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Are Humans Still Evolving?
Are Humans Still Evolving?
MARTIN SHIELDS
MARTIN SHIELDS is a biology teacher at Pascack Hills High School, Moreover, the purpose of this activity is not to expe-
Montvale, NJ 07645; e-mail: mshields@pascack.k12.nj.us. ditiously arrive at a definitive answer to the question
EVOLVING HUMANS 21
posed. Rather, the lesson’s value lies in student appli- I begin the discussion by choosing a student to
cation, explication, and discussion of selection theory. express his/her ideas on the topic. Then I call on an
The question is simply a tool to stimulate analysis and adjacent student, followed by a series of nearby stu-
student debate on the accurate transfer of evolution’s dents. I call on students in the beginning, rather than
concepts to a case study species. soliciting volunteers, to prevent the discussion from
moving immediately into debate. I have found it fruitful
to begin by eliciting a pool of ideas (some valid, some
Introductory vs. Advanced not) that can subsequently be critiqued by the group.
Classes In this initial phase, I provide little feedback and I
refrain from correcting inaccuracies. I want other stu-
To my introductory 9th and 10th grade classes, the dents to do that later. Also, at this point, I don’t want to
question of current human evolution translates to: Are inhibit students. Eventually, I open the discussion to
humans changing over time due to natural selection? I volunteer contributors and I begin to pose questions. I
often offer this version to them as a clarification of the usually pick a recurring misconception, repeat it, and
original question. In some ability levels of Introductory solicit opinions on its validity. The discussion heats up
Biology, I do not specifically teach the concepts (or at and it is easy to simply facilitate as students respond to
least not the terms) microevolution, macroevolution, or one another.
allele frequency. In these classes, the lesson is neverthe-
My role during the discussion is primarily that of
less effective at advancing understanding of evolution-
moderator. I challenge inaccuracies with questions. I
ary biology. The focus in these classes centers simply
push students to reason their way to a more sound
on whether or not certain traits are favored by natural
understanding. Periodically I interject a new subtopic
selection and passed on more often than others.
to move the discussion in a different direction. Often, I
In Honors Level Introductory Biology and need to ask a student to temporarily defer an idea until
Advanced Placement classes, my students learn the a current one has been successfully discussed and
more complex aspects of population genetics before resolved. The more students talking, the better.
this lesson. In these courses, the students tend to sub- However, I often need to weigh in on a debated point
divide the question themselves into: Are humans still when the group hasn’t correctly explained it. The stu-
undergoing microevolution and are they still undergo- dents still need the teacher as final arbiter and informa-
ing macroevolution? Microevolution refers to the rela- tion resource. The key is to subjugate this role to allow
tively small changes that occur within a species over a as much as possible for student-constructed knowl-
relatively small number of generations. Macroevolution edge.
refers to large change, such as the origin of a new
species (speciation) that usually occurs over a much
longer time period (Greenberg, 2001). Typical Student Responses
Table 1 provides some topics typically raised in stu-
The Lesson Sequence dent essays and in the discussion. The right side of the
table includes appropriate application of selection the-
I begin with students writing one to two page essays ory to the topic. Ideally, these explanations will be gen-
or journal entries on the central question, “Are humans erated by the students with varying degrees of instruc-
still evolving?” This first step is critical in promoting tor guidance.
individual idea development. I stress to the students
I have found students need continual reminders of
that they will not be graded according to the side of the
the connection between evolution and genes. They for-
issue they choose to argue. It is important to avoid
get that beneficial traits will not emerge or increase in
restricting students at this point through fear of getting
frequency unless the same happens to genes that influ-
the wrong answer. I want to draw the students out, to
ence those traits. For instance, many students claim
coax the entrenched misconceptions to the surface.
that humans “need to be” increasingly more intelligent
After I have read their essays, we have a class dis- to survive in a technology-rich world, and that this pro-
cussion. The students and I clear desks from the room motes the evolution of increased intelligence. If such
center and we arrange ourselves in a circle. While this an issue is not correctly resolved by other students, I
may seem unnecessary or incidental I have found the will respond with a question. I might ask, “Does a
quality of student-to-student interaction vastly Silicon Valley software designer leave more of his or
improves when I am not physically positioned as a focal her genes to the next generation than someone who
point. The group discussion usually fills a 44-minute doesn’t even use a computer?” There is, of course, no
class period. evidence that technological facility or even intelligence
Appendix getting smaller or disappearing. It is possible that allele(s) for smaller/less likely-to-become-infected appendixes could be
favored in areas without access to quality health care. But this is probably not an issue where
infected appendixes are easily treated.
Aren’t humans taller than in the 1700s? If true, this is based on differences in nutrition/health care, not natural selection.
Lethal diseases. Alleles for lethal disorders or predispositions for diseases are selected against, especially if
they kill the individual before reproductive age. Alleles that confer resistance are selected for.
For example, individuals with 2 CCR5 alleles do not acquire AIDS even if infected with HIV
(O’Brien & Dean, 1997).These alleles should increase in frequency where AIDS mortality is
high (e.g., Africa).
People evolving to be smarter in response to Ability to use technology is not gene-based or normally related to survival/reproduction.
new technologies. “Intelligence” is difficult to define.
Modern medicine. People with potentially lethal alleles may have life prolonged, thus maintaining the
distribution of those alleles in populations. For example, the PKU allele probably exists in
higher frequency in countries where the disorder is diagnosed and treated (Ridley, 2001).
Biotechnology: These are forms of artificial selection – further removing humans from the influence of
“Genius sperm banks” natural selection?
Embryo screening
Gene therapy/“designer” babies.
Skin color, race. Skin color probably has little, if any, effect on survival today due to clothing, housing,
behavior, nutrition, sunscreen, etc. Recent research suggests a benefit to light skin for vitamin
D production in northern latitudes (Kirchweger, 2001).
Existence of distinct human races is not supported by human genome analysis (Paabo, 2001).
Speciation/macroevolution Not occurring. If anything, there is less gene pool isolation today due to advances in global
travel (Hayden, 2002).
(a difficult to define and controversial concept) increas- on more often and it will be found in more individuals
es a person’s fitness in the modern environment. of the following generations.
Students need to employ the selection theory litmus
test: Does the trait affect an individual’s ability to sur- There are two important side issues raised by the
vive into and through the reproductive years (relative software engineer example. One is the student proclivi-
to individuals lacking the trait), and does it affect an ty to refer to the “need” for a species to evolve in
individual’s ability to produce fertile offspring? If so, response to an environmental pressure. Research has
then the frequency of occurrence of an allele that influ- revealed this misconception to be prevalent even in
ences the trait will be altered, and the population will medical students who have, presumably, a strong aca-
experience microevolution due to natural selection. Or, demic background in biology (Brumby, 1984). I usual-
in simpler terms: The gene for that trait will be passed ly interrupt when I hear students ask, “Do species need
EVOLVING HUMANS 23
to adapt?” A short discussion then reminds students courses) by helping to rear the children of relatives. By
that populations often, in fact, don’t adapt to change choosing against reproducing, and thus against
and they are extirpated. Either they adapt, or they don’t, increasing our fitness, don’t humans somewhat dis-
and “need” has nothing to do with it. Those that adapt tance our gene pool from the formative influence of the
do so because some individuals already possessed ben- environment? Even in the case of lethal disorder alle-
eficial traits that were born of random genetic variations les, humans have, in some cases, supplanted the envi-
and gave them a survival advantage. ronment as the selecting mechanism. Many individuals
A second issue relevant to these discussions cen- with nonlethal forms of alleles choose not to repro-
ters on our status as a bizarre species. Unlike most duce, while many with potentially harmful alleles are
other organisms, individuals of Homo sapiens do not now, due to medical advances, able to survive and pass
usually strive to maximize their reproductive success. on those alleles. Or, are humans and their technologies
The software designer may, for many possible reasons, just another element of the environment? Students
choose against passing genes to the next generation. become quite animated in discussing these ideas.
Also, he or she may or may not choose to enhance
inclusive fitness (a topic only explored in my AP level Convergence with Social Issues
Usually students will steer the discussion toward a
variety of important societal issues. If they don’t, I will
initiate these meaningful contributions to the dis-
NABT’s
humans in underdeveloped countries or impoverished
American regions under a greater influence of natural
2004
selection? It is critical here to dispel any race-based
associations. High school students in some popula-
tions may need to be reminded that poverty comes in
all colors. If race does become a topic, it would be use-
ful to discuss Human Genome Project conclusions that
there is not enough genetic variation between groups
with different skin colors to even support the concept
of race in humans (Paabo, 2001).
EVOLVING HUMANS 25