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A L O H M A N N A N I M A L H E A LT H N E W S B R I E F January 2009 | Volu me 1

Role of Vaccination in the Control of Poultry

Salmonellosis
survival and multiplication in The second category group
…vaccination
the hen house environment, includes the motile salmonella
must be a major the bird and finally the egg. serotypes or paratyphoid
(PT) salmonellae. In the PT
component The constant risk of human group, S. Typhimurium and
infections has been a determi- S. Enteritidis show an out-
of salmonella nant factor in the development standing ability to colonize the
and implementation of quality alimentary tracts of poultry and
control programs, assurance programs directed to cause food borne diseases in
By Iván R. Alvarado, DVM, MS, guarantee the safety of eggs for humans (Zhang-Barger, 1999).
inducing an Ph.D., ACPV, Technical Services human consumption. Further- S. Enteritidis outbreaks in
Veterinarian, Lohmann Animal
more, vaccination programs humans have been associ-
inherent protec- Health International
against S. Enteritidis have been ated with the consumption of
Introduction widely implemented to provide contaminated or undercooked
tive mechanism According to the Centers for a last line of defense in the bird poultry products, such as eggs
within chickens Disease Control and Prevention against infection by field strains. and egg-containing products. As
(CDC), salmonella infections a consequence, poultry produc-
that will ensure remain as one of the major Salmonella classification ers are constantly under pressure
causes of human food poisoning In poultry, two main categories from public health authorities and
a low level or in the U.S. of salmonella infections are consumer organizations regarding
present. In the first category, food safety of poultry products.
elimination of Domestic poultry constitutes we find the avian-adapted
one of the main reservoirs for S. pullorum and S. gallinarum, Some strains of S. Typhimurium
salmonella salmonella infections in humans. which cause pullorum and fowl and S. Enteritidis are capable
typhoid diseases, respectively. of producing clinical disease in
contamination Even though the farm environ- young chickens during or after a
These salmonella serotypes
ment is a rich source of a wide have caused severe economic period of physiological stress. In
J. O. Hassan, 1994
number of Salmonella serotypes, losses to the poultry industry these cases, a systemic disease
S. Enteritidis exhibits a unique in the past and have been involving the reticulo-endothelial
ability to contaminate eggs and addressed by the implementa- system occurs in addition to
cause human infections. Human tion of extensive testing and fecal excretion (Barrow, 2007).
infections with S. Enteritidis eradication programs.
involve bacterial colonization,

inside Role of Vaccination

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President’s Note
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Salmonella infection
The oral route is the natural route of
salmonella infections in poultry. After oral
infection, the organisms rapidly invade the
lymphoid tissue located in the intestinal
tract (Peyer’s patches and cecal tonsils)
and probably the enterocytes of the
intestinal mucosa. Finally, the organisms
gets into the blood stream, probably
intracellularly, reaching the spleen, liver
and bone marrow (Gast, 2003).
Infection of newly hatched chicks results
in a massive multiplication of salmonella,
with large numbers being excreted in
the feces for several weeks. Later, after
acquisition of a more complex normal
microflora, infection results in excretion
of fewer bacteria for a shorter period
(Zhang-Barger, 1999). PT infections
often have a different outcome for very
young chickens when compared with
mature birds. Young chicks and poults
are very susceptible, with illness and
death observed at high frequencies
(S. Arizonae infections in young
turkey poults).
In contrast, older birds are less susceptible
to the infection, experiencing intestinal col-
onization and even systemic dissemina-
tion without causing significant morbidity
or mortality. This age-related resistance
has been attributed to the acquisition of
stable microflora, which compete with
salmonella receptors in the intestine and/
or create metabolic products which inhibit
salmonella growth (Gast, 2003).
Salmonella prevention and
control
The major obstacles to salmonella
control in the poultry industry are the
ubiquitous presence of salmonella and
the presence of multiple serotypes.
Salmonella infection can be introduced
into poultry flocks from many different
sources, including water, live haul trans-
portation, contaminated feed, biologic
vectors (flies, cockroaches, darkling
beetles, rodents and mealworms), wild
birds and humans. Furthermore, vertical
transmission of PT Salmonella from the
breeder flocks to the progeny leads to
bacterial exposure and dissemination
in the flock.
Effective prevention and control programs
must involve several simultaneous
approaches, such as the incubation
of eggs from salmonella-free breeding
flocks, adequate cleaning and disinfection
of poultry houses, control of rodents and
insects, restrictive movement of
personnel and equipment between
houses, chlorination of drinking water
and the use of competitive exclusion.
However, due to the prolific nature of
salmonella in infected chickens, these
efforts will not lead to salmonella-free
chickens if the chickens are unable to
prevent salmonella proliferation. For such
reason, vaccination must be a major
component of salmonella control
programs, inducing an inherent protec-
tive mechanism within chickens that will
ensure a low level or elimination of sal-
monella contamination (Hassan, 1994).
Salmonella vaccines
Inactivated and live vaccines have
shown to reduce the susceptibility of
poultry to PT infection. Inactivated vac-
cines, generally administered by subcuta-
neous injection, stimulate the production
of antibodies. Immunoglobulin G (Ig G)
antibodies are found in a high concen-
tration in the yolk sac, providing some
degree of protection against salmonella
contamination of table eggs or infection
of the chicken embryo. Subcutaneous
administration of oil emulsion inactivated
vaccines to pullets has been reported to
significantly reduce the frequency of
S. Enteritidis isolation from internal organs
and fecal shedding (Gast, 1992-1993).
In commercial layers, some management
practices, such as molting, are imple-
mented to increase the productivity and
extend the useful life of the flock. Moulting
alters the gut flora in the birds, favoring the
shedding of salmonella in the feces and
increasing the risk of egg contamination.
The use of inactivated vaccines prior to
molting has shown to be effective in
preventing the exacerbation of
S. Enteritidis problems within flocks in
which the potential for contamination
may exist (Nakamura, 2004).
Live attenuated S. Typhimurium vaccines
are commercially available in the U.S.
Live attenuated vaccines must be safe for
animals and humans, provide protection
against mucosal and systemic infections
and reduce intestinal, environmental and
egg contamination (Barrow, 2007). Live
attenuated salmonella vaccines have
been associated with a more diverse
protective immune response in poultry
when compared with inactivated vaccines
(Barrow, 1990). Furthermore, if
administered orally, live vaccines have
demonstrated non-specific and rapid
protection against salmonella infection
(Barrow, 2007). Additional advantages
related with the use of live attenuated
vaccines are the in vivo expression of all
appropriate antigens in vivo, the easier
massive administration via drinking water
or coarse spray and the stimulation of
the cell-mediated immunity (CMI). CMI
has been associated with salmonella
clearance from the internal organs,
reducing the shedding of salmonella
in the flock’s environment. Vaccine-
induced protection against infection
involves both cell mediated and humoral
responses, the latter in the later stages
of infection (Mastreoeni, 2003).
Live attenuated vaccines have been
produced by successive passages in
low nutritional medium or by genetic
deletions of some specific genes
(i.e. aroA, cya and/or crp) associated
with bacterial growth, which are present
in the natural salmonella wild types
(Hassan, 1994). Since genetically
modified salmonella cannot reverse to
their wild type, gene deletions have
been used in monitoring programs to
differentiate vaccine from field isolates.
Genetic or metabolic drift mutations in
live vaccine strains adversely affect
essential enzymes or metabolic
pathways, resulting in reduced bacterial
growth and virulence while still remaining
immunogenic (Linde, 1997).
Experimental S. Typhimurium and
S. Enteritidis infections in young poultry
have consistently showed that newly
hatched birds are highly susceptible to
salmonella, with susceptibility decreasing
over time. This age-related resistance
seems to be associated with the presence
of competing bacterial flora in the intestinal
tract of adult birds that makes it hard
for pathogenic salmonella to colonize
the intestine. In commercial layers and
broiler breeders, susceptibility to infection
increases again dramatically as the young
pullets begin to come into lay and in com-
mercial layers when the hens are put into
mold. When live attenuated vaccines are
administered to newly hatched chicks,
they multiply extensively because of the
absence of the complex normal microbial
flora found in adult birds and the imma-
turity of their immune system (Berchieri,
1990; Cooper, 1994). The early multiplica-
tion of salmonella organisms present in
the live attenuated vaccines prevents the
colonization of other salmonella strains
(field strains) due to the limited carbon
sources and electron acceptors pres-
ent in the intestinal tissue (Zhang-Barger,
1997). The practical consequences are
that administration of live vaccines in
very young chickens by drinking water or
coarse spray would give protection within
hours against invasion of other salmo-
nella organisms. This rapid protection by
a colonization-inhibition effect would be
followed by the development of normal
immunity within a couple of weeks.
Summary
Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis
still remains as a major political issue
affecting the poultry industry due to its
unique capacity to contaminate table
eggs and other poultry products and
to cause disease in humans. Since
salmonella infections can be introduced
in susceptible flocks through numerous
sources, strict biosecurity and quality
assurance programs should be
implemented. However, due to its
ubiquitous presence and constant risk
of contamination, vaccination programs
must be considered as an additional
and very important practice to prevent
colonization of susceptible birds with
S. Enteritidis in the field.
References
Barrow, P. A. (2007). “Salmonella infec-
tions: immune and non-immune protection
with vaccines.” Avian Path. 36(1): 1-13.
Barrow, P. A., J. O. Hassan, et al. (1990).
“Reduction in fecal excretion of Salmo-
nella Typhimurium strain F98 in chickens
vaccinated with live and killed S. Typhimu-
rium organisms.” Epidemiol Infect. 104:
413-426.
Berchieri, A. and P. A. Barrow (1990).
“Further studies on the inhibition of coloni-
zation of the chicken alimentary tract with
Salmonella typhimurium by pre-coloniza-
tion with an avirulent mutant.” Epidemiol
Infect. 104: 427-441.
Cooper, G. N. (1994). “Salmonellosis-
infections in man and the chicken:
pathogenesis and the development of
live vaccines - a review.” Vet. Bulletin. 64:
123-143.
Gast, R. K. (2003). Paratyphoid infections.
Diseases of poultry. Y. M. Saif, A. M. Fadly,
J. R. Glisson, L. R. McDougald and D. E.
Swayne, Iowa state press.: 583-607.
Gast, R. K., H. D. Stone, et al. (1993).
“Evaluation of the efficacy of oil-emulsion
bacterins for reducing fecal shedding of
Salmonella enteritidis by laying hens.”
Avian Dis. 37: 1085-1091.
Gast, R. K., H. D. Stone, et al. (1992).
“Evaluation of the efficacy of an
oil-emulsion bacterin for protecting
chickens against Salmonella enteritidis.”
Avian Dis. 36: 992-999.
Hassan, J. O. and R. Curtiss III (1994).
“Development and evaluation of an experi-
mental vaccination program using a live
avirulent Salmonella typhimurium strain to
protect immunized chickens against chal-
lenge with homologous and heterologous
Salmonella serotypes.” Infect Immun 62:
5519-5527.
Linde, K., I. Hahn, et al. (1997). Develop-
ment of live Salmonella vaccines optimally
attenuated for chickens. Lohmann Infor-
mation. 20: 23-31.
Mastreoeni, P. and N. Menager (2003).
“Development of acquired immunity to Sal-
monella.” J. Med. microb. 52: 453-459.
Nakamura, M., T. Nagata, et al. (2004).
“The effect of killed Salmonella Enteritidis
vaccine prior to induced molting on the
shedding of S. Enteritidis in laying hens.”
Avian Dis. 48: 183-188.
Zhang-Barger, L., A. K. Turner, et al.
(1999). “Vaccination for control of Salmo-
nella in poultry.” Vaccine.: 2538-2545.
Zhang-Barger, L., A. K. Turner, et al.
(1997). “Influence of genes encoding
proton-translocating enzymes on suppres-
sion of Salmonella typhimurium growth
and colonization.” J. Bacteriol. 179:
7186-7190.
 President’s Note
Over the last decade, Lohmann
Animal Health has led the way in
Salmonella vaccine development.
More than 10 years of research
in both live and killed Salmonella
vaccines have made Lohmann the
worldwide leader in this field. Our
Germany headquarters has made
major inroads in the battle against
Dave Zacek
President, Salmonella with AviPro® Salmonella
Lohmann Animal Health Vac E.
Lohmann Animal Health in Maine introduced gene modified
Megan®Vac 1 and Megan®Egg for protection against
Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella
375 China Road
Winslow, Maine 04901
avianinsight for more information:
207.873.3989 800.655.1342
heidelberg. These mass-applied live vaccines are used in pullet
and broiler programs in the U.S. and international markets.
Lohmann Animal Health in Maine also produces inactivated
AviPro®109 SE4 and AviPro®329 ND-IB2-SE4 to protect
laying hens against Salmonella enteritidis. AviPro®329
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You can count on Lohmann Animal Health and our technical
groups to help you solve your Salmonella problems.
Let us share our expertise with you. Come by our booth,
No. 4748, in Exhibit Hall B at the International Poultry Expo in
Atlanta in January and let us tell you about our complete line of
breeder vaccines.
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