POWER NETWORKS H63PNW H54PNP

Electrical Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution

1 Electrical Power Generation

Electrical energy is produced in an electrical generator by rotating an electromagnet (called a rotor) within a frame of stationary coils (stator). As the electromagnet turns the magnetic field "cuts" the stator windings and induces alternating voltages in the coils (see Figs 1 and 2). The three main types of generating stations are; Thermal, hydropower and nuclear. All three create mechanical energy to turn the electromagnet (see Figure 3). Also of increasing importance are alternative renewable energy sources such as wind, wave and solar power. 1.1 Supply of Mechanical Energy

1.1.1 Thermal Power Station The majority of electrical energy in the world is produced by thermal Power Stations. Thermal generating stations produce electricity from the heat released by the combustion of coal, oil or natural gas. Most stations have ratings between 200 MW and 1500 MW so as to attain the high efficiency and economy of a large installation. The maximum theoretical efficiency of any machine that converts heat energy into
= (1 T 2 ) 100 % T1

mechanical energy is given by where T1 T2 is the efficiency of the machine is the temperature of the gas entering the turbine. is the temperature of the gas leaving the turbine.

The maximum gas temperature is limited by that which can be safely withstood by the steel piping (823 K) and the minimum practical gas temperature is room temperature (293K). The maximum possible efficiency of thermal power stations is then of the order of 64%. In practice combined cycle gas stations are 54% efficient and coal fire power stations are about 40% efficient. The basic structure of a thermal generating station can be summarized as follows. Fuel is burned in a boiler and the heat produced boils water. The steam is taken by pipes to the turbine which turns at high speed and is connected directly to the rotor of the electrical generator. From the turbine, the steam enters the condenser and passes over tubes containing cooling water and creates a vacuum which helps improve the flow of steam through the turbine. The water is returned to the boiler under pressure by a series of pumps.

dam boiler Wicket gates Steam valve

Fuel burner boiler Steam valve

Nuclear reactor

turbin e alternator

turbine

turbine

alternator

alternator

consumers

consumers

consumers

Figure 3 Three main types of electrical power generation

1.1.2

Nuclear Power Station

Nuclear stations produce electricity from the heat released from a nuclear reaction. When the nucleus of an atom splits into two (a process called atomic fission), a considerable amount of energy is released. A nuclear station is identical to a thermal station except that the boiler is replaced by a nuclear reactor Fig. 4. The reactor contains the fissile material which generates the heat (typically uranium enriched with uranium isotope U-235) and a moderator. When any atom of mass number greater than iron (56) splits, energy is released. The fission of U-235 also releases 2 or 3 high velocity neutrons. Neutrons of much slower (thermal) velocities, when in collision with a U-235 atom, can induce a U-235 atom to split . A chain reaction can therefore be set up by slowing the energetic neutrons, of a U-235 fission process, to thermal speeds by passing through a moderator before they encounter other fissile U-235. The properties of the moderator can be controlled so that the chain reaction (going critical) occurs in an orderly way (unlike the uncontrolled event in an atomic bomb). . 1.1.3 Hydroelectric Power Station

Hydroelectric power stations convert the energy of moving water into electrical energy by means of turbines coupled to a generator (Fig, 5). Hydroelectric power stations are divided into three groups depending on the head of water. High head developments have heads in excess of 300 M. These use high speed turbines and are found in mountainous regions such as the Alps. Medium-head developments have heads between 30 M and 300 M and are typically fed from a huge reservoir of water retained by dikes and a dam. These use medium-speed turbines. Low-head developments have heads under 30M and low speed turbines designed to handle large volumes of water at low pressure. These generation stations often extract energy from flowing rivers.

Figure 5 Cross-section of a hydroelectric power station

1.1.4

Renewable energy

Renewable energy is becoming increasingly important because it provides an opportunity to generate electricity in an environmentally friendly way. Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used directly for generating electricity. The sun's heat also drives the winds, which can generate electrical energy through wind turbines. Then, the winds and the sun's heat cause water to evaporate. When this water vapour turns into rain or snow and flows downhill into rivers or streams, its energy can be captured using hydroelectric power. Along with the rain and snow, sunlight causes plants to grow. The organic matter that makes up those plants is known as biomass or biomass energy when used to produce electricity. Not all renewable energy resources come from the sun. Geothermal energy taps the Earth's internal heat for a variety of uses, including electric power production. The energy of the ocean's tides comes from the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun upon the Earth. In addition to tidal energy, there's the energy of the ocean's waves, which are driven by both the tides and the winds. The sun also warms the surface of the ocean more than the ocean depths, creating a temperature difference that can be used as an energy source. All these forms of ocean energy can be used to produce electricity. Sunlight can be used directly to generate electricity using photovoltaics (solar cells) or concentrating the solar power to boil water. Wind energy is normally provided by wind turbines (like windmills) mounted on 30m towers with two or three blades. A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines, activating a generator. For wave energy conversion, there are three basic systems: channel systems that funnel the waves into reservoirs; float systems that drive hydraulic pumps; and oscillating water column systems that use the waves to compress air within a container. The mechanical power created from these systems either directly or indirectly activates a generator.

The use of renewable energy tends to be small scale and therefore connected directly to the distribution. Current distribution systems are not designed for the impact of a large number of distributed generators and new techniques for protection and control are being developed.

1.2

Generation statistics (UK)

The generation statistics for the UK is given in Table 1.1 (from Electricity Association) Table 1.1 Generation capacity in England and Wales 2010 Gas Coal Nuclear Renewables Imports Oil 1.3 46% 31% 13% 6% 3% 1% Electrical Generator (usually called the Alternator)

High speed, 2-pole, cylindrical rotors are used in thermal and nuclear power stations (Fig. 6), whereas in hydroelectric power stations slow rotors with salient multi-poles are employed . Stators (Fig. 6) are fitted with three separate windings displaced from each other by 120o, so that the machines generate three phase voltages. The line to line voltage in modern generators is usually between 11-25 kV. stator DC current for field winding b ' c ' N a '

a a b a

c a

Rotor Figure 6. End view of an elementary three phase 2 pole ac generator with a cylindrical rotor

Transmission

The three phase stator is connected to a three phase transformer which increases the line voltage for transmission to extra high voltage levels (Typically 400kV in UK, 500kV or 735kV in USA). Between the transformer and the overhead transmission lines there is a series of circuit breakers and isolators. The circuit breakers are used as on load switches for disconnecting parts of the network in both emergencies, and for routine inspections and maintenance. Isolators are off load switches which are opened after the associated circuit breaker has operated. They isolate the circuit breaker and ensure the supply cannot be reconnected inadvertently by accidental closure of the circuit breaker. Pictures of typical overhead transmission lines and a modern gas insulated 132/33 kV substation is given in figures 7. Figure 8 shows a traditional air insulated substation and typical overhead lines. The basic switching yard arrangement is shown in figure 9.

Figure 7 132/33 kV Gas Insulated Substation

Figure 8 Air Insulated Substation and 150 kV, 22 kV overhead transmission lines

Distribution

The super grid of extra high voltage (EHV) or ultra high voltage (UHV) transmission lines carry the electrical energy supplies to grid supply points, where transformers reduce the line voltage to high voltage levels (132 kV in UK), for primary distribution to towns, industrial areas and groups of villages. In general the super grid is used for transmission of electrical power over long distances (> 10 km). For exceptionally long distances (>800 km) DC ehv transmission is sometimes used. The high voltage grid then feeds main substations at which the voltage is lowered for medium voltage area distribution over distances from a few km to a few hundred metres (33kV, 11kV or 6.6kV in UK). Finally the voltage level is reduced for the consumer feeders which are at a low voltage (see Figure 10) (415 kV three phase 240 kV single phase in UK). The substations are normally connected in a ring to ensure minimum consumer disruption when a fault occurs. In fact power systems are usually highly interconnected so as to: (a) improve stability (b) ensure continuity of service and (c) improve the economy of the system.

2.1

Electrical impedance of Transmission equipment

It has been seen that, for ac transmission and distribution systems the electrical power is generated and transmitted via an alternator, transmission lines or cables and transformers. The electrical impedance of this equipment limits the transmission capability of the system It is important to appreciate the nature of the equipment impedance so as to understand power transmission problem. 2.1.1 Overhead line and cable impedance For transmission and distribution the current is minimised by using a suitably high voltage so as to reduce the I2R losses. In this manner the resistance of the lines or cables is small or negligible. However, by using high voltages the lines have to have a significant separation the consequence of this is that the inductance of the lines or cables is significant.

B -I a I - a

a) b) Figure 11 a) magnetic flux density associated with a two wire conductor b) Electric field associated with a two wire conductor. Consider a two line system as depicted in Figure 11. The inductance per unit length L is given by [1]:

where is the per unit length flux linkage and the I is the current in the wires, it then follows that:

where B is the flux density. From this it is clear that the wider the separation the greater the

inductance as the magnitude of B is proportional to I. For air insulated overhead lines it can be significant and at 50 Hz the reactance can be at least an order of magnitude greater than the resistance. In general cables, which are more compact due to the dielectric insulation, also have a significant inductance and it is only for LV cables that the resistance dominates. The capacitance per unit length is given by [1]: where is the charge per unit length on the line and V is the line voltage it then follows that:

where E is the electric field. From this it can be seen that the wider the separation the smaller the capacitance is as the magnitude of E is proportional to . In general only for cables with dielectric insulation (which also increases C) the capacitance per unit length will be significant so for overhead lines (with the exception of extremely long overhead lines) it can be neglected. The equivalent single phase circuit (two wire system) for overhead lines and cables can be approximated by the forms given in Figure 12.

a)

LT LT

RT RT CT/2

CT/2 b)

Figure 12 a) Equivalent circuit for a single phase overhead line b) equivalent circuit for very long lines and cables. Subscript T refers to the total value which is the per unit length value times the length (i.e. LT=Llength).

2.1.2 Single phase Transformer impedance The equivalent circuit for two coupled windings of a single phase circuit is shown in Figure 13. For the purposes of power systems analysis we can neglect the magnetising current because the magnetising inductance is very large. Losses are also negligible so that the equivalent impedance can be reduced to the leakage inductance as shown in Figure 13. For most power transformers the impedance of leakage inductance is about 5% of the rated impedance. Rp Lp Ls Rs

RMp, LMp

LMs , RMs

a) Single winding transformer equivalent impedance Rp Lp N2 L s N2Rs

RM , LM

b) Single winding transformer equivalent impedance related to the primary side Rp + N2Rs Lp + N2Ls

c) Simplified single winding transformer equivalent circuit related to the primary side Figure 13 Transformer equivalent circuits.

2.1.3 Generator impedance For the purposes of this course we will only consider round rotor synchronous machines in detail. For these machines they can be considered to comprise an EMF E in series with a synchronous impedance Rs +jXs as shown in Figure 14.

jXs

Rs I V

Conclusion

Electrical power is generated from a variety of different sources and is usually converted from mechanical energy into ac electrical energy by an alternator. The inertia of such systems is relatively large contributing to a reasonably stable frequency. At present the ac electrical power is converted to suitable voltage levels using power transformers so that it can be transmitted efficiently over large distances using appropriate cables or overhead lines. All protection and control occurs at substations where the power transformers are located. The electrical impedance of generators, cables and transformers can be approximated as low loss inductances for the purposes of analysis.

Revised DWPT September 2011.