WHAT IS ELLIPSIS? Ellipsis (or elliptical construction) is the omission of a word or words.

It refers to constructions in which words are left out of a sentence but the sentence can still be understood. Ellipsis helps us avoid a lot of redundancy or repetition, and in this respect it is like a substitution. In fact there is a lot of redundancy in language and it can be surprising how much can be left out without losing much meaning, particularly when there are contextual clues as to the real meaning. Examples

Lacy can do something about the problem, but I dont know what (she can do.) She can help with the housework; Nancy can (help with the housework), too. John can speak seven languages, but Ron can speak only two (languages.)

The words between parentheses can be omitted and the sentences can still be meaningful.

She might sing, but I do not think she will.

We can avoid the repetition of the word sing. Another important reason for ellipsis is that by omitting shared items attention is focused on new material: A: Have you spoken to him? B: (I have) Not yet (spoken to him) TYPES OF ELLIPSIS 1.- NOMINAL : The head of the nominal group is omitted. The absence of a phonologically realized noun in head position of NP is subject to a number of restrictions. First, the noun has to be recoverable from context via a linguistic or discourse antecedent. Second, the range of elements that can precede the elided head noun is quite narrow: some determiners such as demonstratives, certain quantificational

expressions, as well as comparative and superlative forms of adjectives denoting properties can occur in noun-ellipsis contexts, as shown in the following examples: (1) This model is more suitable than that __. (2) While Kim had lots of books, Pat had very few __. (3) I went up that skyscraper in Boston, but the tallest __ is in Chicago. 2.- VERBAL : It is when one or more words of the verbal group are omitted. It refers to ellipsis within the verbal group, including the omission of the lexical verb, the auxiliary verb, and the whole predicate verb, especially when the main verb and the auxiliary conflated into one lexical item.one lexical item. For example:

A: Are you studying grammar? B: Yes, I am. (=I am studying grammar)

A: Have you visited to the doctor lately? B: Yes, I have. (=I have visited to the doctor lately)

A: What have you been doing these days? B: Preparing for the driving license test. (=I have been preparing for the driving license test) 3.- CLAUSAL : It refers to ellipsis of a whole clause or part of a clause, as in the following example A: Have you ever been to the Great Wall? B: Yes, twice.(=Ive been to the Great Wall twice) Some elliptical constructions presuppose some elements not within the text but in the context of situation, as in the following dialogue: A: Better today?(=Are you better today?) B: Much better.(=Im much better today.) It goes beyond the elision of the verbal group to involve the omission of:

a. Modal element: the subject of the clause and some elements of the verbal group are omitted. Example: A: What was you doing yesterday? B: (..) studying English.

b. Propositional element: some elements of the verbal group as well as its complements or adjunct are omitted. Example: A: Who told you what I did? B: John told me (..)

c. A whole clause: the subject as well as the verbal group of the clause are omitted. Example: A: He wont play. B: I would like to know why (..)

When we use ellipsis in our oral English or writing, we should make our purpose and meaning as clear as possible. Otherwise, we may convey wrong information.

WHAT IS A CONJUNCTION? You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, or clauses. It is a joiner, a word that connects parts of a sentence, establishing a relationship between sentences and paragraphs, connecting ideas and giving coherence to a whole text. Example: I ate the pizza and the pasta. Call the movers when you are ready. TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS 1.-COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS are the simplest kind, and they denote equality of relationship between the ideas they join. Coordinating conjunctions are sometimes called the FANBOYS because that is an acronym for them: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.

Their relatives, correlative conjunctions, not only denote equality, but they also make the joining tighter and more emphatic. Coordinating Conjunctions and but or nor for so yet Examples:

Correlative Conjunctions both . . . and not only . . . but also either . . . or neither . . . nor whether . . . or just as . . . so too

John and Sally built a fish pond. The train was late, and Tom was tired. Just as the smell of baking brought back memories, so too did the taste of the cider.

Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when two ideas are of the same importance, but many times one idea is more important than another.

2.-SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS allow a writer to show which idea is more and which is less important. The idea in the main clause is the more important, while the idea in the subordinate clause (made subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important. The subordinate clause supplies a time, reason, condition, and so on for the main clause.

Subordinating Conjunctions Time after before since when whenever while until as as . . . as once Examples:

Reason because since so that in order that why

Concession although though even though while

Place where wherever

Condition Manner if unless until in case provided that assuming that even if as if as though how

Sally steamed the corn while Fred fried the steaks.

After the rain stopped, the dog ran into the mud to play. The snowman melted because the sun came out. Even though John fell asleep, the telephone salesman kept talking.

3.-CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS make up an even stronger category of conjunctions. They show relationships between two independent sentences, between sections of paragraphs, or between entire paragraphs. Conjunctive adverbs are so emphatic that they should be used sparingly; however, when used appropriately, they can be quite effective. Conjunctive Adverbs also hence however still likewise otherwise therefore conversely rather consequently furthermore nevertheless instead moreover then thus meanwhile accordingly

Examples:

If the salmon is grilled, I will have that; otherwise, I might have the chicken. James has a garage full of wood working tools. He might, however, have some metric wrenches, too. I do not recommend that you play with a stick of dynamite lit at both ends. Rather, a ham sandwich would be better for you.

EXERCISES Ellipsis In the following sentences, decide the words which are usually omitted. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. If your sister needs any money, I have got some money. My father will come soon but I do not know exactly when he will come. What should I have done? You should have told him the truth. By nine oclock, he had finished his work and he had gone home. Peter had finished the work and his assistant had gone home.

Conjunction In the following questions, choose a conjunction (or, but, before, after, because, when, and, or so) to combine the pair of sentences. 1.-The sun came out. The day was still cold. a) The sun came out after the day was still cold. b) The sun came out, but the day was still cold. c) The sun came out or the day was still cold. 2.-Dolphins live underwater. Sharks live underwater. a) Dolphins, but Sharks live underwater. b) Dolphins and Sharks live underwater. c) Dolphins or Sharks live underwater. 3.-The bear came closer. We began to feel threatened. a) We began to feel threatened or the bear came closer. b) We began to feel threatened so the bear came closer. c) We began to feel threatened when the bear came closer. 4.-Animals all need water. They may die without it. a) Animals all need water, but they may die without it. b) Animals all need water or they may die without it. c) Animals all need water when they may die without it. 5.- I wanted to go to the party. I got sick. a) I wanted to go to the party because I got sick. b) I wanted to go to the party, but I got sick. c) I wanted to go to the party or I got sick.

Answer Keys Ellipsis 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. money he will come You should have He had In this case it cannot be abbreviated because it does not have the same subject as the first clause.

Answer Keys Conjunction 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C B A B A

REFERENCE Ellipsis.(N.D.). [Online Article]. Retrieved July 15th, 2012, from the World Wide Web: http://xiamenwriting.wikispaces.com/Ellipsis Grammar, Punctuation, and Style 1.37 Types of Conjunctions. (N.D.). Retrieved July 17th, 2012, from the World Wide Web: http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=2343&CurriculumID=58&Num= 1.37

Guenther, C. (N.D.).The role of modification and context in English nominal ellipsis. [Online Article]. Retrieved July 16th, 2012, from the World Wide Web: http://webs.uvigo.es/np1/doc/Guenther.pdf

Randolph, Q. and Sidney, G. (1973). A UnivesityGrammar of English.

Stylistic Devices Ellipsis. (N.D.). [Online Article]. Retrieved July 16th, 2012, from the World Wide Web: http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/writing-

ellipsis.php