Polymers Polymers are compound of very high molecular masses formed by the combination of a large number of simple molecules.

The simple molecules which combine to give polymers are called monomers. The process by which the simple molecule (i.e. monomers) are converted into polymers is called polymerisation. Example : Polyethylene All polymers are macromolecule but all macromolecules are not polymers because polymer consist repeating unit of monomer e.g., chlorophyll is a macromolecule but not a polymer. Classification of polymers A. Classification based on source of availability They are classified as (i) Natural polymers polymers (ii) Synthetic polymers (iii) Semi-synthetic

(i) Natural polymers : The polymers obtained from nature (plants and animals) are called natural polymers. These polymers are very essential for life. They are as under. (a) Starch : It is polymer of glucose and it is food reserve of plant. (b) Cellulose : It is also a polymer of glucose. It is a chief structural material of the plant both starch and cellulose are made by plants from glucose produced during photosynthesis. (c) Proteins : These are polymers of a-amino acids, they have generally 20 to 1000 a amino acid joined together in a highly organized arrangement. These are building blocks of animal body and constitute an essential part of our food. (d) Nucleic acids : These are polymers of various nucleotides. For example RNA and DNA are common nucleotides. It may be noted that polymers such as polysaccharides (starch, cellulose), proteins and nucleic acids etc. which control various life processes in plants and animals are also called biopolymers. (ii) Synthetic polymers : The polymers which are prepared in the laboratories are called synthetic polymers. These are also called man made polymers. For example polyethene, PVC nylon, teflon, bakelite terylene, synthetic rubber etc. (iii) Semisynthetic polymers : These polymers are mostly derived from naturally occurring polymers by chemical modifications. For example cellulose is naturally occurring polymers, cellulose on acetylation with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid forms cellulose diacetate polymers. It is used in making thread and materials like films glasses etc. Vulcanized rubber is also an example of semisynthetic polymers used in making tyres etc. gun cotton which is cellulose nitrate used in making explosive.

 Semi-synthetic polymers : Rayon and other cellulose derivatives like cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate etc., are semi-synthetic polymers. These are thermoplastic polymers. Viscose rayon in the form of a thin transparent film is known as cellophane. Cellophane is softened with glycerol. Unlike plastic sheets it absorbs water. Rayon : Rayon is a man made material which consists of purified cellulose in the form of long fibres. Cellulose is treated with cold NaOH solution to purify it and then treated with CS2 to form a viscose solution. This is why rayon is sometimes called viscose rayon. This solution is allowed to pass through fine pores in metal cylinder, into a dilute solution of H2SO4. This results in the formation of long fibres. Rayon fibre is chemically identical to cotton but has a shine like silk. As such rayon is also known as artificial silk. Rayon is used on a large scale for making textiles, tyre-chord, carpets and surgical dressings. Unlike fully synthetic polymers, it absorbs moisture and is bio-degradable. B. Classification based upon structure On the basis of structure of polymers these can be classified as (i) Linear polymers polymers (ii) Branched chain polymers (iii) Cross linked

(i) Linear polymers : These are polymers in which monomeric units are linked together to form linear chain. These linear polymers are well packed and have high magnitude of intermolecular forces of attraction and therefore have high densities, high tensile (pulling) strength and high melting points. Some common example of linear polymers are high density polyethylene nylon, polyester, PVC, PAN etc. (ii) Branched chain polymers : These are polymers in which the monomers are joined to form long chains with side chains or branches of different lengths. These branched chain polymers are irregularly packed and therefore, they have low tensile strength, low density, boiling point and melting points than linear polymers. Some common examples are low density polythene, glycogen, starch etc. (Amylopectin). (iii) Cross linked polymers : These are polymers in which monomers unit are crosslinked together to form a three dimensional network polymers. These polymers are hard, rigid and brittle because of network structure e.g., Bakelite, malamine formaldehyde resin etc. C. Classification based upon molecular forces Depending upon the intermolecular forces, the polymers have been classified into four type. (i) Elastomers (iii) Thermoplastics (ii) Fibers (iv) Thermosetting polymers

(i) Elastomers : The polymers that have elastic character like rubber (a material that can return to its original shape after stretching is said to be elastic) are called elastomers. In elastomers the polymers chains are held together by weak intermolecular forces. Because of the presence of weak forces, the polymers can be easily stretched by applying small stress and regains their original shape when the stress is removed. The most important example of elastomers is natural rubber.

(ii) Fibers : These are the polymers which have strong intermolecular forces between the chain. These forces are either hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole interaction. Because of strong forces, the chains are closely packed giving them high tensil strength and less elasticity. Therefore, these polymers have sharp melting points. These polymers are long, thin and thread like and can be woven in fabric. Therefore, these are used for making fibers. Example : Nylon 66, dacron, silk etc. (iii) Thermoplastics : These are the polymers which can be easily softened repeatedly when heated and hardened when cooled with little change in their properties. The intermolecular forces in these polymers are intermediate between those of elastomers and fibres. There is no cross linking between the chain. The softening occurs as the polymer chain move more and more freely because of absence of cross link. When heated, they melt and form a fluid which can be moulded into any desired shapes and then cooled to get the desired product. Example : Polythene, polystyrene, PVC, teflon etc. (iv) Thermosetting polymers : These are the polymers which undergo permanent change on heating. They become hard and infusible on heating. They are generally prepared from low molecular mass semifluid substances. When heated they get highly cross linked to form hard infusible and insoluble products. The cross links hold the molecule in place so that heating does not allow them to move freely. Therefore a thermosetting plastic is cross linked and is permanently rigid. Example : Bakelite, melamine formaldehyde resin etc. Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers Thermoplastic polymers (1) These heating. soften and melt Thermosetting polymers on These do not soften on heating but rather become hard in case prolonged heating is done these start burning.

(2) These can be remoulded recast These can not be remoulded or and reshaped. reshaped. (3) These are less brittle and soluble These are more brittle and insoluble in some organic solvents. in organic solvents. (4) These are formed by addition These are formed by condensation polymerisation. polymerisation. (5) These structures. have usually linear These have three dimensional cross linked structures. Ex. Bakelite, urea, formaldehyde, resin.

Ex. Polyethylene, PVC, Teflon.

D. Classification based on Regio and Stereoisomerization in Polymers

Symmetrical monomers such as ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene can join together in only one way. Monosubstituted monomers, on the other hand, may join together in two organized ways, described in the following diagram, or in a third random manner. Most monomers of this kind, including propylene, vinyl chloride, styrene, acrylonitrile and acrylic esters, prefer to join in a head-to-tail fashion, with some randomness occurring from time to time. The reasons for this regioselectivity will be discussed in the synthetic methods section.

If the polymer chain is drawn in a zig-zag fashion, as shown above, each of the substituent groups (Z) will necessarily be located above or below the plane defined by the carbon chain. Consequently we can identify three configurational isomers of such polymers.
i. ii. iii.

If all the substituents lie on one side of the chain the configuration is called isotactic. If the substituents alternate from one side to another in a regular manner the configuration is termed syndiotactic. Finally, a random arrangement of substituent groups is referred to as atactic. Examples of these configurations are shown here.

E. Classification based on Polymerization i. ii. Addition Polymers Condensation Polymers Addition Polymers All the monomers from which addition polymers are made are alkenes or functionally substituted alkenes. The most common and thermodynamically favored chemical transformations of alkenes are addition reactions. Many of these addition reactions are known to proceed in a stepwise fashion by way of reactive intermediates, and this is the mechanism followed by most polymerizations. A general diagram illustrating this assembly of linear macromolecules, which supports the name chain growth polymers, is presented here. Since a pi-bond in the monomer is converted to a sigmabond in the polymer, the polymerization reaction is usually exothermic by 8 to 20 kcal/mol. Indeed, cases of explosively uncontrolled polymerizations have been reported.

It is useful to distinguish four polymerization procedures fitting this general description. Radical Polymerization The initiator is a radical, and the propagating site of reactivity (*) is a carbon radical. Cationic Polymerization The initiator is an acid, and the propagating site of reactivity (*) is a carbocation. Anionic Polymerization The initiator is a nucleophile, and the propagating site of reactivity (*) is a carbanion. Coordination Catalytic Polymerization The initiator is a transition metal complex, and the propagating site of reactivity (*) is a terminal catalytic complex. Some Common Addition Polymers Name(s) Formula Monomer Properties soft, waxy solid rigid, solid translucent Uses film wrap, plastic bags electrical insulation bottles, toys Polyethylene ethylene (CH2-CH2)n low density (LDPE) CH2=CH2 Polyethylene ethylene high density (CH2-CH2)n CH2=CH2 (HDPE) Polypropylene [CH2(PP) different CH(CH3)]n grades Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Poly(vinylidene chloride) (Saran A) Polystyrene (PS) (CH2CHCl)n propylene CH2=CHCH3

atactic: soft, elastic similar to LDPE solid carpet, isotactic: hard, upholstery strong solid pipes, flooring siding,

vinyl chloride strong rigid solid CH2=CHCl

vinylidene (CH2-CCl2)n chloride CH2=CCl2 [CH2CH(C6H5)]n styrene CH2=CHC6H5 acrylonitrile CH2=CHCN

dense, high-melting seat solid films

covers,

hard, rigid, clear toys, cabinets solid packaging soluble in organic (foamed) solvents high-melting solid rugs, blankets soluble in organic clothing solvents non-stick smooth surfaces electrical insulation lighting covers, signs skylights

Polyacrylonitrile (CH2(PAN, Orlon, CHCN)n Acrilan) Polytetrafluoroet hylene (CF2-CF2)n (PTFE, Teflon) Poly(methyl [CH2methacrylate) C(CH3)CO2C (PMMA, Lucite, H3]n Plexiglas)

tetrafluoroethy resistant, lene solid CF2=CF2 methyl methacrylate hard, CH2=C(CH3)CO solid 2CH3

transparent

Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc)

(CH2vinyl acetate CHOCOCH3)n CH2=CHOCOC soft, sticky solid H3 soft, sticky solid

latex paints, adhesives requires vulcanization for practical use synthetic rubber oil resistant

[CH2isoprene cis-Polyisoprene CH=C(CH3)- CH2=CHnatural rubber CH2]n C(CH3)=CH2 Polychloroprene [CH2(cis + trans) CH=CCl(Neoprene) CH2]n chloroprene CH2=CHCCl=CH2

tough, rubbery solid

1. Radical Chain-Growth Polymerization Virtually all of the monomers described above are subject to radical polymerization. Since this can be initiated by traces of oxygen or other minor impurities, pure samples of these compounds are often "stabilized" by small amounts of radical inhibitors to avoid unwanted reaction. When radical polymerization is desired, it must be started by using a radical initiator, such as a peroxide or certain azo compounds. The formulas of some common initiators, and equations showing the formation of radical species from these initiators are presented below.

By using small amounts of initiators, a wide variety of monomers can be polymerized. One example of this radical polymerization is the conversion of styrene to polystyrene, shown in the following diagram. The first two equations illustrate the initiation process, and the last two equations are examples of chain propagation. Each monomer unit adds to the growing chain in a manner that generates the most stable radical. Since carbon radicals are stabilized by substituents of many kinds, the preference for head-totail regioselectivity in most addition polymerizations is understandable. Because radicals are tolerant of many functional groups and solvents (including water), radical polymerizations are widely used in the chemical industry.

In principle, once started a radical polymerization might be expected to continue unchecked, producing a few extremely long chain polymers. In practice, larger numbers of moderately sized chains are formed, indicating that chain-terminating reactions must be taking place. The most common termination processes are Radical Combination and Disproportionation. These reactions are illustrated by the following equations. The growing polymer chains are colored blue and red, and the hydrogen atom transferred in disproportionation is colored green. Note that in both types of termination two reactive radical sites are removed by simultaneous conversion to stable product(s). Since the concentration of radical species in a polymerization reaction is small relative to other reactants (e.g. monomers, solvents and terminated chains), the rate at which these radical-radical termination reactions occurs is very small, and most growing chains achieve moderate length before termination.

The relative importance of these terminations varies with the nature of the monomer undergoing polymerization. For acrylonitrile and styrene combination is the major process. However, methyl methacrylate and vinyl acetate are terminated chiefly by disproportionation. Another reaction that diverts radical chain-growth polymerizations from producing linear macromolecules is called chain transfer. As the name implies, this reaction moves a carbon radical from one location to another by an intermolecular or

intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer (colored green). These possibilities are demonstrated by the following equations

Chain transfer reactions are especially prevalent in the high pressure radical polymerization of ethylene, which is the method used to make LDPE (low density polyethylene). The 1-radical at the end of a growing chain is converted to a more stable 2-radical by hydrogen atom transfer. Further polymerization at the new radical site generates a side chain radical, and this may in turn lead to creation of other side chains by chain transfer reactions. As a result, the morphology of LDPE is an amorphous network of highly branched macromolecules.

2. Cationic Chain-Growth Polymerization Polymerization of isobutylene (2-methylpropene) by traces of strong acids is an example of cationic polymerization. The polyisobutylene product is a soft rubbery solid, Tg = _70 C, which is used for inner tubes. This process is similar to radical polymerization, as demonstrated by the following equations. Chain growth ceases when the terminal carbocation combines with a nucleophile or loses a proton, giving a terminal alkene (as shown here).

Monomers bearing cation stabilizing groups, such as alkyl, phenyl or vinyl can be polymerized by cationic processes. These are normally initiated at low temperature in methylene chloride solution. Strong acids, such as HClO4 , or Lewis acids containing traces of water (as shown above) serve as initiating reagents. At low temperatures, chain transfer reactions are rare in such polymerizations, so the resulting polymers are cleanly linear (unbranched).

3. Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization Treatment of a cold THF solution of styrene with 0.001 equivalents of n-butyllithium causes an immediate polymerization. This is an example of anionic polymerization, the course of which is described by the following equations. Chain growth may be terminated by water or carbon dioxide, and chain transfer seldom occurs. Only monomers having anion stabilizing substituents, such as phenyl, cyano or carbonyl are good substrates for this polymerization technique. Many of the resulting polymers are largely isotactic in configuration, and have high degrees of crystallinity.

Species that have been used to initiate anionic polymerization include alkali metals, alkali amides, alkyl lithiums and various electron sources. A practical application of anionic polymerization occurs in the use of superglue. This material is methyl 2cyanoacrylate, CH2=C(CN)CO2CH3. When exposed to water, amines or other nucleophiles, a rapid polymerization of this monomer takes place.

4. Ziegler-Natta Catalytic Polymerization An efficient and stereospecific catalytic polymerization procedure was developed by Karl Ziegler (Germany) and Giulio Natta (Italy) in the 1950's. Their findings permitted, for the first time, the synthesis of unbranched, high molecular weight polyethylene (HDPE), laboratory synthesis of natural rubber from isoprene, and configurational control of polymers from terminal alkenes like propene (e.g. pure isotactic and syndiotactic polymers). In the case of ethylene, rapid polymerization occurred at atmospheric pressure and moderate to low temperature, giving a stronger (more crystalline) product (HDPE) than that from radical polymerization (LDPE). For this important discovery these chemists received the 1963 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Ziegler-Natta catalysts are prepared by reacting certain transition metal halides with organometallic reagents such as alkyl aluminum, lithium and zinc reagents. The catalyst formed by reaction of triethylaluminum with titanium tetrachloride has been widely studied, but other metals (e.g. V & Zr) have also proven effective. The following diagram presents one mechanism for this useful reaction. Others have been suggested, with changes to accommodate the heterogeneity or homogeneity of the catalyst. Polymerization of propylene through action of the titanium catalyst gives an isotactic product; whereas, a vanadium based catalyst gives a syndiotactic product.

Copolymers The synthesis of macromolecules composed of more than one monomeric repeating unit has been explored as a means of controlling the properties of the resulting material. In this respect, it is useful to distinguish several ways in which different monomeric units might be incorporated in a polymeric molecule. The following examples refer to a two component system, in which one monomer is designated A and the other B. Statistical Copolymers Alternating Copolymers Also called random copolymers. Here the monomeric units are distributed randomly, and sometimes unevenly, in the polymer chain: ~ABBAAABAABBBABAABA~. Here the monomeric units are distributed in a regular alternating fashion, with nearly equimolar amounts of each in the chain: ~ABABABABABABABAB~.

Block Copolymers Instead of a mixed distribution of monomeric units, a long sequence or block of one monomer is joined to a block of the second monomer: ~AAAAABBBBBBB~AAAAAAA~BBB~. Graft Copolymers As the name suggests, side chains of a given monomer are attached to the main chain of the second monomer: ~AAAAAAA(BBBBBBB~)AAAAAAA(BBBB~)AAA~.

1.

Addition Copolymerization

Most direct copolymerizations of equimolar mixtures of different monomers give statistical copolymers, or if one monomer is much more reactive a nearly homopolymer of that monomer. The copolymerization of styrene with methyl methacrylate, for example, proceeds differently depending on the mechanism. Radical polymerization gives a statistical copolymer. However, the product of cationic polymerization is largely polystyrene, and anionic polymerization favors formation of poly(methyl methacrylate). In cases where the relative reactivities are different, the copolymer composition can sometimes be controlled by continuous introduction of a biased mixture of monomers into the reaction.

Formation of alternating copolymers is favored when the monomers have different polar substituents (e.g. one electron withdrawing and the other electron donating), and both have similar reactivities toward radicals. For example, styrene and acrylonitrile copolymerize in a largely alternating fashion. Some Useful Copolymers Monomer A H2C=CHCl H2C=CHC6H5 H2C=CHCN H2C=C(CH3)2 Monomer B H2C=CCl2 H2C=CCH=CH2 H2C=CCH=CH2 H2C=CCH=CH2 Copolymer Saran Uses films & fibers

SBR tires styrene butadiene rubber Nitrile Rubber Butyl Rubber Viton adhesives hoses inner tubes gaskets

F2C=CF(CF3) H2C=CHF

A terpolymer of acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene, called ABS rubber, is used for highimpact containers, pipes and gaskets.

2.

Block Copolymerization

Several different techniques for preparing block copolymers have been developed, many of which use condensation reactions (next section). At this point, our discussion will be limited to an application of anionic polymerization. In the anionic polymerization of styrene described above, a reactive site remains at the end of the chain until it is quenched. The unquenched polymer has been termed a living polymer, and if additional styrene or a different suitable monomer is added a block polymer will form. This is illustrated for methyl methacrylate in the following diagram.

Condensation Polymers A large number of important and useful polymeric materials are not formed by chaingrowth processes involving reactive species such as radicals, but proceed instead by conventional functional group transformations of polyfunctional reactants. These polymerizations often (but not always) occur with loss of a small byproduct, such as water, and generally (but not always) combine two different components in an

alternating structure. The polyester Dacron and the polyamide Nylon 66, shown here, are two examples of synthetic condensation polymers, also known as stepgrowth polymers. In contrast to chain-growth polymers, most of which grow by carboncarbon bond formation, step-growth polymers generally grow by carbon-heteroatom bond formation (C-O & C-N in Dacron & Nylon respectively). Although polymers of this kind might be considered to be alternating copolymers, the repeating monomeric unit is usually defined as a combined moiety. Examples of naturally occurring condensation polymers are cellulose, the polypeptide chains of proteins, and poly(-hydroxybutyric acid), a polyester synthesized in large quantity by certain soil and water bacteria. Formulas for these will be displayed below by clicking on the diagram.

1.

Characteristics of Condensation Polymers

Condensation polymers form more slowly than addition polymers, often requiring heat, and they are generally lower in molecular weight. The terminal functional groups on a chain remain active, so that groups of shorter chains combine into longer chains in the late stages of polymerization. The presence of polar functional groups on the chains often enhances chain-chain attractions, particularly if these involve hydrogen bonding, and thereby crystallinity and tensile strength. The following examples of condensation polymers are illustrative. Note that for commercial synthesis the carboxylic acid components may actually be employed in the form of derivatives such as simple esters. Also, the polymerization reactions for Nylon 6 and Spandex do not proceed by elimination of water or other small molecules. Nevertheless, the polymer clearly forms by a step-growth process. Some common Condensation Polymers Formula Type polyester Dacron Mylar polyester Components para HO2C-C6H4-CO2H HO-CH2CH2-OH meta HO2C-C6H4-CO2H HO-CH2CH2-OH (HO-C6H4-)2C(CH3)2 (Bisphenol X2C=O (X = OCH3 or Cl) HO2C-(CH2)4-CO2H H2N-(CH2)6-NH2 6 para HO2C-C6H4-CO2H para H2N-C6H4-NH2 meta HO2C-C6H4-CO2H meta H2N-C6H4-NH2

polycarbonat e Lexan polyamide Nylon 66 polyamide Nylon Perlon polyamide Kevlar polyamide Nomex

A)

~[CO(CH2)4CO-NH(CH2)6NH]n~ ~[CO(CH2)5NH]n~

polyurethane HOCH2CH2OH Spandex

Natural rubber

Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that was originally derived from a milky colloidal suspension, or latex, found in the sap of some plants. The purified form of natural rubber is the chemical polyisoprene which can also be produced synthetically. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products as is synthetic rubber. The entropy model of rubber was developed in 1934 by Werner Kuhn. Natural rubber is a polymer of the monomer 2-methylbuta-1,3-diene (isoprene) Poly(2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) or polyisoprene can exist in two isomeric forms. Natural rubber is the cis-form 2-Methylbuta-1,3-diene Chemical makeup Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene - most often cis-1,4-polyisoprene - with a molecular weight of 100,000 to 1,000,000. Typically, a few percent of other materials, such as proteins, fatty acids, resins and inorganic materials are found in natural rubber. Polyisoprene is also created synthetically, producing what is sometimes referred to as "synthetic natural rubber". Some natural rubber sources called gutta percha are composed of trans-1,4-polyisoprene, a structural isomer which has similar, but not identical properties. Natural rubber is an elastomer and a thermoplastic. However, it should be noted that as the rubber is vulcanized it will turn into a thermoset. Most rubber in everyday use is vulcanized to a point where it shares properties of both; i.e., if it is heated and cooled, it is degraded but not destroyed. The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more. Natural rubber is not a useful polymer because it is too soft and too chemically reactive. The long chain molecules can be coiled twisted and interwined with one another Vulcanization of natural rubber is the chemical process that confers crosslinkage among the polymer chains of rubber, turning natural rubber into a flexible elastic material. In the process of vulcanization,13 % by mass of sulphur is added to natural rubber and the mixture is heated Short chains of sulphur atoms (i.e. cross-linkages) are formed between the polymer chains The sulphur changes rubber into a thermosetting polymer by cross linking the polymer chains through reaction at some of the double bonds as shown:

This makes the rubber harder and reduces its susceptibility to oxidation or other chemical attrack. When vulcanized rubber gets hot,the polymer chains cannot slip across one another since they are still held together by short chains of sulphur atoms That is why vulcanized rubber does not melt when heated and does not become brittle when cooled The extent of the cross-linkages formed between the polymer chains affects the properties of vulcanized rubber If the rubber has few cross-linkages, the rubber is softer, more flexible and more elastic

If the rubber has many cross-linkages, it is stiffer, less flexible and less elastic Car tyres are made of vulcanized rubber Because of the presence of cross-linkages among the polymer chains, the rubber does not melt when it gets hot That is the reason why car tyres do not melt when drivers drive really fast Degradable Plastics

Natural polymers (e.g. wood and paper) are biodegradable Micro-organisms in water and in the soil use them as food. Synthetic polymers (e.g. plastics) are nonbiodegradable can remain in the environment for a very long time. In order to tackle the pollution problems caused by the disposal of plastic waste, degradable plastics have been invented Several types of degradable plastics: biopolymers photodegradable plastics synthetic biodegradable plastics

1. Biopolymers Polymers made by living micro-organisms (e.g. paracoccus, bacillus and spirullum) e.g. The biopolymer poly(3-hydroxybutanoic acid) (PHB) is made by certain bacteria from glucose When PHB is disposed, the micro-organisms found in the soil and natural water sources are able to break it down within 9 months. However, PHB is 15 times more expensive than polyethene

2. Photodegradable Plastics Photodegradable plastics have light-sensitive functional groups (e.g. carbonyl groups) incorporated into their polymer chains. These groups will absorb sunlight use the energy to break the chemical bonds in the polymer to form small fragments

3. Synthetic Biodegradable Plastics Made by incorporating starch or cellulose into the polymers during production. Microorganisms consume starch or cellulose and the plastics are broken down into small pieces The very small pieces left have a large surface area greatly speeds up their biodegradation. Drawbacks of this method: the products of biodegradation may cause water pollution the rate of biodegradation is still too low for the large quantity of plastic waste generated They are much more expensive than ordinary materials. When buried in landfill, they will not be exposed to sunlight light and may therefore remain unchanged for many years. Their long term effects on the environment are unknown of any residues. They may encourage a throwaway is OK culture. They interfere with the present recycle program.