Biology 2 1st Quarter Reviewer HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 1. Biosphere - Environments on earth inhabited by life 2.

Ecosystem - Abiotic & biotic interaction (specified area) 3. Community - Array of organisms inhibiting ecosystems 4. Population - Individuals of a species (specified area) 5. Organism - Individual living things 6. Organ System - Group of organs performing a specific & vital function of the body 7. Organ - Group of tissues; carries out a smaller function in the body 8. Tissue - Group of similar cells 9. Cell - Fundamental unit of structure and function MULTICELLULARITY a. LIMITATION OF SIZE Max size limit exceeded >> multicellularity Multicellularity dependency ; loss of cell singularity Bigger cell size leads to decrease in: * exchange of substances * diffusion (high low concentration; no energy used / passive transport) * Surface Area : Volume (SA:V) Solutions to the SA:V problem: * surface area & volume; more surface area means more contact points thus more substances are absorbed * Increase rate of supply ( concentration of nutrients) b. MOVEMENT TOWARDS MULTICELLULARITY Theories: Symbiotic Theory (prokaryotes Invaded primitive eukaryotic cells)

Syncytial Theory (cells developed internal membrane partitions) Colonial Theory (symbiosis of organisms of the same species; The Volvocine series) c. MODES OF REPRODUCTION Isogamy Same gametes Heterogamy / Anisogamy - different gametes; different size (sperm is smaller than the egg); both are motile Oogamy (Specialized heterogamy) sperm is flagellated; egg is not motile >> able to store more energy >> bigger egg cell >> more space to store food CHLAMYDOMONAS Unicellular flagellate Reproduction: Isogamy No communication No colony GONIUM No polarity to colony Small colony Intracellular communication (pass the message) PANDORINA Colony in 1 layer High dependence (colony dies when disrupted) High communication (coordinate flagellate movement) EUDORINA Specialization occurred Reproduction: evolved to Anisogamy PLEDORINA Has special reproductive cells Division of labor Reproduction: Anisogamy; egg started to become non-motile VOLVOX Reproduction: evolved to oogamy Cell will live even when taken out of its colony Intracellular communication No polarity to colony Has special reproductive cells

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d. EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION Isogamy Anisogamy Heterogamy Unicellular to colonial life (cells are able to specialize; increase in number of cells) Increase in interdependence & division of labor Less female gametes produce >> healthier eggs (nutrients & best genes are given to the egg) e. ADVANTAGES OF MULTICELLULARITY Increase in organism size; SA:V Permits cell specialization f. DISADVANTAGES OF MULTICELLULARITY Interdependence (one cell dies, many cells are greatly affected; organism may even die)

> Procambrium vascular tissue Root Apical Meristems - Apical meristem near all root tips give rise to the protoder, ground meristem and procambium - Transitional meristems give rise to the root primary tissue systems: epidermis, ground tissues and vascular tissues

2. Lateral Lateral Meristems - Produce secondary growth > Vascular cambium secondary vas. tissue > Cork cambium periderm Increases growth horizontally / girth of plant 3. Intercalary Plants without vascular cambium (grasses) Growth regions that occur at the base of nodes Only found in monocots (monocots scattered vascular bundle; dicots circular vascular bundle)

PLANT TISSUES Plant Organization Root system - Growth towards gravity - Generally below the ground; consists of plant roots - Root: epidermis, cortex, stele, pith Shoot system - Growth away from gravity along the axis - Generally above the ground - Consists of the stem and leaves - Flowers: modified shoot system

a. Meristematic Tissue Main function is mitosis (to increase number of cells) Do not specialize but is the precursor cell (turns into wither dermal, ground or vascular tissue) _______________________________________ Three types: 1. Apical Shoot Apical Meristem - Region of embryonic cells near the dome; tip od all shoots is the source of primary growth - Three primary meristems: > Protoderm Dermal Tissue > Ground Meristem Ground Tissue

Primary growth of roots - Root cap protects the delicate meristems as the root elongates through the soil; secretes mucus that lubricates the soil - 3 zones of cells > Division meristems (mitotsis) > Elongation bigger cell; more energy; more resources > Differentiation any plant cell has the ability to differentiate

b. Dermal Tissues For protection Prevents desiccation (dehydration / water loss) Epidermis top most layer Cuticle a waxy layer secreted by epidermal cells of stems and leaves; prevents water loss, invasion of pathogens and diffusion of gasses Periderm composes the outer bark Epidermal modifications: - Root hairs: absorption of water

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Guard cells: form the tiny opening called the stomata Glands: modified cells containing oils or other substances for secretion

c. Ground Tissues Basically for support Parenchyma - Basic tissue type - Simple tissue composed of spherical shapes - Large, have thin primary walls - Living metabolizing tissue (at functional maturity) - Functions: for photosynthesis & respiration, storage, and wound healing & regeneration Collenchyma - A simple tissue found beneath the epidermis in young stems and in large veins of leaves - Function: for support - Found uniformly throughout te plant - Elongated cells that have unevenly thick walls (ends are thicker) - Alive at functional maturity - Cells fill up the spaces Sclerenchyma - Walls are very thick and are placed uniformly around the entire margin of the cell wall - Function: protection - Dead at functional maturity because it becomes the bark of the tree or hard outer covering of nuts d. Vascular Tissues Conduct water and solutes Function: transport Xylem - Conducts water and minerals from the roots to the leaves - Water always moves upward due to the environment - Make up the wood - Composed of: 1. Vessel elements

> movement of water can be transverse or longitudinal > elongated cells with secondary walls > dead at functional maturity > thick in diameter 2. Tracheid > elongated cells with secondary walls > dead at functional maturity > thin in diameter, more tapered > movement of water is longitudinal Phloem - Moves solutes (sugars) - Physiologically dictates sugar transport - Alive at functional maturity because they have to digest the food - Composed of: 1. Sieve tube > transports the sugars 2. Companion cells > connected to the sieve tube > loads the sieve tube

e. Essential Nutrients Hydroponic structure - used to determine which of the minerals are actually essential nutrients Macronutrients - Elements required by plants in relatively large amounts Micronutrients - Elements needed by plants in relatively small amounts ANIMAL TISSUES a. Epithelial Tissue Lines organs and covers the body (skin) For protection: pathogens are unable to penetrate the body Outer part is exposed to air or internal fluid, inner part is composed of the basement membrane Cells are tightly packed Types according to shape: 1. Squamous 2. Cuboidal 3. Columnar Amica !

Types according to cell size 1. Simple one cell thick 2. Stratified more than 1 layer thick 3. Pseudostratified (for columnar only) each cell still touches the basement membrane

Striated Heart (involuntary muscle) Uninucleate Bifurcated Looks like shorts ! haha

b. Connective Tissue For binding and support Cells are widely separated from each other Attaches skin to the muscle Cells are embedded in an extracellular matrix Cells secrete the matrix (either soft or sold) Lose and dense connective tissues - Act as padding under skin - Loose: loose weave of fiber; widespread packing material; holds organs in place Bone and cartilage - Made up of cells in a hard extracellular matrix; for support - Bone: collagen fibers in calcium salts - Rigid parts of the skeleton - Cartilage: rubbery collagenous matrix - Flexible part of the skeleton Blood - Made up of cells in a liquid plasma matrix - Used in transport Adipose tissue - For storage, insulation and padding c. Muscular Tissue For movement / contraction; produces heat in the body Skeletal muscle - Unbranched fibers - Striated - Attached to bones - Voluntary movements of the body - 5 nuclei; peripherally loacted Smooth muscle - Spindle shaped cells - Unstriated - Contraction of other internal organs - Digestive tract, arteries, bladder - Centrally located nucleus (uninucleate) Cardiac muscle - Branced fibers

d. Nervous Tissue Senses stimuli and transmits signals called nerve impulses from one part to another Consists of a cell body and long extensions called dendrites (towards cell) and axons (towards another cell) DIGESTION Leads to the breakdown of the important substances for the body to grow and develop

a. 4 MACROMOLECULES Macromolecule (broken down into) digested in Carbohydrates (sugars) mouth Proteins (amino acids) stomach Fats (lipids) small intestine Nucleic Acids (nucleotides) small intestine * macromolecules we take in are not the same as the macromolecules our body makes; they are not the same when they reach the stomach b. EVOLUTIONARY EVIDENCE Fats you are able to store energy Compartmentalization (annelids developed a digestive tract) Modes of feeding (more to eat and digest) Mutualistic relationships (humans & E coli) c. INTRACELLULAR VS EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION Intracellular Within food vacuoles Unicellular organisms and poriferans Extracellular Outside of the cell Fungi digest outside the boy then absorb the digested material Incomplete & complete digestion

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d. INCOMPLETE VS COMPLETE DIGESTION Incomplete Single opening for food entrance and waste exit Gastrovascular cavity of cnidarians (link to complete digestion) Gastrodermis with specialized digestive cells Hydrolysis of macromolecules Complete Two different openings for food entrance and waste exit Complexity varies in each phyla Extracellular hydrolysis of food Specialized compartments e. MODES OF FEEDING Suspension / filter feeders most affected by the environment; development Substrate feeders live in their food Fluid feeders ex. Humming birds & mosquitos Bulk feeders most complex alimentary canal HUMAN DIGESTION (4 STAGES) 1. INGESTION Phagocytosis general term for taking in food through pseudopods Mechanical digestion starts: chewing _______________________________________ After mechanical digestion, food particles get smaller thus increasing its SA:V Easier digestion After chemical digestion, SA:V increases even more. Chains are cut so that there are more ends enzymes can work on when breaking down the food Denaturation breaking down of bonds (protein only)

Chemical: enzymes are used to breakdown food * SALIVARY GLADS produce SALIVA which contains SALIVARY AMYLASE which acts on STARCH to produce MALTOE Bolus resulting ball of food from the actions of the teeth, tongue and saliva Enzyme catalyst (speeds up digestion)

b. Pharynx - Crossroad of food and air - Where the bolus enters the esophagus - Epiglottis seal to prevent food from entering air passages - Glottis frame c. Esophagus - Upper portion: striated muscle - Lower portion: smooth muscle - - moves the bolus from the pharynx o the stomach through peristalsis (movement of smooth muscle in the alimentary canal to the large intestine) - Goblet cells lines esophagus, releases mucus that covers the bolus for easier movement through the esophagus d. Stomach - Storage and digestion of food - Sphincter regulates movement of the bolus and the chime Cardiac prevents backflow Pyloric regulates entrance of acidic chime to the small intestine - Carnivore has a larger stomach compared to a herbivore - Mechanical: peristalsis (closed sphincters) - Chemical: digestion of proteins - Chief cells produce pepsinogen - Parietal cells produce HCL * HCL activates pepsinogen to become pepsin (positive feedback) * (+) feedback: reactant product * (-) feedback : reactant product

2. DIGESTION a. Mouth - Both mechanical and chemical digestion begin - Mechanical: chewing to break down food

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rapid mitotic activity (mucus lining protects the stomach because when the stomach becomes acidic, mucus is digested first)

HORMONES THAT REGULATE DIGESTION Gastrin: stimulated by gastric juices; low pH; secretion of gastric juice; (+) feedback Enterogastrones: enzymes in the duodenum Cholecystokinin (CCK): stimulates by fats and amino acids; stimulates the gall bladder to release bile which emulsifies fats so that lipase can act on it Secretin: stimulated by the acidic chime; stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonates; protects small intestine * If chime contains a lot of fat, the duodenum releases other enzymes to slow down digestion in the stomach

e. Small Intestine - Main organ of digestion and absorption - The longest because it enables more absorption in the body - Duodenum (digestion); jejunum and ileum (absorption) DIGESTION OF MACROMOLECULES Carbohydrate digestion: - Starch, glycogen, etc is further digested - Pancreatic amylase breaks it down - Maltase: splits maltose into its glucose units - Diasaccharides: absorbed by intestinal epithelium Protein digestion: - Trypsin and chymotrypsin: breakdown pepsin - Trypsin: activates procarboxypeptidase and chymotrypsinogen - Dipepsidase: split small peptidase - Carboxypeptiase: breakdown polypetides in its carboxyl end - Aminopeptidase: breakdown peptidase in its nitrogenous end - Enteropeptidase: activates trypsin - Intestinal enzymes: aminopeptidase & enteropeptidase Fatty acid digestion - Bile salts: emulsify (increase in SA) undigested fats in the duodenum - Lipase: digests fat molecules Nucleic acid digestion - Nucleases: hydrolyzes nucleic terminals o (Exo terminals/ends; endo within)

f.

Large Intestine / Colon - Main function: reabsorption of water - Cecum small pouch that has different functions - Appendix small cecum found in man (ceptic tank) - Rectum temporarily store feces - Feces waste formed after digestion; compactness depends on the amount of water reabsorbed - Internal bacteria: E coli - Low peristalsis, high absorption of water

4. EXCRETION Feces leaves the rectum NUTRITION a. Adequate diet includes: Fuel (chemical energy from carbs/ fats) Organic materials Essential nutrients (substances the animal cannot make) b. Balancing the fuel Homeostatic mechanism (glucose conversion) Fats most amount of ATP c. Caloric imbalance Undernourishment caloric deficiency Over nourishment excessive caloric intake Amica !

3. ABSORPTION Villus folds found in the small intestine; each is connected to a blood vessel and lacteals Microvillus SA:V; thus absorption

Malnourishment deficient in any essential nutrient

Plasmodesmata opening in the cell Apoplast casparian strip (wax) is present No casparian strip >> less build-up of pressure

d. Essential nutrients Amino acids protein deficiency Fatty acids (unsaturated) deficiencies are rare Vitamins fat soluble vitamins when intake is high; required in relatively small amounts PLANT TRANSPORT a. Transport Mechanisms Passive Transport - Does not use up any energy - Diffusion: high to low concentration Active Transport - Uses up energy - Transportation from low to high concentration or when molecules are too big to transport by passive transport Bulk Transport - Transportation of large amount of substances * Energy is in the form of ATP b. Plant Transport Tissues Xylem transports water Tracheid tapered, long, thinner diameter Vessel Element less tapered, short, wider diameter Phloem Companion Cells loads the sugar into the sieve tube Sieve Tube transports sugar (singular: tube member) c. Movement of water: Symplast vs Apoplast

d. Three scales of plant transport Intracellular - Epidermal cells Short distance: Cell to cell - For tissue and organs Long Distance: Xylem and Phloem e. Effects of differences in water potential For survival - Plants must balance uptake & loss of water Osmosis - Determines uptake or loss of water by a cell - Affected by solute concentration & pressure Water potential - Amount of water a system has - Determined by the concentration of water - Determines direction of the flow of water * water flows from high concentration to low concentration (direction); affected by both solute concentration and pressure * If a flaccid cell is placed in an environment with high concentration of solute, the cell will plasmolyze * If a flaccid cell is placed in an environment with high concentration of water, the cell will become turgid
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Terms: * Water Potential amount of water a system has * High water potential water concentration * Low water potential water concentration * Tonicity concentration of the solute * Hypertonic salt concentration * Hypotonic salt concentration * Isotonic equal amount of salt and water * Flaccid normal cell * Plasmolyze plant cell loses water * Turgid plant cell gains water * Stele group of xylem tissues inside the root f. Bulk flow in long distance transport Bulk flow Amica !

Movement of fluid in the xylem and phloem is driven by pressure differences at opposite ends of the xylem vessels and the sieve tube

THE XYLEM SAP g. Root Pressure Positive pressure (push) Upward movement of xylem sap because of a push (force exerted because of high amount of water in the roots) Movement is from the soil to the roots because the soil has a higher concentration of water
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Small plants at night: Guttation dew (through active transport)

h. Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Mechanism Negative pressure (pull) Transpiration evaporation of water from a plant to the atmosphere * Because plant has high water potential compared to the atmosphere (in transpiration) Cohesion similar cells Adhesion dissimilar cells * a tree uses both root pressure and TCTM except root pressure is not its main type of transport for root pressure is for shorter distances

2. Metabolism of Sieve tube / Companion cells loads the sugars in to the sieve tube 3. Sieve tube becomes hypertonic; there is a decrease in water potential 4. Because of the high water potential in the xylem and low water potential in the phloem (sieve tube), water flows into the sieve tube, increasing pressure 5. The water and sugar solution moves from high pressure to low pressure (phloem sap where cell is metabolizing; can go in all directions) 6. Water goes back into the xylem because of loss of water in the xylem 7. Cycle continues Active transport photosynthetic cell to the cell (sugars are too big so active transport is used)

ANIMAL TRANSPORT Functionally connect the organs of exchange with the body cells Not all animals have transport systems (animals such as poriferans/sponges, cnidarians and flatworms; they use diffusion) Most invertebrates have a gastrovasular cavity / circulatory system for internal transport Double circulation - Depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart Amica !

THE PHLOEM SAP i. Pressure flow Process 1. Photosynthetic cell makes the sugars

Organism should have 2 atria

* Interstitial fluid allows diffusion of substances into the cell; acts as a ladder Closed circulatory system - Blood just goes around; confined in the blood vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid - Exchange of materials of through diffusion

a. Gastrovascular Cavity Digestion and circulation Presence of 2-cell thick body walls Only the inner layer is exposed to food; outer layer receives food through diffusion Both layers are bathed with fluid * Planarians and other flatworms also have a gastrovascular cavity; their body shape ensures the efficient transport of food b. Open vs. Closed Circulatory System * both overcome the limits of diffusion * 3 basic components: 1. Circulatory fluid (blood) 2. Tubes (blood vessels) 3. Pumping organ (heart) Open circulatory system - Bathed organs that need nutrients - No distinction between blood and interstitial fluid (called hemolymph) - Sinuses interconnected spaces that surround organs - Heart contraction: pumps hemolymph to the sinuses and other organs (they are bathed) - Heart relaxation: hemolymph is drawn back to the heart through the ostia

c. Single vs Double circulation Single circulation - Seen in fish (blood vessels are in between the muscle; when muscles contract, blood vessels are squished, allowing blood to flow) Double Circulation - Ensures that blood pressure is retained - Depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart; must have 2 atria (heart receives blood twice) d. Vertebrate Phylogeny Reflected in adaptations of the gastrovascular system Cardiovascular system: presence of heart & vessels High metabolic rate: more complex (more energy is needed to convert fat into energy) Low metabolic rate: less complex Frog vs mouse: mouse has a more complex vascular system for it is endothermic Amica !

Atrium: receives blood; thin muscle layer Ventricle: pumps blood; thickest muscle layer due to function * left ventricle (thicker) pumps blood to the whole body; right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs / respiratory system Vessels Arteries: carries blood away from the heart; thickest muscle layer where the ventricle pumps blood; pulmonary artery has valves as well that regulate entrance and exit of blood Arterioles: smaller arteries Venules: Veins: carries blood back to the heart; between muscle tissues; contains valves Capilliaries: thinnest muscle layer so diffusion is made possible and easy; 2 layers Branching more cells are reached

Reptiles: presence of ridge in ventricle 4 chambered heart (Seen as evolution) Right ventricle: deoxygenated blood Left ventricle: oxygenated blood g. Mammals, birds and crocodilians 4 chambered heart Left side: oxygen rich Right side: oxygen poor No mixing of blood Slow velocity/ acceleration low pressure low force (Force = mass x acceleration) Double circulation in mammals depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart h. Human heart Cardiac cycle complete pumping and filling Systole contraction Diastole relaxation Cardiac output volume of pumped blood into systematic circuit per minute * heartrate: number of beats per minute * Stroke volume: amount of blood pumped per contraction

e. Fish heart 2 main chambers 1 atrium 1 ventricle Gill circulation: loading of oxygen to the blood Systemic circulation: oxygen is unloaded from the blood f. Frog and other amphibian hearts 3 chambered heart Forked artery (pulmocutaneous & systemic circulation) Double circulation (restores blood pressure) Mixing of blood

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