Per Unit Quantities

Per Unit (p.u.) quantities are popular in power system analysis because they greatly
reduce the complexity of the analysis of a multi level power system and they have the
following advantages.

- The apparatus considered may vary widely in size. For apparatus of the same
type the p.u. voltage drops and losses are of the same order regardless of size.
- The use of \3 in 3 phase calculations is reduced thus simplifying the analysis
- Solutions of networks with different base voltages are greatly simplified.

Definition:

Per unit value = The actual value (1)
The base or reference value

In power system analysis it is usual to define the base voltages and VA and then
derive the base current and base impedance from these quantities.

Let S
b
be the base VA and V
b
be the base voltage.(line voltage). The base current is
then the phase current and the base impedance is the phase impedance which are
given by:
b
b
b
V
S
I
3
=
Amperes (2)
b
b
b
b
b
S
V
I
V
Z
2
3
= =
Ohms (3)
For example a 400 kV system has a base VA of 100 MVA thus:
34 . 144 =
b
I
Amperes
1600 =
b
Z
Ohms
A constant base voltage is not used for the whole system but is set to correspond to
the transformer turns ratio so that the transformer can be represented by a unique
impedance. Figure.1 shows an equivalent circuit for a transformer where the
transformer impedance (neglecting magnetising inductance) is referred to the primary
side.









Figure 1. Equivalent circuit for a transformer with the impedance is referred to
the primary side

I
2
I
1
V
1
V
2
Z
1
Primary Secondary
N : 1
To refer the transformer impedance to the secondary side Z
2
we have the relationship
1
2
2
1
Z
N
Z =
(4)
In per unit quantities the base impedances on the secondary and primary side (Z
b1
and
Z
b2
respectively) are given by equation (3):

1
2
1
1
1
1
3
b
b
b
b
b
S
V
I
V
Z = =
(5)
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
b
b
b
b
b
S
V
I
V
Z = =
(6)

If we choose the same base VA for the primary and secondary sides then the
transformer per unit impedance for the secondary and primary sides are given by:
2
1
1 1
b
b pu
V
S
Z Z =
(7)

2
2
2
1
2
2
2 2
b
b
b
b pu
V
S
N
Z
V
S
Z Z = =
(8)

Comparing equations (7) and (8) it can be seen that if we choose
2 1 b b
NV V = then
pu pu
Z Z
2 1
= . Thus by using a single base VA and setting base voltages to reflect the
transformer turns ratios (this will also correspond to the system voltages) then
transformer impedance can be represented by a single per unit impedance.

Often a component impedance is quoted at a different base VA or base voltage to that
which you want to use for the system calculation. The new per unit impedance can be
calculated in the following way.

Let the per unit impedance Z
pu
be defined at base voltages V
b
and base VA S
b
and
we want to use a new base voltages V
b
and base VA S
b
. Then the component
actual impedance can be found from:
b
b pu
b
pu
S
V
Z Z Z Z
'
'
= ' =
2
(9)
The per unit impedance for the new base values is then given by:

b
b
b
b pu
b
b pu pu
new
S
S
V
V
Z
Z
Z
Z Z
'
' '
' '
'
=
' '
'
=
2
2
(10)
Example using a per unit system

















Per unit reactances are based on
the rating of the apparatus given

Figure 2 Problem system


- Choose a common MVA base for the whole system
e.g 100 MVA
- Choose a base voltage for the system on supply side of the transformer
e.g 22 kV
- Choose a base voltage on the load side of the transformer
e.g 275 kV
- Find the per unit impedances for all equipment at the defined bases
2
2
) " (
) ' (
'
"
' "
b
b
b
b
pu pu
V
V
S
S
Z Z =


Generator

pu 1
22
22
75
100
75 . 0 "
2
=
(

=
pu
Z


Transformer

75MVA
22 kV
_
g
=0.75
pu
50 MVA
22/275 kV
_
t
=0.1 pu
_
l
=100O/phase
R=800O/phase
260 kV
What is the machine excitation E?
pu 2 . 0
275
275
50
100
1 . 0 or
22
22
50
100
1 . 0 "
2 2
=
(

=
pu
Z



Overhead line
( )
pu 1322 . 0
10 275
10 100
100
2
3
6
2
=

=
=
b
b
pu
V
S
Z Z



Resistive load

( )
pu 058 . 1
10 275
10 100
800
2
3
6
2
=

=
=
b
b
pu
V
S
R R


The equivalent pu circuit is given in Figure 3:












Figure 3 Equivalent PU circuit

E 1
_
g
=j1.
0
_
l
=j0.1322
R=1.058
I
pu
_
t
=j0.2
V
lpu
Per unit voltage at the load
945 . 0
275
260
= = =
b
l
lpu
V
V
V

Per unit current
893 . 0
058 . 1
945 . 0
= = =
pu
lpu
pu
R
V
I

Supply Voltage is given by
total pu pu
Z I E =

thus
18 . 1 945 . 0 ) 3322 . 1 058 . 1 ( 893 . 0 j j E
pu
+ = + =
or
511 . 1 18 . 1 945 . 0
2 2
= + =
pu
E

3 3
10 25 . 33 10 22 511 . 1 = = =
b pu volts
V E E


where 33.25 kV line = 19.2 kV phase


Using the per unit system to evaluate the power transfer
limit

Assuming rated voltage everywhere then in per unit quantities the thermal limit
implies :

(11)
We also have given that E=V= 1 pu:

(12)
and

(13)
(12) and (13) can be combined to give

(14)

Curves (11) and (14) are shown in Figure 4 and the crossover point appears to be at
about X=2 pu where X=V
rated
2
/S
rated
.

Figure 4 Relationship between real and reactive power
compared with the rated MVA (1 pu)

Conclusions

The use of per unit quantities has been discussed. It is shown that this greatly
simplifies the calculations for a multi level three phase transmission system. It also
provides a simplified framework for analysing of the general properties of power
systems.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0
1
2
3
4
Thermal Limit
X=1
X=2
X=sqrt(2)
X=0.5
Real Power
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

P
o
w
e
r