Siva and Indo-European Ideology: One Line of Thought

Nicholas J. Allen

When

an Indianist colleague recently asked me what I could say about the Indo European background to Indian deities, I thought back over a twenty-year-old interest in the subject and noticed thatmy published comments on Siva have been particularly dispersed. This paper attempts to consolidate some of them and to push the same line of thoughta bit further.

common origin of the Indo-European languages and their subsequent spread and diversification, (b) It focuses on ideology and, more precisely, on the notion of a partitional ideology?one divided into a small number of contrasting domains, (c) It recognizes

The whole approach has been based on thework of Georges Dumezil. Thus, (a) it is diachronic or genetic, in that it looks for the cultural concomitants of the historical

that some features of Indo-European and Indo-Iranian tradition (the "para-Vedic" ones) bypass the Vedas and appear first in Classical Sanskrit texts,

(d) It is structural in the sense that it examines entities less in themselves than in their relations to other entities. Thus we shall be less interested in Siva's intrinsic

attributes than in his location within an ideology and his relations to other gods in particular contexts. I also follow Dumezil in recognizing franklyone consequence of the scale and complexity of the comparative undertaking, namely, that any single formulation is unlikely to prove either exhaustive or definitive. Given his importance in theHindu pantheon, Siva naturally turns up in numerous different contexts, and

each new analysis may cast unforeseen lighton previous ones.1 in threemain ways. First, Dumezil envis My approach departs fromDumezil's as being composed in India by the transposition into epic the Mahabharata aged

was brought there by Indo-Aryan speakers. Second, where Dumezil rather seldom drew on comparisons between the Mahabharata and Greek epic, I have emphasized reasons of space I do not do so here). Third, to put it crudely and them (though for simplistically, where Dumezil envisages the Indo-European

form of bits and pieces of Vedic or para-Vedic mythology. I agree with several others, such as Christophe Vielle (1996), in thinking that, as a more or less unified Mahabharata had a long prehistory outside the subcontinent before it epic cycle, the

ideology as triadic, I

International Journal ofHindu Studies 11,2 (2007): ? 2007 Springer DOI 10.1007/sl 1407-007-9045-5

191-207

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envisage it as pentadic. More precisely, although Dumezil only talks of three domains or "functions," he often bisects his first function into Varuna and Mitra aspects, so that in effect he operates with a fourfold schema. Conversely, although I talk of a pentadic ideology, I prefer to avoid proposing five functions and instead envisage a fourth function bisected into positive and negative aspects or "half functions."2 So the triadic and pentadic schemata contrast less sharply than may

appear at first sight. The two schemata can be related most concisely in terms of social roles. While Dumezil's first, second, and third functions relate respectively to sovereign-plus priest, warrior, and producer, the pentadic schema dissolves that awkward fusion

within the first function. The fourth function is defined as covering what is other, outside, or beyond relative to the three "classical" functions, and its positive aspect

more demonstrable, in thatpentads conforming to the definitions of the functions are less likely to arise by chance than are triads.

otherwise it subsumes it, thereby making itpotentially applicable to a wider range of At the same time the reality of the larger schema becomes potentially phenomena.

covers sovereigns, kings, founders, and creators, while its negative aspect covers enemies, slaves, demons, and other devalued outsiders. In other words, the larger schema departs from the smaller only by pruning the definition of the first function;

A deity as important as Siva is of course difficult to characterize briefly, but if one had to choose a single-word description, certainly for the early period, one could do worse than "outsider." The termhas often been used. "From Rudra, Siva inherits the awesomeness and even malevolence of character which made him feared, as from orthodox sacrifice which marked his outsider status"

well as the exclusion

(Brockington 1981: 70). "That certain circles continued to regard him [Siva] as an outsider standing apart from the other gods may appear from the popular story of Daksa's sacrifice" (Gonda 1970: 13). In the earliest mythology of Rudra-Siva "the dark outsider is already beginning to be included in the Vedic ritual" (O'Flaherty 1975: 116). In the context of the epic themultivalent polarity of Visnu and Siva can

be expressed by the opposition "Pervader" versus "Outsider" (Hiltebeitel 1976: 356). It is no surprise then thatRudra cannot be accommodated within the trifunctional structure (Dumezil 1971: 82, 108). On the other hand, he would fit well within the fourth function. I deliberately use the conditional since in general an entity should

only be allocated to a function if it is coordinate with other entities that can be allocated to the other functions. As an outsider among the gods, Siva is eligible for interpretationas representing the fourthfunction, but to see whether the possibility is realized we must look at specific contexts. and Kauravas

Pandavas Reduced

narrates the conflict between the to a single sentence, the Mahdbhdrata the Kauravas?Baddies and Losers. and Winners?and Pandavas?Goodies the human agents incarnate supernaturals, and from this point of view the

However,

Siva and Indo-European Ideology I 193 belongs in the endless list of conflicts between Sanskritic gods and comments valuably both on the conflict and on individual demons. Dumezil members of both sides, but his trifunctionalschema, though itworks reasonably well for the Pandavas and the gods who father them or are incarnated in them, cannot Great War accommodate

The pentadic theory raises two issues. If we startwith the Panda va brothers, Dumezil's arguments work well for the elder pair (Yudhisthira son of Dharma, and Bhima son of Vayu) and for the younger pair (the twin sons of theAsvins). They are plausible representatives of the first, second, and third functions respectively. However, Arjuna, the central brother in the sequence of births, fits only awkwardly in the second function. As son of Indra, king of the gods, he fits at least as well

theKauravas. This is clearly unsatisfactory. From a commonsensical of view one might expect any ideology to have some place for the enemies of point cosmic order, and more pertinently, there has to be something wrong with an account of Vedic and Hindu traditionwhich glosses over the god-demon opposition. The problem was sensed by F. B. J.Kuiper (1961), but he offered no solution to it.

under the positive or valued fourthfunction. Second, ifwe move to theKauravas, we now have a slot available to accommodate them,but tomaximize comparability with the Pandavas we should focus, not on thewhole set of one hundred brothers, but on

Kali

he (1.61.80);3 but during his nocturnal visit to the underworld (3.240.5-8) learns from the demons the truthabout his own divinity. The demons claim to have obtained him from Siva by their austerities; moreover, if his upper body was made

devalued, so he fits excellently under the fourthfunction negative. are linked. While the One asks next with which supernaturals the Kauravas the text gives two younger brothers all incarnate raksasa demons, forDuryodhana answers. The list of partial incarnations says that he was born from a portion of

the eldest among them, the central figure of Duryodhana. Father's brother's son to the Pandavas ("cousin-brother," as the relationship is sometimes called), he is their enemy par excellence. From the Pandava viewpoint he is both an outsider and

Devi

from diamonds and is thus invulnerable to weapons, his lower body was made by (Siva's consort) from flowers and is therefore seductive to females. His body is thus imbuedwith both deities.

The Saivite associations of both answers are clear. As is well known, the eras are named after the throws of dice and the age of kali, the last and worst of them, is named after the lowest valued throw,which has but a single dot. Siva spends much of his time dicing and is often identifiedwith Kala ("Time"). Moreover, "Kali is plain destruction" (Hopkins 1915: 76), and Siva is god of destruction. Again, although Siva sometimes fights demons, by virtue of a paradox that is typical of him, he is sometimes accompanied by them. Finally, the male-female divide in Duryodhana's body echoes that of Siva Ardhanarisvara, the lordwho is half female (13.134.9), even though in images of the god the division is into right and left rather thanup and down. In summary then, though Duryodhana's relationship with Siva is less straight forward than, for instance, Yudhisthira's with Dharma, it is undeniable.4 But if the

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Pandavas with their associated deities represent the superior levels of the ideological hierarchy and the Kaurava prince represents fourth function negative, then by analogy theprince's associated deity should represent the same domain. In Arjuna's case, as we saw, a discrepancy exists between his relatively junior position in the birth order and his exalted position in the sequence of functions, and

Duryodhana presents a sort of mirror image of this.He was born on the same day as his archenemy and killer Bhlma (1.114.14), and since the Pandavas were born at

is at least a year older than any of the Pandavas.5 This conception, Duryodhana accords with the birth order of their respective fathers since Dhrtarastra is older than birth is described before the Pandu, and also with the textual order?Duryodhana's Pandavas'. supernaturals the demons are usually the elder brothers of the gods (for example, 12.34.13), and we see that, similarly, Siva's seniority need not correlate with his position in functional lists. Among

yearly intervals thismakes him one year younger thanYudhisthira. But when the was born, Gandhari, Duryodhana's mother, had already been pregnant for two latter years (1.107.9, 114.1, 115.21, 213.79). She now aborts, and the prince spends a third year of foetal life, as itwere, in vitro (in fact, in a pot). Thus if age ismeasured from

The Five Indras (1.189.1-40) The gods are holding a sacrifice beside the Ganges. Yama, god of Death, is participating, and since his normal activity is in abeyance, human population explodes. Anxious about their status, the gods consult Prajapati, who reassures Seeing a golden lotus floating down the river, Indra leaves the ritual and, going upstream, finds that it originated from the tear of a female [the goddess Sri]. She takes him to Siva, who them: in due course mortals will resume dying, and in large numbers.

is playing dice with Parvati on a Himalayan peak. Indra accosts him arrogantly, but is humbled by Siva, who confines him in a cave with

group. Siva ordains thatSri become theirwife, i.e., Draupadi. Siva and his quintet visit Narayana [Visnu], who ratifies the decisions and arranges the incarnation of
Balarama and Krsna.

four other Indras from past eras. Begging to be released, Indra is told that he and the others will be born as human warriors?to return to Indra's heaven only when they die. "Our" Indra then volunteers to beget or become Arjuna, the fifth in the

As Jacques Scheuer notes in passing (1982: 105n47), this is clearly a version of the better known myth of the "Overpopulated Earth" (narrated 1.58.1-59.7 and else where). But I ignore this topic, and others no less rich, to concentrate on the relation between the Indras and Siva. As in the previous section, we have at first sight a structure consisting of Pandava pentad plus individual?there Duryodhana with his

Saivite associations, here Siva himself. Looked at more closely, however, the members of the pentad are not homogeneous. Among the Pandavas Arjuna stood apart, as transcendent, and here it is our Indra, the fatherof Arjuna, who stands apart,

Siva and Indo-European Ideology I 195 being themain protagonist. Thus the structure is not so much 5+1 as 1+4+1. But even this formula is unsatisfying since theAsvins and theirmortal counterparts, the Pandava

twins, can be regarded as a single unit (born at the same time, they tend to act together), so thatone can write 1+3+1. This in turnrepresents the structureof the pentadic ideology, with its three core functions (the thirdoften represented by twins) and its two outsider half-functions. The difficult question here is the relation between the two half-functions, repre sented respectively by our Indra and Siva. One expects the king of the gods to be in

some sense positive or valued and the "dark" or "malevolent" god to be the opposite, but here it is Indra who is humbled and Siva who dominates. Should one then talk of

"reversal," as if in this episode Indra comes to represent the negative aspect of the fourthfunction and Siva the positive? This would be facile and unhelpful, for despite first impressions Siva remains closely linked with negativity. For instance, he is not absence there when other gods, such as Indra, are busy with a sacrifice, and although his (not explained in the text) may theoretically be voluntary and reflect his status as renouncer, nevertheless, from an orthodox or Vedic point of view it implies

sovereignty. Simultaneously he has been imprisoning successive Indras, each a king of the gods, with a view to punishing them by a temporarymission to earth, where they will aid the work of Yama and participate inmassacring or sacrificing vast

devaluation. Again, assuming thatSri isweeping for the imprisonment of her former husbands (Hiltebeitel 1976: 179), Siva has been afflicting a goddess who corre sponds to Prthivi in the "Over-populated Earth" and who is closely associated with

mortals, nor from that of the gods. Itmakes sense, then, that some Indian families in contrast to the Rdmdyana, as an inauspicious text regard theMahabharata, unsuitable for reading in the house (Fitzgerald 1991: 156nl2). In other words, although he is here more powerful than Indra, Siva can still be analyzed as representing the fourth function negative. Belonging under this half

numbers of mortals. Such deeds may be necessary for the functioning of the cosmos, but they are hardly positive or valued?neither from the point of view of the luckless

function does not necessarily mean being weaker than representatives of the other half-function (any temptation to think itdoes may derive from excessive reliance on the varna schema). It is worth comparing power with age. As we saw, Duryodhana

and Karna come last in the functional series but first in age, and similarly Siva is clearly older than our Indra and at least as old as the first of his prisoners. He is sometimes said to be the first born of all creatures (7.173.81). The normal assump
Indra.

tion is that seniority correlates with power, so Siva ought to be more powerful than

The Five Husbands The Five Indras was narrated by Vyasa toDrupada to explain and justifyDraupadi's polyandrous marriage, but a single explanation is apparently not enough and Vyasa continues immediately into the story I call the "Five Husbands" (1.189.41-49). The

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"A maiden sage had previously told the same story to the Pandavas (1.157.6-14): who lacks a husband performs tapas to Siva and repeatedly prays to him to remedy her situation.As she has repeated her prayer five times, Siva decrees that,despite her protests, she shall have five husbands. In a later life she is reborn as Draupadi." Since the structure of this little tale looks triadic?maiden, Siva, the five undiffer entiated husbands (-Pandavas), one might try to analyze it as a 1+5+1 story.Arjuna

would be regarded, here, as second-functional, and one would tryallotting the god and maiden each to one half-function. However, such an analysis seems to me remote from that of the "Five Indras," which Vyasa has just told. implausible?too

Instead, despite being unnamed, Arjuna should be retained as representing the fourth function positive while god and maiden together occupy the negative slot. This is not inappropriate since in two differentways themaiden is linked to earth. First, in the "Five Indras," her equivalent is Sri, who corresponds to Prthivi (Earth) in the "Overpopulated Earth"; and second, when bom as Draupadi, she will emerge from In the context of the the middle of a Vedic altar, that is from earth (1.155.41). elements, it is earth that represents fourth function negative. Moreover, when she emerges she has a strong smell (of blue lotuses), and in Samkhya philosophy smell is the subtle element corresponding to earth.

The Kaurava

Marshals

Throughout the conflict the Kauravas have Duryodhana as their central leader or supremo, but during thewar itself theyhave five successive marshals. This sequence is a good example of the common phenomenon whereby one level of ideological structure is involuted within another?one

pentad within one element of a larger pentad. As themarshals have been treated several times elsewhere (see Appendix), I present them in tabular form (Table 1). Marshal Bhisma Drona Salya Asvatthaman Table Supernatural Dyaus Brhaspati Kama Surya Siva... Tenure 10 days 5 days 2 days 1/2day one night Function F4+ Fl (F2) F3 F4Basis of Argument hero and god hero and god position in sequence hero hero and god

Samhrada

1.The Kaurava Marshals

Column 2: the supernatural being incarnated in themarshal. Column 3: duration ofmarshalship. Column 5: main grounds on which each marshal is allocated to a

(half-) function; thus both Drona and Brhaspati represent the first function for independent reasons, whereas in the case of Salya the asura Samhrada can at best only be tenuously linkedwith the thirdfunction. as we saw, Kama

Only two entries in the Table demand comment. Qua Kaurava,

Siva and Indo-European Ideology

I 197

is to be associated with fourth function negative, but qua marshal, his central position in the pentadic sequence strongly suggests second function. His situation is thus analogous to thatof Arjuna, who formany reasons has to be associated with

the fourth function positive, but whose central position in the birth order strongly suggests second function. Both are of course outstanding warriors, and theirduel in themiddle one out of the five war books is in some ways the centrepiece of the

whole conflict. (1.61.66-67), he was born from portions not only of Siva but also of Antaka (Death), Kama (Lust) and Krodha (Anger); or simply (Mahadeva) fromRudra (15.39.15). Moreover, his Saivite nature is reinforced at the start of his As for Asvatthaman marshalship as he prepares tomassacre the sleeping Pandava army. Threatened by a monstrous apparition, Asvatthaman prays to Siva and offers himself into a sacrificial fire. Siva manifests himself, gives the hero a sword, and enters or possesses body. The fourfold list in Book his

most fearsome forms (for example, O'Flaherty 1975: 29, fromAitareya Brahmana 3.33-34). But the list is also interesting in that, complemented by Asvatthaman

1 is well recognized to echo the process of fusion that led to the birth of Vedic Rudra. The gods wanted someone to punish Prajapati for committing incestwith his daughter, so they created Rudra by bringing together their

himself, it forms a pentad that could be functional: the god of gods, the core triad (Antaka, Krodha and Kama possibly representing Fl,2,3, respectively) and the mortal they form or animate. The functional interpretation of Antaka, normally equated with Yama, is not obvious, but itmay relate somehow to the puzzling fact thatboth first-functionalYudhisthira and Yama But I do not press the idea. are sometimes called Dharmaraja.6

The Five Marshals provides perhaps the strongest single argument for allocating Siva to the fourthfunction negative. The Night Attackers When marshal launches his attack on the Pandavas (Book 10), theKaurava the fifth army has been reduced to three soldiers, namely Asvatthaman himself, Krpa and Krtavarman. Can anything be made of this triad?

approach he is able to converse with Asvatthaman and ratify the attempt at revenge. He orders Krpa to perform the ritual installation of themarshal (9.64). After the massacre the triad return to the stricken prince. Hearing Asvatthaman's report of mission accomplished, Duryodhana congratulates his marshal and dies happy (10.9). The prince is clearly part of the story, and on both occasions he is repeatedly addressed as 'king," so we have a reasonable candidate for thepositive half-function.

Let us first look for agents who might frame or surround the triad.The storyof the fifth marshalship in fact begins at the end of the previous book. Mortally wounded by Bhlma, Duryodhana lies on the ground, writhing in agony, but when the triad

At the other end of the scale, the triad are not accompanied by any humans, but

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this does not mean that they are alone. Having entered the body of Asvatthaman, Siva himself is hardly relevant, but themarshal has prayed to him as the lord of myriad troops of spirits, and when he attempts self-immolation these troops appear (10.7.4b, 8a, 15). The description of their appearance and activities is prolix and fantastic. Whether theriomorphic or anthropomorphic, these bizarre but beloved emanations of Siva (42) wield an assortment of fearsome weapons; they are noisy cannibals with supernatural powers. Their aim is to glorify Asvatthaman and enjoy themassacre

so we meet again the familiar 1-3-1 pattern.Within the triad the leader presents no is a Brahmana (as is recalled implicitly in 10.9.36-37). problem: Asvatthaman Krtavarman (incarnation of a Marut) is a Ksatriya, so two of the core functions are

demons (116, 119), the text itself ascribes all the killing to the triad.Nevertheless the demons are part of thepicture and fitwell under thenegative half-function.7 Between the dying king and the demonic subhuman horde comes thewarrior triad,

(47-48), so they accompany themarshal as he approaches the camp (66). Together with theirwives and children, they gorge themselves on human flesh and blood (126-35). Although the victims believe that they are being attacked by

represented by members of appropriate varnas. However, Krpa (incarnation of a Rudra) is also a Brahmana, and I can see no good way of interpretinghim as third functional. Probably this is one of those cases (not uncommon), where the pentadic ideology is expressed only incompletely. I abstain from speculating on why this is
so.

The Weapon

Givers

My next case is somewhat similar: the 1-3-1 pattern is clear and the fourth function is satisfactorily represented, but one itemwithin the triad does not accord with the twelve-year exile (Book 3) a set of individual journeys are made, each conducted or led by one or other hero. The firstof these (3.38-45) is Arjuna's five-year-long visit to Indra in heaven, and it is balanced by the last pentadic schema. During the Pandavas'

come three other journeys, the first a pilgrimage (3.91-145) led by first-functional The other two (146-53 and 157-59), rather similar to each other, raise Yudhisthira. difficult issues, and I ignore the set here because despite the Saivite atmosphere of Duryodhana's journey, Siva himself is notmentioned. intervenes prominently, however, in Arjuna's instructions are provided by Vyasa. To obtain weapons, Siva journey, for which aid and the hero is to go to Indra and

(3.240), Duryodhana's overnight visit to the underworld (see above, "Pandavas and Kauravas"). These essentially solo journeys are carried out by heroes who in other contexts represent the positive and negative half-functions. Between them

Rudra (3.37.28ab) and toVaruna, Kubera and Dharmaraja, that is,Yama (28cd); or to Indra and Rudra (30a) and theLokapalas (30b). Both slokas group together gods we have earlier linked with the half-functions, distinguishing them from a triad (28) or a quartet (30; the Lokapalas of course guard the four cardinal points). The

Siva and Indo-European Ideology I 199 numerical discrepancy is resolved when Arjuna actually meets the gods in question. After receiving weapons from Siva in theHimalayas, he is in fact visited by four Lokapalas (a common list, consisting of Kubera, Yama, Varuna and Indra), but only the first three give weapons at this point; Indra promises to do so later, in heaven, as indeed he does. But theremay be more to it.As E. Washburn Hopkins (1915: 150) notes, the titleof the quartet is curious. The worlds (lokas) are normally envisaged as a triad arranged vertically, while the cardinal points, being four and arranged hori zontally, should be guarded by Disampalas. Hopkins hypothesizes that "originally

therewere three real world-protectors." In any case, what the text gives us is five weapon-givers, Rudra (3.41), the triad (3.42, cf. 3.164), and Indra (3.45.4). Within the triad Kubera, god of wealth, normally represents the third function and Varuna, at least inVedic times, the first;but I doubt whether a convincing case can be made forYama representing the second; perhaps he has replaced a second

function deity. The order of listing of the relevant gods is variable and only in 3.164.13-14 does it even approximate to the rising hierarchy thatwould fit best in a structureopening with Siva and culminating in Indra. Sacrifice

Daksa's

The myth of Daksa's sacrifice is known inmany versions and has a considerable Mahdbhdrata let us summa secondary literature.Of the half-dozen versions in the rize the one that ismost convenient for our purposes (10.18). It is narrated by Krsna in response toYudhisthira's question of how Asvatthaman was able single-handed to is
insignificant.

carry out the nocturnal massacre. That this particular text fails tomention Daksa

The gods organise a sacrifice but in their ignorance they fail to invite Siva. Siva wants his portion of the offering, creates a large and effective bow and goes to the sacrificial site. Portentous signs occur, including earthquakes. Siva shoots the sacrifice, which flees in the form of a deer. Amid the confusion, using the end of his bow, Siva breaks the arms of Savitr, blinds Bhaga and knocks out the teeth of

laughs and halts the fleeing gods. They and the sacrifice beg for Siva casts his anger into the sea, restores the three gods he has mutilated, mercy. and receives his share of the offerings. Other versions of themyth (for example, Kramrisch 1981: 322-30) fill out the plot by mentioning additional participants. Daksa, son or grandson of Brahma and "a kind of secondary creator" (Johnson 1998: 129), is usually named, and sometimes

Pusan. Siva

The story is of an outsider god disrupting the sacrifice of the other gods in order to be included among its beneficiaries. But the other gods are not undifferentiated: the one who stands apart is Daksa, the demiurge. It is sometimes he in person who

(as in 12.274) Siva's reaction is ascribed to the urging of Uma, mortified at her husband's exclusion. But such additional figures leave the basic structureunaffected.

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refuses Siva (12.330.42). Such a structure recalls the Five Indras. There too the gods in general perform a ritual fromwhich Siva is absent, and their leader ends up humiliated by the absentee. One difference is that while the fifth Indra, like his predecessors, traveled to encounter Siva, here it is Siva who travels to encounter Daksa. A more interesting difference concerns not the current leaders of the gods but the other gods humiliated In the earlier analysis they were the four previous Indras, presented as essentially homogeneous. The homogeneity is qualified since, as well as belonging to different ages, they differ proleptically in that each will become one of the well

by Siva.

the four differentiated Pandava brothers; but as we noted, following Dumezil, brothers represent the three functions, two of them together representing the third function. In the present case mortals are irrelevant, and we have a straightforward triad.So is it trifunctional? A preliminary point is that the triad of gods plus mutilations is well established in theVedas. When Rudra shoots Prajapati to punish him for his incest, the damaged part of the latter's body becomes the focus of attention. Prajapati is identifiedwith the sacrifice, and the problem iswhat to do with this dangerous part of the offering.8 According to the Satapatha Brahmana (1.7.4.1-8), it is taken successively toBhaga, Pusan and eventually Savitr. In this Vedic text itmutilates only the first two, but Savitr's mutilation is described in other sources.9 Pusan is straightforward.A god associated with cattle and prosperity, he is often 1969: and convincingly interpreted as third-functional (for example, Dumezil to nourishment, one of the various facets of that 273-87). His mutilation relates
function.

emphasis is less on the Bhaga too is often prayed to for wealth, but Dumezil's wealth as such than on the god's role in distributing it or sharing itout; this role he performs from the position of "Minor sovereign" very closely allied toMitra (for example, 1968: 149-51). After a lengthy discussion drawing on Roman as well as Indo-Iranian material, a table is presented (Dumezil 1977: 182) in which Bhaga is located under the first function (and Pusan under the third).As forBhaga's mutila tion,Dumezil sees it as reflecting the blindness or inscrutabilitywith which in other cultures deities like Fortune or Destiny distribute theirgifts. Another

interpretive approach might turn to Samkhya philosophy, which is permeated by the pentadic ideology. If fire is the first-functional gross element, the corresponding sense capacity (buddhindriya) is seeing (convenient tabulation in Larson 1979: 236). So the god and themutilation both belong, for separate reasons, under the first function. One can now recall third-functionalPusan. The only gross element pertaining to nourishment is third-functionalwater, whose correlated sense

capacity is tasting.Teeth are not used for tasting, but tongue and teeth both relate to 1.7.4.7) often pass nourishment; and the texts (for example, Satapatha Brahmana from Pusan's mutilation to his diet (since he cannot chew he receives not meat but liquid vegetarian preparations). So again the god and themutilation belong to the
same domain.

Siva and Indo-European Ideology I 201 The hypothesis must now be that Savitr is second-functional. However, he is not allocated by Dumezil to any function, and he is not presented by the texts as particu larly strong or martial. On the other hand, in some contexts the standard definition of the second function is too narrow, and what is needed is a more general notion of force, of which bodily strength and warrior prowess are particular realizations. For

instance, when it is argued that the gunas are trifunctional, it is not claimed that rajas falls under the standard definition but that itpertains to energy or dynamism. Now Savitr's name derives from the root sii-, a derivation that governs a good deal of word-play in the hymns; and this root has the sense of "stimulating, arousing, vivifying" (Macdonell 1898: 34). He is sometimes "the stimulator god" (Macdonell 1898: 34), and to stimulate is to rouse to action, to impart additional energy to (an activity or process). Dumezil himself sees that the god is a mover (moteur) and "dynamic" (1948: 194). As for Savitr's arms or hands, threepoints are worth noting. In theRg Veda it is a characteristic gesture of the god thathe raises aloft his arms (Macdonell 1898: 323), and in the Purusa Sukta (Rg Veda 10.90.12) the arms of the primal being are the origin of the second-function varna. Finally, we can again call on Samkhya. The sense capacity corresponding to second-functional air or wind is feeling (correlating with the action-capacity grasping and the subtle element touch), and the body part most obviously linkedwith touch is the hand. We must not oversimplify. Some versions of themyth give more or less than three mutilations and the sequence varies. But this does not detract from the trifunc Mahdbhdrata 10, and when themutilations are repaired, the tionality of the triad in gods are for once listed in the standard order (Fl,2,3), as they are in Gopatha
Brdhmana 2.1.2.

The Horse Sacrifice Held in order to purify Yudhisthira from the guilt incurred in the Great War, the horse sacrifice is narrated at length inBook 14. For our purposes only two episodes are relevant. The first arises because a horse sacrifice needs to be held in style and is

enormously expensive, while the royal treasuries have been emptied by thewar. The Pandavas therefore travel to theHimalayas to collect wealth left there by a former king called Marutta. After looking at this episode, we can ignore the journey round India made by the horse and move directly to thefinal ritual. The Saivite atmosphere of theHimalayan trip is unmistakable (14.62-4; conven ient summary in Biardeau 2002, 2: 584-87). When the Pandavas are planning the Bhima suggests that the first thing to do is propitiate Siva, and his suggestion is trip, followed. Traveling from the center of the kingdom to a remote periphery ("the

Outside"), they arrive at the right area at an auspicious moment, and Yudhisthira makes another offering to Siva (togetherwith Kubera, lord of wealth, and other less

important beings). Having worshiped Rudra and his host (and again, Kubera and others), they begin digging up and loading the valuables. Before returning to the

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J.Allen

plains, theyworship Siva one final time. This is clear enough, but Siva is also prominent in the story of Marutta and his rivalrywith Indra (which is eventually resolved). The story is couched in dualistic

terms.The two kings, divine and human, have as chaplains two brothers, Brhaspati and Samvarta, who are in turn linked with devas and asuras and with tejas and tapas. According to the Vulgate (14.6.22), Samvarta is a devotee of Siva, and he

advises Marutta

to go to the idyllicmountain that Siva shares with Kubera and gain the god's favor by reciting his names. As Madeleine Biardeau notes (2002, 2: 570n3, 593), the names Marutta and Samvarta associate theirowners with thewind and fire

thatdestroy theworld at the end of a cosmic cycle; but such destruction is under the control of Siva. As for the horse sacrifice itself, although the lead-up is described at some length (notably the gathering of the guests), the ritual proper is disposed of quite briefly followed by the paying off of the priests). The priests are said to (14.90.19-91.5,

assign each victim to a deity, but the recipient of the horse is not named. However, the insists that the ritualwas performed correctly, that is in accordance Mahabharata

with theVedas, and theBrahmana texts say that the horse is forPrajapati (Satapatha Brahmana 13.1.2.9, 13.2.2.15). But the horse is not the only victim. There are twenty-one sacrificial stakes, and three hundred victims tied to them?animals including the horse and bulls, but also birds and fishes; it seems that each victim is 14.90.26-27, 32-34). The publicly assigned to a particular god (Mahabharata Brahmana texts confirm the inclusion in the ritual of "all" the other gods, who are to be individually named. Thus, to a first approximation, the sacrificial ritual in Book

versus gods in central ritual involving the gods in general. The same duality?Siva been a regular feature in our previous analyses, but no less regularly general?has we have found that the "gods in general" also exhibit a dualism: one among them

14 has two phases. First comes the event oriented primarily to Siva (though secondarily toKubera)?an event that is set apart in time and space. This preliminary event contrasts with the

has some sort of transcendence, superiority or priority,which sets him apart from the others and justifies associating him with the superior half-function. Often this figure has been Indra, but as at Daksa's sacrifice (referred to in a simile at 14.90.30) we

have here a creator figure rather than a king/warrior. Sacrifice One of Siva's best-known names is Pasupati, lord of beasts, and more particularly of sacrificial animals. The texts give various explanations, but the question arises whether the name in any way reflects the pentadic ideology. Here is a possible line of thought,focusing on the agents involved in the ritual. In principle, Sudras are excluded fromVedic sacrifice, but it seems that the other three varnas

all have a role. Brahmanas of course officiate, and typically their are Ksatriyas, whether kings or warriors. But who supplies the offerings? employers

Siva and Indo-European Ideology I 203 victims must have been bred by herders and stockmen, and vegetable offerings must have been grown by farmers. Soma was supposedly acquired from merchants (Satapatha Brahmana 3.3.3). All these roles typically belong to the third Animal varna. Via
functions.

the varnas

then, the humans

involved can be linked with the core

However, it is not only humans that are involved. The ritual includes the gods, who are superior to humans, and the victims, animal or vegetable, who are inferior. No single figure could represent the gods better than their creator Prajapati, who in addition is so often identifiedwith the sacrifice, that is,with the totalityof the event; and Siva, lordof the victims, fitswell enough at theother end of the scale.

Summary Table 2 (Appendix) brings together the various contexts we have considered. The entries chosen to represent each context could sometimes be different.For instance, in thefirst row the humans could be replaced by the gods incarnated in them. Context Pandavas and Kauravas Five Indras Five Husbands Kaurava Marshals Night Attackers Weapon-Givers Daksa's Sacrifice Horse Sacrifice Sacrifice F4+ Arjuna Our Indra Fl-3 F4 4 other Pandavas Duryodhana Siva Siva Asvatthaman Siva's horde Siva Siva Siva (Pasupati)

4 previous Indras future & 4 other Pandavas Arjuna 3 core marshals Bhlsma 3 Kauravas 3 Lokapalas 3 mutilated gods other gods Siva

Duryodhana Indra Daksa Prajapati Prajapati

twice-born varnas

within another. Thus, in the context of the varna schema, themost prominent agents in the epic are second-function warriors, but in the context of the great conflict the
Kaurava warriors represent fourth-function negative. Among the Kauravas, but more

Saivite overtones analyzed as complementary by Dumezil (1971: Part 1). But theoretical questions are no less attractive. We have noted in passing how the pentadic ideology is often applied at multiple levels, one level being involuted

plored. Hopefully, the limitations will be regarded as incentives to participate in developing this line of thought,creatively as well as critically. Other contexts, whether narrative or didactic, need attention. For instance the picture should surely draw in Jarasamdha and Sisupala, those figures with strongly

In presenting this summary of the paper I am acutely aware both of the lack of depth in individual case studies and of the number of questions that remain unex

precisely among theirmarshals, the last, Asvatthaman, represents the same half function, but during the final marshalship, among the night attackers, the same individual, qua Brahmana, apparently represents the first function.We see here a

204 /Nicholas

Allen J. scope, but this cannot be the only way in which

cascade of contexts of decreasing

contexts interrelate.

ately avoided. Yet another huge topic might start from theVedic equation between Rudra and Agni or from Siva's relation to tapas (his "heat, austerity") or to his destructive eschatological fire (as opposed to the first-functional sacrificial fire). More generally, the god's association with "negativity" offers scope for reflection on philosophical issues, such as the opposition between pravrtti and nivrtti or between hyperactivity (dancing) and hypoactivity (trance).

Another topic, touched on but not treated, is the relation ofmale and female within the fourth function negative?among deities, between Siva and Devi (Sri, Prthivi, The equally important topic of Siva's relation toVisnu has been deliber Parvati...).

unproven by a number of serious and learned comparativists. More specifically, it has shown that despite the "devaluation" that sometimes attaches to representatives of the negative half-function, they can sometimes be more powerful than represen tatives of the positive half-function. The key to such apparent paradoxes probably lies in seeing the functional schema not in terms of a linear hierarchy but in terms of

In linking Siva with the negative half-function, the paper has perhaps contributed towards reducing the disconcerting character of this unusual Indian deity, and it has tried to add further weight to the case for a fourth function,which is still regarded as

a cycle?more precisely in terms of the largest temporal cycle thatwe regularly encounter. Prajapati is equated not only with sacrifice but also with the year, while Siva is equated with Time. Perhaps the ambivalent relation between the represen tatives of the two half-functions relates somehow to the ambivalence commonly New. associated with thepassage from theOld Year to the Notes 1.1 use the name Siva to refer to the god whom theVedas call Rudra and who in classical textshas a great variety of names (Mahadeva, Sankara, and so on). 2. I have discussed these issues in many previous papers, for example, Allen 2005d (where the reference toAllen 2006 should be corrected, see Allen 2007 here). To avoid irritatinglyfrequent use of my own name, references to these earlier papers have mostly been collected inTable 2 (Appendix). 3. Confirmed in 11.8.27 and 15.39.10 ("D. was Kali"). According

to 18.5.19 all

the story of his breastplate (7.69.35-71, Scheuer 1982: 272-74). This piece of armor, originally Siva's, had a succession of owners before being worn by Duryodhana. A fuller study could also draw on the role of dicing and Kali in themisfortunes of
Nala.

the sons ofDhrtarastra were demons (ydtudhdndh). 4. Though the details are complex, this claim receives some further support from

friend and ally, 5. Similarly, as a Kaurava champion, Karna, Duryodhana's same lowly half-function as the prince, but he is actually the eldest occupies the among the Pandava half-brothers. The son of Surya, he is only linked to Siva

Siva and Indo-European Ideology I 205 indirectly,via the notion of heat and tapas. 6. The pairing of Anger and Lust within a triad recalls the pairing of hatred and passion (dvesa and rdga) in the trifunctionalset of Buddhist "fires."

7. One might recall themasses of deformed beings excluded from Yima's vara and analyzed under this same half-function. 8. Or (O'Flaherty 1975: 117) what to do with the dangerous fiery seed emitted by Prajapati on being shot. 9. Mentioned amended, see 1969: 284). Appendix: for instance by Dumezil (1948: 193-99, translation 164-69?later

Previous Work

(cf. note 2)

The line of thoughtpursued here has concentrated on situating Siva within the Indo European pentadic ideology, and Table 2 listspapers relating to this. Pandavas and Kauravas Five Indras/Husbands Kaurava Marshals Night Attackers Weapon-Givers Daksa's sacrifice 123, 125-26; 1999b: 250-52; (Duryodhana) 2000b: 123-26 1999a 1999a; 2000a:

2006b:222

1999b: 252; 2005b; 2006a; (Buddhist fires [n6])

(Yima's vara [n7]) 2000a: 288-90 1998a; (Lokapalas) 1999b: 247-50; journeys) 2000b: 122-34; 2005c (Samkhya) 1998b 1997 (compares Odysseus' sacrifices) inpress: appendix (Annual cycle) 2005a: 172-74

(Book 3

Horse Sacrifice Sacrifice Summary

post-Odyssey

Table 2. Papers by myself, relating to different sections of thepaper A closely related to the line of thought compares Siva with other Indo-European deities. The comparison with Greece has been themost popular, and a number of my articles cited inTable 2 (notably 1997) present Siva-Poseidon rapprochements, but

that does not rule out other possibilities. Rudra-Apollo is favored by Thomas Oberlies (1998: 206-7, 214-15), and the rapprochement between Kauravas and Trojans strongly suggests Siva~Apollo. For Siva-Dionysus see for instance Bernard Sergent(1997: 321-24).

References Cited Allen, Nicholas J. 1997. "Why did Odysseus Become Anthropological Society of Oxford 26, 2: 143-54. a Horse?" Journal of the

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J. 1998b. "The Category of Substance: A Maussian Theme Allen, Nicholas Revisited." In Wendy James and N. J.Allen, eds., Marcel Mauss: A Centenary Tribute, 175-91. Oxford: Berghahn. Allen, Nicholas J. 1999a. "Arjuna and the Second Function: A Dumezilian Journal of theRoyal Asiatic Society, Series 3, 9, 3: 403-18. Crux."

Allen, Nicholas J. 1999b. "Hinduism, Structuralism and Dumezil." In E. C. Polome, ed., Miscellanea Indo-Europea, 241-60. Washington: Institute for the Study of
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Allen, Nicholas J. 2000a. "Imra, Pentads and Catastrophes." Ollodagos 14: 278-308. Allen, Nicholas J. 2000b. "Magic, Religion and Indo-European Ideology." In N. J. and Classifications: Maussian Allen, Categories Reflections on the Social, 117-47. Oxford: Berghahn. Allen, Nicholas J. 2005a. "The Articulation of Time: some Indo-European Compari
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is Emeritus Reader in the Social Anthropology of South NICHOLAS J. ALLEN Asia atOxford University. <nick.allen@anthro.ox.ac.uk>