . , F ) d
* fa/p1 (xa ; F ), fb/p2 (xb ; F ) : parton densities. Long distance physics. Probability to have a parton with a momentum fraction x in a hadron. * dpart : dierential partonic cross section (which you can now calculate). Short distance physics. F - Factorization scale. (how to distinguish long and short distance physics).
Context
Summary
Parton showering and hadronization

* At high energy, initial and nal state partons radiate other partons.
* Finally, very low energy partons hadronize.

Context
Summary
Summary - The real life of a collision at the LHC
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111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111 00000 11111 111111 00000 000000 11111 00000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 111111 000000 11111 111111 00000 000000 11111 111111 00000 000000 11111 00000
111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 11111 000000 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 111111 000000 11111 00000 1111111111 0000000000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
1111 0000 1111 0000 111 1111 000 0000 000 1111 111 0000 111 1111 000 0000 000 111 1111 111 0000 000 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
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11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 111 000 111 000 1111111 0000000 1111111 0000000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000 11 00 111 000
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
[Stolen from Sherpa]
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 1111 000 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 11111 00000 11111 00000 111111 11111 11111 000000 00000 00000 000000 11111 00000 11111 111111 11111 00000 111111 00000 00000 000000 11111 11111 00000
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000 11111 00000
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
Context
Summary
Outline.
Context
Summary
The Standard Model: advantages and open questions (1).

The Standard Model of particle physics. * Is a mathematically consistent theory. * Is compatible with (almost) all experimental results
Measurement had(mZ) mZ [GeV] Z [GeV] had [nb] Rl Afb Rb Rc Afb Afb Ab Ac Al(SLD)
2 lept 0,b 0,c 0,l 0 (5)
[e.g., LEP EWWG].
Fit
|O 0
meas
O |/ 1 2
fit
meas
0.02758 0.00035 0.02768 91.1875 0.0021 2.4952 0.0023 41.540 0.037 20.767 0.025 0.1465 0.0032 0.1721 0.0030 0.0992 0.0016 0.0707 0.0035 0.923 0.020 0.670 0.027 0.1513 0.0021 80.399 0.023 2.085 0.042 173.3 1.1 91.1874 2.4959 41.479 20.742 0.1481 0.1723 0.1038 0.0742 0.935 0.668 0.1481 0.2314 80.379 2.092 173.4
0.01714 0.00095 0.01645 0.21629 0.00066 0.21579
Al(P)
sin eff (Qfb) 0.2324 0.0012 mW [GeV] W [GeV] mt [GeV]

July 2010
Context
Summary
The Standard Model: advantages and open questions (2).

Open questions. * Why are there three families of quarks and leptons? * Why does one family consist of {Q, uR , dR ; L, er }? * Why is the electric charge quantized? * Why is the local gauge group SU(3)c SU(2)L U(1)Y ? * Why is the spacetime four-dimensional? * Why is there 26 free parameters? * What is the origin of quark and lepton masses and mixings? * What is the origin of CP violation? * What is the origin of matter-antimatter asymmetry? * What is the nature of dark matter? * What is the role of gravity? * Why is the electroweak scale (100 GeV) much lower than the Planck scale (1019 GeV)?
Context
Summary
Outline.
Context
Summary
Grand Unied Theories: a unied gauge group (1).

Can we reduce the arbitrariness in the Standard Model? * A single direct factor for the gauge group. * A common representation for quarks and leptons. * Unication of gY , gw and gs to a single coupling constant. Unication of the Standard Model coupling constants. * The coupling constants (at zero energy) are highly dierent. Electromagnetism 1/137 Weak 1/30 Strong 1
* The coupling strengths depend on the energy due to quantum corrections. Unication. There exists a unication scale. The coupling strengths are identical.
Context
Summary

Running of the coupling constants. * The coupling constant at rst order of perturbation theory reads
* These calculations lead to the energy dependence of the couplings.
* Unication requires additional matter (e.g., supersymmetry

[see below...]).
Context
Summary

How to choose of a grand unied gauge group. * * * * * We want to pick up G so that SU(3)c SU(2)L U(1)Y G. Electromagnetism must not be broken. The Standard Model must be reproduced at low energy. Matter must be chiral. Interesting cases are: 8 < SU(N) with N > 4 SO(4N + 2) with N 2 G = : E6 How to specify representations for the matter elds. * The Standard Model must be reproduced at low energy. * The choice for the Higgs elds breaking mechanism. Specify the Lagrangian. LGUT = Lkin + Lgauge + LYuk + Lbreaking .
Context
Summary
LGUT = Lkin + Lgauge + LYuk + Lbreaking .
* Lkin : Poincar invariance. e * Lkin + Lgauge : gauge invariance. * LYuk : Yukawa interactions between Higgs bosons and fermions. Must be gauge-invariant. Fermion masses after symmetry breaking. Flavor and CP violation. Not obtained (in general) from symmetry principles. * Lbreaking : less known...
Context
Summary
Grand Unied Theories: example of SU(5) (1).

Gauge bosons * A 5 5 matrix contains naturally SU(3) and SU(2). SU(3) LQ LQ SU(5) SU(2)
* We have 12 additional gauge bosons, the so-called leptoquarks (LQ). * The matrix is traceless. The hypercharge is quantized. The electric charge is quantized (Q = T 3 + Y ). 0
1 3
0
1 3
B 0 B Y =B 0 B @ 0 0
0 0
1 3
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2
0 0
1 0 0C C 0C C 0A 1 2
1 3
0
1 3
B 0 B Q=B 0 B @ 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 3
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0C C 0C . C 0A 1
* This matches the quantum numbers of the right-handed down antiquark c dR and the left-handed lepton doublet L.
Context
Summary

Fermions
c * Fundamental representation of SU(5): dR and L. * 10 representation (antisymmetric matrix) 10 degrees of freedom. f the rest of the matter elds (10 degrees of freedom).
c (dR )r
c (uR )b
c (uR )g c (uR )r
(uL )r (uL )g (uL )b 0

c eR
(dL )r
B C B c C B(dR )g C B C dR B C B c C 5 @ A = B(dR )b C C B e L B C B C B L C @ A 0 1 c eL
B B c B(uR )b B B B c 10 B (uR )g f B B B B (uL )r @ (dL )r
0
c (uR )r
0 (uL )b (dL )b
(uL )g (dL )g
C C (dL )g C C C C (dL )b C C C c C eR C A 0
* The embedding of the gauge boson into SU(5) is easy. * The embedding of the fermion sector is miraculous.
Context
Summary

Higgs sector * Two Higgs elds are needed. One to break SU(5) SU(3)c SU(2)L U(1)Y . One to break SU(3)c SU(2)L U(1)Y SU(3)c U(1)e.m. .
* The simplest choice. One eld in the 24 representation (special unitary 5 5 matrix). f One eld in the fundamental representation. Advantages of SU(5) * Unication of all the interactions within a simple gauge group. * Partial unication of the matter within two multiplets. * Electric charge quantization. Problems specic to SU(5) * Prediction of the proton decay (lifetime: 1031 1033 years). * Prediction of a magnetic monopole. * Other problems shared with the Standard Model (three families, etc.)
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Summary
Grand Unied Theories: SO(10), E6 .

Matter content. * * * * The matter is unied within a single multiplet. SO(10) has an additional degree of freedom the right-handed neutrino Explanation for the neutrino masses. E6 contains several additional degrees of freedom the right-handed neutrino plus new particles (to be discovered...)
The breaking mechanism leads to additional U(1) symmetrie(s). * The gauge boson(s) associated to these new U(1) are called Z bosons. * Massive Z resonances are searched at colliders [see exercises classes]. pp , Z , Z + X e + e + X or + + X . Other specic advantages and problems. * E6 appears naturally in string theories. * There is still no explanation for, e.g., the number of families. * Gauge coupling unication is impossible without additional matter e.g., supersymmetry.
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Summary
Summary - Grand Unied Theories.
Grand Unied Theories. The Standard model gauge group, SU(3)c SU(2)L U(1)Y , is embedded in a unied gauge group. Common representations are used for quarks and leptons. The Standard Model is reproduced at low energy. More or less complicated breaking mechanism. Examples: SU(5), SO(10), E6 , . . ..
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Summary
Outline.
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Summary
Supersymmetry: Poincar superalgebra (1). e

Invariant Lagrangians Symmetries Fock spaces Hilbert space = Representations = Nther theorem Conserved charges Quantization Symmetry generators
Ingredients leading to superalgebra/supersymmetry. * We have two types of particles, fermions and bosons. We have two types of conserved charges, B and F . * The composition of two symmetries is a symmetry. This imposes relations between the conserved charges. h i Ba , Bb = ifab c Bc , h i Ba , Fi = Rai b Bb , n o Fi , Fj = Qij a Ba ,
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Summary

The Coleman-Mandula theorem (1967). * The symmetry generators are assumed bosonic. * The only possible symmetry group in Nature is G = Poincar e gauge symmetries .
Spacetime symmetries: Poincar e i h = i L L + L L , L , L h i L , P = i P P , h i P, P = 0, Internal gauge symmetries: compact Lie algebra. h i Ta , Tb = ifab c Tc . The Haag-Lopuszaski-Sohnius theorem (1975). n * Extension of the Coleman-Mandula theorem. * Fermionic generators are included. * The minimal choice consists in a set of Majorana spinors (Q, Q). * N = 1 supersymmetry: one single supercharge Q.
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Summary

The Poincar superalgebra. e Spacetime symmetries. i h h i
L ,L =i L L + L L
L ,P =i P P
P ,P =0 ,
Gauge symmetries. h Supersymmetry. h h h

Ta ,Tb =ifab c Tc .
L ,Q = ) Q
i `
Q is a left-handed spinor , Q is a right-handed spinor ,
L ,Q
i ` i h o
= ) Q
Q ,P = Q ,P =0 , Q ,Q =2 P ,
n h
Q ,Q
o n
= Q ,Q
=0 ,
Q ,Ta = Q ,Ta =0
i h
(Q, Q) is a gauge singlet .
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Summary

Consequences and advantages. * The supercharge operators change the spin of the elds. Q|boson = |fermion and Q|fermion = |boson .
* (Q, Q) and P commute. fermions and bosons in a same multiplet have the same mass. P 2 |boson = m2 |boson and P 2 |fermion = m2 |fermion .
* The composition of two supersymmetry operations is a translation. QQ + QQ P . * It includes naturally gravity New vision of spacetime supergravity, superstrings. * Unication of the gauge coupling constants.
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Summary
Supersymmetry breaking
No supersymmetry discovery until now. * No scalar electron has been discovered. * No massless photino has been observed. * etc.. Supersymmetry has to be broken. Supersymmetry breaking. * Superparticle masses shifted to a higher scale. * Breaking mechanism not fully satisfactory. * Assumed to occur in a hidden sector. * Mediated through the visible sector via a given interaction. * Examples: minimal supergravity, gauge-mediated supersymmetry-breaking, etc..
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The minimal supersymmetric standard model.

Field content. * One single supercharge. * We associate one superpartner to each Standard Model eld. * Quarks squarks. * Leptons sleptons. * Gauge/Higgs bosons gauginos/higgsinos. We introduce an new quantum number, the R-parity. * Standard Model elds: R = +1. * Superpartners: R = 1. * The lightest superpartner (LSP) is stable. Cosomology: must be neutral and color singlet. Possible dark matter candidate. * Superparticles are produced in pairs. Cascade-decays to the LSP. Missing energy collider signature.
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Summary
Summary - Supersymmetry.
Supersymmetry. Extension of the Poincar algebra to the Poincar superalgebra. e e Introduction of supercharges. The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model: one single supercharge. * One superpartner for each Standard Model eld. * Possible dark matter candidate. * Collider signatures with large missing energy. More or less complicated breaking mechanism.
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Outline.
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Summary
Extra-dimensions in a nutshell (1).

Main idea: the spacetime is not four-dimensional. Example: ve dimensional scenario: R4 circle of radius R. * The fth dimension is periodic. * Massless 5D-elds tower of 4D-elds. (x , y ) = X
n
n (x ) exp
iny R
where y is the fth-dimension corrdinate. * The 4D-elds n are massive. Case of the scalar elds: We start from the Klein-Gordon equation in 5D (x , y ) = 2 y (x , y ) = + n2 n (x ) = 0 R2
* No observation of a Kaluza-Klein excitation (n ) 1/R must be large.
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Summary
Extra-dimensions in a nutshell (2).

Kaluza-Klein and unication. * Basic idea: unication of electromagnetism and gravity (20s). * The 5D metric reads, with M, N = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 g A = g4 gMN . A = g4 = g44 * 5D gravity 4D electromagnetism and gravity.
Extension to all interactions. * The Standard Model needs 11 dimensions * Problems with the mirror fermions.
[Witten (1981)].
One possible viable model: Randall-Sundrum (1999). * * * * The Standard Model elds lie on a three-brane (a 4D spacetime). Gravity lies in the bulk (all the 5D space). The size of the extradimensions can be large (TeV scale). KK -parity: dark matter candidate, missing energy signature, etc.
Other viable models are possible (universal extra-dimensions, etc.).

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Outline.
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String theory in a nutshell.
Point-like particles closed and/or open 1D-strings. String propagation in spacetime a surface called a worldsheet. The vibrations of the string elementary particles. Worldsheet physics spacetime physics (quantum consistency). * 10-dimensional spacetime (extradimensions). * Extended gauge group (Grand Unied Theories). * Supergravity (supersymmetry). Compactication from 10D to 4D. * Must reproduce the Standard Model. * Many possible solutions. * No solution found so that all experimental constraints are satised.
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Outline.
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Summary.
The Standard Model has been constructed from experimental input. * * * * Based on symmetry principle (relativity, gauge invariance). Is consistent with quantum mechanics. Is the most tested theory of all time. Suers from some limitations and open questions.
Beyond the Standard Model theories are built from theoretical ideas. * * * * * * Ideas in constant evolution. Grand Unied Theories Supersymmetry. Extra-dimensions String theory. etc..

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Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

6-13 July 2011

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 1

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

Building blocks describing matter.

Atom compositness. * Neutrons. * Protons. * Electrons.

Beta decays. * n p + e + e . * Needs for a neutrino.

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

Three families of fermionic particles

Down-type quark down quark d strange quark s bottom quark b

Neutrino electron neutrino e muon neutrino tau neutrino

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

Fundamental interactions and gauge bosons.

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics - framework (1).

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics - framework (2).

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 7

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics - framework (3).

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 8

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

Euler-Lagrange equations - theoretical concepts.

The Standard Model of particle physics and beyond.

Benjamin Fuks & Michel Rausch de Traubenberg - 10

Relativity - gauge theories

The Standard Model of particle physics

Beyond the Standard Model

Euler-Lagrange equations - example.