8.

2 A Local Ecosystem
The distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals found in ecosystems are determined by biotic and abiotic factors
Compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments Abiotic Characteristic In aquatic In terrestrial environments environments Viscosity measure of how Water has high viscosity, Air has low viscosity, makes hard to move through a makes organisms more organisms easier to move gas/liquid difficult to move through. through. Buoyancy amount of Buoyancy of water offers Animals and plants do not support experienced by an support to both animals experience much buoyancy object immersed in a and plants. Help them to from air, they need to be gas/liquid maintain their shape, able to support themselves. enables some organisms to function at different depths. Temperature variation Water heats up more Surface temperatures on main source of heat from slowly than air. land vary far more than in Suns radiation. Radiation water. The ability to avoid or intensity depends on tolerate heat gain and loss is latitude. Greater at the important in land organisms equator than at the poles. Animals and plants can only survive within a certain temperature range. Pressure variation Pressure in water increase Atmospheric pressure Earths gravitational field rapidly with depth. decreases with height above gives rise to pressure Changing depth rapidly sea level, also fluctuates over between upper and lower may be difficult for many time. May affect breathing by layers in air and water. organisms animals and flight. Pressure is constant in any one level. Availability of gases O2 Gas availability in water is Gases are freely available in and CO2 are important gases low and depends on air and diffusion is rapid. Not for living temperature. Diffusion is always a limiting factor for slower. More gases can be land organisms, except for dissolved at lower high altitudes temperatures. O2 concentration decreases with depth. O2 availability affects number and distribution of aquatic organisms and their body structure. Availability of water Water availability is rarely Water availability varies. a problem in aquatic Amount of rainfall and when environment. it falls affect plants. Obtaining water and preventing dehydration may be a problem for land organisms, especially in arid

Availability of ions

Light penetration - Light is received from Suns radiation. Light intensity is greater at equator than at pols.

Availability and type of substrates Many different type of rocks, soils, sands and other materials formed from rock. They vary in mineral and nutrient status. Strength of natural forces

Saltwater marine environment contain 3.5% dissolved salts, mostly sodium and chloride ions. Freshwater have low ion concentration. Organisms need to cope with the differences between their cells and external environment. Light fall on water may be reflected, scattered or absorbed. Light penetration in water decreases rapidly with depth. Light availability affects the distribution of organisms in water Bottom-dwellers are affected by the type of substrate available. Freeswimming and surfacelevel aquatic organisms are less affected.

environment. Ions are available in soil. Type and amount depend on composition of the soil. Soil type and pH influence the type and amount of plant growth.

Availability of shelter

Availability of space

Light can pass freely through air. Plenty of light is available to land organisms. Dense plant growth or topography may affect light penetration to some areas. Amount of light received is important for plant growth. Amount and type of soil and rock and the gradient of the land all influence plant growth and the availability of habitats for ground-dwellers and animals that live underground. Tides, currents and waves Winds and rain vary in vary in strength according strength and duration to season and weather. according to season and Some organisms cannot climate. Many organisms survive in moving water, cannot survive exposure to while others cannot these factors in open survive in still water. environments. Not all aquatic organisms Most animals require shelter. require shelter. Substrate, Some plants will grow only in rocks, vegetation and coral sheltered environments. reefs may provide those that do. This can be a limiting This can be a limiting factor factor in some aquatic on land for both plants and environment, especially for animals, particularly those animals requiring territory. requiring territory, shelter or nesting sites

Identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment Interactions between organisms: -distribution and abundance of organisms is affect by several factors, include biotic and abiotic factor in the environment, availability of resources, interaction with organisms of other species and the same species. Competition b/w species may result in elimination of one of the species or the species adapting to occupy different niches. In short term, abundance and distribution of at least one of the species will be reduced. Plants need light and water for photosynthesis. Rate of growth depends on temperature, soil or water quality.

 Distribution and abundance of plants directly affect distribution and abundance of animals. Animals depend on plants for food, may also need shelter and nesting sites. Abiotic Factors- affects the ability of organisms to survive in an ecosystem: Amount of light Amount and strength of wind and rainfall Temperature Effect of topography, altitude and depth Strength of tides, currents and waves Water amount, salinity, pH and availability Availability of space and shelter Availability of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide

Biotic Factors - affects the ability of organisms to survive in an ecosystem: Abundance of food - suitable plants for herbivores and suitable prey for carnivores Number of competitors, birth rate and death rate of a species Number of mates available to survive and reproduce Number of predators Number and variety of disease-causing organisms (pathogens) Measuring distribution: Sketch aerial view (plan) or side view (profile) If area is too large, draw narrow section Transect (strip that crosses the entire area from one side to the other) Measuring abundance: Direct counting in each quadrats % Estimation in each quadrats along transect If species are constantly moving, capture-recapture Abundance = (no. Captured x no. Recaptured) / no. Marked in recapture Case Study 1: humpback whales -Distribution: -Move to sub-polar feeding grounds in summer -Move to warm tropical breeding grounds in winter -2 distinct population in Australia migrate along Eastern & Western Coast -Abundance: -Hunted extensively until mid- 20th century -Eastern Australian population fell from est.10,000 to 200-500 by 1962 -Western Australia from 17,000 to less than 1,000 by 1962 -Population is now increasing to est. 500 by 2008 Case Study 2: The bush rat: -Distribution: -live mostly in costal areas, only in Western Australia

-live in different habitats, from dry, sandy hills to tropical rainforest -more common in open forest, particularly near watercourse -can live successfully in wide range of habitats -eat broad range of foods -limited only by their need of water can only survive 4 days without water -Abundance: -widely spread within habitats low population density -population lowest in winter, highest in summer -high in population on island lack of predators such as foxes & cats on islands -high reproductive rate

Describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems Photosynthesis is the process which plant cells absorbs energy from sunlight and uses it to combine with carbon dioxide and water to make sugars and oxygen in the chloroplasts. Water + Carbon dioxide oxygen + glucose The compounds plants make during photosynthesis provide nutrients and energy to organisms that consume plants (herbivores). Carnivores gain nutrients and energy from herbivores. Respiration is the process which cells obtain energy. Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water The stored chemical energy in glucose can be released into packets of energy called ATP, which are later used by organism and transformed into other forms of energy e.g. heat, kinetic, sound, light. In photosynthesis plants capture light energy and transform into chemical energy, which is stored in complex organic compounds are then transferred from plants to animals via food chains. In respiration, which releases energy for organisms to use, some chemical energy is transformed to heat energy and lost. Energy is either used or lost as heat in ecosystem- no re-use of energy. Energy is needed to sustain ecosystem. Ultimate source of energy for life on Earth is the Sun. Plants use chlorophyll to capture Suns energy in photosynthesis. This energy then flows through ecosystem and keeps them function. Photosynthesis and respiration are not reversible of each other.

Identify uses of energy by organisms Some energy from respiration is released as heat- useful because cells and enzymes function best at warm temperatures Heat maintains optimum temperature for enzyme function Cellular process: Synthesis of complex molecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids Growth involving division, elongation and differentiation of cells Repair and maintains of damaged or old cells Active transport of materials across cell membranes Function of special cells that need extra energy, such as nerves, muscles, liver and kidney cells in mammals Transport of materials within organisms, such as in phloem of plants and circulatory system of animals.

Identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and outline this as a summary of a chain of biochemical reactions Energy-rich food materials, either made by photosynthesis or consumed by animal are used by cells in the process of aerobic respiration(require presence of oxygen) Aerobic cellular Respiration: is a simplified version of a chain of 50 biochemical reactions in sequence. Each of these reactions requires an enzyme to catalyze it. Chemical energy held in bonds of complex organic molecules such as sugar is released when bonds are broken. Energy is transferred to the energy carrier molecule ADP, which is converted to ATP when it collects energy. The process begins in cytoplasm, most ATP comes from the steps occur in mitochondrion. Glucose- carbohydrate contains C6H12O6. CO2 and water are formed when glucose is broken down: Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy ADP is energy store of cell. When energy is available, ADP collects it and forms ATP. When energy is needed, ATP supplies it. Respiration -process of formation of ATP in cell. Each molecule of glucose that is broken down into CO2 and water, 38 molecules of ATP are produced from 38 molecules of ADP:

ADP + P + glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + ATP 38 ADP + 38P + C6H12O6 + 6O 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP Respiration occurs in 2 locations: 1. In Cytoplasm (anaerobic), result in splitting C6 into two C3 molecules (pyruvate), 2 ATP formed 2. In Mitochondria (aerobic), use oxygen and complete break down the pyruvate into CO2 and water. 36ATP formed, energy is packaged as ATP and released at intervals. Overall 40% of energy in glucose in converted to ATP, 60% is lost as heat.

Each local aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem is unique

Examine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal species within an ecosystem Populations of organisms do not remain at constant level within ecosystem. When same species is found in an ecosystem year after year in approximately the same numbers- population is stable or balance. It means the resources required by that species are sufficient to maintain steady population numbers within that ecosystem. Numbers in population increase dramatically is refer to as population explosion Population numbers decline and possible extinction of an organism may cause by disease, predation, and competition from other species and human activities.

 In stable populations, numbers are never constant cyclical/periodic changes, related to availability of food, water, predation levels and the species own reproductive rates. Individual species can show regular fluctuations in numbers due to changing availability of food throughout the year. Abiotic factors such as drought/unreasonably low temp. may reduce plant growth levels. Sufficient water and warm temp. may produce a surge in plant growth, making more food available for animals. Animals might move in/out of ecosystem according to availability of food. Annual reproductive cycle also causes number to rise and fall. Increase in no. of plants in an area is usually followed by a rise in no. of one or more animal species. Exploding of the white-spotted jellyfish: - Population explosions of jellyfish occur seasonally worldwide when environmental conditions are favorable- attributed to global warming of oceans, which caused food supplies to increase. Over-fishing by humans removed both jellyfish predators and competitors. - White spotted jellyfish exploded in 2000 in Gulf of Mexico due to favourable environmental conditions and lack of natural predators The decline of the northern hairy-nosed wombat: - Fossil records show the northern hairy-nosed wombat once inhabited a wide area. - But since the 1800s, it has been found only in three areas in Aus. - Main reason for this species to become endangered is the loss of its natural habitat caused by farming. - Competition with rabbits, sheep and cattle for food, effects of long droughts led to decline in number - Small population remain are susceptible to disease, fire and predators like dingoes and foxes. - Population is unbalanced in genders. Decline of Tasmanian devil: - have been in decline since 1990s due to the Devil Facial Tumour disease

Outline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey populations in the area studied Predation: Size of any given ecosystem will determine how many organisms it can support Availability of the preys food will largely determine the no. of prey. This can depend on factors such as time of year and weather. Reproductive cycles of both prey and predator affect their numbers. Large no. of young preys may be followed by an increase in predator no. Numbers of prey decline, numbers of predators also decrease. Competition between predators for the same prey may decrease the no. of that prey. Disease can affect both predators and preys. If prey is affected, food supply for predators will be less-decline in no. If predators are affected, then numbers of prey will increase.

 Seasonal migrations of predators or prey will affect populations. When prey is abundant, some predators might move into an ecosystem to take advantage of the abundance. In area studied: Nielsen Park Rocky Shore intertidal rocky shore area Prey: Oysters were only found in the area closer to the low water mark because there are much more water and microorganisms as food sources for them to survive in the low tide zone than the high tide and splash zone Barnacles were found in low and high tide zone due to their needs of water to survive and adaptation to close their valves to prevent evaporation. Predators: Mulberry whelks were only found in low tide zone because there were a large number of barnacles and oyster there as their food sources. Identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in an ecosystem and the role of organisms in each type of relationship Relationship Description Examples Allelopathy -One organism directly hinder the -Some fungi release growth development of another antibiotics to prevent by releasing toxins bacterial growth. -Lantana secrets chemicals -Production of specific chemicals into soil to prevent native by a plant to influence the growth plants from growing. and development of neighbouring -Eucalyptus leaves decay to plants by repelling predators, prevent non-native plants parasites or poisoning from growing. competitors. Parasitism -One organism lives on or in -Dogs and ticks another obtaining food from it. It -Cows and tapeworms. can hinder the host, but usually does little harm. Commensalism -One benefits and the other is -Ferns growing on tree unharmed. trunks are epiphytes -Anemone fish and anemone -Shark and remora fish Mutualism Both organism benefits Lichen, fungus and alga Competition Organisms compete for a limited -Periwinkle and limpets resources compete for aglae

Describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) absorb waste materials or nutrients from dead organisms and break them down into organic matter and return them to the soil, so that those organic matters can be recycled and absorb by plants and continue in the matter cycle (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen cycle) and food chains

Explain trophic interactions between organisms in an ecosystem using food chain, food webs and pyramids of biomass and energy Autotrophs self-feeders Heterotrophs other-feeders Food chain represents flow of energy from one living thing to the next. Herbivores plant eaters Carnivores animal eaters Omnivores plant and animal eaters 1st consumer in food chain (herbivores) is called primary consumer Scavengers consumers that eat dead animals Decomposers organisms such as fungi and bacteria that cause decay/ Biomass and energy pyramid -Biomass is the amount of living material in one or a group of organisms -Producers, plants have greatest biomass -Only 10% of the available plant biomass is consumed by animals -90% of energy and matter is lost at each level along the food chain -Carnivores have less biomass than herbivores Define the term adaptation and discuss the problems associated with inferring characteristics of organisms as adaptations for living in a particular habitat An adaptation is a feature of an organism that makes it suited to its environment and helps it to survive and reproduce Adaptations are inherited characteristics, result of natural selection. Adaptation can be: Structural- physical characteristics relating to the structure of an organisms body Physiological related to the way an organisms functions Behavioral how an organism responds to its environment Identify and describe in detail adaptations of a plant and an animal from the local ecosystem Kangaroos: -long tail helps to balance when hopping -well muscled hind legs are far larger than forelegs -only hind legs are used when travelling in high speed Mangroves form woody plant communities in swarm, shallow tidal water. They have stilt roots to support themselves and lift the plant out of the salty water. They also have aerial roots for gaseous exchange.

Describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on the ecosystem of species competing for resources Competition Organisms may compete with members of their own species or members of another species. Competition between members of the same species is called intraspecific competition. Competition between members of different species is called interspecific competition 2 types of competition: Resource competition- organisms utilize a resource that is in limited supply Interference competition organisms harm each other while obtaining a resource, even if that is not in limited supply. Short term -When two species compete for the same resource, one of the species usually loses. This results in a decrease in abundance of one of the species. Long term -If competition between species continues in an ecosystem, one of the species can be eliminated from the ecosystem. This can result in the extinction of the less successful species. Identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied 7 major impacts: land clearing, habitat loss, soil erosion, salinity, introduced species, pollution and increasing carbon dioxide emissions. Land clearing: -Land clearing destroys and leads to soil erosion and land degradation. -Increase salinity of both soil and water. Introduced species: -Introduced species become pests, e.g. red fox, cane toad, lantana -Rapidly increase their population -Ecosystem lost balance -Compete with other native species Pollution: -Air and water pollution and the dumping of wastes spoil and poison the environment for all organisms including humans. Increased carbon dioxide emissions: -Land clearing results in reduced uptake of carbon dioxide by plants in photosynthesis. This causes even more rapid increase in carbon dioxide in atmosphere -Environmental impact of this is potentially devastating, including global warming, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. Extinction of other species: -Destroying habitats and hunting, caused extinction of many species of animals and plants.