AI

22 July 2012 PM 01:38

Short Questions:Q1 Ans Define production system A production system (or production rule system) is a computer program typically used to provide some form of artificial intelligence, which consists primarily of a set of rules about behavior. These rules, termed productions, are a basic representation found useful in automated planning, expert systems and action selection. A production system provides the mechanism necessary to execute productions in order to achieve some goal for the system. Productions consist of two parts: a sensory precondition (or "IF" statement) and an action (or "THEN"). If a production's precondition matches the current state of the world, then the production is said to be triggered. If a production's action is executed, it is said to have fired. A production system also contains a database, sometimes called working memory, which maintains data about current state or knowledge, and a rule interpreter. The rule interpreter must provide a mechanism for prioritizing productions when more than one is triggered. Q2 Ans Different components of AI Research in AI has focussed chiefly on the following components of intelligence: learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language-understanding. 1 Learning Learning is distinguished into a number of different forms. The simplest is learning by trial-and-error. For example, a simple program for solving mate-in-one chess problems might try out moves at random until one is found that achieves mate. The program remembers the successful move and next time the computer is given the same problem it is able to produce the answer immediately. The simple memorising of individual items--solutions to problems, words of vocabulary, etc.--is known as rote learning. Rote learning is relatively easy to implement on a computer. More challenging is the problem of implementing what is called generalisation. Learning that involves generalisation leaves the learner able to perform better in situations not previously encountered. A program that learns past tenses of regular English verbs by rote will not be able to produce the past tense of e.g. "jump" until presented at least once with "jumped", whereas a program that is able to generalise from examples can learn the "add-ed" rule, and so form the past tense of "jump" in the absence of any previous encounter with this verb. Sophisticated modern techniques enable programs to generalise complex rules from data. 2 Reasoning To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation in hand. Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive. An example of the former is "Fred is either in the museum or the caf; he isn't in the caf; so he's in the museum", and of the latter "Previous accidents just like this one have been caused by instrument failure; so probably this one was caused by instrument failure". The difference between the two is that in the deductive case, the truth of the premisses guarantees the truth of the conclusion, whereas in the inductive case, the truth of the premiss lends support to the conclusion that the accident was caused by instrument failure, but nevertheless further investigation might reveal that, despite the truth of the premiss, the conclusion is in fact false. There has been considerable success in programming computers to draw inferences, especially deductive inferences. However, a program cannot be said to reason simply in virtue of being able to draw inferences. Reasoning involves drawing inferences that are relevant to the task or situation in hand. One of the hardest problems confronting AI is that of giving computers the ability to distinguish the relevant from the irrelevant. 3 Problem-solving Problems have the general form: given such-and-such data, find x. A huge variety of types of problem is addressed in AI. Some examples are: finding winning moves in board games; identifying people from their photographs; and planning series of movements that enable a robot to carry out a given task. Problem-solving methods divide into special-purpose and general-purpose. A special-purpose method is tailor-made for a particular problem, and often exploits very specific features of the situation in which the problem is embedded. A general-purpose method is applicable to a wide range of different problems. One general-purpose technique used in AI is means-end analysis, which involves the step-by-step reduction of the difference between the current state and the goal state. The program selects actions from a list of means-which in the case of, say, a simple robot, might consist of pickup, putdown, moveforward, moveback, moveleft, and moveright--until the current state is transformed into the goal state. 4 Perception In perception the environment is scanned by means of various sense-organs, real or artificial, and processes internal to the perceiver analyse the scene into objects and their features and relationships. Analysis is complicated by the fact that one and the same object may present many different appearances on different occasions, depending on the angle from which it is viewed, whether or not parts of it are projecting shadows, and so forth. At present, artificial perception is sufficiently well advanced to enable a self-controlled car-like device to drive at moderate speeds on the open road, and a mobile robot to roam through a suite of busy offices searching for and clearing away empty soda cans. One of the earliest systems to integrate perception and action was FREDDY, a stationary robot with a moving TV 'eye' and a pincer 'hand' (constructed at Edinburgh University during the period 1966-1973 under the direction of Donald Michie). FREDDY was able to recognise a variety of objects and could be instructed to assemble simple artefacts, such as a toy car, from a random heap of components. 5 Language-understanding A language is a system of signs having meaning by convention. Traffic signs, for example, form a minilanguage, it being a matter of convention that, for example, the hazard-ahead sign means hazard ahead. This meaning-by-convention that is distinctive of language is very different from what is called natural meaning, exemplified in statements like 'Those clouds mean rain' and 'The fall in pressure means the valve is malfunctioning'. An important characteristic of full-fledged human languages, such as English, which distinguishes them from, e.g. bird calls and systems of traffic signs, is their productivity. A productive language is one that is rich enough to enable an unlimited number of different sentences to be formulated within it. Q3 Ans steps required to solve a particular problem in ai The steps that are required to build a system to solve a particular problem are: 1. Problem Definition that must include precise specifications of what the initial situation will be as well as what final situations constitute acceptable solutions to the problem. 2. Problem Analysis , this can have immense impact on the appropriateness of varies possible techniques for solving the problem.
3. Selection of the best technique(s) for solving the particular problem.

Long Questions:Q1 Ans Q2 Ans Q3 Ans Q4 Ans Q5 Ans Q6 Conceptual dependency Page 135 What is script? Components of script with e.g. Page 141 Weak slot and filler structures Page 113 Explain breadth first and depth first search with e.g. advantages and disadvantages Page 48,49 Write notes on 1. Natural language processing 2. Syntactic processing 3. Semantic analysis 4. Pragmatic processing
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CYC algorithm

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Problem solving search can proceed either forwards or backwards. What determines the choice of direction for a problem? The following are the factors which determine the choice of direction for a particular problem. 1. Are there more possible start states on goal states? We would like to move from the smaller set of states to the larger set of states. 2. In which direction is the branching factor (that is, their average number of nodes that can be reached directly from a single node) greater ? we would lime to proceed in the direction with the lower branching factor. 3. Will the program be asked to justify its reasoning process to a user ? If so, it is important to proceed in the direction that corresponds more closely with the way the user will think.

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direction that corresponds more closely with the way the user will think.

4. What kind of event is going to trigger a problem-solving episode? If it is the arrival of a new factor, forward reasoning makes sends. If it is a query to which a response is desired, backward reasoning is more natural. Q5 Represent the following using predicate logic 1. Apples are food 2. Spouse of every married person in the club is also in the club

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Conflict resolution

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Ai? Areas of ai?

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Knowledge representation schemes

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Knowledge representation and its types

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Applications of ai Page 15

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