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Class12 Mathematics2 Unit10 NCERT TextBook EnglishEdition
Class12 Mathematics2 Unit10 NCERT TextBook EnglishEdition
Chapter 10
VECTOR ALGEBRA
In most sciences one generation tears down what another has built and what
one has established another undoes. In Mathematics alone each generation
builds a new story to the old structure. – HERMAN HANKEL
10.1 Introduction
In our day to day life, we come across many queries such
as – What is your height? How should a football player hit
the ball to give a pass to another player of his team? Observe
that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6 meters,
a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which
is a real number. Such quantities are called scalars.
However, an answer to the second query is a quantity (called
force) which involves muscular strength (magnitude) and
direction (in which another player is positioned). Such
quantities are called vectors. In mathematics, physics and
engineering, we frequently come across with both types of
W.R. Hamilton
quantities, namely, scalar quantities such as length, mass,
(1805-1865)
time, distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work,
money, voltage, density, resistance etc. and vector quantities like displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, weight, momentum, electric field intensity etc.
In this chapter, we will study some of the basic concepts about vectors, various
operations on vectors, and their algebraic and geometric properties. These two type of
properties, when considered together give a full realisation to the concept of vectors,
and lead to their vital applicability in various areas as mentioned above.
10.2 Some Basic Concepts
Let ‘l’ be any straight line in plane or three dimensional space. This line can be given
two directions by means of arrowheads. A line with one of these directions prescribed
is called a directed line (Fig 10.1 (i), (ii)).
VECTOR ALGEBRA 425
Fig 10.1
Now observe that if we restrict the line l to the line segment AB, then a magnitude
is prescribed on the line l with one of the two directions, so that we obtain a directed
line segment (Fig 10.1(iii)). Thus, a directed line segment has magnitude as well as
direction.
Definition 1 A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector.
JJJG
Notice that a directed line segment is a vector (Fig 10.1(iii)), denoted as AB or
JJJG G
simply as aG , and read as ‘vector AB ’ or ‘vector a ’.
JJJG
The point A from where the vector AB starts is called its initial point, and the
point B where it ends is called its terminal point. The distance between initial and
terminal points of a vector is called the magnitude (or length) of the vector, denoted as
JJJG G
| AB |, or | a |, or a. The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
G
$Note Since the length is never negative, the notation | a | < 0 has no meaning.
Position Vector
From Class XI, recall the three dimensional right handed rectangular coordinate
system (Fig 10.2(i)). Consider a point P in space, having coordinates (x, y, z) with
JJJG
respect to the origin O (0, 0, 0). Then, the vector OP having O and P as its initial and
terminal points, respectively, is called the position vector of the point P with respect
JJJG G
to O. Using distance formula (from Class XI), the magnitude of OP (or r ) is given by
JJJG
| OP | = x2 + y 2 + z2
In practice, the position vectors of points A, B, C, etc., with respect to the origin O
G G G
are denoted by a , b , c , etc., respectively (Fig 10.2 (ii)).
426 MATHEMATICS
Fig 10.2
Direction Cosines
JJJG G
Consider the position vector OP ( or r ) of a point P(x, y, z) as in Fig 10.3. The angles α,
G
β, γ made by the vector r with the positive directions of x, y and z-axes respectively,
are called its direction angles. The cosine values of these angles, i.e., cos α, cos β and
G
cos γ are called direction cosines of the vector r , and usually denoted by l, m and n,
respectively. Z
z P(x,y,z)
r
O y
Y
B
P
x
A
O
90°
X
A
Fig 10.3 X
From Fig 10.3, one may note that the triangle OAP is right angled, and in it, we
x G
have cos α = ( r stands for | r |) . Similarly, from the right angled triangles OBP and
r
y z
OCP, we may write cos β = and cos γ = . Thus, the coordinates of the point P may
r r
also be expressed as (lr, mr,nr). The numbers lr, mr and nr, proportional to the direction
G
cosines are called as direction ratios of vector r , and denoted as a, b and c, respectively.
VECTOR ALGEBRA 427
Solution
(i) Time-scalar (ii) Volume-scalar (iii) Force-vector
(iv) Speed-scalar (v) Density-scalar (vi) Velocity-vector
Solution
G G G
(i) Collinear vectors : a , c and d .
G G
(ii) Equal vectors : a and c .
G G G
(iii) Coinitial vectors : b , c and d .
Fig 10.5
EXERCISE 10.1
1. Represent graphically a displacement of 40 km, 30° east of north.
2. Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors.
(i) 10 kg (ii) 2 meters north-west (iii) 40°
(iv) 40 watt (v) 10–19 coulomb (vi) 20 m/s2
3. Classify the following as scalar and vector quantities.
(i) time period (ii) distance (iii) force
(iv) velocity (v) work done
4. In Fig 10.6 (a square), identify the following vectors.
(i) Coinitial (ii) Equal
(iii) Collinear but not equal
5. Answer the following as true or false.
G G
(i) a and − a are collinear.
(ii) Two collinear vectors are always equal in
magnitude. Fig 10.6
(iii) Two vectors having same magnitude are collinear.
(iv) Two collinear vectors having the same magnitude are equal.
VECTOR ALGEBRA 429
JJJJG JJJG
Now, construct a vector BC′ so that its magnitude is same as the vector BC , but
the direction opposite to that of it (Fig 10.8 (iii)), i.e.,
JJJJG JJJG
BC′ = − BC
Then, on applying triangle law from the Fig 10.8 (iii), we have
JJJJG JJJG JJJJG JJJG JJJG G G
AC′ = AB + BC′ = AB + (− BC) = a − b
JJJJG G G
The vector AC′ is said to represent the difference of a and b .
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a
direction perpendicular to the flow of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity
vectors–one is the velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the
velocity of the flow of river water. Under the simultaneous influence of these two
velocities, the boat in actual starts travelling with a different velocity. To have a precise
idea about the effective speed and direction
(i.e., the resultant velocity) of the boat, we have
the following law of vector addition.
G G
If we have two vectors a and b represented
by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram in
magnitude and direction (Fig 10.9), then their
G G
sum a + b is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
through their common point. This is known as Fig 10.9
the parallelogram law of vector addition.
$Note From Fig 10.9, using the triangle law, one may note that
JJJG JJJG JJJG
OA + AC = OC
JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG
or OA + OB = OC (since AC = OB )
which is parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the two laws of vector
addition are equivalent to each other.
Properties of vector addition
G G
Property 1 For any two vectors a and b ,
G G G G
a +b = b + a (Commutative property)
VECTOR ALGEBRA 431
G G G G G G
( a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ) (Associative property)
G G G JJJG JJJG JJJG
Proof Let the vectors a, b and c be represented by PQ, QR and RS , respectively,
as shown in Fig 10.11(i) and (ii).
Fig 10.11
G G JJJG JJJG JJJG
Then a + b = PQ + QR = PR
G G JJJG JJJG JJJG
and b + c = QR + RS = QS
G G G JJJG JJJG JJG
So (a + b ) + c = PR + RS = PS
432 MATHEMATICS
–2
2 a
2 a
a
1
1
Fig 10.12
G G
When λ = – 1, then λa = − a, which is a vector having magnitude equal to the
G G G
magnitude of a and direction opposite to that of the direction of a . The vector – a is
G
called the negative (or additive inverse) of vector a and we always have
G G G G G
a + (– a ) = (– a ) + a = 0
1 G G
Also, if λ = G , provided a ≠ 0, i.e. a is not a null vector, then
|a|
G G 1 G
| λa |=| λ | | a | = G | a |= 1
|a|
VECTOR ALGEBRA 433
G G
So, λ a represents the unit vector in the direction of a . We write it as
1 G
â = G a
|a|
G G
$ Note For any scalar k, k 0 = 0.
Fig 10.14
parallel to z-axis. As iˆ, ˆj and kˆ are the unit vectors along the x, y and z-axes,
JJJG JJJG
respectively, and by the definition of the coordinates of P, we have P1P = OR = zkˆ .
JJJG JJJG JJJG
Similarly, QP1 = OS = yjˆ and OQ = xiˆ .
434 MATHEMATICS
The addition of vectors and the multiplication of a vector by a scalar together give
the following distributive laws:
G G
Let a and b be any two vectors, and k and m be any scalars. Then
(i) kaG + maG = ( k + m) aG
G G
(ii) k (ma) = (km)a
G G G G
(iii) k ( a + b ) = ka + kb
Remarks
G
(i) One may observe that whatever be the value of λ, the vector λa is always
G G G
collinear to the vector a . In fact, two vectors a and b are collinear if and only
G G G G
if there exists a nonzero scalar λ such that b = λa . If the vectors a and b are
G G
given in the component form, i.e. a = a iˆ + a ˆj + a kˆ and b = b iˆ + b ˆj + b kˆ ,
1 2 3 1 2 3
then the two vectors are collinear if and only if
= (cos α)iˆ + (cos β) ˆj + (cos γ )kˆ is the unit vector in the direction of that vector,
where α, β and γ are the angles which the vector makes with x, y and z axes
respectively.
G
Example 4 Find the values of x, y and z so that the vectors a = xiˆ + 2 ˆj + zkˆ and
G
b = 2iˆ + yjˆ + kˆ are equal.
Solution Note that two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding components
G G
are equal. Thus, the given vectors a and b will be equal if and only if
x = 2, y = 2, z = 1
436 MATHEMATICS
G G G G G G
Example 5 Let a = iˆ + 2 ˆj and b = 2iˆ + ˆj . Is | a | = | b | ? Are the vectors a and b
equal?
G G
Solution We have | a | = 12 + 22 = 5 and | b | = 2 + 1 = 5
2 2
G G
So, | a | = | b | . But, the two vectors are not equal since their corresponding components
are distinct.
G
Example 6 Find unit vector in the direction of vector a = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ
G 1 G
Solution The unit vector in the direction of a vector a is given by aˆ = G a .
|a|
G
Now |a| = 22 + 32 + 12 = 14
1 2 ˆ 3 ˆ 1 ˆ
Therefore aˆ = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ) = i+ j+ k
14 14 14 14
G
Example 7 Find a vector in the direction of vector a = iˆ − 2 ˆj that has magnitude
7 units.
Solution The unit vector in the direction of the given vector aG is
1 G 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 2 ˆ
aˆ = G a = (i − 2 ˆj ) = i− j
|a| 5 5 5
G
Therefore, the vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction of a is
∧ ⎛ 1 ∧ 2 ∧⎞ 7 ˆ 14 ˆ
i−
7a = 7⎜ i− j⎟ = j
⎝ 5 5 ⎠ 5 5
Example 8 Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors,
G G
a = 2iˆ + 2 ˆj – 5kˆ and b = 2iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ .
Solution The sum of the given vectors is
G G G
a + b (= c , say) = 4iˆ + 3 ˆj − 2kˆ
G
and |c | = 42 + 32 + ( −2)2 = 29
VECTOR ALGEBRA 437
⎛ 1 1 2 ⎞
Thus, the direction cosines are ⎜ , ,– ⎟.
⎝ 6 6 6⎠
Example 10 Find the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 0) and Q(– 1, – 2, – 4) directed
from P to Q.
Solution Since the vector is to be directed from P to Q, clearly P is the initial point
JJJG
and Q is the terminal point. So, the required vector joining P and Q is the vector PQ ,
given by
JJJG
PQ = (−1 − 2)iˆ + (−2 − 3) ˆj + ( − 4 − 0) kˆ
JJJG
i.e. PQ = −3iˆ − 5 ˆj − 4kˆ.
10.5.3 Section formula
JJJG JJJG
Let P and Q be two points represented by the position vectors OP and OQ , respectively,
with respect to the origin O. Then the line segment
joining the points P and Q may be divided by a third
point, say R, in two ways – internally (Fig 10.16)
and externally (Fig 10.17). Here, we intend to find
JJJG
the position vector OR for the point R with respect
to the origin O. We take the two cases one by one.
Case I When R divides PQ internally (Fig 10.16).
JJJG JJJG JJJG Fig 10.16
If R divides PQ such that m RQ = n PR ,
JJJG
where m and n are positive scalars, we say that the point R divides PQ internally in the
ratio of m : n. Now from triangles ORQ and OPR, we have
JJJG JJJG JJJG G G
RQ = OQ − OR = b − r
JJJG JJJG JJJG G G
and PR = OR − OP = r − a ,
G G G G
Therefore, we have m (b − r ) = n (r − a ) (Why?)
G G
or G = mb + na (on simplification)
r
m+n
Hence, the position vector of the point R which divides P and Q internally in the
ratio of m : n is given by
G G
JJJG mb + na
OR =
m+n
VECTOR ALGEBRA 439
EXERCISE 10.2
1. Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
G G G 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
a = iˆ + ˆj + k;
b = 2iˆ − 7 ˆj − 3kˆ; c = i+ j− k
3 3 3
2. Write two different vectors having same magnitude.
3. Write two different vectors having same direction.
4. Find the values of x and y so that the vectors 2iˆ + 3 ˆj and xiˆ + yjˆ are equal.
5. Find the scalar and vector components of the vector with initial point (2, 1) and
terminal point (– 5, 7).
G G G
6. Find the sum of the vectors a = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ, b = −2iˆ + 4 ˆj + 5kˆ and c = iˆ − 6 ˆj – 7kˆ .
G
7. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector a = iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ .
JJJG
8. Find the unit vector in the direction of vector PQ, where P and Q are the points
(1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6), respectively.
G G
9. For given vectors, a = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ and b = −iˆ + ˆj − kˆ , find the unit vector in the
G G
direction of the vector a + b .
10. Find a vector in the direction of vector 5iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ which has magnitude 8 units.
11. Show that the vectors 2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 4kˆ and − 4iˆ + 6 ˆj − 8kˆ are collinear.
12. Find the direction cosines of the vector iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ .
13. Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A (1, 2, –3) and
B(–1, –2, 1), directed from A to B.
14. Show that the vector iˆ + ˆj + kˆ is equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ.
15. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points P
and Q whose position vectors are iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ and – iˆ + ˆj + kˆ respectively, in the
ratio 2 : 1
(i) internally (ii) externally
VECTOR ALGEBRA 441
16. Find the position vector of the mid point of the vector joining the points P(2, 3, 4)
and Q(4, 1, –2).
G
17. Show that the points A, B and C with position vectors, a = 3iˆ − 4 ˆj − 4kˆ,
G G
b = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and c = iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ , respectively form the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
18. In triangle ABC (Fig 10.18), which of the following is not true:
JJJG JJJJG JJJG G
(A) AB + BC + CA = 0
JJJG JJJG JJJG G
(B) AB + BC − AC = 0
JJJG JJJG JJJG G
(C) AB + BC − CA = 0
JJJG JJJG JJJG G Fig 10.18
(D) AB − CB + CA = 0
G G
19. If a and b are two collinear vectors, then which of the following are incorrect:
G G
(A) b = λa , for some scalar λ
G G
(B) a = ± b
G G
(C) the respective components of a and b are proportional
G G
(D) both the vectors a and b have same direction, but different magnitudes.
G G G G
defined as a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos θ ,
G G
where, θ is the angle between a and b , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π (Fig 10.19).
G G G G
If either a = 0 or b = 0, then θ is not defined, and in this case,
Fig 10.19
G G
we define a ⋅ b = 0
Observations
G G
1. a ⋅ b is a real number.
G G G G G G
2. Let a and b be two nonzero vectors, then a ⋅ b = 0 if and only if a and b are
perpendicular to each other. i.e.
G G G G
a ⋅b =0⇔ a ⊥b
G G G G
3. If θ = 0, then a ⋅ b = | a | | b |
G G G
In particular, a ⋅ a = | a |2 , as θ in this case is 0.
G G G G
4. If θ = π, then a ⋅ b = − | a | | b |
G G G
In particular, a ⋅ ( − a ) = − | a |2 , as θ in this case is π.
5. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular unit vectors
iˆ, ˆj and kˆ, we have
iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1,
iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0
G G
6. The angle between two nonzero vectors a and b is given by
G G GG
a⋅b –1 ⎛ a.b ⎞
cos θ = G G , or θ = cos ⎜ G G ⎟
| a || b | ⎝ | a || b | ⎠
7. The scalar product is commutative. i.e.
G G G G
a⋅b = b ⋅ a (Why?)
Two important properties of scalar product
G G G
Property 1 (Distributivity of scalar product over addition) Let a, b and c be
any three vectors, then
G G G G G G G
a ⋅ (b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
VECTOR ALGEBRA 443
G G
Property 2 Let a and b be any two vectors, and λ be any scalar. Then
G G G G G G G G
( λ a ) ⋅ b = ( λ a ) ⋅ b = λ ( a ⋅ b ) = a ⋅ ( λb )
G G
If two vectors a and b are given in component form as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and
= a1b1 (iˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ ⋅ kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj ⋅ iˆ) + a2b2 ( ˆj ⋅ ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj ⋅ kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ ⋅ iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ ⋅ ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ ⋅ kˆ ) (Using the above Properties 1 and 2)
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (Using Observation 5)
G G
Thus a ⋅ b = a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
10.6.2 Projection of a vector on a line
JJJG
Suppose a vector AB makes an angle θ with a given directed line l (say), in the
JJJG G
anticlockwise direction (Fig 10.20). Then the projection of AB on l is a vector p
JJJG G
(say) with magnitude | AB | cos θ , and the direction of p being the same (or opposite)
G
to that of the line l, depending upon whether cos θ is positive or negative. The vector p
B
B
a a
θ
θ l l
A p C C A
p
(00< θ < 900) (900< θ < 1800)
(i) (ii)
p θ θ p
C l C l
A
A
a a
B B
(1800< θ < 2700) (2700< θ < 3600)
(iii) (iv)
Fig 10.20
444 MATHEMATICS
G
is called the projection vector, and its magnitude | p | is simply called as the projection
JJJG
of the vector AB on the directed line l.
For example, in each of the following figures (Fig 10.20 (i) to (iv)), projection vector
JJJG JJJG
of AB along the line l is vector AC .
Observations
G
1. If p̂ is the unit vector along a line l, then the projection of a vector a on the line
G
l is given by a ⋅ pˆ .
G G
2. Projection of a vector a on other vector b , is given by
G
G ˆ G ⎛ b ⎞ 1 G G
a ⋅ b, or a ⋅ ⎜ G ⎟ , or G ( a ⋅ b )
⎝|b |⎠ |b |
JJJG JJJG
3. If θ = 0, then the projection vector of AB will be AB itself and if θ = π, then the
JJJG JJJG
projection vector of AB will be BA .
π 3π JJJG
4. If θ = or θ = , then the projection vector of AB will be zero vector.
2 2
G
Remark If α, β and γ are the direction angles of vector a = a iˆ + a ˆj + a kˆ , then its
1 2 3
direction cosines may be given as
G
a ⋅ iˆ a a a
cos α = G = G1 , cos β = G2 , and cos γ = G3
ˆ
| a || i | | a | |a| |a|
G G G
Also, note that | a | cos α, | a |cosβ and | a |cosγ are respectively the projections of
G G
a along OX, OY and OZ. i.e., the scalar components a1, a2 and a3 of the vector a ,
G
are precisely the projections of a along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively. Further,
G
if a is a unit vector, then it may be expressed in terms of its direction cosines as
G
a = cos αiˆ + cos βˆj + cos γkˆ
G G
Example 13 Find the angle between two vectors a and b with magnitudes 1 and 2
G G
respectively and when a ⋅ b =1 .
G G G G
Solution Given a ⋅ b = 1, | a | = 1 and | b | = 2 . We have
G G
−1 ⎛a⋅b ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ π
θ = cos ⎜ G G ⎟ = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ | a || b | ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 3
VECTOR ALGEBRA 445
G G
Example 14 Find angle ‘θ’ between the vectors a = iˆ + ˆj − kˆ and b = iˆ − ˆj + kˆ .
G G
Solution The angle θ between two vectors a and b is given by
G G
a ⋅b
cosθ = G G
| a || b |
G G
Now a ⋅ b = (iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) ⋅ ( iˆ − ˆj + kˆ ) = 1 − 1 − 1 = −1 .
−1
Therefore, we have cosθ =
3
−1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
hence the required angle is θ = cos ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
G ˆ ˆ G
Example 15 If a = 5i − j − 3kˆ and b = iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5kˆ , then show that the vectors
G G G G
a + b and a − b are perpendicular.
Solution We know that two nonzero vectors are perpendicular if their scalar product
is zero.
G G
Here a + b = (5iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ ) + ( iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5kˆ) = 6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8kˆ
G G
and a − b = (5iˆ − ˆj − 3kˆ) − ( iˆ + 3 ˆj − 5kˆ ) = 4iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ
G G G G
So (a + b ) ⋅ (a − b ) = (6iˆ + 2 ˆj − 8kˆ ) ⋅ (4iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ) = 24 − 8 − 16 = 0.
G G G G
Hence a + b and a − b are perpendicular vectors.
G
Example 16 Find the projection of the vector a = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ on the vector
G
b = iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ .
G G
Solution The projection of vector a on the vector b is given by
1 G G (2 × 1 + 3 × 2 + 2 × 1) 10 5
= =
G (a ⋅ b ) = 6
|b | (1) 2 + (2) 2 + (1)2 6 3
G G G G G G
Example 17 Find | a − b | , if two vectors a and b are such that | a | = 2, | b | = 3
G G
and a ⋅ b = 4 .
Solution We have
G G G G G G
| a − b |2 = (a − b ) ⋅ ( a − b )
GG G G G G G G
= a.a − a ⋅ b − b ⋅ a + b ⋅ b
446 MATHEMATICS
G G G G
= | a |2 −2( a ⋅ b ) + | b |2
= (2)2 − 2(4) + (3) 2
G G
Therefore |a −b | = 5
G G G G G G
Example 18 If a is a unit vector and ( x − a ) ⋅ ( x + a ) = 8 , then find | x | .
G G
Solution Since a is a unit vector, | a |= 1 . Also,
G G G G
( x − a ) ⋅ ( x + a) = 8
G G G G G G G G
or x ⋅x + x⋅a − a⋅x − a ⋅a = 8
G G
or | x |2 −1 = 8 i.e. | x | 2 = 9
G
Therefore | x | = 3 (as magnitude of a vector is non negative).
G G G G G G
Example 19 For any two vectors a and b , we always have | a ⋅ b | ≤ | a | | b | (Cauchy-
Schwartz inequality).
G G G G
Solution The inequality holds trivially when either a = 0 or b = 0 . Actually, in such a
G G G G G G
situation we have | a ⋅ b | = 0 = | a | | b | . So, let us assume that | a | ≠ 0 ≠ | b | .
Then, we have
G G
| a ⋅b |
G G = | cos θ | ≤ 1
| a || b |
G G G G
Therefore | a ⋅b |≤ | a ||b |
G G
Example 20 For any two vectors a and b , we always C
b
G G G G a +
have | a + b | ≤ | a | + | b | (triangle inequality).
b
A B
Solution The inequality holds trivially in case either a
G G G G G G G
a = 0 or b = 0 (How?). So, let | a | ≠ 0 ≠ | b | . Then,
G G G G G G G G Fig 10.21
| a + b |2 = ( a + b ) 2 = ( a + b ) ⋅ ( a + b )
G G G G G G G G
= a ⋅a + a ⋅b + b ⋅a + b ⋅b
G G G G
= | a |2 +2a ⋅ b + | b |2 (scalar product is commutative)
G2 G G G2
≤ | a | +2 | a ⋅ b | + | b | (since x ≤ | x | ∀ x ∈ R )
G2 G G G2
≤ | a | +2 | a || b | + | b | (from Example 19)
G G 2
= (| a | + | b |)
VECTOR ALGEBRA 447
G G G G
Hence |a +b |≤ |a |+|b |
Remark If the equality holds in triangle inequality (in the above Example 20), i.e.
G G G G
| a + b | = | a | + | b |,
JJJG JJJG JJJG
then | AC | = | AB | + | BC |
showing that the points A, B and C are collinear.
Example 21 Show that the points A ( −2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ ), B( iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) and C(7iˆ − kˆ)
are collinear.
Solution We have
JJJG
AB = (1 + 2) iˆ + (2 − 3) ˆj + (3 − 5) kˆ = 3iˆ − ˆj − 2kˆ ,
JJJG
BC = (7 − 1) iˆ + (0 − 2) ˆj + ( −1 − 3) kˆ = 6iˆ − 2 ˆj − 4kˆ ,
JJJG
AC = (7 + 2) iˆ + (0 − 3) ˆj + ( −1 − 5)kˆ = 9iˆ − 3 ˆj − 6kˆ
JJJG JJJG JJJG
| AB | = 14, | BC | = 2 14 and | AC |= 3 14
JJJG JJJG JJJG
Therefore AC = | AB | + | BC |
Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.
JJJG JJJG JJJG G
$ Note In Example 21, one may note that although AB + BC + CA = 0 but the
points A, B and C do not form the vertices of a triangle.
EXERCISE 10.3
G G
1. Find the angle between two vectors a and b with magnitudes 3 and 2 ,
G
respectively having aG ⋅ b = 6 .
G G G G G G G G
6. Find | a | and | b | , if (a + b ) ⋅ (a − b ) = 8 and | a |= 8 | b | .
G G G G
7. Evaluate the product (3a − 5b ) ⋅ (2a + 7b ) .
G G
8. Find the magnitude of two vectors a and b , having the same magnitude and
1
such that the angle between them is 60o and their scalar product is .
2
G G G G G G
9. Find | x | , if for a unit vector a , ( x − a ) ⋅ ( x + a ) = 12 .
G G G G G
10. If a = 2iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ, b = − iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ and c = 3iˆ + ˆj are such that a + λb is
G
perpendicular to c , then find the value of λ.
G G G G G G G G
11. Show that | a | b + | b | a is perpendicular to | a | b − | b | a , for any two nonzero
G G
vectors a and b .
G G G G G
12. If a ⋅ a = 0 and a ⋅ b = 0 , then what can be concluded about the vector b ?
G G G G G G G
13. If a , b , c are unit vectors such that a + b + c = 0 , find the value of
G G G G G G
a⋅b +b ⋅c +c ⋅a .
G G G G G G
14. If either vector a = 0 or b = 0, then a ⋅ b = 0 . But the converse need not be
true. Justify your answer with an example.
15. If the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC are (1, 2, 3), (–1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 2),
JJJG
respectively, then find ∠ABC. [∠ABC is the angle between the vectors BA
JJJG
and BC ].
16. Show that the points A(1, 2, 7), B(2, 6, 3) and C(3, 10, –1) are collinear.
17. Show that the vectors 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ, iˆ − 3 ˆj − 5kˆ and 3iˆ − 4 ˆj − 4kˆ form the vertices
of a right angled triangle.
G G
18. If a is a nonzero vector of magnitude ‘a’ and λ a nonzero scalar, then λ a is unit
vector if
(A) λ = 1 (B) λ = – 1 (C) a = | λ | (D) a = 1/| λ |
into the positive y-axis, a right handed (standard) screw would advance in the direction
of the positive z-axis (Fig 10.22(i)).
In a right handed coordinate system, the thumb of the right hand points in the
direction of the positive z-axis when the fingers are curled in the direction away from
the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis (Fig 10.22(ii)).
G G G G G G
In particular, a × a = 0 and a × (− a ) = 0 , since in the first situation, θ = 0
and in the second one, θ = π, making the value of sin θ to be 0.
π G G G G
3. If θ = then a × b = | a || b | .
2
4. In view of the Observations 2 and 3, for mutually perpendicular
unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and kˆ (Fig 10.24), we have
G
iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0
iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj Fig 10.24
G G
5. In terms of vector product, the angle between two vectors a and b may be
given as
G G
| a ×b |
sin θ = G G
| a || b |
G G G G
6. It is always true that the vector product is not commutative, as a × b = − b × a .
G G G G G G
Indeed, a × b = | a || b | sin θ nˆ , where a , b and nˆ form a right handed system,
G G G G G G
i.e., θ is traversed from a to b , Fig 10.25 (i). While, b × a =| a || b | sin θ nˆ1 , where
G G G G
b , a and nˆ1 form a right handed system i.e. θ is traversed from b to a ,
Fig 10.25(ii).
G G G G
Hence a × b = | a || b | sin θ nˆ
G G G G
= − | a || b | sin θnˆ1 = − b × a
7. In view of the Observations 4 and 6, we have
ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ, kˆ × ˆj = − iˆ and iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj.
G G
8. If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is given as
1 G G
|a ×b |.
2
By definition of the area of a triangle, we have from
Fig 10.26,
1
Area of triangle ABC = AB ⋅ CD.
2 Fig 10.26
G G
But AB = | b | (as given), and CD = | a | sin θ.
1 G G 1 G G
Thus, Area of triangle ABC = | b || a | sin θ = | a × b | .
2 2
G G
9. If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area is
G G
given by | a × b | .
From Fig 10.27, we have
Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB. DE.
G
But AB = | b | (as given), and
G
DE = | a | sin θ .
Thus, Fig 10.27
G G G G
Area of parallelogram ABCD = | b || a | sin θ = | a × b | .
We now state two important properties of vector product.
G G G
Property 3 (Distributivity of vector product over addition): If a , b and c
are any three vectors and λ be a scalar, then
G G G G G G G
(i) a × ( b + c ) = a × b + a × c
G G G G G G
(ii) λ ( a × b ) = (λa ) × b = a × (λb )
452 MATHEMATICS
G G
Let a and b be two vectors given in component form as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and
b iˆ + b ˆj + b kˆ , respectively. Then their cross product may be given by
1 2 3
iˆ ˆj kˆ
G G
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Explanation We have
G G
a × b = (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ ) × (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ )
= a1b1 (iˆ × iˆ) + a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) + a1b3 (iˆ × kˆ ) + a2b1 ( ˆj × iˆ)
+ a2b2 ( ˆj × ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj × kˆ)
+ a3b1 ( kˆ × iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ × ˆj ) + a3b3 ( kˆ × kˆ) (by Property 1)
= a1b2 (iˆ × ˆj ) − a1b3 (kˆ × iˆ) − a2b1 (iˆ × ˆj )
+ a2b3 ( ˆj × kˆ ) + a3b1 (kˆ × iˆ) − a3b2 ( ˆj × kˆ)
(as iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0 and iˆ × kˆ = −kˆ × iˆ, ˆj × iˆ = − iˆ × ˆj and kˆ × ˆj = − ˆj × kˆ)
= a1b2 kˆ − a1b3 ˆj − a2b1kˆ + a2b3iˆ + a3b1 ˆj − a3b2iˆ
(as iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ and kˆ × iˆ = ˆj )
= (a2b3 − a3b2 )iˆ − (a1b3 − a3b1 ) ˆj + ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) kˆ
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
G G G G
Example 22 Find | a × b |, if a = 2iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ and b = 3iˆ + 5 ˆj − 2kˆ
Solution We have
iˆ ˆj kˆ
G G
a×b = 2 1 3
3 5 −2
G G
Example 23 Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors (a + b ) and
G G G
(a − b ), where aG = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, b = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ .
G G G G
Solution We have a + b = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 4kˆ and a − b = − ˆj − 2kˆ
G G G G
A vector which is perpendicular to both a + b and a − b is given by
iˆ ˆj kˆ
G G G G G
(a + b ) × ( a − b ) = 2 3 4 = −2iˆ + 4 ˆj − 2k ( = c , say)
ˆ
0 −1 −2
G
Now | c | = 4 + 16 + 4 = 24 = 2 6
Therefore, the required unit vector is
G
c −1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
G = i+ j− k
|c | 6 6 6
$Note There are two perpendicular directions to any plane. Thus, another unit
G G G G 1 ˆ 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
i− j+
vector perpendicular to a + b and a − b will be k . But that will
6 6 6
G G G G
be a consequence of (a − b ) × ( a + b ) .
Example 24 Find the area of a triangle having the points A(1, 1, 1), B(1, 2, 3)
and C(2, 3, 1) as its vertices.
JJJG JJJG
Solution We have AB = ˆj + 2kˆ and AC = iˆ + 2 ˆj . The area of the given triangle
1 JJJG JJJG
is | AB × AC | .
2
iˆ ˆj kˆ
JJJG JJJG
AB × AC = 0 1 2 = − 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − k
Now, ˆ
1 2 0
JJJG JJJG
Therefore | AB × AC | = 16 + 4 + 1 = 21
1
Thus, the required area is 21
2
454 MATHEMATICS
Example 25 Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given
G G
by the vectors a = 3iˆ + ˆj + 4kˆ and b = iˆ − ˆj + kˆ
G G
Solution The area of a parallelogram with a and b as its adjacent sides is given
G G
by | a × b | .
iˆ ˆj kˆ
G G
Now a × b = 3 1 4 = 5iˆ + ˆj − 4kˆ
1 −1 1
G G
Therefore |a×b | = 25 + 1 + 16 = 42
and hence, the required area is 42 .
EXERCISE 10.4
G G G G
1. Find | a × b |, if a = iˆ − 7 ˆj + 7 kˆ and b = 3iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ .
G G G G
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector a + b and a − b , where
G G
a = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ and b = iˆ + 2 ˆj − 2kˆ .
G π π
3. If a unit vector a makes angles with iˆ, with ˆj and an acute angle θ with
3 4
G
k̂ , then find θ and hence, the components of a .
4. Show that
G G G G G
(a − b ) × ( a + b ) = 2( aG × b )
G
5. Find λ and μ if (2iˆ + 6 ˆj + 27kˆ ) × (iˆ + λˆj + μkˆ) = 0 .
G G G G G
6. Given that a ⋅ b = 0 and a × b = 0 . What can you conclude about the vectors
G G
a and b ?
G G G
7. Let the vectors a, b , c be given as a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ, b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ,
G G G G G G G
c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ . Then show that a × ( b + c ) = a × b + a × c .
G G G G G G G
8. If either a = 0 or b = 0, then a × b = 0 . Is the converse true? Justify your
answer with an example.
9. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(1, 1, 2), B(2, 3, 5) and C(1, 5, 5).
VECTOR ALGEBRA 455
10. Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are determined by the
G G
vectors a = iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ and b = 2iˆ − 7 ˆj + kˆ .
G G G G 2 G G
11. Let the vectors a and b be such that | a |= 3 and | b |= , then a × b is a
3
G G
unit vector, if the angle between a and b is
(A) π/6 (B) π/4 (C) π/3 (D) π/2
12. Area of a rectangle having vertices A, B, C and D with position vectors
1 1 1 1
– iˆ + ˆj + 4kˆ, iˆ + ˆj + 4kˆ , iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ and – iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ , respectively is
2 2 2 2
1
(A) (B) 1
2
(C) 2 (D) 4
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 26 Write all the unit vectors in XY-plane.
G ∧ ∧
Solution Let r = x i + y j be a unit vector in XY-plane (Fig 10.28). Then, from the
figure, we have x = cos θ and y = sin θ (since | rG | = 1). So, we may write the vector rG as
G JJJG
r ( = OP ) = cos θ iˆ + sin θ ˆj ... (1)
G
Clearly, | r | = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1
Fig 10.28
Also, as θ varies from 0 to 2π, the point P (Fig 10.28) traces the circle x2 + y2 = 1
counterclockwise, and this covers all possible directions. So, (1) gives every unit vector
in the XY-plane.
456 MATHEMATICS
Example 27 If iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, 2iˆ + 5 ˆj, 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − 3kˆ and iˆ − 6 ˆj − kˆ are the position
JJJG
vectors of points A, B, C and D respectively, then find the angle between AB and
JJJG JJJG JJJG
CD . Deduce that AB and CD are collinear.
Solution Note that if θ is the angle between AB and CD, then θ is also the angle
JJJG JJJG
between AB and CD .
JJJG
Now AB = Position vector of B – Position vector of A
= (2iˆ + 5 ˆj ) − (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) = iˆ + 4 ˆj − kˆ
JJJG
Therefore | AB | = (1) 2 + (4) 2 + ( −1) 2 = 3 2
JJJG JJJG
Similarly CD = − 2iˆ − 8 ˆj + 2kˆ and |CD |= 6 2
JJJG JJJG
AB ⋅ CD
Thus cos θ = JJJG JJJG
|AB||CD|
G G G G G G G
Example 29 Three vectors a, b and c satisfy the condition a + b + c = 0 . Evaluate
G G G G G G G G G
the quantity μ = a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c + c ⋅ a , if | a |= 1, | b |= 4 and | c |= 2 .
G G G G
Solution Since a + b + c = 0 , we have
G G G G
a ⋅ (a + b + c ) = 0
G G G G G G
or a ⋅ a + a ⋅b + a ⋅c = 0
G G G G G 2
Therefore a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c = − a = −1 ... (1)
G G G G
Again, b ⋅(a + b + c ) = 0
G G G G G 2
or a ⋅b + b ⋅c = − b = −16 ... (2)
G G G G
Similarly a ⋅ c + b ⋅ c = – 4. ... (3)
Adding (1), (2) and (3), we have
G G G G G G
2 ( a ⋅ b + b ⋅ c + a ⋅ c ) = – 21
−21
or 2μ = – 21, i.e., μ =
2
Example 30 If with reference to the right handed system of mutually perpendicular
G G G
unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and kˆ, α = 3iˆ − ˆj, β = 2iˆ + ˆj – 3kˆ , then express β in the form
G G G G G G G
β = β1 + β 2 , where β1 is parallel to α and β 2 is perpendicular to α .
G G G
Solution Let β1 = λα, λ is a scalar, i.e., β1 = 3λiˆ − λˆj .
G G G
Now β2 = β − β1 = (2 − 3λ)iˆ + (1 + λ ) ˆj − 3kˆ .
G G G G
Now, since β 2 is to be perpendicular to α , we should have α ⋅β2 = 0 . i.e.,
3(2 − 3λ ) − (1 + λ ) = 0
1
or λ=
2
G 3 1 G 1 3
Therefore β1 = iˆ − ˆj and β2 = iˆ + ˆj – 3kˆ
2 2 2 2
458 MATHEMATICS
G G G G G G G G
15. Prove that (a + b ) ⋅ ( a + b ) =| a |2 + | b |2 , if and only if a, b are perpendicular,
G G G G
given a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 .
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 16 to 19.
G G G G
16. If θ is the angle between two vectors a and b , then a ⋅ b ≥ 0 only when
π π
(A) 0 < θ < (B) 0 ≤ θ ≤
2 2
(C) 0 < θ < π (D) 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
G G G G
17. Let a and b be two unit vectors and θ is the angle between them. Then a + b
is a unit vector if
π π π 2π
(A) θ = (B) θ = (C) θ = (D) θ =
4 3 2 3
18. The value of iˆ.( ˆj × kˆ) + ˆj ⋅ (iˆ × kˆ) + kˆ ⋅ (iˆ × ˆj ) is
(A) 0 (B) –1 (C) 1 (D) 3
G G G G G G
19. If θ is the angle between any two vectors a and b , then | a ⋅ b | = | a × b | when
θ is equal to
π π
(A) 0 (B) (C) (D) π
4 2
Summary
JJJG G
Position vector of a point P(x, y, z) is given as OP(= r ) = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ , and its
magnitude by x2 + y 2 + z2 .
The scalar components of a vector are its direction ratios, and represent its
projections along the respective axes.
The magnitude (r), direction ratios (a, b, c) and direction cosines (l, m, n) of
any vector are related as:
a b c
l= , m= , n=
r r r
G
The vector sum of the three sides of a triangle taken in order is 0 .
460 MATHEMATICS
The vector sum of two coinitial vectors is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram whose adjacent sides are the given vectors.
The multiplication of a given vector by a scalar λ, changes the magnitude of
the vector by the multiple | λ |, and keeps the direction same (or makes it
opposite) according as the value of λ is positive (or negative).
G
G a
For a given vector a , the vector aˆ = G gives the unit vector in the direction
|a|
G
of a .
The position vector of a point R dividing a line segment joining the points
G
G
P and Q whose position vectors are a and b respectively, in the ratio m : n
G G
na + mb
(i) internally, is given by .
m+n
G G
mb − na
(ii) externally, is given by .
m−n
G G
The scalar product of two given vectors a and b having angle θ between
them is defined as
G G G G
a ⋅ b = | a || b | cos θ .
G G G G
Also, when a ⋅ b is given, the angle ‘θ’ between the vectors a and b may be
determined by
G G
a ⋅b
cos θ = G G
| a || b |
G G
If θ is the angle between two vectors a and b , then their cross product is
given as
G G G G
a × b = | a || b | sin θ nˆ
G G
where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b . Such
G G
that a, b, nˆ form right handed system of coordinate axes.
G G
If we have two vectors a and b , given in component form as
G G
a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ and b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ and λ any scalar,
VECTOR ALGEBRA 461
G G
then a + b = (a1 + b1 ) iˆ + (a2 + b2 ) ˆj + ( a3 + b3 ) kˆ ;
G
λa = (λa1 )iˆ + (λa2 ) ˆj + (λa3 ) kˆ ;
GG
a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 ;
iˆ ˆj kˆ
G G
and a × b = a1 b1 c1 .
a2 b2 c2
Historical Note
The word vector has been derived from a Latin word vectus, which means
“to carry”. The germinal ideas of modern vector theory date from around 1800
when Caspar Wessel (1745-1818) and Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822) described
that how a complex number a + ib could be given a geometric interpretation with
the help of a directed line segment in a coordinate plane. William Rowen Hamilton
(1805-1865) an Irish mathematician was the first to use the term vector for a
directed line segment in his book Lectures on Quaternions (1853). Hamilton’s
method of quaternions (an ordered set of four real numbers given as:
a + biˆ + cjˆ + dkˆ, iˆ, ˆj , kˆ following certain algebraic rules) was a solution to the
problem of multiplying vectors in three dimensional space. Though, we must
mention here that in practice, the idea of vector concept and their addition was
known much earlier ever since the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a Greek
philosopher, and pupil of Plato (427-348 B.C.). That time it was supposed to be
known that the combined action of two or more forces could be seen by adding
them according to parallelogram law. The correct law for the composition of
forces, that forces add vectorially, had been discovered in the case of perpendicular
forces by Stevin-Simon (1548-1620). In 1586 A.D., he analysed the principle of
geometric addition of forces in his treatise DeBeghinselen der Weeghconst
(“Principles of the Art of Weighing”), which caused a major breakthrough in the
development of mechanics. But it took another 200 years for the general concept
of vectors to form.
In the 1880, Josaih Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), an American physicist
and mathematician, and Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), an English engineer, created
what we now know as vector analysis, essentially by separating the real (scalar)
462 MATHEMATICS
part of quaternion from its imaginary (vector) part. In 1881 and 1884, Gibbs
printed a treatise entitled Element of Vector Analysis. This book gave a systematic
and concise account of vectors. However, much of the credit for demonstrating
the applications of vectors is due to the D. Heaviside and P.G. Tait (1831-1901)
who contributed significantly to this subject.
——