SWC 321: Soil Physics IV.

Water flow in soils

4. WATER FLOW IN SOILS
The most rapid movement of water into and through soil is caused by the pull of
gravity. Saturated flow water moves because of water potential larger (less negative)
than -33 kPa. A much slower flow, unsaturated flow occurs when the matric potential is
low enough that the gravitational forces are no longer strong enough to cause flow.
Matric forces dominate at water potentials lower (more negative) than -33 kPa.
Unsaturated flow can be in any direction. Soils with layers of different textures, such as
alternating layers of sand and clays, may have water retained at potential of -10 kPa to
-30 kPa. In such cases, less water drains by gravity flow than in a uniformly textured
soil.
4.1 Saturated soil water flow
Saturated flow is water flow caused by the pull of gravity. It begins with water
infiltration, which is water movement into the upper layer of soil when rain or irrigation
water is on the soil surface. When the soil profile is wetted, the movement of more
water through the wetted soil is called percolation. Percolating water moves through the
soil and carries away dissolved nutrients and other salts. The purpose of removing
soluble components in percolating water is called leaching.
Water infiltration is rapid into large, continuous pores in the soil as in coarse sands. It is
reduced by anything that decreases either the size or amount or pore space or wetability,
such as structure breakdown the pore clogging by lodged particles. The factors that
control the rate of water movement into the soil included the following: percentage of
sand, silt and clay, soil structure, organic matter, depth of the soil to hardpan, bedrock,
or other impervious layers, amount of water in the soil, soil temperature, compaction.
The flow of water in soil is important:
calculations of water balances,
for the distribution of water, solutes, and energy within the soil-plant
atmosphere,
attests the transport paths of solutes and gases in soil,
serves as storage medium for the transport of heat and solutes, etc

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
4.1.1 Microscopic modeling of water flow in pipes
Tubes and pipes flow of water in a straight, narrow, cylindrical tube varies with several
properties of water and characteristic of the tube.
Velocity distribution in a tube under laminar condition.
The movement of the fluid is in response to a pressure gradient L P acting
in axial direction. The parameter L is the length of the tube. The change in
pressure is
2 1
P P P
The aqueous fluid is accelerated by the pressure gradient and retarded by the frictional
resistance. The velocity or flux of a fluid in a straight tube can be calculated from
Poiseuilles law which is
L
P r
t
Q

8
4

r- is the radius of the tube (m)

- is the viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms)
Poiseuilles law indicates that the flux is proportional to the fourth power of the radius-
a very strong dependence. Dividing the flux by the cross- sectional area of the tube
gives the flux density.
L
P r
t A
Q
q
8
2

Where q is the flux density (m/s)
Flows are grouped
Laminar water molecules follow smooth lines called streamlines. This
prevails at low velocity and in straight narrow tubes.

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Turbulent flow- mean flow velocity is no longer proportional to the difference
in pressure.
Quantitative criterion to determine whether flow of fluid is laminar or turbulent is
the Reynolds number, R
e
.

d q
R
e
For straight tube
e
R
> 1000 to 2000 turbulence occurs. For transport of water in soils
e
R
is usually less than 1. So we assume a linear relationship between the hydraulic
gradient and the flux density. Thus laminar flow of water is found in soils except
possibly in macrospore flow through large soil pores, large fractures, and shrinkage
planes.
Q4.1.
Suppose that the soil water flux density through an undisturbed core is 1 X 10
-4
m/s. If
the average pore diameter is 5 x 10
-5
m, and the soil temperature is 20
0
C
, calculate the
Reynolds number and conclude whether laminar or turbulent flow conditions exist.
4.1.2 Darcys equation
Flow can be macroscopic scale or microscopic scale. In microscopic scale individual
pores are approximated as a water filled cylinders of a given radius as is given by
Poiseuille equation. This is used to show the disproportionate effect that larger diameter
pores (macrospores) have on transmitting water.
Because it is usually not feasible to determine the size distribution and interconnectivity
of pores, a macroscopic approach is used to describe flow through soils.
The most common mathematical expression for the vertical water flow rate through soil
is called Darcys Law. Heri Darcy found that q the volumetric flow rate per unit cross-
sectional area (A) through a sand filter of a given thickness (L) was proportional to the
total head gradient across the sand ( L H ). He called the proportionality constant
saturated hydraulic conductivity (K
s
) .

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
L
H
K
A
Q
q
s


Where q is the fluid flux. Using partial derivative notation, this can be written as:
Z
H
K J
S

For a horizontal flow
L
b
K
X X
H H
K
dx
dH
K q
s s s
0
1 2
1 2

Darcys law can be extended to two and three dimensional flow by noting that the
flux can be written in vector notation as:
z y x
q q q q + +
q = -
z
H
K
y
H
K
x
H
K
z y x

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Often
z y x
K K K
- isometric
s
K
. Then q = -
s
K

,
_

z
H
y
H
x
H
Darcys equation takes the form as several other important laws in science: Ficks law-
chemical diffusion , Ohms law current flow, Fouriers law heat flow.
It clearly shows that for water to flow there must be a difference in water potential, but
the rate of water flow will depend on the hydraulic gradient and the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil.
Q3.2
A clay liner at the bottom of water harvesting pond is 30 cm thick and has a saturated
hydraulic conductivity of 10
-7
cm s
-1
. If the pond is filled to an average depth of 3 m and
the matric potential head immediately below the clay linear is 50 cm, what can you
expect the steady seepage rate through the liner to be?
4.1.3 Continuity Equation Derivation
The continuity equation is called conservation equation. Transport processes always
obey the laws of conservation of matter and energy, the law of conservation of matter is
expressed in the so called continuity equation. This is derived as follows.
Consider the following elemental volume of soil column. Volume of inflow and
outflow are shown as seen below:

Inflow:
z y q z y q
and Outflow:
z y x
x
q
q
x

,
_

+
The change inflow is given as z y x
x
q
x

The rate of gain of water by the volume element of soil can also be expressed in
forms of the time rate of change of the volume concentration of water, Q multiplied
by the volume of the element, thus.

x
y
z
z y q
z y x
x
q
q
x

,
_

+
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Rate of gain = z y x
x

Now setting the alternative expressions equal to each other, we obtain

z y x
t

= z y x
x

, or
x
q
t

If we consider the fluxes in x, y, z directions, we obtain the three dimensional form

of the continuity equation, namely,
t

z y x . .
= -

,
_

z
q
y
q
x
q
x
y y
z y x . .

,
_

z
q
y
q
x
q
z
y
x
In short hand mathematical notation, this is written as q
t

. Where (del)
is a vector differential operator representing three dimensional gradient in space.
4.1.4. Equations of flow
To solve a certain problems of groundwater flow, it is usually necessary to integrate a
differential equation that describes the situation at an arbitrary point in the flow domain.
The differential equation is based on physical principles. In this case the equation is
obtained by combining two basic equations that are very important in fluid mechanics:
the mass balance equation, and the equation of motion both of them have been
developed earlier.
We have seen that mass balance equation formulates the law of the conservation of
mass it is also known as the continuity principle. For one-directional vertical flow of
water (without plant root extraction), the mass conservation equation can be written as
z
q
t
v

We saw that Darcys law can be written in differential form as

z
H
K q

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Combining the above two equations
z
z
H
K
z
q
t
s
v

,
_

When K is constant with respect to z, and under saturated conditions

2
2
z
H
t
v

For three dimensional flow, the flow equation becomes

2
2
2
2
2
2
z
H
K
y
H
K
x
H
K
t
z y x

Where K
x
, K
y
, and K
z
are the saturated hydraulic conductivities in the X, Y, and Z
directions, respectively.
Steady and unsteady state of flow
Steady state flow
By steady state flow it means there is no temporal variability in the volumetric water
content, i.e. 0

t
v

. When the K
sat
have the same magnitude regardless of direction,
then the above equation reduces to:
2
2
2
2
2
2
Z
H
y
H
x
H

= H
2
= 0
Which is known as the Laplace equation. This equation can be solved analytically for
certain simple boundary conditions. In most cases of interest, however, numerical
techniques are needed to solve the above equation.
Unsteady state flow
For conditions of unsteady flow, there will be an accumulation, or release, of water
within the flow domain under these conditions, the difference between the water
flowing into and away from a point within the domain must equal the accumulation or
loss of water at the point. This is described using the equation
1
s s s s
H H H d dV H H
K K K S
x x y y y z dt V dH t t

_ _
+ +


, ,
Where S
s
is the specific storage coefficient, and t is time.

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
The specific storage coefficient (S
s
) is defined as the volume of water released from
storage (V
w
) per unit volume of soil (V) per unit decline in hydraulic head (H).

s
S
-
dH
d
dH
dV
V
w


1
4.1.6 Solving Laplace equation of flow
The relaxation method is one numerical way of calculating an
approximate solution to the Laplace equation for two dimensional
flows. It is based on the replacement of differential coefficients by
finite difference expressions.
Let us assume (Fig 2.5.4) that we know the groundwater levels,
h
1
,h
2
,h
3
,h
4
, at four points and that we want to estimate the level h
o
.
Studying the water table in the x-direction, we can assign an arbitrary
value to the ho-level and connect h
1
, h
o
, and h
3
as shown below.
Fig. 2.1.2 Schematization of two dimension water levels
Studying the water table in the x-direction, we can assign an arbitrary
value to the h
0
-level and connect h
1
,h
0
, and h
3
as shown. The physical
meaning of the first differential coefficient of a function is the slope of
that function (water table) at a given point.
x
h h
x
h

,
_

3 0
0 3
and also
x
h h
x
h

,
_

0 1
1 0
The physical meaning of the second differential coefficient of a
function is the rate of change in the slope of that function (describing

z
y
x
y
y
x
x
h
2
h
1
h
3
h
4
4
0.
1
3
2
h
o
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
the water table) at a given point. Thus, for distance 0.5 x around
point 0, we can write
x
x
h
x
h
x
h

,
_

,
_

,
_

0 3 1 0
2
2
Substituting equation 2.5.28 and 2.5.29 into this equation (2.5.30)
yields
2
0 3 1
0
2
2
2
x
h h h
x
h

,
_

A similar procedure for levels h2,ho, and h4 in the y-direction yields

2
4 2
2
2
2
y
h h h
y
h
o

,
_

Substituting equations 2.5.31 and 2.5.32 into Laplace equations

[2.2.13] yields
0
2 2
2
0 4 2
2
0 3 1
2
2
2
2

+
+

y
h h h
x
h h h
y
h
x
h
If a grid used to study the water table elevation is chosen such that
distance x =y, equation 2.5.33 reduces to
4
4 3 2 1
0
h h h h
h
+ + +

Q4.1. To illustrate the use of the relaxation method, let us consider

the following figure where there are twelve known groundwater
levels at the boundary of a grid. Draw a family of equi-potential
lines as accurately as possible (water table contour map).
53 60 65 60
49 51
38 45
33 35 36 34
Solution: We assign initially-estimated levels to the four central grid
points. Subsequently, we use equation 2.5.34 to improve the
first estimate. Hence
1. (60.0+60.0+49.0+40.0)/4 = 52.3
2. (40.0+52.3+38.0+35.0)/4 = 41.3 note that the level
55.0 is not used.
3. (51.0+65.0+52.3+40.0)/4 = 52.1
4. (45.0+52.1+41.3+36.0)/4 = 43.6, and so on.

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
53 60 65 60
49
51
1
5
9
13
38
52.3
50.6
50.9
50.9
52.1
52.6
52.7
52.7
45
2
6
10
14
33
41.3
41.8
41.9
42.0
35
43.6
43.8
43.9
43.9
36 34
As soon as the difference between the subsequent estimates
becomes sufficiently small, we stop our calculations and use the final
estimate to draw the equipotential lines.
Working out these calculations on paper is, of course laborious, but fortunately we can
use computers these days.
1 . 0 1 . 5 2 . 0 2 . 5 3 . 0 3 . 5 4 . 0
1
1 . 5
2
2 . 5
3
3 . 5
4
Fig 3.2. Water table contour map of problem 2.1.

3
7
11
15
4
8
12
16
55 60
40 40
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
4.1.7. Hydraulic diffusivity
To simplify the mathematical and experimental treatment of unsaturated flow
processes, it is often advantageous to change the flow equations into a form analogous
to the equations of diffusion and heat conduction, for which ready solutions are
available.
The matric suction gradient
x

can be explained by the chain rule as follows

x

d
d


x

Where
x

is the wetness gradient and

d
d
is the reciprocal of the specific water
capacity ( ) C .
( )

d
d
C
Which is the slope of the soil moisture characteristic curve at any particular value of
wetness . We can rewrite the Darcy equation as follows:
( )
x
K q

= -
( )
( )

C
K

x

To cast this equation into a form analogous to Ficks Law of diffusion, a function was
introduced (originally called the diffusivity D, where
D ( ) =
( )
( )

C
K
= ( ) K

d
d
D is thus defined as the ratio of the hydraulic conductivity K to the specific water
capacity C. Since both these are functions of soil wetness D must also be so. In order to
avoid the confusion between the classical definition of diffusion (in a liquid and gas) to
this borrowed application of the same term to describe convective flow a term hydraulic
has been proposed and hence it is called hydraulic diffusivity. This can be written as

) ( D

The relation between hydraulic diffusivity

to soil wetness
( )

b
ae D
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
( ) D q

=
( ) D
x y z

_
+ +


,
In one dimension
( )
x
D q

Unsteady flow
( )

,
_

x
D
x t

, and d is not a function of

2
2
x
D
t

The reason for this is of course that by using the diffusivity, the pressure potential has
been eliminated in favor of the volume fraction of water
( )
4.1.8. The saturated hydraulic conductivity
For saturated flow- the most important soil parameter is saturated hydraulic
conductivity, which is a function of the fluid and soil properties. This is given as

g
K
s

Where

- intrinsic permeability of soil,

- density of fluid, and

- viscosity.
Hydraulic conductivity values for sand silt and clay soil classes;
Hydraulic conductivity Hydraulic porosity
Sand 21 cm/hr Sand 0.437
Loam 1.32 cm/hr Loam 0.463

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Clay 0.06 cm/hr silt loam 0.501
Clay 0.475
4.1.9. Water flow in layered soil
Suppose that water is steadily flowing though a layered soil column, containing N
layers of thickness
j
L
and saturated hydraulic conductivity of
j
K
(j = 1, 2, ).
To solve this problem we have to make use of the analogy of ohms law.
From electrical analog: I V R (electrical resistance), we can write the hydraulic
resistance ( )
H
R for each layer i:-
i
i
w
i
i H
K
L
J
H
flux
difference Potentail
R

,
, from Darcy equations
Where
i
H
denote the total head difference across layer i.
Remember from electrical theory that the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistance when in series. Hence, for the total layered soil system (with n
layers), we can then define the effective hydraulic resistance
( )
eff H
R
,

n
i i
i
i H eff H
K
L
R R
1
, ,
eff
eff H
K
L
R
,
So that we can compute the effective hydraulic for the layered soil system
( )
eff
K
by
equating the two above expressions

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils

i
i
eff
K
L
L
K
Q4.3
A layered vertical soil column consists of top 25 cm of a loam soil K
s
= 5 cm day
-1
, and
75 cm thick sand soil whose K
s
is 25 cm/day The top of the column has water pounded
to a constant height of 10 cm above the column, and the bottom is open to the
atmosphere. Calculate q
w
and the hydrostatic pressure distribution.
4.1.10. Measurement of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
Measurement of saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil can be done using either the
constant head or falling head methods.
Constant head method
With the constant method, soil is packed uniformly in a vertical column of length L. A
constant height (b) of water is maintained over the upper end by an external
manometer. The bottom end is open to the atmosphere so that P = 0. The water volume
flow is collected at the bottom and is used to calculate q.

Here let Z = 0 at the bottom the reference surface then
H
1
= 0 + 0 = 0.
H
2
= b+L, the gradient is
L
L b +
and
L b
L q
K
s
+
(take q to be negative downward so
that K
s
will be positive.
Falling head method

K
s
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Even simpler method of measuring K
s
in the laboratory using the preceding apparatus.
Water is initially pounded to a height b
o
above the saturated column and is allowed to
fall with time as water flows through the column and out the bottom where pressure is
zero (atmospheric pressure).
Here ( ) t b P
2
at the surface is time dependent, and as in the gradient
L
t b L ) ( +
.
Consequently
x
q
is also time dependent and is equal to the time rate of change of the
water height
dt
db
q
Darcys law can therefore be written hen as
dt
db
q =
L
K
s

(b +L)
Rearranging the above equation
L b
db
+
= -
L
dt
K
s
Where b= b
o
at t = t
o.
Upon integration from t= 0 to some time t = t
1
when b has fallen to
b
1
<b
o
. The left side is equal to
( ) ]
1
ln
b
b
o
L b
L b
db
+
+

,
_

+
+
L b
L b
o
1
The right side may be integrated simply producing

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
-

1
0
t
s
L
dt K
= -
L
t K
s 1
Equating the two equation yields

,
_

+
+

L b
L b
L
t K
o
s 1 1
ln

,
_

+
+

L b
L b
t
L
K
o
s
1 1
ln
This shows K
s
can be measured using b
0
, b
1
, L, and t
1
only.
Q4.4
A 100 cm - long soil column is saturated and 10 cm of water is ponded over the top at t
= 0 in a vessel that has the same cross- sectional area at the column. At t = 1 h, the
height of over laying water has fallen to 5 cm calculate K
s
in cm/day
4.2. Unsaturated Soil Water flow
This is also known as the vadose zone the layer of the soil between water table and
the soil surface. Most of the soil water flow in the field occur while the soil is in an
unsaturated state. Unsaturated flow processes are in general, much more complicated
and difficult to describe quantitatively and mathematically than saturated flow be cause
they often entail changes in the state and content of soil water during flow.
Water in unsaturated soil is subjected to a sub atmospheric pressure (
m

is negative).
Water molecules are bound partially by solid surfaces and partially by interface with the
air phase. In saturated soil a positive water pressure was found, but in unsaturated soil
negative potential energies operate (pressure heads are generally negative).
The matric potential is due to the physical affinity of water to the soil particle surface
and to curved air water interfaces in the pores. Soil-water tends to move from
evocations where the total soil-water potential is higher to locations where it is lower.
4.2.1. Unsaturated soil water flow
This equation is also called Buckingham Darcy flux law. For unsaturated flow,
Darcys Law is written as

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils


) ( K q
Richards Equation
For transient flow, the water content and pressure head vary with time (t) and the
Bucking ham- Darcy equation must be extended. This partial differential equation was
developed by Richards.
For one-dimensional vertical flow, the continuity equation reguires that the change in
volumetric water stored within a soil element be equal to the net flux into the element
and any sources, or sinks within the element:
t

= - S
z
q
+

Where S is a source/ sink term for water per unit time. When the Buckingham Darcy
equation is substituted for q, we obtain.
t

=
z

1
]
1

) 1 )( ( (
z
h
h K
+S
Which is called the mixed form (because it contains two independent variables ( and
h) of the one dimensional Richards equation. It can also be written all in terms of h (the
h form) by using the chain rule on the left hand side.
C(h)
t
h

=
z

(K(h)
S
z
h
+

,
_

) 1
Where C(h) is the water capacity function.
Where:
H is the total soil water potential (m)
z is the spatial coordinate (m)
K( ) v - is the hydraulic conductivity (m/s). This is dependent on volumetric water
content (
)
v

and matric potential (H).

q
is the soil water flux - density. In head units,
this is also written as
( ) ( )
( )
( )

,
_

1
z
h
h K
z
z h
h K
z
H
h K q
Note that H = h + z, hence 1 +

z
h
z
z
z
h
z


SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
4.2.2. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity decreases as volumetric water content decreases
because
Cross sectional area of water flow decreases,
Tortuosity increases
Drag forces increase
Thus, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is a non linear function of water content
( ) or matric potential h. The hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil is greater than
( ) K
because only pores filled with water are capable of transmitting water.
What can we learn from the above figures?

Water in unsaturated soil
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
At saturation, the coarse textured soil has a higher conductivity than the fine textured
soil, because it contains larger pore spaces, which are filled and water conducting at
saturation. However, these pores drain at modest suctions, producing a dramatic
decrease in hydraulic conductivity in the sandy soil.
Rising above the water table is the capillary fringe, a zone where water is under tension,
but is very near saturation. The capillary fringe is important for water flow because only
a slight change in water content or total head can cause a sharp change in the water
table position. The thickness of the capillary fringe depends on the water retention
curve, and can be approximated by the air- entry pressure head (ha). Sands have thinner
capillary fringes than unstructured clays. Capillary fringes are also found around zones
of saturation in the unsaturated zone, such as around injection boreholes, surface
seepage basins, and losing streams.

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Hydraulic conductivity
(cm/hr)
Water content (%) Soil water pressure
head (cm)
For loam soil
2.8
1.3
1.2
0.17
0.071
0.037
0.0048
0.00054
0.00006
45
44
42
35
33
30
20
10
8
0
-25
-50
-75
-90
-100
-1000
-14000
-15000

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
4.3. Field water regime
This refers to the processes of infiltration, redistribution, drainage, and evaporation.
4.3.1 . Infiltration
Infiltration refers to the downward entry of water into the soil profile from rainfall or
irrigation. The unit of infiltration rate is length/time (mm/day) Infiltration is a typical
example of non-steady unsaturated flow of water into soils. When water is applied at
the soil surface (e.g. flood irrigation or inundation), it enters the soil profile and changes
the water content distribution with depth. After irrigation has continued for some time,
the following zones can usually be distinguished in the water content profile.
1. Saturated zone is a thin zone at the soil surface
2. Transition zone the transition zone is a zone of decreasing water content
between the saturated zone and transmission zone ranges from few mm to few
cms.
3. Transmission zone- is the conveyance zone for the infiltrating water. This zone
continues to elongate. Its water content, though slightly changing with depth, is
rather constant and close to saturation.
4. The wetting zone is the normally thin zone where the water content of the
transmission zone decreases at a steeping gradient down to a wetting front. The
wetting front is the visible limit of water penetration, where the gradient of
pressure heads is very large.
Explaining the time dependence of infiltration

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
The time dependent of both equations can be interpreted physically as a consequence of
the decreasing influence of the matric potential gradient as the wetting front moves
farther from the surface during infiltration.
Rate of infiltration is defined as the flux density of water passing through the soil
surface and flowing into the soil profile
At
Q

Where Q is the quantity of water infiltrated, A is cross sectional area, and t is time since
infiltration.
In filtration can be:
Supply controlled supply is less than ability of soil to receive the water
Soil profile time controlled delivery rate of rainfall or migration exceeds
the ability of the soil to receive water and to transmit the water away from
the surface or
Surface controlled is a combination of supply and profile controlled.
Infiltration into agricultural soil decreases with time. The explanation for this can be
developed from Darcy equation as follows:
A i K Q
or
i K q
Writing the Darcy equation for infiltration from a ponded surface to a wetting front, a
distance L below the ground surface. Assuming the hydraulic conductivity behind the
wetting front is equal to K
sat
the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, and that
average soil water potential (
i

) directly behind the wetting front is some function of

and K across the moisture interface and the initial
p

below the interface, and that

the zero elevation reference datum is at the depth of the witting front then.

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
i i i
s s s
l d dz d L d dh
i K K K
dl dl dz L
+ + +

For

infiltration into initially dry soil,
i

may be of the order of -50 to 100 cm H

2
O or
-0.1 bar.
i

is a function of the negative potential at initial

i

(from soil water

characteristic curve) and the values of
i

and K cross the wetting front interface. If d is

very small compared to L, and it i is considered to be positive in the down word.
to be positive in the downward direction (into soil)then

,
_

L
K i
i
s

1
Note that since pressure potential
i

in the above equation is negative (for unsaturated

soil), then the hydraulic gradient term is always greater than or equal to 1. Bear in mind
also that as L increases (as infiltration progresses), the overall gradient (
i

/L)
decreases, and therefore i the infiltration rate is at the long term infiltration rate (flat
portion of the curve) and infiltration progresses downward under a unit gradient ( ) 1 1 (
due to forces of gravity only.
Cumulative infiltration
Cumulative infiltration represents the equivalent depth of water infiltrated. The
cumulative infiltration can be computed by two methods.
(1) Time integral of the infiltration rate
( )

1
1
t
t
dt t i I

Z=0
d
d L
p g
,
i p g
, 0
wetting front
L
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Where t
1
is the initial time of infiltration and t
2
is the final time of infiltration. This
shows that it the infiltration relationship between I and t is known between t
1
and t
2
,
then integration of the relation results in I.
(2) Volumetric water content integral.
Integrating the change in volumetric soil water content distribution in the profile
between the surface (Z = 0) and the depth to wetted front (Z = Z
f
)

f
Z
v
dz I
0

Where Z
f
is the depth of the wetting front and
v

is the difference between the initial
volumetric water content,
( )
1
, t z
v

and the final volumetric water content,
( )
2
, t z
v

.
The wetting front is the boundary between the wetted region and the dry region of the
soil during infiltration.
Factors affecting infiltration
The factors that affect the infiltration of water into the soil are:-
initial wetness and matric potential, and
texture, structure, tillage, type of clay vegetative cover, rainfall intensity, slope,
etc.

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Equal Infiltration Times
Soil type Final Infiltration
rate
(mm/hr)
Sands
Sands/silty soils
Loams
Clayey soils
Sodic clayey
soils
>20
10-20
5-10
1-5
<1
Infiltration equations
Several equations have been developed to approximate the vertical infiltration of water
under profile controlled conditions.
Kostiakovs Equation
This is the simplest of the empirical equations
( )
n
Kt t i

, where K and n are constants obtained in infiltration trials.
The problem with this equation is that i goes to 0 as t goes to infinity.
Modified Kostiakov equation
( ) C Kt t i
n
+

, where c is the infiltration rate at large t.
Cumulative infiltration at any time t
( )
B
At t I or ( ) Ct At t I
B
+

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Where A =
n
K
n
K

+ 1 1
and B = -n +1
Parameters A and B have no physical meaning are determined from the statistical fit of
the model to the experimental data.
Philip Equation
Philip equation is one of the exact solutions of the flow equations for homogeneous,
infinitely deep soil profile at a uniform initial water content. It describes the time
dependence of cumulative infiltration in terms of a power series. For vertical
infiltration, the cumulative infiltration is
( ) + + + +
2
5
3
2
3
2 1
2
1
t A t A t A t S t I
or
Where the constant
or
S
is called sorptivity (mm/min
0.5
), and for short time = 2
1
t I
. A
1
,
A
2
, and A
3
are characteristics of the soil.
or
S
is the capacity to absorb or release water
during the early times.
In practice, it is generally sufficient to approximate infiltration by the first two terms of
equation as
( ) At t S t I
or
+
2
1
and
( ) A t S t i
or
+

2
1
5 . 0
Where A is a constant infiltration rate after long times and is closely related to K
sat. or
S

plays a significant rote during the early stages of infiltration.

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
Green- Ampt Equation
In here water penetrates into the profile like a piston and proceeds with time to greater
depths. Below the abrupt horizontal wetting front, the soil remains at its initial water
content.
The infiltration rate equation
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) { } t z t z h h K
dt
dI
t i
f f f o
/ + +
For piston flow, the cumulative infiltration at time t is
( )
v f
t Z t I ) (
then
( )
( )
v
f
t I
t Z

; and taking h
0
as zero, the infiltration rate is
( )

)

'

1 ) (
t I
h
K t i
v f

The problem with this equation is that it can not be solved explicitly for I(t), iteration is
required.
One way is to substitute a trial value for I(t), for example, Kt in to the right hand side of
the equation.
( ) ( )
( )

'

1
1
]
1

+ +
v f
v f
h
t I
h Kt t I

1 ln
and
ln 1
f
v
f
z
t z h
K h

1 _
+
' )
1

, ]

e

h
o
L
f
Problem 3.5
Assume the water is ponded on a silt
loam soil to a depth of 2 cm. If the
cumulative porosity is 0.486, the initial
soil water content is 0.146, the hydraulic
conductivity is 0.65 cm h-1, and the
suction head at the wetting front is 17
cm, calculate the infiltration rate for a
cumulative infiltration of 1 cm.
SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
4.3.2. Redistribution and internal drainage
When rain or irrigation ceases and no more water is ponded on the soil surface,
infiltration comes to an end. Downward movement of water within the soil continues as
soil water redistributes within the profile. The water moves down within the soil profile
under the combined influences of gravity and matric potential gradients. This
downward movement of water in the profile is called internal drainage or
redistribution.
Internal Drainage in a deeply wetted profile
In a deeply wetted profile, the internal drainage rates are normally determined by
gravity alone. Thereafter, under these conditions, the magnitude of the hydraulic
gradient is unity (1) and we write Darcys law as
( )
( )
( )
v
K
dz
z h d
K q
+

Observations have shown that the functional relation between K and ( ) K sometimes
can be represented by an exponential equation.
( ) ( )
v
b
v
e a b a K

exp
Where a and b are empirical constants. Combining these two equations, the soil water
flux becomes.
( ) ( )
v v
b a K q exp
or
v
b a q + ln ln
Internal drainage in a shallow wetted profile
In some cases, the end of infiltration occurs with a wet upper profile and a dry lower
profile. Therefore, the dryer layers draw the water from the upper layers because of the
of the high matric potential gradients

SWC 321: Soil Physics IV. Water flow in soils
The drainage flux decreases over time because values of the matric potential gradient,
dz
dh
decreases as the upper layers lose water and the lower layers gain water, and the K
of the upper wet layers decreases as

decreases.
4.3.3. Preferential flow
The rapid movement of water in the large pores of undisturbed soil has became known
by several terms, including preferential flow, macrospore flow, and bypass flow.
This percolating water is a significant component of the flow of water and solute
transport in many soils. Sources of preferential flow are:
pores such as root and worm channels (which often have a cylindrical shape)
cracks and decaying roots.
Q4.6
Calculate the maximum depth of penetration into the profile from a 25 mm rainfall,
assuming that 60% of the water moved only through the macrospores and the
macrospores represented only 1% of the soil volume. Compare this depth with the
depth of penetration without preferential flow, assuming initial and saturated water
contents of 0.25 and 0.50 m
3
m
-3
, respectively.

s

Z
! 2
3
4
The water content profile as a function of time changes during redistribution.