by Tony van Roon

The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation as the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only commercial timer ic available. It provided circuit designers and hobby tinkerers with a relatively cheap, stable, and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable and astable applications. Since this device was first made commercially available, a myrad of novel and unique circuits have been developed and presented in several trade, professional, and hobby publications. The past ten years some manufacturers stopped making these timers because of competition or other reasons. Yet other companies, like NTE (a subdivision of Philips) picked up where some left off. This primer is about this fantastic timer which is after 30 years still very popular and used in
many schematics. Although these days the CMOS version of this IC, like the Motorola MC1455, is mostly used, the regular type is still available, however there have been many improvements and variations in the circuitry. But all types are pin-for-pin plug compatible. Myself, every time I see this 555 timer used in advanced and high-tech electronic circuits, I'm amazed. It is just incredible.

In this tutorial I will show you what exactly the 555 timer is and how to properly use it by itself
or in combination with other solid state devices without the requirement of an engineering degree. This timer uses a maze of transistors, diodes and resistors and for this complex reason I will use a more simplified (but accurate) block diagram to explain the internal organizations of the 555. So, lets start slowly and build it up from there.

The first type-number, in Table 1 on the left, represents the type which was/is preferred for military applications which have somewhat improved electrical and thermal characteristics over their commercial counterparts, but also a bit more expensive, and usually metal-can or ceramic casing. This is analogous to the 5400/7400 series convention for TTL integrated circuits.

The 555, in fig. 1 and fig. 2 above, come in two packages, either the round metal-can called the
'T' package or the more familiar 8-pin DIP 'V' package. About 20-years ago the metal-can type was pretty much the standard (SE/NE types). The 556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in a 14-pin DIP package, the 558 is a quad version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP case.

I nside the 555 timer, at fig. 3, are the equivalent of over 20 transistors, 15 resistors, and 2 diodes, depending of the manufacturer. The equivalent circuit, in block diagram, providing the functions of control, triggering, level sensing or comparison, discharge, and power output. Some of the more attractive features of the 555 timer are: Supply voltage between 4.5 and 18 volt, supply current 3 to 6 mA, and a Rise/Fall time of 100 nSec. It can also withstand quite a bit of abuse. The Threshold current determine the maximum value of Ra + Rb. For 15 volt operation the maximum total resistance for R (Ra +Rb) is 20 Mega-ohm.

The supply current, when the

output is 'high', is typically 1 milli-amp (mA) or less. The initial monostable timing accuracy is typically within 1% of its calculated value, and exhibits negligible (0.1%/V) drift with supply voltage. Thus long-term supply variations can be ignored, and the temperature variation is only 50ppm/C (0.005%/C).

All IC timers rely upon an external capacitor to determine the off-on time intervals of the output
pulses. As you recall from your study of basic electronics, it takes a finite period of time for a capacitor (C) to charge or discharge through a resistor (R). Those times are clearly defined and can be calculated given the values of resistance and capacitance. The basic RC charging circuit is shown in fig. 4. Assume that the capacitor is initially discharged. When the switch is closed, the capacitor begins to charge through the resistor. The voltage across the capacitor rises from zero up to the value of the applied DC voltage. The charge curve for the

circuit is shown in fig. 6. The time that it takes for the capacitor to charge to 63.7% of the applied voltage is known as the time constant (t). That time can be calculated with the simple expression:

t=RXC Assume a resistor value of 1 MegaOhm and

a capacitor value of 1uF (micro-Farad). The time constant in that case is:

t = 1,000,000 X 0.000001 = 1 second Assume further that the applied voltage is 6

volts. That means that it will take one time constant for the voltage across the capacitor to reach 63.2% of the applied voltage. Therefore, the capacitor charges to approximately 3.8 volts in one second.

Fig. 4-1, Change in the input pulse frequency allows completion of the timing cycle. As a general rule, the monostable 'ON' time is set approximately 1/3 longer than the expected time between triggering pulses. Such a circuit is also known as a 'Missing Pulse Detector'.

Looking at the curve in fig. 6. you can see that it takes approximately 5 complete time constants
for the capacitor to charge to almost the applied voltage. It would take about 5 seconds for the voltage on the capacitor to rise to approximately the full 6-volts.

Definition of Pin Functions:

Refer to the internal 555 schematic of Fig. 4-2 Pin 1 (Ground): The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated from positive supply voltages. Pin 2 (Trigger): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to below a voltage level of 1/3 V+ (or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5). The action of the trigger input is levelsensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms, as well as pulses, to be used as trigger sources. The trigger pulse must be of shorter duration than the time interval determined by the external R and C. If this pin is held low longer than that, the output will remain high until the trigger input is driven high again. One precaution that should be observed with the trigger input signal is that it must not remain lower than 1/3 V+ for a period of time longer than the timing cycle. If this is allowed to happen, the timer will re-trigger itself upon termination of the first output pulse. Thus, when the timer is driven in the monostable mode with input pulses longer than the desired output pulse width, the input trigger should effectively be shortened by differentiation. The minimumallowable pulse width for triggering is somewhat dependent upon pulse level, but in general if it is greater than the 1uS (micro-Second), triggering will be reliable. A second precaution with respect to the trigger input concerns storage time in the lower comparator. This portion of the circuit can exhibit normal turn-off delays of several microseconds after triggering; that is, the latch can still have a trigger input for this period of time after the trigger pulse. In practice, this means the minimum monostable output pulse width should be in the order of 10uS to prevent possible double

triggering due to this effect. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the trigger pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the trigger current, must also flow from this terminal into the external circuit. This current is typically 500nA (nano-amp) and will define the upper limit of resistance allowable from pin 2 to ground. For an astable configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 3 Mega-ohm; it can be greater for higher V+ levels. Pin 3 (Output): The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made up of transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type loads, and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7 volts less than the V+ supply level used. Transistor Q24 provides current-sinking capability for low-state loads referred to V+ (such as typical TTL inputs). Transistor Q24 has a low saturation voltage, which allows it to interface directly, with good noise margin, when driving current-sinking logic. Exact output saturation levels vary markedly with supply voltage, however, for both high and low states. At a V+ of 5 volts, for instance, the low state Vce(sat) is typically 0.25 volts at 5 mA. Operating at 15 volts, however, it can sink 200mA if an output-low voltage level of 2 volts is allowable (power dissipation should be considered in such a case, of course). High-state level is typically 3.3 volts at V+ = 5 volts; 13.3 volts at V+ = 15 volts. Both the rise and fall times of the output waveform are quite fast, typical switching times being 100nS. The state of the output pin will always reflect the inverse of the logic state of the latch, and this fact may be seen by examining Fig. 3. Since the latch itself is not directly accessible, this relationship may be best explained in terms of latch-input trigger conditions. To trigger the output to a high condition, the trigger input is momentarily taken from a higher to a lower level. [see "Pin 2 - Trigger"]. This causes the latch to be set and the output to go high. Actuation of the lower comparator is the only manner in which the output can be placed in the high state. The output can be returned to a low state by causing the threshold to go from a lower to a higher level [see "Pin 6 - Threshold"], which resets the latch. The output can also be made to go low by taking the reset to a low state near ground [see "Pin 4 - Reset"]. The output voltage available at this pin is approximately equal to the Vcc applied to pin 8 minus 1.7V. Pin 4 (Reset): This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state. The reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA from this pin is required to reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+ level; thus the reset input is TTL compatible for any supply voltage. The reset input is an overriding function; that is, it will force the output to a low state regardless of the state of either of the other inputs. It may thus be used to terminate an output pulse prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to "off", etc. Delay time from reset to output is typically on the order of 0.5 S, and the minimum reset pulse width is 0.5 S. Neither of these figures is guaranteed, however, and may vary from one manufacturer to another. In short, the reset pin is used to reset the flip-flop that controls the state of output pin 3. The pin is activated when a voltage level anywhere between 0 and 0.4 volt is applied to the pin. The reset pin will force the output to go low no matter what state the other inputs to the flip-flop are in. When not used, it is recommended that the reset input be tied to V+ to avoid any possibility of false resetting. Pin 5 (Control Voltage): This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider point, the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider (R8 - R9) from this point to the lower-comparator reference input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the comparator, etc. When the 555 timer is used in a voltage-controlled mode, its voltage-controlled operation ranges from about 1 volt less than V+ down to within 2 volts of ground (although this is not guaranteed). Voltages can be safely applied outside these limits, but they should be confined within the limits of V+ and ground for reliability. By applying a voltage to this pin, it is possible to vary the timing of the device independently of the RC network. The control voltage may be varied from 45 to 90% of the Vcc in the monostable mode, making it possible to control the width of the output pulse independently of RC. When it is used in

the astable mode, the control voltage can be varied from 1.7V to the full Vcc. Varying the voltage in the astable mode will produce a frequency modulated (FM) output. In the event the control-voltage pin is not used, it is recommended that it be bypassed, to ground, with a capacitor of about 0.01uF (10nF) for immunity to noise, since it is a comparator input. This fact is not obvious in many 555 circuits since I have seen many circuits with 'no-pin-5' connected to anything, but this is the proper procedure. The small ceramic cap may eliminate false triggering. Pin 6 (Threshold): Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the threshold current, must also flow into this terminal from the external circuit. This current is typically 0.1A, and will define the upper limit of total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+. For either timing configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 16 Mega-ohm. For 15 volt operation, the maximum value of resistance is 20 MegaOhms. Pin 7 (Discharge): This pin is connected to the open collector of a npn transistor (Q14), the emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is turned "on", pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is connected between pin 7 and ground and is discharged when the transistor turns "on". The conduction state of this transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage. It is "on" (low resistance to ground) when the output is low and "off" (high resistance to ground) when the output is high. In both the monostable and astable time modes, this transistor switch is used to clamp the appropriate nodes of the timing network to ground. Saturation voltage is typically below 100mV (milli-Volt) for currents of 5 mA or less, and off-state leakage is about 20nA (these parameters are not specified by all manufacturers, however). Maximum collector current is internally limited by design, thereby removing restrictions on capacitor size due to peak pulsecurrent discharge. In certain applications, this open collector output can be used as an auxiliary output terminal, with current-sinking capability similar to the output (pin 3). Pin 8 (V +): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +16 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and +15 volts. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period. Actually, the most significant operational difference is the output drive capability, which increases for both current and voltage range as the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt. There are special and military devices available that operate at voltages as high as 18 volts.
Try the simple 555 testing-circuit of Fig. 5. to get you going, and test all your 555 timer ic's. I build several for friends and family. I bring my own tester to ham-fests and what not to instantly do a check and see if they are oscillating. Or use as a trouble shooter in 555 based circuits. This tester will quickly tell you if the timer is functional or not. Although not foolproof, it will tell if the 555 is shorted or oscillating. If both Led's are flashing the timer is most likely in

good working order. If one or both Led's are either off or on solid the timer is defective. Simple huh? The capacitor slows down as it charges, and in actual fact never reaches the full supply voltage. That being the case, the maximum charge it receives in the timing circuit (66.6% of the supply voltage) is a little over the charge received after a time constant (63.2%).

The capacitor slows down as it discharges, and never quite reaches the ground potential. That means the minimum voltage it operates at must be greater than zero. Timing circuit is 63.2% of the supply voltage.

The discharge of a capacitor also takes time and we can shorten the amount of time by decreasing resistance (R) to the flow of current.

Operating Modes: The 555 timer has two basic operational modes: one shot and astable. In the one-shot mode, the 555 acts like a monostable multivibrator. A monostable is said to have a single stable state--that is the off state. Whenever it is triggered by an input pulse, the monostable switches to its temporary state. It remains in that state for a period of time determined by an RC network. It then returns to its stable state. In other words, the monostable circuit generates a single pulse of a fixed time duration each time it receives and input trigger pulse. Thus the name one-shot. One-shot multivibrators are used for turning some circuit or external component on or off for a specific length of time. It is also used to generate delays. When multiple one-shots are cascaded, a variety of sequential timing pulses can be generated. Those pulses will allow you to time and sequence a number of related operations.
The other basic operational mode of the 555 is as and astable multivibrator. An astable multivibrator is simply and oscillator. The astable multivibrator generates a continuous stream of rectangular offon pulses that switch between two voltage levels. The frequency of the pulses and their duty cycle are dependent upon the RC network values.

One-Shot Operation: Fig. 4 shows the basic circuit of the 555 connected as a monostable
multivibrator. An external RC network is connected between the supply voltage and ground. The junction of the resistor and capacitor is connected to the threshold input which is the input to the upper comparator. The internal discharge transistor is also connected to the junction of the resistor

and the capacitor. An input trigger pulse is applied to the trigger input, which is the input to the lower comparator. With that circuit configuration, the control flip-flop is initially reset. Therefore, the output voltage is near zero volts. The signal from the control flip-flop causes T1 to conduct and act as a short circuit across the external capacitor. For that reason, the capacitor cannot charge. During that time, the input to the upper comparator is near zero volts causing the comparator output to keep the control flip-flop reset.

Notice how the monostable continues to output its pulse regardless of the inputs swing back up. That is because the output is only triggered by the input pulse, the output actually depends on the capacitor charge.

Monostable Mode:
The 555 in fig. 9a is shown here in it's utmost basic mode of operation; as a triggered monostable. One immediate observation is the extreme simplicity of this circuit. Only two components to make up a timer, a capacitor and a resistor. And for noise immunity maybe a capacitor on pin 5. Due to the internal latching mechanism of the 555, the timer will always time-out once triggered, regardless of any subsequent noise (such as bounce) on the input trigger (pin 2). This is a great asset in interfacing the 555 with noisy sources. Just in case you don't know what 'bounce' is: bounce is a type of fast, short term noise caused by a switch, relay, etc. and then picked up by the input pin. The trigger input is initially high (about 1/3 of +V). When a negative-going trigger pulse is applied to the trigger input (see fig. 9a), the threshold on the lower comparator is exceeded. The lower comparator, therefore, sets the flip-flop. That causes T1 to cut off, acting as an open circuit. The setting of the flip-flop also causes a positive-going output level which is the beginning of the output timing pulse. The capacitor now begins to charge through the external resistor. As soon as the charge on the capacitor equal 2/3 of the supply voltage, the upper comparator triggers and resets the control flipflop. That terminates the output pulse which switches back to zero. At this time, T1 again conducts thereby discharging the capacitor. If a negative-going pulse is applied to the reset input while the output pulse is high, it will be terminated immediately as that pulse will reset the flip-flop. Whenever a trigger pulse is applied to the input, the 555 will generate its single-duration output pulse. Depending upon the values of external resistance and capacitance used, the output timing pulse may be adjusted from approximately one millisecond to as high as on hundred seconds. For time intervals less than approximately 1-millisecond, it is recommended that standard logic oneshots designed for narrow pulses be used instead of a 555 timer. IC timers are normally used where long output pulses are required. In this application, the duration of the output pulse in seconds is approximately equal to:

T = 1.1 x R x C (in seconds)

The output pulse width is defined by the above formula and with relatively few restrictions, timing components R(t) and C(t) can have a wide range of values. There is actually no theoretical upper

limit on T (output pulse width), only practical ones. The lower limit is 10uS. You may consider the range of T to be 10uS to infinity, bounded only by R and C limits. Special R(t) and C(t) techniques allow for timing periods of days, weeks, and even months if so desired. However, a reasonable lower limit for R(t) is in the order of about 10Kilo ohm, mainly from the standpoint of power economy. (Although R(t) can be lower that 10K without harm, there is no need for this from the standpoint of achieving a short pulse width.) A practical minimum for C(t) is about 95pF; below this the stray effects of capacitance become noticeable, limiting accuracy and predictability. Since it is obvious that the product of these two minimums yields a T that is less the 10uS, there is much flexibility in the selection of R(t) and C(t). Usually C(t) is selected first to minimize size (and expense); then R(t) is chosen. The upper limit for R(t) is in the order of about 15 Mega ohm but should be less than this if all the accuracy of which the 555 is capable is to be achieved. The absolute upper limit of R(t) is determined by the threshold current plus the discharge leakage when the operating voltage is +5 volt. For example, with a threshold plus leakage current of 120nA, this gives a maximum value of 14M for R(t) (very optimistic value). Also, if the C(t) leakage current is such that the sum of the threshold current and the leakage current is in excess of 120 nA the circuit will never time-out because the upper threshold voltage will not be reached. Therefore, it is good practice to select a value for R(t) so that, with a voltage drop of 1/3 V+ across it, the value should be 100 times more, if practical. So, it should be obvious that the real limit to be placed on C(t) is its leakage, not it's capacitance value, since larger-value capacitors have higher leakages as a fact of life. Low-leakage types, like tantalum or NPO, are available and preferred for long timing periods. Sometimes input trigger source conditions can exist that will necessitate some type of signal conditioning to ensure compatibility with the triggering requirements of the 555. This can be achieved by adding another capacitor, one or two resistors and a small signal diode to the input to form a pulse differentiator to shorten the input trigger pulse to a width less than 10uS (in general, less than T). Their values and criterion are not critical; the main one is that the width of the resulting differentiated pulse (after C) should be less than the desired output pulse for the period of time it is below the 1/3 V+ trigger level. There are several different types of 555 timers. The LM555 from National is the most common one these days, in my opinion. The Exar XR-L555 timer is a micropower version of the standard 555 offering a direct, pin-for-pin (also called plug-compatible) substitute device with an advantage of a lower power operation. It is capable of operation of a wider range of positive supply voltage from as low as 2.7volt minimum up to 18 volts maximum. At a supply voltage of +5V, the L555 will typically dissipate of about 900 microwatts, making it ideally suitable for battery operated circuits. The internal schematic of the L555 is very much similar to the standard 555 but with additional features like 'current spiking' filtering, lower output drive capability, higher nodal impedances, and better noise reduction system. Maxim's ICM7555, and Sanyo's LC7555 models are a low-power, general purpose CMOS design version of the standard 555, also with a direct pin-for-pin compatibility with the regular 555. It's advantages are very low timing/bias currents, low power-dissipation operation and an even wider voltage supply range of as low as 2.0 volts to 18 volts. At 5 volts the 7555 will dissipate about 400 microwatts, making it also very suitable for battery operation. The internal schematic of the 7555 (not shown) is however totally different from the normal 555 version because of the different design process with cmos technology. It has much higher input impedances than the standard bipolar transistors used. The cmos version removes essentially any timing component restraints related to timer bias currents, allowing resistances as high as practical to be used. This very versatile version should be considered where a wide range of timing is desired, as well as low power operation and low current sync'ing appears to be important in the particular design.

A couple years after Intersil, Texas Instruments came on the market with another cmos variation called the LINCMOS (LINear CMOS) or Turbo 555. In general, different manufacturers for the cmos 555's reduced the current from 10mA to 100A while the supply voltage minimum was reduced to about 2 volts, making it an ideal type for 3v applications. The cmos version is the choice for battery powered circuits. However, the negative side for the cmos 555's is the reduced output current, both for sync and source, but this problem can be solved by adding a amplifier transistor on the output if so required. For comparison, the regular 555 can easily deliver a 200mA output versus 5 to 50mA for the 7555. On the workbench the regular 555 reached a limited output frequency of 180Khz while the 7555 easily surpassed the 1.1Mhz mark and the TLC555 stopped at about 2.4Mhz. Components used were 1% Resistors and low-leakage capacitors, supply voltage used was 10volt. Some of the less desirable properties of the regular 555 are high supply current, high trigger current, double output transitions, and inability to run with very low supply voltages. These problems have been remedied in a collection of CMOS successors. A caution about the regular 555 timer chips; the 555, along with some other timer ic's, generates a big (about 150mA) supply current glitch during each output transition. Be sure to use a hefty bypass capacitor over the power connections near the timer chip. And even so, the 555 may have a tendency to generate double output transitions.

Astable operation: Figure 9b shows the 555 connected as an

astable multivibrator. Both the trigger and threshold inputs (pins 2 and 6) to the two comparators are connected together and to the external capacitor. The capacitor charges toward the supply voltage through the two resistors, R1 and R2. The discharge pin (7) connected to the internal transistor is connected to the junction of those two resistors. When power is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor will be uncharged, therefore, both the trigger and threshold inputs will be near zero volts (see Fig. 10). The lower comparator sets the control flip-flop causing the output to switch high. That also turns off transistor T1. That allows the capacitor to begin charging through R1 and R2. As soon as the charge on the capacitor reaches 2/3 of the supply voltage, the upper comparator will trigger causing the flip-flop to reset. That causes the output to switch low. Transistor T1 also conducts. The effect of T1 conducting causes resistor R2 to be connected across the external capacitor. Resistor R2 is effectively connected to ground through internal transistor T1. The result of that is that the capacitor now begins to discharge through R2. The only difference between the single 555, dual 556, and quad 558 (both 14-pin types), is the common power rail. For the rest everything remains the same as the single version, 8-pin 555. As soon as the voltage across the capacitor reaches 1/3 of the supply voltage, the lower comparator is triggered. That again causes the control flip-flop to set and the output to go high. Transistor T1 cuts off and again the capacitor begins to charge. That cycle continues to repeat with the capacitor alternately charging and discharging, as the comparators cause the flip-flop to be repeatedly set and reset. The resulting output is a continuous stream of rectangular pulses. The frequency of operation of the astable circuit is dependent upon the values of R1, R2, and C. The frequency can be calculated with the formula:

f = 1/(.693 x C x (R1 + 2 x R2))

The Frequency f is in Hz, R1 and R2 are in ohms, and C is in farads. The time duration between pulses is known as the 'period', and usually designated with a 't'. The pulse is on for t1 seconds, then off for t2 seconds. The total period (t) is t1 + t2 (see fig. 10). That time interval is related to the frequency by the familiar relationship:

f = 1/t or t = 1/f
The time intervals for the on and off portions of the output depend upon the values of R1 and R2. The ratio of the time duration when the output pulse is high to the total period is known as the dutycycle. The duty-cycle can be calculated with the formula:

D = t1/t = (R1 + R2) / (R1 + 2R2)

You can calculate t1 and t2 times with the formulas below:

t1 = .693(R1+R2)C t2 = .693 x R2 x C
The 555, when connected as shown in Fig. 9b, can produce duty-cycles in the range of approximately 55 to 95%. A duty-cycle of 80% means that the output pulse is on or high for 80% of the total period. The duty-cycle can be adjusted by varying the values of R1 and R2.

Applications:
There are literally thousands of different ways that the 555 can be used in electronic circuits. In almost every case, however, the basic circuit is either a one-shot or an astable. The application usually requires a specific pulse time duration, operation frequency, and duty-cycle. Additional components may have to be connected to the 555 to interface the device to external circuits or devices. In the remainder of this experiment, you will build both the one-shot and astable circuits and learn about some of the different kinds of applications that can be implemented. Furthermore, the last page of this document contains 555 examples which you can build and experiment with.

Required Parts:
In addition to a breadboard and a DC powersupply with a voltage in the 5 to 12 volt range, you will need the following components: 555 timer, LED, 2-inch /8 ohm loudspeaker, 150-ohm 1/4 watt resistor, two 10K ohm 1/4 resistors, two 1-Mega ohm 1/2 watt resistors, 10 Mega ohm 1/4 watt resistor, 0.1 F capacitor, and a 0.68F capacitor.

Experimental steps:

This circuit is resetable by grounding pin 4, so be sure to have an extra wire at pin 4 ready to test that feature.

1. On your breadboard, wire the oneshot circuit as shown in figure 11.

2. Apply power to the circuit. If you have a standard 5 volt logic supply, use it for convenience. You may use any voltage between 5 and 15 volts with a 555 timer. You can also run the circuit from battery power. A standard 9-volt battery will work perfectly. With the power connected, note the status of the LED: is it on or off? ________________ 3. Connect a short piece of hook-up wire to the trigger input line on pin 2. Momentarily, touch that wire to ground. Remove it quickly. That will create a pulse at the trigger input. Note and record the state of LED: _____________________ 4. Continue to observe the LED and note any change in the output state after a period of time. What is the state? ______________ 5. When you trigger the one-shot, time the duration of the output pulse with a stopwatch or the seconds hand on your watch. To do that, the instant that you trigger the one-shot by touching the wire to ground, immediately start your stopwatch or make note of the seconds hand on your watch. Trigger the one-shot and time the output pulse. Write in the approximate value of the pulse-duration: ______________________ 6. Using the values of external resistor and capacitor values in Fig. 11 and the time interval formula for a one-shot, calculate the output-pulse duration. What is your value? _____________________ 7. Compare your calculated and timed values of output pulses. Explain any discrepancies between your calculated and measured values. Answer: _________________________________________________ 8. Connect a short piece of hook-up wire use that as a reset. to pin 4. You will

9. Trigger the one-shot as indicated previously. Then immediately touch the reset wire from pin 4 to ground. Note the LED result: _____________

10. With a DC voltmeter, measure the output voltage at pin 3 during the one shot's off and on states. What are your values? OFF: __________ volts ON: ___________ volts. 11. Replace the 10 MegOhm resistor with a 1 MegOhm resistor and repeat steps 5 and 6. Record your timed and calculated results: Timed: ________ seconds Calculated: _________seconds

If you want to get fancy, after you've completed the experiment you can replace the resistors with potentiometers to build a variable function generator and play with that to learn more. To automate the 'RESET' pin, you can connect this pin directly to the positive of pin 8. (Thanks Bob).

12. Next you will experiment with astable circuits. First, rewire the circuit so it appears as shown in Fig. 12. 13. Apply power to the circuit and observe the LED. What is happening? Answer: ____________________________________________________ 14. Replace the 10 MegOhm resistor with a 1 MegOhm resistor. Again observe the LED. Is the frequency higher or lower? _________________ 15. Using the formula given in the tutorial, calculate the oscillation frequency using R1 as 10 MegOhm, and again with R1 as 1 MegOhm, and again with R1 as 10 MegOhm. R2 is 1 MegOhm in both cases. Record your freq's: f = _____________ Hz (R1 = 10 MegOhm) f = _____________ Hz (R1 = 1 MegOhm) 16. Calculate the period, t1 and t2, and the duty-cycle for each resistor value: 10 MegOhm: t = ___________ t1 = ____________ t2 = ____________ 1 MegOhm: ____________ t = ___________ t1 = ____________ t2=

Monitoring the timer with a speaker can be amusing if you switch capacitors or resistors to make an organ.

17. Rewire the circuit making R1 and R2 10,000 ohms (10K) and C equal to 0.1F. Use the same circuit in Fig. 12. But, replace the LED and its resistor with a speaker and capacitor as shown in Fig. 13. 18. Apply power to the circuit and note the result: ______________________ 19. Calculate the frequency of the circuit: ____________________ Hz f =

20. If you have an oscilloscope, monitor the output voltage on pin 3. Disconnect the speaker and note the output. Also, observe the capacitor charge and discharge at pin 6 or 2: _____________________________

Review of steps 1 through 20: The circuit you built for those steps was a one-shot multi-vibrator. The circuit is similar to that described in the tutorial. The trigger input is held high with a 10,000 ohm resistor. When you bring pin 2 low, by touching the wire to ground, the one-shot is fired. The LED installed at the output of the 555 is used to monitor the output pulse. The LED goes on when the one-shot is triggered. The component values selected for the circuit are large, so as to generate a long output pulse. That allows you to measure the pulse duration with a stop watch. Once the one-shot is triggered, the output LED stays on until the capacitor charges to 2/3 of the supply voltage. That triggers the upper comparator and causes the internal control flip-flop to reset, turning off the pulse and discharging the capacitor. The one-shot will remain in that state until it is triggered again. Timing the pulse should have produced an output duration of approximately 7.5 seconds. Calculating the output time interval using the formula given previously, you found the pulse duration to be:

t = 1.1 x .68 x 10-6 x 107 = 7.48 seconds

You may have notice some difference between the calculated and actual measured values. The differences probably result from inaccuracies in your timing. Further more, component tolerances may be such that the actual values are different from the marked values. In steps 8 and 9 you demonstrated the reset function. As you noticed, you could terminate the output pulse before the timing cycle is completed by touching pin 4 to ground. That instantly resets

the flip-flop and shuts off the output pulse. In step 10, you measured the output voltage. When off, the output is only a fraction of a volt. For all practical purposes it is zero. When triggered, the 555 generates a 3.5 volt pulse with a 5-volt supply. If you used another value of supply voltage, you would probably have discovered that the output during the pulse is about 1.5 volt less than the supply voltage. In step11, you lowered the resistor value to 1 Megohm. As you noticed, that greatly shortens the output pulse duration. The LED only stayed on for a brief time; so brief in fact that you probably couldn't time it accurately. The calculated duration of the output pulse is 0.748 seconds. The circuit you built for steps 12 - 20 was an astable multi-vibrator. The astable circuit is an oscillator whose frequency is dependent upon the R1, R2, and C values. In step 13, you should have found that the LED flashed off and on slowly. The oscillation frequency is 0.176 Hz. That gives a period of:

t = 1/f = 1/.176 = 5.66 seconds

Since R1 is larger than R2, the LED will be on for a little over 5 seconds and it will stay off for only 0.5 seconds. That translates to a duty-cycle of:

D = t1/t = 5.18/5.66 = .915 or 91.5%

In step 14, you replaced the 10 MegOhm resistor with a 1 MegOhm resistor making both R1 and R2 equal. The new frequency is 0.706 Hz, much higher than in step 13. That translates to a period of 1.41 seconds. Calculating the t1 and t2 times, you see that the LED is on for 0.942 second and off for 0.467 second. That represents a duty-cycle of:

D = 0.942/1.41 = 0.67 or 67%

In step 17, you made R1 = R2 = 10,000 ohm (10K) and C = 0.1uF. That increased the frequency to 480Hz. The result should have been a loud tone in the speaker. If you had used an oscilloscope, you saw the output to be a distorted rectangular wave of about 2 volts peak-to-peak. That distortion is caused by the speaker load. Removing it makes the waveform nice and square and the voltage rises to about 5 volts peak-to-peak. The capacitor waveform is a combination of the classical charge and discharge curves given earlier. The time is useful in computer, function generators, clocks, music synthesizers, games, flashing lights, printers, scanners and the list goes on and on.

Example Circuits:
I have placed a couple 555 circuit examples below for your convenience. Play with different component values and use the formulas mentioned earlier to calculate your results. Things to remember: For proper monostable operation with the 555 timer, the negative-going trigger pulse width should be kept short compared to the desired output pulse width. Values for the external timing resistor and capacitor can either be determined from the previous formulas. However, you should stay within the ranges of resistances shown earlier to avoid the use of large value electrolytic capacitors, since they tend to be leaky. Otherwise, tantalum or mylar types should be used. (For noise immunity on most timer circuits I recommend a 0.01uF (10nF) ceramic capacitor between pin 5 and ground.) In all circuit diagrams below I used the LM555CN timer IC from National, but the NE555 and others should not give you any problems.

Circuits 1 to 10a:
Play with different indicating devices such as bells, horns, lights, relays, or whatever (if possible). Try different types of LDR's. If for any reason you get false triggering, connect a ceramic 0.01uF (=10nF) capacitor between pin 5 (555) and ground. Keeping the basic rules of the 555 timer, try different values for Ct and Rt (or the C & R over pins 2, 6 & 7) Replace Rt with a 1 megohm potentiometer if you wish. Make notes of the values used and use the formulas to calculate timing. Verify your calculations with your timing. Fig. 1, Dark Detector: It will sound an alarm if it gets too dark all over sudden. For example, this circuit could be used to notify when a lamp (or bulb) burns out. The detector used is a regular cadmium-sulphide Light Dependent Resistor or LDR, for short, to sense the absence of light and to operate a small speaker. The LDR enables the alarm when light falls below a certain level. Fig. 2, Power Alarm: This circuit can be used as a audible 'Power-out Alarm'. It uses the 555 timer as an oscillator biased off by the presence of line-based DC voltage. When the line voltage fails, the bias is removed, and the tone will be heard in the speaker. R1 and C1 provide the DC bias that

charges capacitor Ct to over 2/3 voltage, thereby holding the timer output low (as you learned previously). Diode D1 provides DC bias to the timer-supply pin and, optionally, charges a rechargeable 9-volt battery across D2. And when the line power fails, DC is furnished to the timer through D2. Fig. 3 Tilt Switch: Actually really a alarm circuit, it shows how to use a 555 timer and a small glass-encapsulated mercury switch to indicate 'tilt'. The switch is mounted in its normal 'open' position, which allows the timer output to stay low, as established by C1 on startup. When S1 is disturbed, causing its contacts to be bridged by the mercury blob, the 555 latch is set to a high output level where it will stay even if the switch is returned to its starting position. The high output can be used to enable an alarm of the visual or the audible type. Switch S2 will silent the alarm and reset the latch. C1 is a ceramic 0.1uF (=100 nanoFarad) capacitor. Fig. 4, Electric Eye Alarm: The Electric-Eye Alarm is actually a similar circuit like the Dark Detector of Fig. 1. The same type of LDR is used. The pitch for the speaker can be set with the 500 kilo-ohm potentiometer. Watch for the orientation of the positive (+) of the 10uF capacitor. The '+' goes to pin 3. Fig. 5, Metronome: A Metronome is a device used in the music industry. It indicates the rhythm by a 'toc-toc' sound which speed can be adjusted with the 250K potentiometer. Very handy if you learning to play music and need to keep the correct rhythm up. Error fixed with thanks to Grant Fair in regards to the two resistors. (Grant also added a PNP power transistor to increase the volume and a led for visual as well as audio output). Fig. 6, CW Practice Oscillator: CW stands for 'Continuous Wave' or Morse-Code. You can practice the morse-code with this circuit. The 100K potmeter is for the 'pitch' and the 10K for the speaker volume. The "Key" is a morse code key. Fig. 7, CW Monitor: This circuit monitors the morse code 'on-air' via the tuning circuit hookup to pin 4 and the short wire antenna. The 100K potmeter controls the tone-pitch. Fig. 8, Ten-Minute Timer: Can be used as a time-out warning for Ham Radio. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires the ham radio operator to identify his station by giving his call-sign at least every 10 minutes. This can be a problem, especially during lengthy conversations when it is difficult to keep track of time. The 555 is used as a one-shot so that a visual warning indicator becomes active after 10-minutes. To begin the cycle, the reset switch is pressed which causes the 'Green' led to light up. After 10 minutes, set by the 500K potentiometer R1, the 'Red' led will light to warn the operator that he must identify. Fig. 9, Schmitt Trigger: A very simple, but effective circuit. It cleans up any noisy input signal in a nice, clean and square output signal. In radio control (R/C) it will clean up noisy servo signals caused by rf interference by long servo leads. As long as R1 equals R2, the 555 will automatically be biased for any supply voltage in the 5 to 16 volt range. (Advanced Electronics: It should be noted that there is a 180-degree phase shift.) This circuit also lends itself to condition 60-Hz sine-wave reference signal taken from a 6.3 volt AC transformer before driving a series of binary or divide-byN counters. The major advantage is that, unlike a conventional multivibrator type of squares which divides the input frequency by 2, this method simply squares the 60-Hz sine wave reference signal without division. Fig. 10, Better Timing: Better and more stable timing output is created with the addition of a transistor and a diode to the R-C timing network. The frequency can be varied over a wide range

while maintaining a constant 50% duty-cycle. When the output is high, the transistor is biased into saturation by R2 so that the charging current passes through the transistor and R1 to C. When the output goes low, the discharge transistor (pin 7) cuts off the transistor and discharges the capacitor through R1 and the diode. The high & low periods are equal. The value of the capacitor (C) and the resistor (R1 or potmeter) is not given. It is a mere example of how to do it and the values are pending on the type of application, so choose your own values. The diode can be any small signal diode like the NTE519, 1N4148, 1N914 or 1N3063, but a high conductance Germanium or Schottky type for the diode will minimize the diode voltage drops in the transistor and diode. However, the transistor should have a high beta so that R2 can be large and still cause the transistor to saturate. The transistor can be a TUN (europe), NTE123, 2N3569 and most others. Fig. 10a, Missing Pulse Detector (Basic): This transistor can be replaced with a ECG or NTE159. This is just a basic model but works. Experiment with the values of Resistor and Capacitor. A good example would be the 'Crashed Aircraft Locator' beacon used in radio control. If there is no signal it sees it as a missing pulse and sounds buzzer.

The following circuits are examples of how a 555 timer IC assist in combination with another Integrated Circuit. Again, don't be afraid to experiment. Unless you circumvent the min and max parameters of the 555, it is very hard to destroy. Just have fun and learn something doing it.

Circuits 11 to 14:
Play with different indicating devices such as bells, horns, lights, relays, or whatever (if possible). Try different types of LDR's. If for any reason you get false triggering, connect a ceramic 0.01uF (=10nF) capacitor between pin 5 (555) and ground. In all circuit diagrams below I used the LM555CN timer IC from National. The 555 timer will work with any voltage between 3.5 and 15volt. A 9-volt battery is usually a general choice. Keeping notes is an important aspect of the learning process. Fig. 11, Two-Tones: The purpose of this experiment is to wire two 555 timers together to create a 2-note tone. If you wish, you can use the dual 556 timer ic. Fig. 12, Recording Beep: This circuit is used to keep recording of telephone conversations legal. As you may know, doing otherwise without consent of the other party is illegal. The output of IC1 is fed to the 2nd 555's pin 3 and made audible via C2 and the speaker. Any 8-ohm speaker will do.

Fig. 13, Coin Toss: Electronic 'Heads-or-tails' coin toss circuit. Basically a Yes or No decision maker when you can't make up your mind yourself. The 555 is wired as a Astable Oscillator, driving in turn, via pin 3, the 7473 flip-flop. When you press S1 it randomly selects the 'Heads' or 'Tails' led. The leds flashrate is about 2Khz (kilo-Hertz), which is much faster than your eyes can follow, so initially it appears that both leds are 'ON'. As soon as the switch is released only one led will be lit. Fig. 14, Logic Probe: Provides you with three visible indicators; "Logic 1" (+, red led), "Logic 0" (-, green led), and "Pulse" (yellow led). Good for TTL and CMOS. The yellow or 'pulse' led comes on for approximately 200 mSec to indicate a pulse without regards to its width. This feature enables one to observe a short-duration pulse that would otherwise not be seen on the logic 1 and 0 led's. A small switch (subminiature slide or momentary push) across the 20K resistor can be used to keep this "pulse" led on permanently after a pulse occurs. In operation, for a logic 0 input signal, both the '0' led and the pulse led will come 'ON', but the 'pulse' led will go off after 200 mSec. The logic levels are detected via resistor R1 (1K), then amplified by T1 (NPN, Si-AF Preamplifier/Driver), and selected by the 7400 IC for what they are. Diode D1 is a small signal diode to protect the 7400 and the leds from excessive inverse voltages during capacitor discharge. For a logic '1' input, only the logic '1' led (red) will be 'ON'. With the switch closed, the circuit will indicate whether a negative-going or positive-going pulse has occurred. If the pulse is positivegoing, both the '0' and 'pulse' led's will be on. If the pulse is negative-going, the '1' and 'pulse' led's will be on.

Check the listing in Table 2. It shows some variations in the 555 manufacturing process by two different manufacturers, National Semiconductor and Signetics Corporation. Since there are other manufacturers then those two I suggest when you build a circuit to stick with the particular 555 model they specify in the schematic. Meaning, the LM555 and NE555 have minor differences the way they operate. In general you can use one for the other. However, on some occasion, the NE555 will not work in your circuit but the LM555 does and vice versa. So, when a certain schematic calls for a NE555, uA555, LM555 or a MC1455 try to obtain that specific type if things don't work out.

The absolute maximum ratings (in free air) for NE/SA/SE types are: Vcc, supply voltage: 18V Input voltage (CONT, RESET, THRES, TRIG): Vcc Output current: 225mA (approx) Operating free-air temp. range: NE555........... 0C 70C SA555........... -40C - 85C SE555, SE555C... -55C - 125C Storage temperature range: -65C - 150C Case temperature for 60sec. (FK package): 260C Suggested Reading:
1. 555 Timer IC Circuits. Forrest M. Mims III, Engineer's Mini Notebook. Radio Shack Cat. No: 62-5010. "Create & experiment with pulse generators, oscillators, and time delays." 2. IC Timer Cookbook. Walter G. Jung. Published by Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc. ISBN: 0-672-21932-8. "A reference 'must' for hobby, technicians, and engineers." 3. The 555 Timer Applications Sourcebook. Howard M. Berlin. Published by Sams Inc. ISBN: 0-672-21538-1. "Learn how to connect the 555, perform 17 simple experiments." 4. Other good 555 timer/oscillator tutorials can be found here also: Doctronics Williams Lab LM555 and LM556 Timer Circuits

LM555 and LM556 Timer Circuits

This page presents general information and tips for using the LM555 timer and devices with other letter prefixes. There will be minor internal circuitry differences between 555 timer IC's from the various manufacturers but they all should be useable for the circuits on this page. If you would like to use any of these ideas, take the time to do some testing before using the LM555 timer in an actual circuit. All of the solutions on this page can also be applied to the LM556 - Dual timer. Some of the circuits on this page were developed just to see if they would work and have no intended use. The menu below links to various sections of this page that relate to the items in the index. New additions appear at the bottom of the list.

- - TIMER PAGE SECTIONS - 1. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes 2. LM555 - Monostable Oscillator Calculator 3. LM555 - Astable Oscillator Calculator + Capacitor Calculator 4. Basic Circuits For The LM555 Timer 5. Triggering And Timing Helpers For Monostable Timers 6. Controlling Circuits For LM555 Timers 7. Advanced Circuits For The LM555 Timer 8. LM556 Timers with Complimentary or Push-Pull Outputs 9. Interlocked Monostable Timers 10.Power-Up Reset For Monostable Timers 11.Cross Canceling For Monostable Timers 12.RS - Flip-Flop Made With A LM556 Timer 13.Using The LM555 As A Voltage Comparator Or Schmitt Trigger 14.50% Output Duty Cycle (Variable) 15.Bipolar LED Driver 16.Electronic Time Constant Control 17.Voltage Controlled Pulse Width Oscillator 18.Sweeping Output Siren 19.D Type Flip-Flop Made With A LM556 Timer 20.Time Delay Circuits 21.Variable Period Oscillator (CD4017) 22.Missing Pulse Detectors / Negative Recovery Circuits 23.50% Output Duty Cycle (Fixed) Using Logic Devices 24.Three Stage Cycling Timer Circuit (Traffic Light Circuit)

25.RESET Terminal - Currents And Voltages 26.555 Timer Current Draws 27.Delayed Re-Triggering 28.555 Timer Output Section 29.Power ON Delay Circuits 30.Power OFF Delay Circuits 31.Average 51.5 % Output Duty Cycle Using A 555 Timer 32.Driving Loads Of Greater Than 15 Volts Or 200 Milliamps 33.'N' Steps And Stop Circuit (CD4017) 34.Multiple - Monostable Trigger Inputs 35.Timer Output Voltage Losses 36.RC Delayed Timer Triggering

- Other Related Pages Special Function LM555 Circuits Various LM555 - LED Flasher Circuits Astable Multivibrator Applet (External Page - Java Script) 555 Timer IC (External Page - Wikipedia.org) LM555 Data sheet - National Semiconductor (.pdf) CMOS LM555 Data sheet - National Semiconductor (.pdf) LM556 Data sheet - National Semiconductor (.pdf) LM555 Timer tutorial - By Tony van Roon The Electronics Club - 555 and 556 Timer Circuits

CMOS Versions Of The 555 Timer

All of the information on this page can be applied to the low current, CMOS versions of the 555 timer as well. However, the CMOS versions have a lower output current rating and may not be able to drive some loads. Also, the outputs of some CMOS timers can source more current than they can sink. For single sided loads, an NPN or PNP driver transistor can be added to the output of the timer to increase the current capacity of the timer. ( See section 31 of this page for more information. )

This Page Is Not Applicable To The LM558

This page does not apply the LM558 - Quad Timer IC which is significantly different when compared to the 555 and 556 timers. The differences include: (1) The output of each 558 timer is an open collector transistor with a 100

milliamp current capacity while the 555 and 556 timers have bipolar outputs with a 200 milliamp capacity. (2) The TRIGGER input of the 558 is EDGE Triggered while the TRIGGER input of the 555 and 556 timers are LEVEL Triggered. Individual LM558 timers are not designed to operate in an astable mode. Two 558 timers must be connected in a loop to make an astable oscillator. EDGE Triggered - means that the change in the output state of the timer is caused by a quickly falling or rising voltage at the input terminal. If the input voltage changes too slowly the output will not switch states. LEVEL Triggered - means that the change in the output state of the timer is caused when the voltage at an input terminal falls bellow or rises above a preset level. The rate at which the voltage changes is not important.

The THRESHOLD input terminals for the 555, 556 and 558 timers are all LEVEL triggered.

LM555 Timer Internal Circuit Block Diagram

LM555 Timer Internal Circuit Block Diagram

Print the diagram in the centre of a sheet of paper and then draw a circuit using the ICs pin locations. LM556 Timer Internal Circuit Block Diagram

Print the diagram in the centre of a sheet of paper and then draw a circuit using the ICs pin locations.

RESET And CONTROL Terminal Notes

Most of the circuits at this web site that use the LM555 and LM556 timer chips do not show connections for the RESET and CONTROL inputs. This was done in order to keep the schematics as simple as possible. If the RESET terminal of a 555 or 556 timer is not going to be used, it is normal practice to connect this input to the supply voltage. If the RESET terminal is left unconnected the operation of the timer will not be affected, however, the RESET of CMOS version of these timers should not be left unconnected as the inputs of these devices are more sensitive and this may cause problems. In many cases the CONTROL input does not require a bypass capacitor if a well regulated power supply is used. However, it is good practice to place a 0.1 microfarad (C2) capacitor at this terminal to minimize voltage spikes during transitions of the timer's output transistors. It is also good practice to place a 0.1uF bypass capacitor (C1) across the power supply and located as close to the IC as possible. This will also reduce voltage spikes when the output transistors of the timer change states.

Typical Pin 4 And 5 Connections Note - If the period of the power supply variations is short when compared to the period of the timer, the overall effect of C2 is reduced. For example; If the power supply - ripple voltage is 120 Hz and the oscillator frequency is 1000 Hz then C2 will have greater benefit than if the oscillator frequency is 10 Hz. Therefore, at low astable frequencies or long monostable times the effectiveness of a capacitor at the CONTROL input is less than at higher frequencies and short pulse times.

Calculation Value Notes

Data sheets for the 555 Timer use the value 1.44 and 0.693 as constants in the timing calculations depending on the way in which the equation was written. While these numbers are not exact reciprocals of one another they are close enough to be used without concern.

For ease of use, the calculators on this page have capacitor values entered in microfarads. This value is multiplied by the calculator to produce the correct result. (1uF = 0.000,001F = 1-6F)

TIMING CALCULATORS FOR THE LM555

With Schematic diagrams LM555 - MONOSTABLE OSCILLATOR CALCULATOR

Value Of R1

Value Of C1

Output Pulse

Ohms

Microfarads

Seconds

Resistor values are in Ohms (1K = 1000) - Capacitor values are in Microfarads (1uF = 1) NOTE: The leakage currents of electrolytic capacitors will affect the actual output results of the timers. To compensate for leakage it is often better to use a higher value capacitor and lower value resistors in the timer circuits. LM555 Monostable Oscillator Circuit Diagram

LM555 Monostable Oscillator Output Time Chart

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes LM555 - ASTABLE OSCILLATOR CALCULATOR

Value Of R1

Value Of R2

Ohms Value Of C1

Ohms

Microfarads Output Time HIGH Output Time LOW Output Period HIGH + LOW Output Frequency Output Duty Cycle

SECONDS

SECONDS

SECONDS

HERTZ

PERCENT

Resistor values are in Ohms (1K = 1000) - Capacitor values are in Microfarads (1uF = 1) NOTE: The leakage currents of electrolytic capacitors will affect the actual output results of the timers. To compensate for leakage it is often better to use a higher value capacitor and lower value resistors in the timer circuits.

LM555 Astable Oscillator Circuit Diagram

The next calculator can find the capacitance needed for a particular output frequency if the values of R1 and R2 are known. LM555 - ASTABLE CAPACITOR CALCULATOR

Value Of R1

Value Of R2

Ohms Frequency Desired

Ohms

Hertz Capacitance uF

LM555 Astable Oscillator - Free Running Frequency Chart

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Basic Circuits For The LM555 Timer

The following diagrams show some basic circuits and calculations for the LM555 timer. Circuit 1

Circuit 2

Circuit 3

Circuit 4

Circuit 5

Circuit 5 also has a trigger input that can remain closed and still allow the timer to complete its cycle. This means that the trigger input pulse can be longer than the output pulse. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Triggering And Timing Helpers For Monostable Timers

The LM555 timer and its twin brothers the LM556 are cornerstones of model railroad electronics but the sensitivity of the trigger input gives rise to many false triggering problems. The addition of a 470K ohm resistor and a 0.1uF capacitor at the TRIGGER input (Pin 2) will provide a delay of approximately 1/20th of a second from the time the input goes to zero volts until the trigger threshold of 1/3Vcc is reached. This short delay can eliminate false triggering in most cases and if the problem persists the value of the capacitor or resistor can be increased as needed. The following schematic shows two additions to the basic 555 timer circuit. One reduces the trigger sensitivity and the other will double the output pulse duration without increasing the values of R1 and C1.

555 Timer Helpers Schematic The addition of a resistor and capacitor to the trigger will not work for very short output pulses as there is also a short delay in the recovery of the trigger terminal voltage. Also, the values of the resistor and capacitor at the trigger can be made larger to delay the triggering of the timer after the input goes LOW. The second addition is a helper that will extend the timers output duration without having to use large values of R1 and/or C1. Connecting a 1.8K ohm resistor between the supply voltage and pin 5 of the 555 timer chip the output pulse duration will be approximately doubled. The boxed in area of the drawing shows the internal circuit at pin 5 of the timer with the 1.8K resistor added. The voltage at pin 5 will be increased from 0.66Vcc to 0.88Vcc which is approximately equal to the voltage across the capacitor after two time constants*. This allows the same output time to be achieved with a smaller resistance or capacitance value thus reducing the error caused by the capacitor leakage current. Conversely, for a given value of R1 and C1, the output time will be doubled by the addition of the resistor at Pin 5. * - One time constant is equal to R (Ohms) times C (Farads) in seconds. In terms of voltage, one time constant is equal to a rise in voltage across the capacitor from 0 to 63.2 percent its maximum voltage. (1uF = 0.000,001F = 1 X 10-6F) The trigger and reset voltage levels of the timer will also be increased with the addition of the resistor to pin 5 but this should have no effect in most applications. To achieve long output times, electrolytic capacitors are often used for C1 and the value of R1 can be as high as 1 Megohm. However with high resistance values for R1 the leakage current of the timing capacitor (C1) becomes a significant factor in the operation of the timer. The circuit will run much longer than expected and may never time out if the leakage current is equal to the current through the resistor at some voltage. Tantalum capacitors could be used as they have very low leakage currents but these are expensive and not available in large capacitance

values. Adding a resistor to the CONTROL terminal is not an ideal solution to solving long duration timing situations but should work for pulse times of less than ten minutes.

Reversed Trigger Input Control Of 555 Timers

The following method allows the timer to be triggered by a normally closed switch. This would be useful in applications such as intrusion alarms where the protection circuit is broken if a window or door is opened

Reversed Trigger Input RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Controlling Circuits For LM555 Timers

The following diagrams show some methods of using one-shot timer to control an astable oscillator.

LM555 Control methods #1 schematic RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Advanced Circuits For The LM555 Timer

The following diagrams show some advanced circuits for the LM555 timer. These circuits were developed to provide certain functions that are not typically associated with this device. The parts values in these circuits were selected for testing purposes and can be adjusted to suit the needs of a particular application as long as the normal operating parameters of the LM555 are maintained. Before using any of these circuits for specific applications they should be tested to determine the best values for the components and the practicality of their use.

LM556 Timers with Complimentary or Push-Pull Outputs

In the next circuit an LM556 - dual timer IC is configured so that the output of the second timer is 180 degrees out of phase with the first. This is done by connecting the OUTPUT of timer A to the TRIGGER and THRESHOLD terminals of timer B. The 10K ohm resistor limits the current that can flow into the THRESHOLD terminal of timer B. Due to the ability of the timers to source or sink current, the current from one timers output can flow into the other timer's output depending on which output is HIGH or LOW. The typical output conditions that are referenced to ground or supply are also available and in fact all three could be used at the same time. Circuits for both Astable and Monostable versions of this method are shown on the diagram.

LM555 Complimentary Outputs schematic Timer B in this method acts as a voltage comparator and has no timing function. It is a slave to timer A. Normal triggering methods and period lengths are not affected. Both timer's RESET terminals are available and can be used individually or together. Due to the unusual nature of this type of circuit testing should be done to determine if it is suitable for the use intended. The circuit is usable at frequencies below 1000 Hz. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Interlocked Monostable Timers

In the following circuit the timers are interlocked so that while one timer is running the second timer cannot be triggered. This is done by connecting the OUTPUT of each timer to the TRIGGER of the other through a diode and placing a resistor in the trigger circuit. The resistor limits the current from the opposite timers output when the trigger is closed on the stopped timer.

LM555 Interlocked Timers schematic Normal triggering and timing lengths are not affected by this method. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Power-Up Reset For 555 Timers

Typical monostable 555 timer circuits will automatically trigger and start a timing cycle when power is applied to the circuit. Stray or installed capacitance at the TRIGGER terminal of the timer is largely responsible for this triggering but it is also caused by the nature of the 555 timer's internal circuitry as well. Stray capacitance can be from a number of sources but a typical cause is the wires that connect a push button used to start the timer. In an ideal circuit, where there is no stray capacitance at the TRIGGER input, a small capacitor at

the CONTROL terminal could prevent the timer from triggering .

LM555 Power-Up - Ideal Circuit Conditions

Practical Circuit Conditions

If there is stray or installed capacitance at the TRIGGER terminal, when the power is applied to an LM555 circuit the timer will immediately be triggered and start a cycle. This can be a undesirable if the period is long and there is no way to stop the cycle. To prevent timer from starting, a simple RC timing circuit can be added to the timer's RESET terminal so that when power is applied to the circuit, the timer is automatically held RESET by transistor Q1 until C1 is almost fully charged. The length of the resetting action can roughly be determined by R1 X C1 X 3 . The example circuit shows a monostable oscillator but the method could also hold an astable 555 oscillator in a reset condition at power-up.

LM555 Power-Up Reset Method 1 The following circuit is another method of stopping the timing cycle at power-up. In this case, a pulse is sent to the THRESHOLD terminal which stops the timing cycle when the power is applied.

LM555 Power-Up Reset Method 2 RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Cross Canceling For Monostable Timers

The following diagram shows a method that allows one LM555 timer to RESET another timer so that, for example, if timer 'A' is running; When timer B is triggered, timer A will be reset. This means that only one timer can be running at a time. As with the 'Power-Up Reset For Monostable Timers' circuit above, when the power is applied to the circuit both timers are RESET.

LM555 Cross Canceling Timers schematic Normal triggering and timing lengths should not be affected by this method. The trigger switch of the running timer must be OPEN for the RESET to occur. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

RS Flip-Flop Made With A LM556 Timer

The next circuit is for a hybrid - SET / RESET type of logic Flip-Flop that is constructed from an LM556 - Dual Timer. The design is crude but effective for very low speed applications. Its greatest asset is that the outputs of the LM556 are capable of driving current loads of up to 200 milliamps with a minimal voltage loss. This circuit was originally developed to drive "Stall Motor" type switch machines that are used on model railroads. These motors use low voltage DC and draw approximately 15 milliamps when they are in a stalled condition. Due to the design of the LM556 timer chip there are multiple output options available in this circuit. These include the normal timer outputs which are bipolar and the DISCHARGE terminals, (PINS 1 and 13), that are open collector circuits.

LM556 Flip-Flop Truth Table

The following diagram is for a test version of the LM556 Flip-Flop circuit used to create a "Truth Table" that shows the OUTPUT states for a given INPUT state.

Logic Function diagram LM556 Flip-Flop Input Options

The next diagram shows basic input options that can be used with the LM556 Flip-Flop circuit. In actual applications the push buttons could be replaced with or supplemented by electronic input devices.

Input Options schematic

In circuit A the SET and RESET inputs would be brought to 0 Volts to change the state of the FlipFlop. In circuit B the SET input would be switched between 0 Volts and the supply voltage to change the state of the Flip-Flop. The RESET terminal is unconnected. In both circuit A and B, when the push buttons are OPEN the Flip-Flop will remain in its last state until the opposite signal is applied to an input. Circuits A and B also show two methods of connecting the LED's at terminals 1 and 13. The input method in circuit B would not be practical to produce the STATE 3 condition shown in the Truth

Table on the previous diagram.

LM556 Flip-Flop Notes

If you would like to make use of this type of circuit, please take the time to build one and do some experimenting to determine if the design will suit your needs. This circuit was developed for low speed operation. It was found however to operate satisfactorily at clock speeds in excess of 10 kHz. The values of R1 and R2 in this test were 100K ohms. The value of R3 was 22K ohm. As can be seen in the schematics, the OUTPUT of one timer is fed, through a 10K ohm current limiting resistor (R1 and R2), to the TRIGGER and THRESHOLD inputs of the other. The value of this resistor is not critical and is largely dependent on the impedance of the INPUT devices used to trigger the stage changes. If resistors R1 and R2 are not used the operation of the circuit becomes unstable. Due to the internal circuitry at THRESHOLD terminals (PINs 6 and 12) of the LM556 timers, resistors R3 and R4 are needed to limit the current that can flow into these terminals. The value of resistors R3 and R4 should be approximately 1/4 the value of resistors R1 and R2 so that the proper voltage ratios for changing states can be achieved. The R3 resistor is not required if the inputs are not going to be driven to a HIGH state. The cross coupling of the timers OUTPUT and TRIGGER/THRESHOLD terminals gives the circuit its FLIP-FLOP action and causes the outputs of the timers to be forced alternately HIGH or LOW. This action only applies to states 1 and 2 in the truth table shown above. For this circuit to have a memory function such as that of a SET / RESET type Flip-Flop the input terminals must float when no input signal is present. They cannot be held HIGH or LOW as is the case with TTL devices. The maximum current the the outputs of the LM556 timers can source or sink is 200 milliamps. These circuits do not need a regulated power supply but the voltage should be well filtered. Any of the LED's in the circuit could be replaced by an optoisolator, small relay or low current DC motor. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

LM555 Timer Used As A Voltage Comparator Or Schmitt Trigger

The next section shows how an LM555 timer can be used as a voltage comparator or a Scmitt Trigger with a large offset voltage. The 555 timer is not well suited for this application but it is one that is in wide use with model railroaders.

Shown on the schematic is a secondary output that uses the open collector at the DISCHARGE terminal (Pin 7) of the timer. This output can sink up to 200 milliamps and would be ideal for driving relays. The main disadvantage to using this circuit is the the large dead-band (1/3Vcc) between upper and lower threshold voltages. An optional resistor, R5, can be added to the circuit to lower and compress the detection voltage range but this only partially alleviates the problem. LM555 Voltage Comparator / Schmitt Trigger

The two graphs at the bottom of the diagram show the input voltages at which the OUTPUT of the LM555 will change states. The effect that resistor R5 has on the circuit can be seen in the right hand graph. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

50% Output Duty Cycle (Variable)

The LM555 timer can achieve a 50 percent duty cycle as shown in the next diagram. The duty cycle adjustment range of the give components values is from 42 to 55 percent. Resistors R1 and R2 were selected first and then resistor R3 was selected to give the best control range based on measurements at the output of the timer. The major disadvantage of using the LM555 in this manner is that the output frequency changes as the duty cycle changes.

50% Duty Cycle schematic

For The Record

The circuit shown in the next diagram is not an accurate method of producing a 50 percent duty cycle using 555 timers, either bipolar or CMOS types. The circuit can produce a duty cycle that is close to 50 percent but when a load is added to the output of the timer, the voltage drops across its output transistors will increase and the duty cycle will shift.

Not Accurate 50% Duty Cycle schematic RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Bipolar LED Driver

This circuit uses two timers to drive Bipolar LEDs and shows all of the possible output states. Two SPDT switches are used to set the input conditions but these could be replaced by electronic controls.

Bipolar LED Driver schematic RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Electronic Time Constant Control

These circuits show methods of changing the operating frequency of astable LM555 timers electronically. Any source that can drive the base of transistor Q1 can control these circuits. The advantage of switch the timing capacitors is that the duty cycle of the timer is not affected when the frequency is changed.

Electronic Time Constant Control RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Voltage Controlled Pulse Width Oscillator

The basic circuit operates at a frequency determined by R1, R2 and C1 and has a pulse width range of 0 to 100 percent. The following diagram shows a basic circuit with an open collector output that would require a pull up resistor at its output. The parts values are the nominal values of the components used. Note: This circuit is not suitable for high frequency operation, especially when using a second timer as the output stage.

Variable Pulse Width Oscillator The following is a graph of the output pulse width of the basic circuit for a given control voltage input. All measurements were made with a good quality multimeter. The PLUS and MINUS inputs of IC 2 can be reversed to produce a decreasing pulse width for an increasing control voltage.

Variable Pulse Width Oscillator Output Graph The next diagram uses a second LM555 timer as a power output stage for the basic oscillator. The output stage also has an open collector output at the Discharge terminal, PIN 7, that could be used.

Variable Pulse Width Oscillator With LM555 Output RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Sweeping Output Siren

This circuit is a variation of the "Two Tone Siren" that is a standard for the LM555 timer. The circuit allows the output frequency of the B timer to sweep between two frequencies rather than

switching abruptly between two frequencies.

Sweeping Output Siren NOTE: The Sweeping Output Siren circuit has a limited sweep range and the duty cycle shifts with the changing output frequency. A better 555 based circuit for a sweeping oscillator would be to adapt the Variable Pulse Width Oscillator in the section above. A still better choice for a sweeping oscillator would be a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) IC. See this Wikipedia page for basic information on Voltage-controlled oscillators and this datasheet for the LM321. Other devices include the TTL 74124 Dual Voltage-Controlled Oscillator and the CMOS CD4046B Phase-Locked Loop. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

D Type Flip-Flop Made With A LM556 Timer

This circuit is a hybrid - D type Flip-Flop that is constructed from an LM556 - Dual Timer integrated circuit. The circuit is essentially an expensive version of the classic - two transistor FlipFlop but it does have an output current capacity of 200 milliamps. Each time the push button switch (S1) is closed the outputs of the timers will reverse so that one is HIGH and the other is LOW and vice versa. As with the D flip-flop the circuit acts as a binary divider.

D - Flip-Flop The circuit has some output switching time lag due to the RC time constants at the inputs and the different Trigger and Threshold voltage levels of the timers themselves. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Time Delay Circuits

Time Recovery Delay Circuits

Two Stage Time Delay Circuit

Cascaded Time Delay Circuits

Example Circuit - 4 Stage Cascade Delay

BiDirectional Time Delay Circuit In the BiDirectional Time Delay Circuit, the B timer acts more as a Schmitt trigger with a delay than a conventional timer. See section 13 of this page for more detail. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Variable period Oscillator (CD4017)

The following CD4017 circuits have not been tested and is presented here as a possibility only. If you experiment with this circuit, please send me any problems found so that the circuit can be updated. The following circuits are designed to change the duration of each positive output pulse from the astable timer. The circuits use a CD4017 Decade Counter / Decoder to provide nine or ten steps in the cycle. The first circuit operates with a repeating ten step cycle. Each output pulse is longer than the previous until a count of ten is reached at which time the cycle will repeat. The second circuit has a nine step cycle that stops at the end of the cycle. The cycle is restarted or reset when the RESET input is briefly made high. The CD4017 can be configured to give count lengths between 1 and 10. Refer to the timing diagram in the CD4017 data sheet for a better understanding of the IC's operation. CD4017 Data sheet - National Semiconductor (.pdf)

Variable Period Oscillator (Experimental) The next schematic shows an alternate arrangement for the timing resistors. This would allow the subsequent output pulses to be of longer and shorter lengths during the cycle.

Alternate Resistor Arrangement The next circuit provides nine counts of a normal timing length with the tenth count being longer and then repeating the cycle.

Ten Step / Two Period Oscillator RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Missing Pulse Detector / Negative Recovery Circuits

Basic - Negative Recovery Circuit The first circuit is a simple, push button controlled, Negative Recovery timer circuit. Each time that S1 is closed the time remaining in the cycle is reset to zero. If the time does run out, closing S1 will restart the cycle.

The following circuits can detect when a train of pulses stops or become too far apart. They can also be use to keep the timer at its zero count if the input is held in a steady state. This is called 'Negative Recovery'. The diode across R1 in these circuits causes C1 to quickly discharge when the power to the circuit is switched off. This allows the circuit to be ready for the next cycle more quickly.

Basic - Missing Pulse Detectors

Steady Output - Missing Pulse Detectors - Two Comparators

Steady Output - Missing Pulse Detectors - Two Timers

The next two circuits in this section produce the same result: The timer must be reset manually if it has timed out.

Latching Output - Missing Pulse Detector

Manual Start - Missing Pulse Detector

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Fixed 50% Output Duty Cycle Using Logic Devices

The only way to achieve a true - 50 percent duty cycle from a 555 timer is to divide the output by 2 with a binary divider such as the 7473 or 7474 TTL logic ICs. Fixed 50% Output Duty Cycle

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Three Stage - Cycling Timer Circuit

NOTE All three timers in this circuit will start when power is applied, therefore all but the first timer (A) will need to be Reset for the proper cycle order to be started automatically. (See item 10 in the index of this page for a method of resetting the timers.)

A Single - Traffic Light Driver Circuit - Based On The Cycling Timer Circuit
RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Devices Used For The Following Tests

RESET Terminal - Currents And Voltages

The next diagram gives the current from, and the voltage at the RESET terminals of five - 555 timer chips from different manufacturers. The only conclusion to be drawn here is that the RESET terminal should be held below 0.3 Volts to ensure that any of the devices is fully reset. In the transition voltage range of the RESET terminal mentioned on the diagram, the timers output is neither fully ON or OFF. This can cause high current flows in the timer itself. The voltage at the RESET terminal should pass through this range as quickly as possible to avoid problems. RESET Terminal - Currents And Voltages

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

555 Timer Current Draws

The next diagram shows the basic current consumption of 555 timer chips from different manufacturers. The RESET terminal current draw illustrates the need for a current limiting resistor as shown in some of the preceding circuits. Some devices will not function properly if the current to the THRESHOLD terminal is not restricted. Timer Current Draws

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Delayed Re-Triggering
The following is a method of preventing a timer from being re-triggered before a certain time period has elapsed.

Delayed Re-Trigger

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Timer Output Section

The next diagram shows the output section of a National Semiconductor LM555 timer. This type of output can either source or sink current and is typical of 555 and 556 timer IC's. When the output of the timer is HIGH, it can supply current to a load. When the output of the timer is LOW, it can receive current from a load. Transistor Q3 is actually connected as a diode with the collector not carrying current. Although a circuit common symbol is shown, the collector is not connected to the ground of the timer.

Output Circuit

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Power ON Delay Circuits

These circuits will delay the application of power to an external circuit by using mechanical relays or transistors. Other output control devices could also be used. These circuits are not ideal as the relays are closed when power is supplied to the circuit. This means that the power is supplied to the load for a very short period until the relay can open.

Power ON Delay Circuits

Delay Circuit With Indicator LED

Delayed Lock Out Circuit

PUJT & Voltage Comparator - Power On - Delay Circuits

Wait For Pulses - Delay Circuit

A variation on the Power On delay circuits above is a delay after pulses start arriving. A resistor could be placed across capacitor C1 so that the timer will be reset if the pulses stop arriving. This resistor should have a resistance of at least three times the value of R1. RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Power OFF Delay Circuits

These circuits will delay the removal of power to an external circuit by using mechanical relays or transistors. Other output control devices could also be used.

Power OFF Delay Circuits

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Average 51.5 % Output Duty Cycle Using A 555 Timer

The next circuit produces an average duty cycle of 51.5% over the entire resistance range of R2 at a supply voltage of 10 volts. At a supply voltage of 5 volts the average duty cycle increased to 52.7%. The span of the duty cycle also increased.

51.5% Duty Cycle Oscillator

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Driving Loads Of Greater Than 15 Volts Or 200 Milliamps

The next two circuits allow the 555 timer to drive loads that have a supply voltage that is greater than the 15 volt maximum of 555 timers. Higher current loads can be driven by transistors with a suitable current capacity and adjusting the base current as needed. Darlington and MOSFET transistors can drive loads of many amps. The 24 volt supply can be full wave DC and does not need to be filtered. The load's supply voltage could also be lower than the timer's supply voltage.

High Voltage And Current Load Drivers

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

'N' Steps And Stop Circuit (CD4017)

The next circuit uses the outputs of a CD4017 - Decade Counter to stop a 555 timer at a given step and then wait until the counter is reset.

'N' Steps And Stop Circuit

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

Multiple - Monostable Trigger Inputs

The next circuit allows a monostable oscillator to have multiple trigger inputs. The timer can run out and be triggered even if one or more of the input switches is held closed. Input signals that arrive before the current output pulse has ended will not be indicated. This circuit is not ideal as a balance must be struck amongst the values of R1, C1 and R2 and there is a limit to the number of inputs based on this balance.

Multiple Trigger Inputs Circuit

The schematic shows push buttons as the input but almost any device that operates quickly can be used.

Timer Output Voltage Losses

The next two diagrams show the voltage losses/drops at the outputs of 555 timers when the output is HIGH and LOW. The data can only be used as a relative indication of the losses as other timers and circuits may have smaller or larger losses.

Voltage Losses For A HIGH Output

Voltage Losses For A LOW Output

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

RC Delayed Timer Triggering

The next circuit uses a Resistor and Capacitor at the TRIGGER input to delay the triggering of the timer. This is largely an extension of the Triggering And Timing Helpers For Monostable Timers in section 5 of this page. Two recovery schemes are also shown on the diagram. RC Delayed Timer Triggering

RESET And CONTROL Input Terminal Notes

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Please Read Before Using These Circuit Ideas

The explanations for the circuits on these pages cannot hope to cover every situation on every layout. For this reason be prepared to do some experimenting to get the results you want. This is especially true of circuits such as the "Across Track Infrared Detection" circuits and any other circuit that relies on other than direct electronic inputs, such as switches. If you use any of these circuit ideas, ask your parts supplier for a copy of the manufacturers data sheets for any components that you have not used before. These sheets contain a wealth of data and circuit design information that no electronic or print article could approach and will save time and perhaps damage to the components themselves. These data sheets can often be found on the web site of the device manufacturers. Although the circuits are functional, the pages are not meant to be full descriptions of each

circuit but rather as guides for adapting them for use by others. If you have any questions or comments please send them to the email address on the Circuit Index page.