1 FluidStaticandDynamics

1.1 TheAtmosphere

Sinceitisagivenfactthatallair-vehiclesoperateintheatmospherethatsurrounds
ourplanet(somenotableexceptionsincludesuchaircraftasthespaceshuttle)agood
understandingofitsproperties(andpeculiarities)isvitaltothedevelopmentofflight
mechanics.

Theatmosphereismadeupofvariouslayers;thetwolayersofgreatestimportanceto
theaeronauticalengineerarethetroposphereandstratosphere.Thesetwolayers
representthelowermostlayersofouratmosphereandalsotheregioninwhichmost
aircraftfly.

Thelowerofthesetworegionsthetroposphereisanareawherethetemperature
decreaseslinearlywithheight.Inthestratospherethevariationoftemperaturewith
heightisalmostnegligibleandmayberegardedasconstant.

Longtermobservationsandinternationalagreementhaveresultedinamodelofour
atmosphereknownastheInternationalStandardAtmosphere.Thismodelisaccepted
andappliedbyalmostallaircraftmanufacturers.Someimportantpropertiesofthe
standardatmosphereatsealevelare:

T
0
=288.15K
P
0
=101325Pa
g
0
=9.80665m/s
2

a
0
=340.294m/s

OtherpropertiesoftheISAarecoveredintheadditionalnotes.

Asafirststepitisnecessarytounderstandthegoverningequationsforastandard
atmosphere,theseequationscanthenbemodifiedtosuitourpurposeshereinSouth
Africa(whichseldomexperiencesanISAday).Thusthegoverningequationsare
summarisedby(seetheadditionalnotesforafullderivation)

Thehydrostaticequation:
g
dZ
dp
= (1-1)

WhereZisanarbitraryheight.Theperfectgaslawisgivenby:
RT p = (1-2)

Therelationshipofgeopotentialheight(H)togeometricheight(Z),

}
=
Z
SL
dZ g
g
H
0
1
(1-3)

Thetemperaturegradientwithrespecttogeopotentialaltitude(notethatasubscriptb
indicatespropertiesatthebaseofthelayer),

( ) T H H L T T
b b
+ + = (1-4)
(withT=0)

Whentheseequationsarecombinedandsomealgebraicmanipulations(seethe
additionalnotesfordetails)aremadethecontrollingequationsforaStandard
Atmosphereareasfollows:
Inthetroposphere

RL g
b b
T
T
p
p
0

|
|
.
|

\
|
= (1-5)

Inthestratosphere

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b
b
b
RT
H H g
p
p
0
exp (1-6)

Followingthistheidealgaslawcanbeappliedforallotherquantities.

ItmustbenotedthattheStandardatmosphereiscalculatedintermsofthe
geopotentialaltitude,whichbydefinitionisidenticaltothepressurealtitude(indicated
byH
p
)inastandardatmosphere.Itisforthisreasonthatallcalculationshenceforth
mustbemadewithrespecttothepressureheight.

Naturally,thechancesofactuallyencounteringadayinSouthAfricawherethe
temperatureatsealevelisexactly288.15Kareminiscule.Forthisreasonoff-standard
atmospheresweredeveloped(seetheadditionalclassnotesESDU77022)andareof
greatinteresttous.Thefundamentalpremiseoftheoff-standardatmosphereisthat
suchanatmosphereisonewhereinthepressureatanygivenpressureheightis
identicaltothepressureinastandardatmosphereatthatsamegeo-potentialaltitude
(bydefinition).
Inthetroposphere

( )
(

+ =
b
pb p
e pb p b
T
H H L
L
T
H H H H 1 log (1-7)
Inthestratosphere

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
b
pb p b
T
T
H H H H 1 (1-8)

OncethevalueofH
p
isknownequations4and5(or6ifinthestratosphere)canbe
reappliedandsubsequentlytheidealgaslaw.

Whyhassuchagreatdealbeenmadeaboutsomethingasseeminglyinconsequential
asthebehaviourofanidealgas(i.e.theatmosphere)underacertainsetofconditions
(i.e.thestandardatmosphere).Oneofthemostimportantreasonsisbarometricor
pressurealtitude.Thisisthealtitude,whichismostcommonlyusedbyaviatorsand
measuredbyaircraft,whichthusfarhasbeengiventhesynonympressureheight.Itis
alsoimportanttoalwaysrememberthatitisthecurrentpressurethatdeterminesan
aircraftsperformancerelativetotheairandnotitsaltitude.

Picturethissituation,anairlinerisen-routetoalandingatCapeTowninternational
anditisadarkandstormynight.Thealtitudegiventothepilotisthatmadebythe
pressure-sensingaltimeter.Thisdevicewillread0m(i.e.sealevel)whenthepressure
is101325.Unfortunatelyforourintrepidaviatoralow-pressurecelliscurrentlyover
thepeninsulaandthereadingatsealevelisinfact95000Pa.Thusacorrectionneeds
tobemadeifthepassengersaretogettheirmoneysworth.Similarsituationsoccur
whenahigher(orlower)temperatureresultsinatmosphericconditionsdifferentto
thoseencounteredinastandardatmosphere.Thesedifferencesmustbetakeninto
accountifoneistocorrectlypredicttheperformanceofanaircraft;theapplicationof
theoff-standardatmospheremakesprovisionforthis.

Oneofmanyapplicationswherethestandardatmospherecomesinhandywillbe
reviewednext.

Thefollowingdatawastakenfrommeteorologicalballoons(bothGPSandRadar
aidedballoons)torecordatmosphericdatapriorandaftertherecentflight-testingofa
largeinternationalprojectattheOverbergTestRange.
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
TemperatureComparisons
GeometricAltitude[m]
T

[
K
]
2003/02/0414h43SAST
2003/02/1315h03SAST
2003/02/1317h33SAST
ISAT+13
o
C

Figure1-1ISAtemperaturefitstorealdata.
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
x10
4
PressureComparisons
GeometricAltitude[m]
P

[
P
a
]
2003/02/0414h43SAST
2003/02/1315h03SAST
2003/02/1317h33SAST
ISAT+13
o
C

Figure1-2ISApressurefitstorealdata.

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
DensityComparisons
GeometricAltitude[m]

[
K
g
/
m
3
]
2003/02/0414h43SAST
2003/02/1315h03SAST
2003/02/1317h33SAST
ISAT+13
o
C

Figure1-3ISAdensityfitstorealdata.

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

300
305
310
315
320
325
330
335
340
345
350
SpeedofSoundComparisons
GeometricAltitude[m]
a

[
m
/
s
]
2003/02/0414h43SAST
2003/02/1315h03SAST
2003/02/1317h33SAST
ISAT+13
o
C

Figure1-4ISAspeedofsoundfitstorealdata.

1.2 SpeedMeasurements,CompressibiltyandFluidFlow

Asapreludetothissectionontheapplicationoffluidmechanicstothefieldofflight
mechanicssomefundamentalaspectsfromthecourseonfluidmechanicscanbe
repeatedhere.

Firstlywewillexaminesomeoftheequationsgoverningthebehaviourofa
compressiblefluid(liketheatmosphere),theseequationswillbeusedthroughoutand
aregenerallyapplicable.

1.2.1 Continuity

Foraone-dimensionalflowofacompressiblefluidthefollowingexpressionforthe
massflowrateisalwaystrue:
AV m = (1-9)

1.2.2 EnergyEquation

Foraone-dimensionalflowofacompressiblefluidwithnoenergyaddedbetweenthe
entryandexitofthecontrolvolumeunderconsideration,thefollowingholds:

g
V
h Q
g
V
h
H
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
+ = + + (1-10)

1.2.3 ImpulseMomentum

ForasteadycompressibleflowtheapplicationofNewtonslawtoafluidyields

1 1 1 2 2 2
V Q V Q F = (1-11)

1.2.4 EulerEquation

Alongastreamline,foraone-dimensionalflowofacompressiblefluid
0 = +VdV
dp

(1-12)
Thislastequationwillbeexaminedinsomemoredetailinthesectiontocome.

Inadditiontothesefewfundamentalsoffluidmechanicssomeresultsfromthestudy
ofsimilitudeinfluidmechanicsarealsopertinent.

1.2.5 MachNumber

Themachnumberofafluidisameasureofthecompressibilityofthatfluidatthat
point.Itcanalsobeseenastheratiooftheinertialforcespersistinginthefluidtothe
elasticforceswithinthefluid.TheMachnumberisdefinedastheratioofthespeedof
sound(a)tothevelocityofthefluid(V),i.e.

a
V
M = (1-13)

Wherethespeedofsoundisgivenby:
RT a = (1-14)

1.2.6 ReynoldsNumber

Thisdimensionlessratioquantifiestheratiooftheinertialforcestotheviscousforces
(orshearstresses)andisgivenby:

Vl
R
e
= (1-15)
Thesefundamentalscannowfinallybeputtosomepracticaluseinthefieldofflight
mechanics.Thefirstapplicationtobeexaminedisthemeasurementofspeed.

1.3 VelocityMeasurements

Eulersequation,repeatedhereforconvenience,isapplicabletoanystreamlineina
fluid:
0 = +VdV
dp

Iftheflowunderconsiderationisincompressible(i.e.=constant),thenitcanbe
seenthat,
constant
2
1
2
= + V p (1-16)

Thisequationiscommonlyencounteredthroughoutflightmechanics,thefirsttermis
oftencalledthestaticpressurewhilethesecondtermisthedynamicpressure.

Ifthefluidisindeedcompressible(inourcase,theair,thisisatMachnumbershigher
than0.6),andoneassumesthatchangesindensityandpressurefollowanisentropic
processthenonecanseethat,
constant
1 2
1
2
=

+

p
V (1-17)

Or,alternatively,
constant
1 2
1
2
2
=

a
V (1-18)

ThesetwoformsofEulersequation(OftenrenamedtoBernoullisequation)cannow
beusedtodeterminethevelocityoftheairflow,firstlyatlowMachnumberswhen
theairisincompressible,

( )

p p
V
0
2
(1-19)

Atspeedswherethefluidbecomescompressible(M>0.6),thefollowingholds

( )
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ =

1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
0

M
M q
p p
(1-20)
Itisveryimportanttonotethatthequsedaboveisq

,whichisdefinedas,

2 2
2
1
2
1
pM q or V q = = (1-21)
Wherethevaluesusedabovearefree-streamvalues.Notethatwhencompressibility
isimportantqp
0
p.Theseequationsarenowusedtoderivesomespeedmeasures.
1.3.1 TrueAirspeed

Thetermp
0
pinequation1-20canbecalledthecompressibledynamic(orimpact)
pressure.Itisthisdifferencethatismeasuredbyapitottubeinsertedintotheflow.
Thismeasurementalongwiththemeasurementoftemperaturecanbeusedto
determinethetruevelocityoftheflow,asfollows:

(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

1 1
1
2
1
0
2
2

p
p p a
V
T
(1-22)

1.3.2 CalibratedAirspeed

Veryoftenaircraftperformanceandotherparametersarespecifiedaccordingtosea-
levelparameters.Thisisespeciallytrueofspeedrelatedparameters.Forthisreason
thecalibratedairspeedisveryoftencalculated.Thecalibratedairspeedcanbeseenas
acalibrationoftheairspeedusingsea-level(SL)values,andisgivenby:

2
1
1
0
2
1 1
1
2

(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

SL
SL
CAS
p
p p a
V (1-23)
Notethatp
0
pisstillthecompressibledynamicpressuremeasuredbythepitottube.

1.3.3 IndicatedAirspeed

Insomecasesadistinctionismadebetweentheairspeedasindicateddirectlybythe
pitottubeandthecalibratedairspeedwhichistheindicatedairspeed(ascalculatedin
1-23)butwithsomecorrectionsmadetotakeaccountofplacementandcalibration
errors.Inthiscasenodistinctionismadeandwewillsaythat,

IAS CAS
V V (1-24)

1.3.4 EquivalentAirspeed

Ifcompressibilitycanbeneglected(i.e.atM<0.6)thenaslightlysimplercalculation
canbeusedtodeterminetheequivalentairspeed:

( )
2
1
0
2
(

=
SL
e
p p
V

(1-25)
Insummaryitcanthusbeseenthat:

Atstandardsea-levelconditionsandlowMachnumbersV
TAS
=V
CAS
V
e
,
AsaltitudeincreasesV
TAS
>V
CAS
,
AsMachnumberincreasesV
CAS
V
e
.

1.4 Assignment.

WriteaMATLABsub-routinethatwillallowcalculationsofbothstandardandoff
standardatmospheres.Ideallythisroutineshouldacceptgeometricaltitudeasan
input,convertthistogeopotentialandfinallytopressurealtitude.Otherparameters
suchasPressure,Temperature,DensityandtheSpeedofSoundshouldalsobe
outputs.

Onagivendayataflighttestitisnotedthatthetemperatureatgroundlevelisquitea
bithigherthanexpected.Ifitisassumedthattheatmosphereofthedayisgivenbyan
off-standardatmosphereofDT=10.Determinetheconditionsat10000mgeometric
altitude.Usingthisinformationdetermineatwhatspeedthepilotneedstoflyto
achieveMach0.9.