Part 1 - Mass and Gravity

A step toward the Theory of Everything
The Spacetime Model

Version 3.06 16 July 2009
Part 1
Mass and Gravity
Jacky JEROME
Ingnieur Europen EUR-ING Ingnieur DPE (Diplm Par l'Etat) Ingnieur IPF Ingnieur ITP-ECI
Email: diaverre@orange.fr
ISBN 97829531234-0-1
Editions Arts et Culture 42 4, square Kennedy 42120 LE COTEAU (France)
Cover: On the left of the photo of Einstein: Maxwell, Feynman, Max Planck, Schrdinger On the right: Pauli, Niels Bohr, Marie Curie, De Brogglie, Dirac, Heisenberg
The Spacetime Model - Part 1
- II -
Introduction
Patent Rights
This theory, the Spacetime Model, was registered at INPI, the French Patent Institute, under the following references: 238268, 238633, 244221, 05 13355-2 895 559, 248427, 258796, 261255, 268327, 297706, 297751, 297811, 297928, 298079, 298080, 329638, 332647, 335152, 335153, 339797. This list is not exhaustive and some recent registrations at INPI are not mentioned. The Spacetime Model was also registered in other legal forms for Copyright. First deposit date at INPI: May 5th, 2005 Major deposit date at INPI: December 27th, 2005 In 2006, the two versions of this document, English and French, were addressed to more than 7000 physicists worldwide by e-mail. Several paper copies were sent in October 2006 to the most important Academics of Science and Committees of Foundations for Research. The Spacetime Model was also published on November 30, 2006, on 31 different web sites. It is also referenced on many sites like Google Books, Yahoo, DMOZ... The Spacetime Model is the intellectual property of its author, Jacky JEROME, and any illicit appropriation of the theory will be subject to prosecution.
- III -
Introduction
Abstract
The Spacetime Model
The Spacetime Model is a new theory based on spacetime. Instead of limiting spacetime to relativity, the author has extended it to all elements of the universe: matter, charge, electromagnetism, leptons, quarks, antimatter... In combination and relying on experimentation, this new theory explains, in a perfectly logical and rational way, more than 50 enigmas of quantum mechanics. Moreover, the Spacetime Model unifies the three basic forces (gravity, electroweak and strong nuclear force) in two generic forces: the Coulomb Force and the Hooke Force. To improve readability, the Spacetime Model has been divided into five parts: Part 1.......... Mass and gravity (this part) (www.spacetime-model.com/files/mass.pdf) Part 2.......... Constitution of matter (www.spacetime-model.com/ files/duality.pdf) Part 3.......... Quarks and antimatter (www.spacetime-model.com/files/quarks.pdf) Part 4.......... Electromagnetism (www.spacetime-model.com/files/electromagnetism.pdf) Part 5.......... Forces, the Universe (www.spacetime-model.com/files/universe.pdf) This document is the first part of the Spacetime Model. It offers the solution to the mass and gravity enigmas. Here are the main lines of this new theory.
The curvature of spacetime

Let's fill up a container with water. We drop a billiard ball into the container. The volume of the ball produces a displacement of water. The same phenomenon applies to spacetime. Contrary to generally accepted ideas, it is not mass which deforms spacetime, but volume, more exactly "closed" volume.
Mass = "Closed" volume?

In our world, mass and volume seem to be two different quantities because in atoms, the mass is not proportional to the volume. So, we have a large range of atoms with different masses and volumes. However, at the particle level, mass = volume (with some reservations explained in chapter 1 of this document). In reality, we have two main classes of volumes: ! Closed volumes (fig. A): These volumes make a displacement of spacetime, which produces a pressure on the surface of the volume. A mass effect appears, i.e. an effect that has all characteristics of mass. Nuclei and electrons are examples of closed volumes. Only closed volumes produce a mass effect and, therefore, have a mass. A B
- IV -
Introduction
Open volumes (fig. B on the previous page): These volumes exist but do not produce any displacement of spacetime. They are porous regarding spacetime. If there is no curvature, there is no mass effect either. So, open volumes are massless. Orbitals of electrons in atoms are examples of open volumes.
Open volume
Each atom has a particular proportion of open and closed volume. This is why mass and volume give us the illusion of being two different quantities.
Closed volumes
What is Gravity?
Two closed volumes inserted into spacetime curve it. Since spacetime is elastic, its curvature produces pressures on these two volumes. This tends to bring them closer to each other. So, contrary to what we think: Gravity is not an attractive force between masses but a pressure force exerted by spacetime on closed volumes. Since a pressure force is the opposite of an attractive force, and concave and convex curvatures are in opposition too, there is no difference between the Newton-Einstein Theory and this new explanation of mass and gravity: Attractive force + Concave curvature of spacetime
Pressure force + Convex curvature of spacetime
Validation by mathematics and experimentation

Usually, the Schwarzschild Metric and Newton Law are calculated from the Einstein Field Equations (EFE). Chapters 4 to 6 of this document propose a new and innovative calculation of these two formulas, based on the Hooke Law (elasticity laws). The suggested theory is also in perfect accordance with the 1921s Von Laue Diagram. Moreover, this document proposes a simple and low cost ($5,00) experimentation, which proves that the curvature of spacetime produces a pressure force, not an attractive force. This experiment also has a curiosity: it highlights a black hole behavior when R = Rs.
The Higgs Boson

The Higgs Theory doesn't propose to the Physicists Community a simple explanation, a low cost experimentation, and a full mathematical validation (Schwarzschild-Newton-Einstein) as those explained in this document. The conclusion is immediate: the Spacetime Model is much more credible than the Higgs Boson Theory.
- 1 -
1 - Open and Closed Volumes
1 Open and Closed Volumes

Mass, gravity and spacetime are so linked that it is not possible to explain one without the other. To understand these phenomena, it is necessary to study two new concepts. An understanding of these solves the mass and gravity enigma. This is why, for teaching purposes, this subject is divided into two chapters: Open and Closed Volumes, and Gravity. Each chapter covers half of the solution.
1.1 Starting points

The following three arguments has been used as starting points: 1. Enigma of electron and positron mass We know that the mass of positrons is exactly equal to that of electrons1. In addition, since the positron is the antiparticle of the electron, according to the symmetry theories (Richard Feynman, Nobel Prize 1965), their volumes must be identical (fig. 1-1). If electrons and positrons have the same mass (511 KeV) and the same volume, they also have the same mass per volume unit. Therefore, the following problem arises: How can, two particles, having strictly the same mass per volume unit, also have diametrically opposed internal constitutions2? Same Volume
Same mass : 510,998918 KeV
Fig. 1-1
The mass of the electron, 510.998918 +/- 0.00004 keV, is equal, or very close, to that of the positron. The accuracy of measurement is: |me+ - me-| /m < 8.10-9, with a CL of 90%. For the following demonstration, this accuracy is significant enough to allow us to assume that electrons and positrons have the same mass. 2 It is possible to consider that there is a probability that two particles with the same mass per volume unit can also have opposed internal constitutions. Such a proposal would not be illogical, but the measurement is so accurate (510,998918 KeV + 0,000044) that the probability of such a possibility would be infinitesimal. For example, on Earth, let us try to find two objects having the same mass per volume unit with an accuracy of 0,0000086% and different internal constitutions. Obviously, this challenge seems impossible.
- 2 -
This enigma allows for only one solution: mass and volume are two different aspects of a unique and identical entity. In other words, mass = k.volume. 2. Inconsistencies in EFE (Einstein Field Equations) This subject is covered in paragraph 2-3. 3. The fifth dimension Is mass function of spacetime? We are facing to the following two possibilities: Mass is independent of the four known dimensions. In this case, it is not possible to express the mass in the form m = f (x,y,z,t). The only solution to this problem is to consider a fifth dimension like the Higgs field, which expresses all objects of the universe by a law of the form f (m,x,y,z,t). Mass is the function of four known dimensions: m = f (x,y,z,t). In this case, all objects of the universe can be expressed with the variables x, y, z and t.
According to Einstein, the universe has 4 dimensions. His field equations were initially formulated in the context of a four-dimensional theory. Thus, it would be advisable to begin our research following the theory this great scientist proposed. This supposes that mass is function of spacetime. There is no objection to envisaging new dimensions, like the Higgs Field, but only as a last resort, after having exhausted all the resources of the traditional spacetime. As we will see in this theory, spacetime is far from having revealed all of its secrets to us In other words, it would be logical to begin our research in priority in 4D, excluding extra dimensions.
1.2 Basic concept

According to these three arguments, the following question arises: is the mass nothing more than volume? The answer is both, YES and NO. ! YES, because, as we'll see further, the Einstein Equations prove that mass and volume are the same concept. We'll also see that this concept explains most of the greatest enigmas of physics: What is a quark? Where is antimatter? E=mc?1 etc NO, because this definition is incomplete and requires some complements which are given in the following paragraphs.
Parts 2 to 5 of the "Spacetime Model" cover this topic.
- 3 -
1.3 Current theory of spacetime curvature

Einstein's equations connect mass to the spacetime curvature. Consequently, we'll try to understand mass in an indirect manner. Indeed, the solution to this enigma arises from the spacetime curvature. Scientific authors often represent the spacetime curvature by a drawing like that of figure 1-2. This representation is very informative but does not answer the question how is it possible for a mass to curve spacetime?
Fig. 1-2
1.4 Explanation of spacetime deformation

Let's fill up a container with water. We drop a billiard ball into the container. The volume of the ball produces a displacement of water. The same phenomenon applies to spacetime. Contrary to generally accepted ideas, it is not mass which deforms spacetime, but volume (fig. 1-3).
This figure was simplified to two dimensions for teaching purposes. In addition, our example does not correspond exactly to spacetime since water is not elastic. It would be more exact to compare spacetime to a kind of deformable crystal or EPP (expanded polypropylene). Since spacetime is elastic, if we remove the central object, the curvature must disappear.
Fig. 1-3
- 4 -
This deformation isn't concave but convex. However, we will see in chapter 2 that the nature of gravity (a pressure instead of an attractive force) exactly compensates this modification of curvature. So,
Any volume inserted in spacetime necessarily produces a curvature of it
It must be noted that the word volume may not be exact since the universe has four dimensions and not three but, whatever the dimension of the space is, 1D, 2D, 3D or 4D, the reasoning is the same. For example, let's imagine a simple line (1D). A small segment inserted into the middle of the line will push out its two ends to make room. Similarly, in 2D, a small surface inserted into a larger one will push out the surrounding surface to make room. Spacetime shares the same principle. Any volume inserted in spacetime pushes out surrounding spacetime to "get room". Thus, whatever the dimension of the space, 1D, 2D, 3D or 4D nD, we always have the same phenomenon.
Note: Considering that spacetime is present everywhere, more particularly in volumes, we could think that any volume can't curve spacetime. In reality, particles are hermetic regarding spacetime. This problem is covered in Part 2 of the Spacetime Model: "Constitution of Matter" (please download the PDF document "Part 2: Constitution of Matter" from the Web site www.spacetime-model.com).
1.5 Mass-volume equivalence

In the Einstein Equations, we should note two curvatures of spacetime: A first curvature, produced by mass. The mass variable, "m", is present in the Schwarzschild Solution for example. A second curvature, produced by volume. The volume variable, "v", must be present in the Einstein Equations. This second curvature should have the form C = f (v).
The formulation of the spacetime curvature should therefore be C = F (m, v), which is the combination of two curvatures, one from Einstein's theory produced by masses, C = f (m), which does not need to be verified, and another one produced by volume C = f (v). This second curvature is necessary, based on logical reasoning and good sense. However, on close examination of Einstein Field Equations and their solutions, we find only one curvature, the one produced by mass. We don't see any trace of volume curvature. We naturally deduce from this that the curvature of Einstein's theory due to mass and the curvature due to volume are the same phenomenon. In other words, this means that mass and volume are the same entity. but things are not quite so simple We'll study this subject thoroughly in paragraph 1.7.
- 5 -
1.6 Einstein Field Equations

Note: Readers who are not familiar with tensors may bypass this section. In this section, we will try to solve the same problem with Einstein Field Equations. These equations, usually called Einstein Field Equations1, or EFE, emphasize an identity between the properties of matter, mass-energy-momentum, and the geometry of spacetime, which is a variety of Riemann Spaces. Einstein discovered equivalence between the stressenergy tensor Tjk and the geometrical tensor of curvature Rjk - (1/2) gjkR. This mathematical equivalence can be expressed as follows: Geometry of spacetime Matter and energy Hiding the cosmological constant , the EFE, which must be read from right to left, becomes: Rjk - (1/2) gjk R = (8G/c4) Tjk The member of left is a geometrical tensor verifying a mathematical property of Lorentzian conservation. Rjk is the tensor of Ricci and R the scalar of Ricci. The member of left describes a representation of the geometry of spacetime. The member of right is the Tjk stress-energy tensor. Since energy comes from mass (special relativity), it gives the representation of the energy-momentum. The simplest solution of Einstein's equations is the Schwarzschild Solution. Its metric describes the deformation of spacetime produced by a static object with a spherical symmetry. Setting down (x0, x1, x2, x3) = (ct, r, , ), this metric is written as follows:
1+ 2GM rc
(g) = 0 0 0
0
1 1 2GM rc
0 0 r2 0
0 0 0 r2sin2
0 0
The expression of mass M exists in the elements T00 and T11, but we do not see any trace of the expression of volume2 V. This expression should exist since, like in our example of a billiard ball into water,
Any volume inserted in spacetime must curve it. It is an absolute necessity.
1 2
Sometimes called "Eintein-Hilbert Field Equations" We are looking for an expression of volume that produces the spatial component of spacetime deformation. This volume should not be confused with the spherical coordinates R, , and of the point of measurement.
- 6 -
The Schwarzschild Metric has been verified many times. So, the only means by which to solve this enigma is to consider that mass and volume are connected by an equation of the form m = f (v). It should be noted that the same reasoning could be applied to other metrics1 but, since the Schwarzschild Metric reflects an anomaly, it is not necessary to go further.
1.7 Classes of volumes

Let's replace the billiard ball used in the example in paragraph 1.4 by a balloon having the same volume (fig. 1-4 A). This does not change anything. However, if we make some holes in the balloon (fig. 1-4 B), water will go inside it and the displacement of water will disappear.
Fig. 1-4
The same phenomenon also exists in spacetime. In reality, we have two main classes of volumes: Closed Volumes (fig. 1-4 A): These volumes make a displacement of spacetime, which produces a pressure on the surface of the volume. A mass effect appears, i.e. an effect that has all characteristics of mass (see chapter 2 and 4). Protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons, muons, taus, quarks, mesons are examples of closed volumes. Only closed volumes produce a mass effect and, therefore, have a mass. Open Volumes (fig. 1-4 B): These volumes exist but they are porous regarding spacetime. Therefore, they do not produce any displacement of spacetime. Since there is no curvature, there is no mass effect either. Orbitals of atoms are examples of open volumes. Open volumes are massless.
Empty space between atoms or molecules is considered as an open volume. This empty space, of course, is massless. All atoms of the universe, and therefore all objects, are combinations of these two classes of volumes: closed volumes (with mass), and open volumes (massless).
1
Kerr, Reissner-Nordstrm, Robertson-Walker etc
- 7 -
This is why we have the illusion, on Earth, that mass and volume are two different concepts.
1.8 Example: Atoms

In atoms, orbitals are crossed on both sides by spacetime (fig. 1-5). It is a normal situation since orbitals are made of a vacuum. As a result, orbitals do not produce any spacetime curvature. The volume of orbitals is massless. On the other hand, the nuclei and electrons are closed volumes and, therefore, have a mass.
Experimentation confirms that atoms are made of: 1/ Open volumes: massless orbitals (a vacuum) 2/ Closed volumes: nucleons and electrons, with mass.
Closed volumes: Electron(s) and nucleus
Spacetime
Open volume (orbital)
Fig. 1-5
1.9
Conclusions
Calculations are not modified by this equivalence mass-volume. However, we must always remember that "mass" means "closed volume" and conversely (see chapter 4 for conversion formulas). We must also take note of the difference between open volumes, which are massless, and closed volumes, which has mass.
- 8 -
So:
To understand what is mass, we must replace
Volume Mass
by by
Open and/or closed volume Closed volume
Note: As indicated, complex elements like atoms have a combination of open and closed volumes.
Fig. 1-6
- 9 -
2 - Mass and Gravity
2 Mass and Gravity

It seems obvious that it is the volume (closed volume), and not the mass, which deforms spacetime. Now the challenge is to understand how such a spacetime curvature by a volume can produce the mass effect and gravity.
2.1
Principle of gravity
Two closed volumes inserted into spacetime curve it (fig. 2-1). Since spacetime is elastic, its curvature produces pressures on these two volumes. This tends to bring them closer to each other.
Note: This figure, in 1D, is for teaching purposes only.
Fig. 2-1
So, contrary to what we think,
Gravity is not an attractive force between masses but a pressure force exerted by spacetime on closed volumes
- 10 -
2.2
Principle of split
The "principle of split" also confirms this pressure of spacetime on volumes. This operation, which comes from the fluid theory of the nineteenth century, is used to build the constraint tensor. Let's imagine a sphere, which has two opposite forces (fig. 2-2A). In this document, we suppose, of course, that these pressures are produced by the curvature of spacetime. If we split this sphere down the middle (fig. 2-2B), each half is subjected to only one force. We have a movement of each half toward the other. Transposed to spacetime, this phenomenon is nothing but gravity, which is a pressure force on closed volumes.
Fig. 2-2
2.3
Stress-energy tensor
Let's come back to the Einstein Tensor. We know that Einstein created his stress-energy tensor (fig. 2-3) from the constraint tensor used in fluid mechanics. Riemann made a significant contribution to that physic domain. Constraint tensor This tensor, from the Hooke Law, represents the dynamic pressures exerted by the fluid on an object. The elements of this tensor have the following significance: T01, T02, T12, T10, T20, T21 are viscosity. The trace T00, T11, T22, is the pressure; one third of the trace is isostatic pressure Stress-energy tensor The elements of this tensor have the following significance: T00 is the density of energy T10, T20, T30 are the density of moments T01, T02, T03 are the flow of energy T12, T13, T23, T21, T31, T32 are viscosity, as with the constraint tensor The trace, T11, T22, T33, represents an attractive force: gravity.
- 11 -
Stress-energy tensor
in General Relativity
Constraint tensor
in fluid mechanics T00 T10 T20 T01 T11 T21 Pressure T02 T12 T22 T00 T10 T20 T30 T01 T11 T21 T31 T02 T12 T22 T32 T03 T13 T23 T33
Gravity = Attractive force Einstein built his tensor from the constraint tensor. Curiously, he replaced the initial pressure force (the trace) by an attractive force. Why ??? Fig. 2-3
In the original constraint tensor, the significance of the trace is a pressure.
This leads to the following remarks: ! In fluid mechanics, constraint tensors are always built on volumes, not on masses. Indeed, it is the volume and not the mass that produces the viscosity and pressure in fluid mechanics, as in the proposed theory. Since the stress-energy tensor is built from the constraint tensor, why has mass replaced the volume? Viscosity, in the Einstein's tensor, is the same as the one in the constraint tensor. If the viscosity is the same, why would the trace be different? Why has an attractive force replaced the initial pressure force?
! !
These inconsistencies probably have the following explanation. Since Newton's time, physicists have supposed that gravity is an attractive force. This is only an assumption. We must keep in mind that, in Newton's time, spacetime was unknown. Today, we have a better knowledge of spacetime and the context is different. Therefore, we must reconsider this question because Newton's point of view concerning gravity as an attractive force is wrong. Be that as it may, these inconsistencies lead to the following deduction:
- 12 -
The connection between the constraint tensor and the stressenergy tensor clearly shows that: ! ! Spacetime is curved by closed volumes (not by masses) Gravity is a pressure force (not an attractive force)
This conducts to the following equivalence: Gravity + concave curvature = Pressure force + convex curvature Figures 2-4 and 2-5, on the following page, show the difference between the two concepts.
2.4
Synthesis
In this synthesis, we will only consider closed volumes since open volumes do not produce a mass effect. The whole phenomenon is summarized as follows: 1. Closed volumes curve spacetime. 2. Since spacetime is elastic, a pressure force (Hooke Force) appears on the surface of these closed volumes. 3. This pressure force produces a mass effect. 4. The same pressure force on the surface of two or more volumes tends to bring them closer to each other. This effect is gravity. It should be noted that volume exists physically, but mass doesn't. Mass is only an effect due to pressure from the curvature of spacetime produced by closed volume. Note: The term effect, used on several occasions here, doesn't mean gravity is a kind of "virtual effect". Since the spacetime curvature is quite real, the mass effect is real too. In other words, this "mass effect" is, of course, a reality. The reader must avoid misinterpretations of the word effect
2.5
Wheeler's Intuition
Mass and energy tell spacetime how to curve itself and the spacetime curvature tells matter how to behave.
Let's note the intuition of the great physicist John Archibald Wheeler:
If we replace mass by closed volume, Wheeler's expression describes, word for word, the theory presented here:
Closed volumes tell spacetime how to curve itself, and the spacetime curvature tells matter how to behave.
- 13 -
Current Theory = No Explanation

Curvature of spacetime ??? (*)
Gravity ??? (*)
Volume
Mass ??? (*) Object
(*) No explanation
Fig. 2-4
Proposed Theory (close to Wheeler's intuition)

Closed volumes curve spacetime Spacetime elasticity Spacetime produces a pressure force on closed volumes
Gravity
Closed volume
Mass effect
A mass effect due to the pressure of spacetime is associated with each closed volume.
Object
Only volume physically exists. Mass does not exist per se. Mass is an effect produced by the pressure of spacetime on closed volume.
Fig. 2-5
- 14 -
2.6
Example of mass and gravity
In this example, imagine that you hold a very light polystyrene ball in your hand (fig. 2-6). A flexible EPP (expanded polystyrene) foam, which is curved by the ball, replaces spacetime. The curvature of the foam (spacetime) produces a pressure on the top of the ball, toward Earth. If you close yours eyes, you will sense that the ball is heavier. It is not the mass of the ball, which increases, but the pressure on the top of it. The result is the same. This is what is called a "mass effect".
EPP
Note: For teaching purposes, in this figure, Earth has been omitted.
Fig. 2-6
As we see in this example, mass is directly related to the pressure of the flexible polystyrene foam on the ball. It is the volume of the ball that deforms the foam, not its mass. Transposed to spacetime, this example clearly shows that mass physically doesn't exist. Mass is a simple effect due to the pressure of spacetime exerted on closed volumes. This example also means that gravity is a pressure force produced by volume, instead of an attractive force made by mass.
2.7
Equivalence principle
The proposed theory fully explains the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass. Lets consider an object on Earth (Fig. 2-7). The volume of this object produces a curvature of spacetime which exerts a gravity force on it. The acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.81 m.s-2 on the surface of Earth.
- 15 -
Note: For teaching purposes, in this figure, Earth has been omitted.
Fig. 2-7 Lets now consider the same object which is accelerated out of gravity (fig. 2-8A). The acceleration, , is supposed identical to g, i.e. = 9.81 m.s-2.
This figure is identical to fig. 2-7 since g =
Fig. 2-8 Without any reference, a local observer cant say if the acceleration comes from the object or from the curvature of spacetime. In fact, figures 2-8A and 2-8B are identical and depend on where the observer stands, as described in Spacial Relativity. Since g = 9.81 m.s-2 (fig. 2-7) is identical to = 9.81 m.s-2 (fig. 2-8). These examples uses the same object. Therefore, the curvature of spacetime produced by the volume (more exactly, by the closed volume) of the object is identical. So, the mass effect produced by these curvatures will be the same.
According to Einstein, we deduce that the gravitational mass effect (fig. 2-7) is identical to the inertial mass effect (fig. 2-8B). In other words:
Gravitational mass = Inertial mass = Spacetime effect
- 16 -
2.8
Relativistic particles
The mass of a particle increases when its speed approaches the speed of light, c. This wellknown phenomenon is defined in Special Relativity but no one can explain it with logic. The proposed theory solves this enigma with a great simplicity (fig. 2-9). As the velocity increases toward the speed of light c, the curvature of spacetime produced by the volume of the particle grows too. This phenomenon is identical to the opposition force produced by the pressure of air on cars which increases with speed (F=kv). At relativistic speed, spacetime is compressed. The pressure of spacetime on the volume of the particle increases. This increase of pressure explains the apparent growth of the mass.
Current Theory
Direction of movement V=0
Proposed theory
The particle curves spacetime
m0
Relativistic speed V
m=
m0 1 v2/c2
The speed of the particle produces a compression of spacetime, which gives us the illusion that the mass increases. Fig. 2-9
Why ? No one can explain
Therefore, contrary to a preconceived idea:
At relativistic speed, the mass of a particle remains unchanged. It is its mass effect due to the compression of spacetime that increases.
- 17 -
2.9
Crystals
We know that the mass of a particle moving inside a crystal increases (fig. 2-10).
m (out of any mass)

Note: For teaching purposes, in this figure, the mass of the particle has been increased. In reality, it is its "mass effect" which increases.
M >m
M Fig. 2-10
No one can explain this strange phenomenon. However, the solution of this enigma is very simple, considering that mass is an effect of the spacetime curvature. In this example, lets take the cubic system, which is the simplest structure of a crystal. We can consider the lattice of a crystal as an array of tunnels. The particle is moving inside one of these tunnels. Closed volumes inside each atom of the tunnel (the nuclei and electrons) curve the spacetime located on the path of the particle. Therefore, the density of spacetime will be higher inside the tunnel than outside the crystal. Since a high density (or curvature) of spacetime produces an opposition force, the apparent mass, more exactly the mass effect, of a particle crossing a crystal increases too. It is a necessity. This explanation is exactly in accordance with experimentation.
Note 1: The volume of the particle remains unchanged. The only thing that increases is the spacetime density inside the tunnel of the crystal, therefore the mass effect. Note 2: The same phenomenon also exists inside matter different than crystals. However, it is impossible, or at least very difficult, to measure exactly the mass effect inside matter. Note 3: It would be interesting to calculate new solutions of the EFE with different kinds of Bravais Lattice: cubic, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic... structures. These metrics would be useful to predict the increase of the mass effect of a particle moving inside a particular crystal.
- 18 -
2.10 Example of mass-volume equivalence1
x2
On our left, we have an eraser and on our right, a pen that weighs two times more. If we remove the 99.999% of vacuum existing inside the atoms of the two objects, we obtain two "heaps" of nucleons. We will have two times more nucleons for the pen than for the eraser because all the mass is practically concentrated in nuclei. Since all nucleons have the same volume, the pen nucleons will have a total volume two times superior to those of the eraser. Therefore, the pen will produce twice more curvature of spacetime than that produced by the eraser. Since spacetime curvature = pressure, the spacetime will produce a pressure two times stronger over the pen than over the eraser in the pen/eraser-Earth context. Therefore, the pen will be two times heavier than the eraser.
x2
x2
x2
Fig. 2-11
This simple thought experiment demonstrates that what we call mass is, in reality, a mass-effect, which is the pressure exerted by spacetime on closed volumes.
In this example, the mass of electrons, the binding energy etc has been ignored. Moreover, we consider that the volume of protons is identical to that of neutrons.
- 19 -
2.11
The mass excess
No one knows exactly the origin of the mass excess, why it is negative in some nuclides, and null or positive in others. The Bethe-Weizscker formula is accurate but doesnt explain this well-known but strange phenomenon. The proposed theory gives a rational and consistent explanation of this enigma. Now, we know that the mass effect is function of the volume which produces the curvature of spacetime. The shape of the surface must also be taken into account because spacetime exerts a pressure on the surface of the volume. Before going on, we must note that two objects, like a cube and a sphere, can have identical volumes with different surfaces. The mass excess phenomenon is based on this ratio volume/surface. In the following example (figure 2-12), we consider a nuclide with 19 nucleons. ! ! Independent nucleons (A) If the volume of a nucleon is V and its surface S, the total volume is 19V and the total surface 19S. Atom (B) The 19 nucleons are linked to make an atom. The grey surface represents the enclosed volume between nucleons. In reality, this closed volume curves spacetime. Atom (C) From an external view, the figure (B) looks like (C). The global volume and surface are different than those calculated from the 19 independent nucleons (A). Therefore, the mass effect of figure (C) is different from that of figure (A).
Fig. 2-12
- 20 -
In all cases, we have 19 nucleons, but the volume and surface are different, depending of the arrangement of these nucleons. The calculation isnt a simple multiplication followed by an addition. So, it is obvious that, when two or more nucleons are linked, the overall volume and surface highlight minor differences. These differences are nothing but the mass excess (positive or negative) since mass = closed volume. Note: More examples of the equivalence Mass = Closed Volume are described in Part 4, chapter 4.
2.12
Conclusion Current Theory Proposed Theory
What is mass? No one knows Mass curves spacetime Why ??? Gravity is an attractive force between mass Why ???
Mass = closed volume
Closed volume curves spacetime Gravity is a pressure force on volumes produced by spacetime Logical and consistent explanation of Mass and Gravity
No explanation of these phenomena
- 21 -
3 - Validation by Experimentation
3 Validation by Experimentation
The following experimentation can be repeated many times, under the same conditions. It always produces the same results. Therefore, this experiment can be considered as a valid scientific simulation of mass and gravity.
3.1
Introduction
Einstein demonstrated that spacetime has an elasticity behaviour and can be calculated from Fluid Mechanics. Therefore, it is possible to simulate spacetime with an EPP (expanded polypropylene) foam, since spacetime and EPP follow the same rules. Indeed, elasticity laws can be applied in both cases and the basic principle is identical. The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate that gravity isnt an attractive force between masses, but a simple pressure force produced by spacetime on closed volumes (fig. 3-1).
Fig. 3-1
3.2

Basic material
A piece of expanded polypropylene foam (EPP) measuring 30x21 cm, 2 cm thick A drawing, on the EPP foam, of a set of lines spaced 5 mm apart. Two cylinders with a 2 cm in diameter Two Force Sensing Resistors (FSR) - see the following paragraph Some basic tools such as a soldering iron, a power supply, a multimeter, a cutter... A few basic components such as wire, resistors, trimmers...
To conduct this experiment, we need:
- 22 -
3.3
The FSR
A Force Sensing Resistor (FSR, fig. 3-2) is a polymer thick film (PTF) device which exhibits a decrease in resistance with an increase in the force applied to the active surface. The two FSRs used in these experiments are manufactured by the Interlink Company, part # SS-U-N-S-00015 (price = $1.00 each). The pressure ranges from 0.007 to 7 bars, and the resistance decreases from 10 M to 1 K with an increase of force. Fig. 3-2
3.4
Experiment #1
Experiment #1 shows that far from any mass, the resistance of a FSR is 10M (open circuit, fig. 3-3). When a mass is placed on a FSR (fig. 3-4), its resistance decreases to 35 K.
Fig. 3-3
Fig. 3-4
Since the weight of a mass is directly related to gravity (second Newton Law, Weight=mg), this experiment shows the following simple but important deduction:
Decrease of FSR resistance = Presence of gravity
- 23 -
3.5
Experiment #2
Two FSRs measure the pressure produced by an expanded polypropylene (EPP) foam on each side of a volume V1. Figures 3-5 and 3-7 represent the first step of this experiment. In order to get an accurate measurement and to use only one galvanometer in this experiment, the two FSRs are inserted in a Wheatstone Bridge. This setup is frequently used in strain gauge measurements. Figure 3-6 represents the circuit diagram.
FSR2
V1
FSR1
FSR2 A R1
C FSR1
Vg
B VR1
D Pressure of the EPP foam (= spacetime) on the two FSRs
Fig. 3-5
Fig. 3-6
The volume V1 is inserted in the EPP foam and the Wheatstone Bridge is adjusted by VR1 to obtain a zero voltage between the two midpoints A and B (fig. 3-6). No current flows through the galvanometer Vg. The pressure of the EPP foam (or spacetime) on both sides of the volume V1 is identical.
FSR2 V1
C A D
FSR1
B
Fig. 3-7
- 24 -
Without changing anything, a second volume, V2, is inserted near the first volume V1 (fig. 38). We note a deviation on the galvanometer (fig. 3-10), which indicates an additional pressure on FSR1.
FSR2 V1
V2
C A D
FSR1
B
Fig. 3-8
To summarize, with one volume, the galvanometer indicates no voltage (fig. 3-9). With two volumes, it indicates a voltage proportional to the pressure produced by the second volume on FRS1 (fig. 3-8 and 3-10). This force beetween V1 and V2 can be identified to gravity since "voltage on FSR = Presence of gravity" (paragraph 3.4).
Fig. 3-9
Fig. 3-10
- 25 -
3.6
! ! ! !
Conclusions
Out of any volume (or mass), the voltage in a Wheatstone Bridge is 0 V (fig. 3-9). When a second volume is inserted into the EPP foam the voltage of FSR1 increases (fig. 3-10). Experiment #1 (fig. 3-3 and 3-4) proves that a voltage on a FSR1 indicates a "presence of gravity". Deduction: The voltage on FSR1 clearly shows that between V1 and V2 a force identical to gravity has appeared.
At last, this experimentation also confirms that gravity is a pressure force exerted by volumes (not by masses) since mass of the cylinders is irrelevant. Only the volume of the cylinder is taken into account.
3.7
The light deflection
Every physicist is familiar with the observation of the light deflection by the sun made by Sir Arthur Eddington and his collaborators during a total solar eclipse in 1919. Replacing the spacetime elasticity with that of an EPP foam (fig. 3-11), this simple experiment explains with consistency this strange phenomenon.
Light
Fig. 3-11
3.8
The Von Laue Diagram 2
The following thought experiment demonstrates that the proposed theory is in accordance with the Von Laue Diagram. The Author, due to practical limitations, can't actually perform this simple experiment3.
1 2
More exactly, the FSR resistance decreases and, therefore, the voltage increases. Von Laue, 1921, page 226, reported by Jean Eisenstaedt "Einstein and General Relativity", page 247. 3 This very simple experiment is not accurate with traditionnal EPP foam. To increase accuracy, this experiment must be conducted by a laboratory and the scientific community. The Author is a physics hobbyst and does not work in an institutional establishment. Therefore, he has not the financial possibility to conduct this experiment that requires some funds.
- 26 -
A set of concentric circles, spaced 5 mm apart, has been drawn on EPP foam (fig. 3-12A). A volume is inserted in the middle (fig. 3-12B). Therefore, the lines are displaced since the EPP foam is elastic.
Von Laue Geodesics 33 GM/c
2GM/c 3GM/c
Fig. 3-12
These concentric circles have been duplicated in fig. 3-12C. The Von Laue Geodesics has been drawn over these circles. We see that the Von Laue Geodesics match EXACTLY the concentric circles. So, the Von Laue Diagram and the proposed theory conduct to the same results. It means that the two theories are based on the same principle. In other words, It seems that in 1921, Von Laue predicted the proposed theory.
- 27 -
4 - Mass-Volume Conversion
4 Mass-Volume Conversion
The purpose of chapters 4 to 6 is to validate the entire theory described in this document using mathematics. This chapter studies the mass-volume conversion equation.
4.1
Abbreviations used in formulas

[ML/T] [M/LT] [L3/MT] [1] [L3/MT]
F = Force, in Newtons P = Pressure, in Pascals or N/m = Conversion constant: 1,5704459.1028 m3/kg.s for the proton = Strain x/x0 G = Universal Constant of Gravity: 6,67428.10-11
4.2
Conventional mass-volume conversion
The volume-mass equivalence described in the preceding chapters may be expressed by an equation like (values for the proton): or m = k.v v = K.m k = 5.9239 x 1017 kg/m3 (CODATA 2006) K = 1.6881 x 10-18 m3/kg
The constants k and K have respectively the dimensional quantity of [M/L3] and [L3/M]. These two constants are simple constants of conversion. On Earth, we often use similar constants as mass per unit volume". However, things are not so simple.
4.3
Starting point
In physics, we use a constant, G, which has the dimensional quantity of [L3/MT]. Lets examine these two expressions, K, the traditional volume-mass ratio, and G, the universal constant of gravity: K = [L3/M] G = [L3/MT] We remark that K and G are two constants very close to each other. The only difference is that G has an additionnal term, [1/T].
- 28 -
A basic constant is a ratio between two or more quantities. For example, c, the speed of light in a vacuum, is the ratio between x and t, which leads to a constant, c = 300 000 km/s. A basic constant cant have only one value, as [1/T]. If such is the case, it is not a basic constant but the value of a particular object, as 511 KeV for the mass of electron1. If G = [L3/MT] and K = [L3/M] are two basic constants, the ratio G/K must be another constant having the dimensional quantity of:
If we consider that the mass per volume unit K is a constant, we are faced a problem since the second member of this equation, [1/T], can't be a basic constant2.
4.4
The "mass effect"
Lets examine figure 4-1, which is identical to figure 2-5.
Closed volumes curve spacetime
Spacetime elasticity
Spacetime produces a pressure force on closed volumes
Gravity
Closed volume
Mass effect
A mass effect due to the pressure of spacetime is associated with each closed volume.
Object Fig. 4-1
Except with Planck Units tp, mp .... In this case, these units become references and replace G, h, c.... However, this point of view doesnt change the reasoning stated above. 2 This point of view, considering that [L3/M] could not be constant, must be taken with great care since many combinations of basic constants are possible. It is offered only as a suggestion, a possible way of research for a new theory, nothing more.
- 29 -
On one hand, the "mass effect" M must be proportional to the volume V that produces the spacetime displacement. On the other hand, the "mass effect" must be inversely proportional to the surface S since the pressure exerted by spacetime on the object follows the rule P = F/S (the "mass effect" acts as a pressure). Combining these two considerations, the mass effect would be proportional to: (4-1)
(4-2)
(4-3) This preliminary result is interesting. Let's return to the above equation (4-1). This formula can be written as: or: (4-4) (4-5) with K = volume per mass unit [L3/M]1. The dimensional quantity of (4-5) becomes: (4-6) or: (4-7) This equation reflects reality since it includes the surface component but it isn't homogenous. To render it homogenous, we must add an unknown term (constant or variable) having the dimensional quantity of [1/L] : (4-8) We can transform [1/L] in [1/T] without changing anything, using the well-known formula x = ct, or x = ct. Equation (4-8) becomes: (4-9)
K already includes a basic conversion constant without dimensional quantity
- 30 -
Rearranging the right member: (4-10) This is a second interesting result.
4.5
Mass-volume conversion
Deduction of paragraph 4.4, and more precisely equation 4-10, strongly suggest that the simplest form of an equation matching the process of figure 4-1 and including the surface component (4R = [L]) could be:
(4-11)
Where (the following values concern the proton and may differ with other particles): V = Volume (volume of the proton = 2.8235 x 10-45 m3) = [L3/MT] ( for the proton = 1.57045 x 1028 m3/kg.s) R = Radius (radius of the proton = 8.768 x 10-16 m) M = Mass (mass of the proton = 1.672622 x 10-27 kg) And: 4R = Surface (surface of the proton, assuming it is spherical = 9.6607 x 10-30 m) 4R/c = Volume-mass conversion factor [L3/M] = 1.68808 x 10-18 m3/kg Since V = 4/3 R3, assuming the proton spherical, the formula (4-11) may also be written as follows: (4-12) Simplifying: (4-13)
or: (4-14)
As indicated in equation 4-3, the relation between R and M is linear.
- 31 -
4.6 Confirmation by experimentation

The following table calculates some characteristics of protons and deuterons. On Earth, for a given element, the mass per unit volume is constant. For example, that of iron is 7,874 g.cm-3. However, the problem seems more complex for nuclear matter.
Proton Mass M Radius R Volume V = 4/3 R3 R/M (Radius/Mass) 1.67262E-27 8.76800E-16 2.82352E-45 5.24207E+11 Deuteron 3.34358E-27 2.14020E-15 4.10631E-44 6.40092E+11 Ratio deuteron/proton 1,999 2,441
14,543
1,221
Considering that the mass is proportional to the volume, as on Earth, the volume of the deuteron must be twice that of the proton since the deuteron/proton mass ratio is 1.999. Instead of x2, we have x14.5 !!!. On the other hand, the last line of the table calculates the ratio, R/M. This value isn't 1.00, as we could expect, but 1.2211. It confirms our previous result (equation 4-3, paragraph 4.4), which is summarized as: (4-15) This table, from CODATA 2006, clearly shows that the Mass/Volume conversion isn't linear, as we could think. Moreover, this conclusion exactly matches equation (4-13) that we obtained in the previous paragraph. So, CODATA values based on experimentation provide a first validation of the proposed theory.
4.7 Calculation of the curvature of spacetime

The variable R in equation 4-13 must not be interpreted as a radius but as a displacement of spacetime. As we know, a simple displacement doesn't produce a force. In reality, the elasticity of spacetime produces a force (or a pressure) on closed volumes. Therefore, we must take into account R, an "elastic displacement", not "R" which is a simple displacement. R is calculated from the coefficient of elasticity of spacetime, , a constant without dimension. Since Einstein built his EFE from the Fluid Mechanics, we can use, as Einstein, the Fluid Mechanics to define R by the well-known formula:
perhaps because the deuteron isn't spherical
- 32 -
(4-16) Since R << R, the logarithm can be replaced by its limited development: (4-17) (4-18) As previously indicated, in this equation, R must be interpreted as "the volume/surface ratio that determines the mass effect" rather than "the length of the radius". Porting (4-18) in (4-13): (4-19) Without changing the formula (4-19), we can divide each member by a distance r to get the ratio of curvature of spacetime at point r located at a place outside of the mass M. (4-20) Since 3 is a constant with the dimensional quantity of [L3/MT], we strongly suspect that this value is nothing but G. Therefore, equation (4-20) becomes, posing1:
(4-21) For the proton, the values for and are: = 1,57045.1028 m3/kg.s= [L3/MT] =1,41664.10-39 = [1]
(4-22)
Note: The product is constant but each term, and , is a variable f(r,v,s) with r = radius, v = volume and s = surface etc. Since some experimentation1 proves that particles aren't spherical, v and s are aren't directly related to r.
These data are calculated from the proton, and not from the deuteron, because the proton shape is supposed to be spherical. However, a recent experimentation conducted at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator by Gerald A. Miller, a University of Washington physics professor, led physicists to the conclusion that protons aren't always spherically shaped. This result have an effect on .
- 33 -
5 - The Schwarzschild Metric
5 The Schwarzschild Metric

The purpose of this chapter is to validate the theory described in this document by retrieving the Schwarzschild Metric from the mass-volume formula (4-21 and 4-22). Calculations are made on the assumption of a static non-rotating spherical symmetry mass with a weak fields approximation: x << r.
5.1
Experimentation
Before continuing, we must know if the theory described in this document is in accordance with the Schwarzschild Metric. For that purpose, a simple experiment, which costs less than $2.00 and that anyone can conduct, is proposed. The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate that a simple EPP foam can simulate spacetime and, therefore, also simulate the Schwarzschild Equation. A set of lines, spaced 5 mm apart, has been drawn on an EPP foam. As in chapter 3, the foam simulates spacetime. A half cylinder, with a radius of 22 mm, for example the cap of a milk bottle, is inserted into the foam (fig. 5-1). The gaps between two adjacent lines are then measured and plotted with Microsoft Excel. The results are shown in the following tables and graphs.
This experiment has been conducted using low cost basic material. This is why some lines aren't regular. The following curve (5-2) shows the variations of the space between two adjacent lines. However, despite this poor accuracy of measurement, the results of this experimentation are very interesting. See the following pages.
6 5 4
Base Fig. 5-1
3 2 1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Fig. 5-2
- 34 -
Experimentation with EPP foam r Distance measured between the base and the point of measurement r of the curvature of spacetime (see fig. 5-1 on the previous page).
r
22 24,4 26,8 29,4 32,2 35,2 38,3 41,8 45,9 50,4 55,1 59,9 64,6 69,3 74,4 79,3 84,4 89,5 94,5 99,5 104,2 108,8 113,6 118,4 123,2 128 132,9
y(r)
1,10 1,09 1,08 1,07 1,07 1,06 1,06 1,05 1,05 1,04 1,04 1,04 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02
y(r exp) The curvature of spacetime yr is calculated from the distance r measured in this experiment. The radius component of the Schwarzschild formula has been normalized to: (5-1)
y(r exp) is the experimental calculation. The following values are contracted in 2.2 with: R = 22mm (the radius of the cap of the milk bottle) = 0.1, an arbitrary EPP foam coefficient (see 4.7) R = R = 0.1 x 22mm = 2.2 mm. Note: The dimensional quantity of 2.2/r is [1] since 2.2 is a length, not a mass.
Table of figure 5-3
1,12 1,10 1,08 1,06 1,04 1,02 1,00 0,98 0,96 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 Fig. 5-3
- 35 -
Theoretical calculation Now, we are going to calculate the data on a mathematical basis, using the same formula as the precedent one (5-1). The values are: ! Col. 1: "n" is the rank of each line ! Col. 2: Lines "r0" are spaced 5 mm. apart, out of gravity, with an offset of 22 (22 mm. is the radius of the closed volume). ! Col. 3: r, is calculated using the elasticity of spacetime, , supposed to be 0.1 in this simulation. ! Col. 4: Finally, the distance between the base and the point of measurement of the spacetime curvature, r, is computed from R and r0. ! Col. 5: Result y(r theor.) (5-2)
Col. 1
Col. 2
27 32 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 97 102 107 112 117 122 127 132 137 142 147 152
Col. 3
2,70 3,20 3,70 4,20 4,70 5,20 5,70 6,20 6,70 7,20 7,70 8,20 8,70 9,20 9,70 10,20 10,70 11,20 11,70 12,20 12,70 13,20 13,70 14,20 14,70 15,20
Col. 4
24,30 28,80 33,30 37,80 42,30 46,80 51,30 55,80 60,30 64,80 69,30 73,80 78,30 82,80 87,30 91,80 96,30 100,80 105,30 109,80 114,30 118,80 123,30 127,80 132,30 136,80
Col. 5
n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
r0 = 5n+22 r = 0.1 r0 r = r0 - r
y(r)
1,10 1,08 1,07 1,06 1,05 1,05 1,04 1,04 1,04 1,04 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,03 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02 1,02
As in our previous example, the curve of function y(r theor.) is:
Table of figure 5-4
1,12 1,10 1,08 1,06 1,04 1,02 1,00 0,98 0,96 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Fig. 5-4
- 36 -
Conclusions As we see, the two tables and their associated graphics 5-3 and 5-4 are very close to each other. In particular, their last column (in bold) are practically identical. It is only a question of a coefficient. This leads to two important conclusions: 1. The curve calculated from the Schwarzschild Metric (fig. 5-4), is very close to that plotted from experimentation using a simple EPP foam (fig. 5-3). 2. In these two tables, volume (more exactly radius) replaces mass
5.2 The Schwarzschild Radius Rs

Lets return to our experiment (fig. 5-1) and to its table and curve (fig. 5-3). In formula 5-1, when the length of the curvature of spacetime R is increased to 40 mm., a singularity appears (fig. 5-5). (5-3)
r
22 24,4 26,8 29,4 32,2 35,2 38,3 41,8 45,9 50,4 55,1 59,9 64,6 69,3 74,4 79,3 84,4 89,5 94,5 99,5 104,2 108,8 113,6 118,4 123,2 128 132,9
y = f(r)
-1,56 -2,03 -2,77 -4,13 -7,33 -22,53 23,22 7,78 4,85 3,65 3,01 2,63 2,37 2,16 2,02 1,90 1,81 1,73 1,67 1,62 1,58 1,54 1,51 1,48 1,45 1,43
We get the behaviour of the Schwarzschild Equation around Rs, the Schwarzschild Radius. The table and the curve (fig. 5-5) show an asymptote when r = 40 mm.. This value, 40 mm., is nothing but the Schwarzschild Radius Rs. We can also remark that the signature is changed from + to -, as inside a black hole. This experiment is very interesting because it proves, one more time, that the curvature of spacetime is produced by the volume, not by the mass. Indeed, during all these explanations, only lengths have been considered. Masses have been totally ignored. It is the radius, not the mass, which has been increased to 40 mm. to calculate a black hole behaviour.
30,00
r = Rs
20,00 10,00 0,00 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -10,00 -20,00 -30,00 25
Table of figure 5-5
Fig. 5-5
- 37 -
5.3 Discussion concerning Rs

Theoretically, the radius Rs should exist. In reality, this is not certain.... From a mathematical point of view, it is possible to have r < R, R beeing the radius of the particle or object. From a physical point of view, this point of view isn't obvious. The debate is ongoing, but logically, r can't be less than R. What happens if an electromagnetic wave comes at a distance r = R? The Von Laue Diagram (fig. 3-12) partially gives the solution to this enigma: ! ! ! Far from the volume that makes the displacement of spacetime (fig. 5-6 A), the light is only deviated. It follows the geodesic of spacetime. Near the volume (fig. 5-6 B), the light is captured. In this case, the light turns around the object and doesn't have the possibility of escaping. In front of the volume, the light comes in collision with the object (Compton Effect). In other words, the "famous" black hole capture could be nothing but an ordinary Compton effect
Fig. 5-6
At last, we must note the three following remarks (these remarks are only suggestions that are not proven): ! ! ! Since a particle (electron, proton) is a closed volume, its behaviour could be identical to that of a black hole. If the light comes in r = R (fig. 5-6 B), it is possible that a resonance takes place if the circumference of the particle is a multiple of its wavelength. In that case, it is possible that particles of groups 2 and 3 of the Standard Model could be nothing but particles of group 1 in resonance. For example, the muon could be an electron in a "level 1 resonance". In the same manner, the tau could be an electron in a "level 2 resonance". This resonance increases the volume (the mass) of the particles but keep their charge unchanged (-1 in this example). That is in perfect accordance with the proposed theory. For this reason, this possibility must be carrefully studied.
- 38 -
5.4 The Minkowski Metric

The expression of the Minkowski Metric, in spherical coordinates, is: (5-4) Using this formula, which comes from special relativity, we will calculate the Schwarzschild Metric using results from the proposed theory. The Schwarzschild Metric is nothing but a Minkowski Metric, expressed in a spherical coordinates, with two unknown functions: A(r) and B(r)1: (5-5) To determine A(r) and B(r), the Einstein Vacuum Field Equations are employed and simplified. The details of calculations are described in many books concerning General Relativity2. These two functions A(r) and B(r) have the form3: (5-6)
5.5 The Schwarzschild Metric

Lets come back to our preceding simulation of (fig. 5-1) that becomes figure 5-7.
Curvature
Fig. 5-7
The term r(d + sind) doesnt need an unknown function as A(r) or B(r) since the Schwarzschild Metric has a spherical symmetry 2 For example, Notes on General Relativity - S. Carroll -. 3 Some authors prefer writing A(r)B(r) = K with K=c. In that case, the term c must be excluded from the Minkowski Metric (5-4). However, in both cases, the result is the same. Note: in order to simplify equations, some Authors also replace c and G by 1. In this document, we don't follow this rule because a simple number (1 in this case) 1 doesn't have a dimensional quantity like c [L/T] or G [L3/MT].
- 39 -
As everyone knows, spacetime is curved near a mass (more exactly near a closed volume in the proposed theory). On the contrary, spacetime is flat far from any mass. This phenomenon is exactly what figure 5-7 shows, replacing spacetime by an EPP foam, and the mass by a volume. The two lines in bold on figure 5-7 simulate with a great realism the curvature of spacetime, out and in a gravity field. What is the relation between Cout, the curvature of spacetime out of gravity (far from any closed volume), and Cin, the curvature of spacetime near a closed volume? As we can see on figure 5-7, if the upper line moves toward the central volume, its curvature increases. The relation between two adjacent curvatures Cout and Cin is: (5-7) or (5-8) where: ! Cout is the curvature of spacetime out of gravity (in a flat space) ! is an elementary increase of spacetime curvature ( = Cout/Cout) ! Cin is the curvature of spacetime toward the volume. Therefore, an elementary radius drout approaching the central volume will be subject to the same increase of spacetime curvature: (5-9) Since << 1, we can write the equivalent formula: (5-10) or, elevating in square: (5-11)
Developing the denominator (1 ) = 1 - 2 + and ignoring the last term , we obtain:
(5-12)
- 40 -
This result is nothing but the coefficient of dr in formula (5-5), i.e. expression of A(r). The calculation of B(r) is immediate, taking into account that A(r)B(r) = 1 (formula 5-6). Hence: (5-13) (5-14) So, equation (5-5) becomes: (5-15)
The curvature of spacetime, , is given by formula 4-22 which is re-written as follows: (5-16) Finally, replacing by GM/rc in equation 5-15 leads to the well-known Schwarzschild Metric:
(5-17)
As we see, the proposed theory demonstrates that the Schwarzschild Metric can be easily obtained ! ! ! With few logical deductions, Conducting a simple experiment which costs less than $5.00, And with the help of few elementary mathematical manipulations.
This demonstration also confirms Einsteins Point of view: The universe is very simple.
- 41 -
6 - The Newton Law
6 The Newton Law

This chapter calculates the first Newton Law from the conversion formula of chapter 4.
6.1 The Potential

Equation (4-20) indicates the relationship between mass and the curvature of spacetime: (6-1) In quantum mechanics, we have the following equivalence, with E having the dimensional quantity of [ML/T] : (6-2)
Formula (6-1) is constructed on the same principle:
(6-3) The only difference is that U(r) has the dimensional quantity of [L/T] instead of E = [ML/T]. Finally, equation (6-3) may be written as: (6-4) This formula, which is a solution of the Poissons equation, is the "gravitational potential" since: ! ! ! ! U(r) is a continuous function, If r , U(r) 0, i.e. its expression varies as "1/r", It can be derivated, And its dimensional quantity is that of a gravitational potential: [L/T].
- 42 -
6 - The Newton Law
6.2 The Newton Formula

Derivating formula (6-4) gives an gravitational field which is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration. (6-5) Since we are in a spherical symmetry, the nabla operator is reduced to: (6-6)
The gravitational field then becomes : (6-7)
Finally, applying the Newton Second Law (F = mg) to equation (6-7) gives the well-known Newton Formula: (6-8) with, as in formula (4-21): (6-9)
For the proton, the values for and are: = 1,57045.1028 m3/kg.s= [L3/MT] =1,41664.10-39= [1] Note: The product x is constant but each term isn't. these variables depend of many parameters, as proven by the table of paragraph 4-6 (proton-deuteron ratio). Parameters which enters in the construction of and are mainly the volume, the surface and the radius (remember that, for two objects having different shapes, the volume isn't proportional to the surface).
- I -
Complements
Complements
Predictions
The gravity formulas (Schwarzschild Metric, Newton Laws ...) are not modified by the proposed theory and results of experimentations concerning this new theory and general relativity are identical. So, it is impossible, or at least very difficult, to conduct an experimentation verifying the proposed theory.
Replacing spacetime by an EPP foam Following the first publication of his theory in 2005, the author predicted that an EPP foam could have the same behaviour than spacetime. Therefore, he devised the two experimentations described in chapters 3 and 5. These two experimentations prove that when we replace spacetime by an EPP foam, we obtain the same results. 1. The first experimentation in chapter 3 proves that the curvature of the spacetime is not produced by masses but by volumes, 2. and that the pressure force measured with the two FSR's is identical to gravity. 3. The curves of chapter 5 are identical to those of the Schwarzschild Metric, 4. and also prove that the displacement of spacetime is produced by a volume (the cap of the milk bottle), not by a mass. 5. Finally, a thought experimentation with r = rs, the Schwarzschild Radius, has been described using an EPP foam. Results also prove that it is the volume, not the mass, which produces the spacetime curvature.
Particle behaviour near a surface The proposed theory demonstrates that the spacetime density increases near closed volumes. So, when a particle is moving near atoms or molecules, its mass theoretically must increase since the density of spacetime have an influence on the mass effect. The proposed experimentation could highlight a very light difference of the mass of a particle moving near and far a massive surface.
- II -
Complements
The moon influence The curvature of spacetime produced by the moon is added or subtracted to that produced by Earth. Therefore, the measurement of the "mass effect" of a particle depends of the position of the moon during the experimentation. So, if two experimentations measuring the mass of a particle are conducted a) when the moon is at zenith and b) 12 hours after, we should note different data. If this prediction is verified, all the particles must be re-caculated to eliminate the effect of the spacetime curvature due to Earth. The only real mass of a particle must be that calculated out of any gravitational field, i.e. far from any mass which could perturb the measurement: Moon, Earth, Sun etc. 1
Partitioning the theory

The five parts of the Spacetime Model can be downloaded at the following URL addresses: Part 1 ....... Mass and gravity.................www.spacetime-model.com\mass.pdf Part 2 ....... Constitution of Matter ........www.spacetime-model.com\matter.pdf Part 3 ....... Quarks and Antimatter .......www.spacetime-model.com\quarks.pdf Part 4 ....... Electromagnetism ...............www.spacetime-model.com\electromagnetism.pdf Part 5 ....... Forces, the Universe ...........www.spacetime-model.com\forces.pdf Note: Some informations included into parts 3 to 5 are nor proven and must be taken with reservation.
Part 2 - Constitution of Matter

Before understanding the constitution of matter, the author had to solve three enigmas: 1. How to explain the wave-particle duality from a scientific point of view. 2. Why electromagnetic waves have a constant speed of 300 000 km/s. 3. How an e+e- pair can be transformed into two gammas of 511 KeV, i.e. how matter is transformed into waves and the converse. For example, a drop of water can be transformed into a wave. The same phenomenon exists in physics: Waveparticle duality. This enigma is solved in only one case, if the particle and the wave have same constitution, like water/water in our example. The solving of this enigma conducts to the knowledge of the constitution of matter and EM waves. This new theory is confirmed by experimentations.
However, it is not impossible that the curvature of spacetime could produce an infinitesimal perturbation of EM field.
- III -
Complements
Part 3 Quarks and Antimatter

Quarks
This part demonstrates that we need two positrons to make three u quarks. A u quark with an electron becomes a d quark (please note that the rule of addition of fermions is covered in Part 4). This deduction, from the wave-particle duality and spacetime, has been extended to all particles. Finally, u quarks, d quarks, antiquarks, muons, antimuons, taus, mesons, baryons etc... can be made with only two basic particles: electrons and positrons.
Antimatter
From this discovery, we can deduce that antimatter is not located at the bottom of the universe but right before our eyes, embedded in u and d quarks. A simple calculation demonstrates that any atom is made up of an equal number of electrons and positrons, exactly 2A, with A = atomic number. For example, the C12 is made of 24 electrons and 24 positrons, the latter being embedded in quarks. The calculation is fully explained in this Part and is 100% accurate for all 2930 known isotopes.
Part 4 - Electromagnetism
The mystery of the wave-particle duality solved in Part 2 leads to a full knowledge of electromagnetism. This phenomenon is quite simple to understand. In short, when a charged particle is motionless, its electric field has a spherical symmetry. When it moves, it becomes a wave and its spherical symmetry disappears. Its 1D space is transformed into a 2D/3D space. A magnetic component (2D/3D) is added to the electric field (1D) of the particle. This phenomenon is exactly what experimentation proves (q/t).
- IV -
Complements
Part 5 - Forces, the Universe

Nuclear force
Electrons or positrons, which surround other particles as a spacetime wave, produce a recall force toward the center of the particle, like a rubber band. This force is nothing but the "strong nuclear force".
Unification of forces
This part unifies the three basic forces (gravity, electroweak and strong nuclear force) in two generic forces: the Coulomb Force and the Hooke Force.
The Universe
A suggestion regarding the creation of the universe is proposed. In reality, the BigBang Theory does not explain the electron mystery" discussed in Part 5. Part 5 offers two suggestions, much more credible than the Big-Bang, regarding the creation of the universe.
Contact
You can contact the author1 by email at: diaverre@orange.fr or writing to: M. Jacky JEROME Rsidence Le Kennedy 4 square Kennedy 42120 LE COTEAU (France)
The author is a physics hobbyist and does not work in an institutional establishment. The writing of the Spacetime Model has been done entirely on his own money and time, with no help from the scientific community. If you find some error in this document, please let him know.
- V -
Complements
Table of content
Introduction.................................................................................................. I IV
1. Open and Closed Volumes 1.1 Starting points............................................................................................ 1 1.2 Basic concept............................................................................................. 2 1.3 Current theory of spacetime curvature ...................................................... 3 1.4 Explanation of spacetime deformation...................................................... 3 1.5 Mass-volume equivalence......................................................................... 4 1.6 Einstein Field Equations............................................................................ 5 1.7 Classes of volumes .................................................................................... 6 1.8 Example: Atoms ........................................................................................ 7 1.9 Conclusions ............................................................................................... 7 2. Mass and Gravity 2.1 Principle of gravity .................................................................................... 9 2.2 Principle of split ........................................................................................ 10 2.3 Stress-energy tensor................................................................................... 10 2.4 Synthesis.................................................................................................... 12 2.5 Wheeler's Intuition..................................................................................... 12 2.6 Example of mass and gravity..................................................................... 14 2.7 Equivalence principle ................................................................................ 14 2.8 Relativistic particles .................................................................................. 16 2.9 Crystals ...................................................................................................... 17 2.10 Example of mass-volume equivalence ...................................................... 18 2.11 The mass excess ........................................................................................ 19 2.12 Conclusions ............................................................................................... 20 3. Validation by Experimentation 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 21 3.2 Basic material ............................................................................................ 21 3.3 The FSR..................................................................................................... 22 3.4 Experiment #1 ........................................................................................... 22 3.5 Experiment #2 ........................................................................................... 23 3.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................... 25 3.7 The light deflection.................................................................................... 25 3.8 The Von Laue Diagram ............................................................................. 25
- VI -
Complements
4. Mass-Volume Conversion 4.1 Abbreviations used in formulas................................................................. 27 4.2 Conventional mass-volume conversion..................................................... 27 4.3 Starting point ............................................................................................. 27 4.4 The "mass effect"....................................................................................... 28 4.5 Mass-volume conversion........................................................................... 30 4.6 Confirmation by experimentation.............................................................. 31 4.7 Calculation of the curvature of spacetime ................................................. 31 5. The Schwarzschild Metric 5.1 Experimentation ........................................................................................ 33 5.2 The Schwarzschild Radius Rs ................................................................... 36 5.3 Discussion concerning Rs.......................................................................... 37 5.4 The Minkowski Metric.............................................................................. 38 5.5 The Schwarzschild Metric......................................................................... 38 6. The Newton Law 6.1 The potential.............................................................................................. 41 6.2 The Newton Formula................................................................................. 42 Complements.............................................................................................. I - IV

Part 1 - Mass and Gravity

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Part 1 - Mass and Gravity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A step toward the Theory of Everything

The Spacetime Model

Mass and Gravity

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

The curvature of spacetime

Mass = "Closed" volume?

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

Pressure force + Convex curvature of spacetime

Validation by mathematics and experimentation

The Higgs Boson

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

1 Open and Closed Volumes

1.1 Starting points

Same mass : 510,998918 KeV

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

1.2 Basic concept

Parts 2 to 5 of the "Spacetime Model" cover this topic.

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

1.3 Current theory of spacetime curvature

1.4 Explanation of spacetime deformation

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

Any volume inserted in spacetime necessarily produces a curvature of it

1.5 Mass-volume equivalence

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

1.6 Einstein Field Equations

Any volume inserted in spacetime must curve it. It is an absolute necessity.

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

1.7 Classes of volumes

Kerr, Reissner-Nordstrm, Robertson-Walker etc

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

1.8 Example: Atoms

Closed volumes: Electron(s) and nucleus

Open volume (orbital)

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

1 - Open and Closed Volumes

To understand what is mass, we must replace

Open and/or closed volume Closed volume

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

2 - Mass and Gravity

2 Mass and Gravity

Note: This figure, in 1D, is for teaching purposes only.

So, contrary to what we think,

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

2 - Mass and Gravity

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

2 - Mass and Gravity

In the original constraint tensor, the significance of the trace is a pressure.

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

2 - Mass and Gravity

The Spacetime Model - Part 1

2 - Mass and Gravity

Current Theory = No Explanation

Gravity ??? (*)

Mass ??? (*) Object

Proposed Theory (close to Wheeler's intuition)