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Category:Natural Health | Date:2007-11-29 Know some medicinal plants and their uses

The Dracaena arborea, (botanical name) that goes in various local names including peregun(yoruba); odo (Igbo) and okono/okonousing in Efik is a perennial tree up to 20m tall with deep green think leaves. Margin entire and leaves agave-like. It is found around homes and in distributed forests and also common in not too dry places. The part used are the roots. The active chemical compounds are tannis and frustanol glycoside. The decoction of the root recommended for abdominal pains Anacardium occidentale L., ( botanical name). Thecommon name is cashew nut tree.The local namesarekaju or kasu(Yoruba, Hausa) and kausu inIgbo. It is a tree of about 10m high with a crooked trunk, rather sprawling crown and simple obovate leaves and resinous barks with a big fruit. It is mostly found in sandy and coastal regions.Thepart used are the bark, fruit, and twigs. Thechemical compounds are tanninsandPhenols The twig of the tree is used as chewing stick for mouth thrush, toothache and sore gums. The decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever. Mangifera India L., (botanical name). Itscommon name is Mango. Mangoro ( Yoruba),mangwaro (Hausa),mangolo, (Igbo)andmangoro (Efik) are some of its local names. It is a tree up to 30m tall. The leaves are longer than broader, with acute apex and entire margin. The stem carries a heavy crown. The plant does not tolerate heavy rainfall, and thrives well in the subtropical and the tropical regions. Spondias mombin L.,

(botanical name). Thecommon name is Hog plumandhas local names like Iyeye/akika(Yoruba),tsadar masar (Hausa), ijikara/ogogo/ngwu/ungwu (Igbo),nsukakara (Efik)andaginran (Ijaw).It is usually referred to as a true forest species. The fruit has hard endocarp fruit, and is green when young but turns yellow when ripe. It is found in the forest and around homes in non rocky soil.Thepart used are the leaves and bark. Itschemical compounds are Alkaloid and Glycoside. The decoction of the leaves is a remedy for gonorrhoea and also used as an aphrodisiac. The decoction of the bark can be taken for severe cough with inflammatory symptoms, while the leaves can used for malignant tumours. The leaves can be combined with Uraria chaeme and used as gargle to treat toothache and sore throat. Aistonia boonei De wild (botanical name).Stool wood or pattern wood is its common name.It isahun (Yoruba), egbuora(Igbo), ogiebukhu (Benin),ebo/ukpo (Efik)andi ndondo (Ijaw).The tree is up to 40m high with cylindrical bole. The leaves are digit ate. It is perennial aquatic specie and is found in swampy areas. Echitamidine is the chemical compound. Thepart used is thebark. Its uses-decoction of the bark is used as a febrifuge and also given after childbirth to facilitate the expulsion of the placental; also for the treatment of fever and in the treatment of asthma. Baissea axillaris (Benth) Hua (botanical Name). It is called called imu among the Yorubas.It is aclimbing shrub up to 3m high. The leaves are in lines and twigs. Mostly found in the rainforest. The whole plant parts are used. And its uses include treating kidney disorders and acts as an intoxicating agent in wine. Funtumia elastica (Preuss) Stapf (botanical name).Locally, it is commonly called theWest/African rubber tree or Lagos silk rubber tree. It is Ire/ako ire (Yoruba), mba, ekpaffia, mini-ema (Igbo) and ayon/ainyo (Benin). It is a tree up to 30m high, with not quite straight cylindrical, un-buttressed bole. It

can be easily obtained in amenable deciduous forest and easily adapts to cultivation in forest plantations. The bark and its juice are the useful parts. The chemical compounds are alkaloids and tannins. The bark is an astringent and can be taken in spirit (a type of drink) to cure haemorrhoids. The infusion of the bark is used to treat jaundice. The latex is recommended for male impotency and when the bark pounded used as a laxative and as worm expellant. Pieoceras barteri Baill (botanical name). It is dagba omode, ireno kekere in Yoruba. It is an erect or climbing shrubs or small tree of evergreen forest. Inflorescence with many flowered and yellow with a red tube and green long fruits borne upside down. The fruits, root, bark and leaves are part used. The plant has gynaeco-medico-magical application/property. When combined atare (alligator pepper) it is good for prevention of breech birth. It must be given shortly before full term to ensure head presentation of child. Decoction of the root bark, fruits and seeds is used as abortifacient and emmenagogue. The water extract of the plant can be given as cardiac tonic it also acts as counter irritant to parasitic skin diseases, boils and cystitis. Colocasia esculentum (Linn) Schott (botanical name). The common name is Cocoyam. koko, poso (Yoruba), gwaazaa (Hausa),akasi ite, ede aro (Igbo), mkpong, ata mkpong (Benin),iyokho (Efik).It isa stout herbaceous plant with a whorl of leaves erect up to 12m high arising from the crown of a corn. The leaves are usually broad with prominent midrib with more or less parallel venation. It is found in farmlands that are rich in humus soil, and grows well in the tropics, damp forest system and farmlands rich in humus.Thepart used is the tubers. Itschemical compoundsarecalcium oxalate, alkaloid and rachides in tuber.When thetuber is cooked and eatenit marks a reduction in dental caries. Xanthosoma sp (botanical name).The yorubas call itlefunlosunwhile theIbos call it ede mmuo.Theeaves are broader and longer with sagittate shape. The leaves are spotted with red and white patches. It grows well in flowerbeds cultivated with humus soil.The part used is the leaves. It

is used for the treatment of small pox and fungal skin discolouration. Calotropis procera R. Br. (botanical name). It is commonly called Giant milk weed or Sodom apple. The Yorubas call itbomu bomu, theHausas named it tumfaa fiyaa,/bam bam bele. It isa fructose shrub and the leaves produce milky juice. Fruits appear like gall. Stem and leaves are green in colour. Leaves arrangement is whorled.It isfound around homes and garden where humus soil is abundant. And the parts used are the leaves and latex.The chemical compoundsarecalotropin, calotoxin and resinols. If the smoke from the dried leaves is inhaled it cures asthma and cough. Leaves are used to induce breast milk in women and for preparing fresh cow milk called wara (chesse) Pergularia daemia (Forsk) Chiov
(botanical name).The Yorubas call it kole orogba, Igbos refer to it as oruutazi.It is an herbaceous or semi woody climber of damp savannah and forest margins. The flowers are white or greenish and sweet-scented. The part used are the leaves while the chemical compound include Glycosides Inulin and Alkaloid daemine. It is used in combination with other plants for fever. The latex or poultice of leaves can be applied to boils and abscesses. Its young twigs are used as an appetizer and in making soup for women after childbirth. Also, it is commonly used in combination with other plants for breast abscess. Juice extracted from its leaves is used as an expectorant in catarrh disease. The decoction of the leaves can be given in cough tratment as an expectorant, emetic and as an anthelmintic for removing intestinal worms.

Ascanthospermum hispidum DC Dagunrogogoro/Dagunnro, the Hausas: Eweduba/awusagbe/ awusatsoe. The plant is a bushy annual of
(botanical name).TheYorubas call it about 50m high with small sessile flowers, heads and spiny achenes. Found in open waste places and cultivated land. The part used are the leaves. Its chemical compounds are alkaloid, Saponis and tannis. The leaves are used as a cure for yellow fever. It is used in traditional medicine as a cure for tuberculosis. If the leaves are decocted and drunk, it acts as purgative and counter-poison.

Ageratum conyzoides L.,

(botanical name).It is commonly calledGoat weed or floss flower. Among the yorubas, it isimi esu, theIgbos call it agadi nwanyi isi awo, it

isebigboedore,

ehigodore in Benin and theEfiks call it otitidahadaha,ikongifoiyen.It isan annual herb with hairy ovate opposite
leaves and very common throughout the West Africa region. Flowers are tubular floral, and is often pale-blue but sometimes white in colour.The chemical compounds are demonstrated in strong smell of the plant which is attributed to a strong but pleasant smellina volatile oil, this is yielded in distillation Vanillin (strong smell). Other properties are coumarin saponin, tannins and alkaloids. The decoction of the plant is remedy for abdominal pains. The leaves juice is used for dressing wounds, ulcers and other skin diseases. The leaves can also be used as tonic and to aid fertility. It is used as prophylactic and cure for trachoma in cattle. It also prevents early miscarriage. If the plant is dried, it can be burnt in room as mosquito repellent.

Healing Tips Hog plum as 'herbal' alternative to conventional antibiotics, worm expellers 11,9.08. Guardian. Lagos, Nigeria pondias mombin bark had a much lower rate of tumor incidence over the control group when fed a carcinogenic diet and reported that the bark had a anticancerous effect in their animal studies. In 2002, a United States patent was filed on a cosmetic product that contained an extract of Spondias mombin leaves. In the patent, the French researchers indicated that Spondias mombin leaves had de-pigmenting, antioxidant, antiaging, cellular metabolism stimulation, and sunscreen effects for the skin. A phytochemical and nutrient evaluation of Spondias mombin leaves by P.C. Njoku and M.I. Akumefula of the Department of Chemistry, Federal UnNIGERIAN researchers have confirmed the folklore uses of local tree extracts in treating venereal diseases, inducing sleep, arousing sexual desire, expelling intestinal worms, relieving pains, healing after birth wounds, among other uses. CHUKWUMA MUANYA reports. It can calm fraying nerves. It is effective against sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhoea and candida (thrush). It could be indispensable during pregnancy and childbirth. It can arouse sexual desires in men and women. It can expel intestinal worms. These are some of the folklore uses of a local tree, Spondias mombin, found in almost all regions of the country. The plant has been traditionally noted for its

medicinal and food values. Indeed, Spondias mombin is widely relied on for various herbal remedies for numerous conditions and virtually every part of the tree is used - from its thick corky bark, to its leaves, fruits, roots, to even its flowers. Usually different properties and actions are attributed to different parts of the tree. However, Nigerian researchers are confirming the traditional uses of this tree. Commonly called Hog plum, Ashanti plum, Spanish plum, mombin or monbin; Sondias mombin is of the plant family Anacardiaceae. To the French, it is mombin, or monbin. In Nigeria, it is kechibo in Bokyi; ogheeghe (the fruit) in Edo; nsukakara in Efik; tsadar masar in Hausa; ijikara, ogogo, ngwu or ungwu in Igbo; aginiran in Ijaw kakka in Tiv; ogghighen in Urhobo; iyeye (the fruit) or akika (the tree) in Yoruba. The tree measures up to 20 metres tall. The fruit is like the temperate plum, 3.7 centimetres long, ovoid, one-seeded, yellow-skinned when ripe. The flesh has a sharp acidulous taste and is edible. The fruit is commonly sold in local markets. Young leaves are cooked as greens and excessive indulgence in the fruit is said to cause dysentery. The fruit can be stewed and a refreshing drink can be made from them. The juice is said to be febrifugal (a medication that reduces fever) and diuretic (often used to treat high blood pressure, diuretics are medicines that remove water from the body by increasing the amount of urine). In northern Nigeria, the fruits are fermented into a kind of beer. In Amazons the fruit is used mainly to produce wine sold as Vinho de Taperita. In Guatemala, the fruit is made into a cider like drink. Preliminary results report a wide range of antibacterial and antifungal properties. The chemistries of this plant has been reported, recommended its use for pregnant woman but only after five months of pregnancy. The results indicate that the cytotoxic effects of the plant may have some benefits in protecting the foetus from foreign pathogens. High levels of cytotoxicity is believed to be a good indicator of analgesic properties. The use to ease pain during childbirth support this evidence. The results of antibacterial and antifungal bioassays demonstrate growth inhibition. Nigerian researchers have studied the sedative, antiepileptic and antipsychotic effects of Spondias mombin in mice and rats. The researchers include: Ayoka Abiodun O., Akomolafe Rufus O., and Ukponmwan Otas E. of the Department of Physiological Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State ; and Iwalewa Ezekiel O.; Akanmu Moses A. of the Department of Pharmacology, Obafemi Awolowo University, IleIfe, Osun State.

The researchers in the study published in Journal of Ethnopharmacology evaluated the effects of air-dried Spondias mombin leaves extracted with aqueous, methanol and ethanol solvents on hexobarbital-induced sleeping time and novelty-induced rearing (NIR) behaviours in mice and rats. Hexobarbital have hypnotic and sedative effects. It was used in the 1940s-1950s as an agent for inducing anesthesia for surgery and has a relatively fast onset of effects and short duration of action. They also studied the effect of the extracts on amphetamine-and apomorphineinduced stereotyped and picrotoxin-induced convulsive behaviour in rats. Amphetamine includes prescription Central Nervous System drugs commonly used to treat attention-deficit disorder (ADD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and children. It is also used to treat symptoms of traumatic brain injury and the daytime drowsiness symptoms of narcolepsy and chronic fatigue syndrome. Apomorphine is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and (under the name Uprima) of erectile dysfunction. Picrotoxin is a poisonous crystalline plant alkaloid, first isolated by Boullay in 1812. It has a strong physiological action. It acts as a non-competitive antagonist of GABA A receptors. As GABA itself is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, infusion of picrotoxin has a stimulative effect. All residues from different extractions were dissolved in normal saline and administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) - existing within or administered by entry into the peritoneum, that is abdominal cavity. The methanolic and ethanolic extracts (12.5-100 mg/kg i.p.) prolonged the hexobarbital-induced sleeping time and reduced the NIR in both mice and rat in a dose-dependent manner. The aqueous extract prolonged the hexobarbitalinduced sleeping time and reduced (NIR) at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg. The inhibitory effect of the extracts on NIR was not reversed by atropine, yohimbine, naltrexone and flumazenil. However, the extracts blocked the facilitating effect of flumazenil. Atropine is a core medicine in the World Health Organization's "Essential Drugs List", which is a list of minimum medical needs for a basic health care system. Generally, atropine lowers the "rest and digest" activity of all muscles and glands. Yohimbine is a prescription medicine that has been used to treat male impotence. Naltrexone is indicated for the treatment of alcohol dependence in patients. Flumazenil is a benzodiazepine antagonist, used as an antidote in the treatment of benzodiazepine overdose. Benzodiazepines are useful in treating anxiety,

insomnia, agitation, seizures, and muscle spasms, as well as alcohol withdrawal. This suggests that NIR inhibitory effects of extracts of Spondia mombin. In addition the extracts blocked picrotoxin-induced convulsions. Phenolic compound(s) were present in the ethanolic and methanolic extracts, which exhibited anticonvulsant properties in the picrotoxin-induced convulsions model. The extracts decreased the amphetamine/apomorphine-induced stereotyped behaviour, which suggest that these extracts possess antidopaminergic activity. The effect of the extracts on hexobarbitone-induced sleeping time was blocked by flumazenil a GABAA antagonist, indicating that the extracts contain GABAA agonists. These results suggest that the leaves extracts of Spondias mombin possess sedative and antidopaminergic (preventing or counteracting the effects of dopamine) effects. In another study of anthelmintic activities of three medicinal plants from Nigeria, Gbolade A. A. and Adeyemi A. A. of the Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Sagamu campus, Ogun State, examined the aqueous extracts of the leaf, stem bark and root bark from Canna bidentata, Spondias mombin and Commiphora Africana for anthelmintic activity against earthworm. According to the study published in Fitoterapia, all the extracts demonstrated a concentration-dependent activity at tested concentrations of 10-80 mg/ml. Higher activities were observed at the higher concentrations, 40-80 mg/ml for all the plant extracts. C. bidentata with a paralysis time of three to five minutes and death time of five to18 minutes at these concentrations for the stem bark, and S. mombin which exhibited comparatively higher efficacy (34 to 44 minutes paralysis time and 105 minutes death time for the leaf) at lower concentrations of 10-20 mg/ml were adjudged the outstanding anthelmintics of plant origin accordingly. Dr. K. A. Abo Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan; Dr. V. O. Ogunleye of the Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, University College Hospital, University of Ibadan; and Dr. J. S. Ashidi of the Department of Biological Sciences, Ogun State University, Ago-Iwoye, have investigated the antimicrobial potential of Spondias mombin, Croton zambesicus and Zygotritonia crocea According to the study published in Phytotherapy Research, the extracts of the leaf of Spondias mombin and the stem bark of Croton zambesicus sourced from herbalists through an ethnobotanical survey of Egbado-South in Ogun State in Nigeria exhibited wide spectrum antibacterial effects comparable to those of ampicillin and gentamycin. The antifungal effect of extracts of Zygotritonia crocea and Croton zambesicus were comparable to those of tioconazole (an antifungal medication of the Imidazole class used to treat infections caused by a fungus or yeast). There is justification for the use of these little studied medicinal plants as antiinfective agents in traditional medicine.

In other test tube studies, Spondias mombin leaves have been reported with antioxidant actions, antibacterial actions, antiviral actions, anti-candidal actions, and hemostatic actions. One study indicated that Spondias mombin leaves had the ability to inhibit beta-lactamase - an enzyme produced by certain bacteria that inactivates penicillin and results in resistance to that antibiotic. Its reported antiviral actions (against herpes, HIV, cocksacie, poliovirus, and rotoviruses) might be explained by reports that Spondias mombin has the ability to inhibit reverse transcriptase - a chemical required by many viruses to replicate. The bark and/or stem bark of Spondias mombin has also been studied by scientists. It was reported with anti-inflammatory actions in an animal study with rats, which might be explained by another study reporting that Spondias mombin had COX-inhibitor actions in vitro (an enzyme involved in the creation of inflammation in the body). The bark has also been reported with antibacterial actions in test tube studies but was not as effective as the leaves. It was also reported to inhibit human rotovirus by 82 per cent in vitro, which might explain its long standing use for diarrhea. Other in vitro testing researchers also reported that Spondias mombin bark has strong antifungal and anti-candidal actions. Spondias mombin bark and leaves have both been studied for their antitumorous and anticancerous effects. Extracts of both the leaves and bark passed an initial screening test to predict anti-tumor actions in two analyses. During the same time university students at Cornell University New York, United States, testing the bark in vitro against colon and skin cancer cell lines reported no cytotoxic effect. However, university researchers in Nigeria reported in 2002 that rats fed with Siversity of Technology, Owerri, revealed the presence of bioactive compounds tannins 3.82 per cent; saponins 7.60 per cent; flavonoids 3.00 per cent, alkaloids 6.00 per cent and phenols 1.00 per cent. Vitamin results showed the plant leaves contained ascorbic acid 19.35mg100 g; Niacin13.75mg100 g. Riboflavin 0.25 mg100 g and Thiamine 0.05 mg100 g. Mineral analysis revealed in the plant leaves, potassium 2.55 per cent, Mangnesium 0.3045 per cent, Sodium 0.100 per cent, Calcium, 1.310 per cent and Phosphorous, 0.200 per cent. The results published in Pakistan Journal of Nutrition proved Spondias mombin as a potential source of useful drugs formulation and feed-stuff for ruminants as presently used in some African countries. According to the researchers, the biological function of flavonoids include protection against allergies, inflammation, platelets aggregation microbes, ulcer, vineses and tumors. Flavonoids represent the most common and widely distributed groups of plant phenolics. Flavonoids are free radical scavengers, super antioxidants and potent water soluble which prevent oxidative cell damage and have strong anti-cancer activity. As antioxidants flavonoids provide antiinflammatory actions, this may be the reason behind the use of Spondias

mombin in the treatment of intestinal troubles in herbal medicine. The researchers said the saponin constituents are responsible for the possession of hemolytic property. This can give the plant the traditional medicinal use as cholesterol binding agent. The high content of the saponin (7.60 per cent) shows that Spondias mombin has cytotoxic effects such as permealization of the intestine. It also gives the plant leaves the bitter taste. Saponin has relationship with sex hormones like oxytocin. Oxytocin is a sex hormone involved in controlling the onset of labour in women and the subsequent release of milk. This is why the leaves of Spondias mombin are given to expectant ruminant animals and those that delivered without the release of their placenta. According to the researchers, alkaloids are the most efficient therapeutically significant plant substance. Pure isolated alkaloids and the synthetic derivatives are used as the basic medicinal agent because of their analgesic antispasmodic and bacterial properties. They show marked physiological effects when administered to animals. The researchers said the high tannin content (3.82 per cent) may be partly responsibility for the bitter principle associated with the leaves. Tannins have astringent properties, hasten the healing of wounds and inflamed mucous membrane. The presence of tannins in the leaves of Spondias mombin can support its strong use for healing of wounds, varicose ulcers, hemorrhoids, frostbite and burn in herbal medicine. According to the researchers, the presence of phenolic compounds in the leaves of Spondias mombin shows that the plant may have anti- microbial potential. This is because phenols and phenolic compounds have been extensively used in disinfections and remain the standards with which other bactercides are compared. It has been shown that deficiency of ascorbic acid is associated with pains in the joint and defect in skeletal calcification, anemia, manifestation of scurry hemorrhage from mucous membrane of the month and gastrointestinal track. This function of ascorbic acid accounts for its demand for normal wound healing. There is also an interesting ability of ascorbic acid as an antioxidant, to prevent or at least minimize the formation of carcinogenic substances from dietary material. The researchers said that as a result of the presence of ascorbic acid in Spondias mombin leaves, the plant can be used in herbal medicine for the treatment of common cold and other diseases like prostrate cancer. Other vitamins though in trace amount are essential for body metabolism. According to the researchers, the result of the mineral composition clearly shows that Spondias mombin leaves contains rich source of mineral elements this result become so important when the usefulness of such mineral like calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, potassium and sodium in the body are considered. However, the lower sodium content (0.100g) of Spondias mombin is an added advantage because of the direct relationship of sodium intake with hypertension

in human. According to Medicinal plants of Nigeria: South West Nigeria Volume 1, decoction of leaves of Spondias mombin is a remedy for gonorrhoea and also used as aphrodisiac. Decoction of the bark is taken for severe cough with inflammatory symptoms. Leaves are used for malignant tumours. Leaves with Uraria chaeme used as gargle to treat toothache and sore throat. According to Useful Plants of Tropical West Africa by H. M. Burkill, the bark contains some tannin and has been used in the West Indies and Guyana and East Africa for tanning. A bark slash exudes a clear sticky gum. It has along with the leaves and fruit, medicinal uses. A decoction of the bark is taken for severe cough with inflammatory symptoms, acting by causing relief through vomiting. In Guinea dry powdered bark is applied as a wound dressing in circumcision. The bark is used in Ivory Coast to treat sores, to facilitate parturition, and sometimes as an antihelminthics or anthelmintic (are drugs that expel parasitic worms (helminths) from the body, by either stunning or killing them), and plant extracts are in general use for stomachache, diarrhoea, cough, sore-throat, bronchitis, nausea and as poison antidote. In Ivory Coast-Upper Volta the bark is applied topically to areas of leprosy. In the Delta region of Nigeria, Ijaw use the bark to treat fungal infections of the feet and an extract is used to ward off encroachment by driver ants. A trace of alkaloid is reported present in the plant. A root-macerate is used in Casamance (Senegal) for colic with pain. In GuineaBissau a root-infusion is considered to be an important tonic able to prolong the life by two or three days of those about to die. In Ivory coast-Upper Volta rootpreparations are said to be febrifugal and are sometimes prescribed with other drug plants in decoction or as a pulp taken in draught, lotion or baths for this effect. The fresh leaves are purgative in effect. In infusion they are a common remedy for cough, and laxative given in fever with constipation. The sap from young fresh leaves is given to children for stomach-troubles in Guinea. A decoction is sometimes taken for gonorrhoea and as an aphrodisiac in Nigeria. The leaves crushed with citron are considered in Ivory Coast to be a sovereign remedy for helminthiasis (a disease in which a part of the body is infested with worms such as pinworm, roundworm or tapeworm) in children. A leaf-decoction is taken in Senegal for dysentery and by the Edo of Nigeria for dysentery and other intestinal disorders. The leaves are used in Nigeria on malignant tumours and it is noted that the bark in water is administered in Cuba for uterine cancer. In Ivory Coast the leaves are part of a complex prescription taken by mouth for curvature of the spine caused by Pott's disease (partial destruction of the vertebral bones, usually caused by a tuberculous infection and often producing curvature of the spine). The young leaves in infusion are taken internally and applied topically as a lotion by women in confinement, and in Senegal Mandinka women with a history of miscarriage take a preparation of young leaves. In Ivory Coast young leaves

softened over a fire and rolled in the hands with some salt are given as a mouth instillation to prevent miscarriage. The leaves are held to have anodynal (induces sleep), healing and haemostatic (reduces or stops bleeding) properties. The Baule of Ivory Coast prepare a gargle of leaves with those of Alchornea cordifolia (Euphorbia) and a citron. A decoction of pounded leaves is used in Guinea and Senegal as an eye lotion. In Congo it is taken as a mouth wash for toothache. In Ivory Coast-Upper Volta the leaves are applied to new sores to prevent infection, and in association with other plants to areas affected by leprosy. The Fula of Senegal use a leaf-cumbark preparation to stem post-partum haemorrhage (excessive bleeding following delivery), and in Sierra Leone young leaves, or older pulped leaves, are warmed and tied over the vagina in case of tearing in childbirth. In South American herbal medicine systems as well as in other parts of the world Spondias mombin leaves are widely used for female reproductive tracts issues. It is a common midwife's remedy to help induce labor, reduce bleeding and pain during and after childbirth, to bring on the flow of breast milk, and as a vaginal wash to prevent or treat uterine or vaginal infections after childbirth. The leaves are also a common remedy for various digestive problems including stomachaches, diarrhea, dyspepsia (indigestion), gastralgia (pain in the stomach or abdominal region), colic (a broad term which refers to episodes of uncontrollable, extended crying in a baby who is otherwise healthy and well fed), and constipation. The leaves are considered to be antiviral, antibacterial, anticandidal, and antiseptic and used in numerous microbial problems including colds and flu, cystitis (an infection of the bladder), urethritis (inflammation of the urethra. The main symptom is dysuria, which is painful or difficult urination), sore throats, herpes, yeast infections, gonorrhea, eye and ear infections, and used externally for infected wounds, cuts, burns, and rashes. The leaves are also considered to be an excellent vermifuge (a medicine that expels intestinal worms) and anthelmintic and often used for intestinal worms and parasites in humans as well as their livestock. The bark of the Spondias mombin tree is also employed by midwives. It is widely used as a contraceptive and abortive, as well as for ovarian and uterine cancer. It is considered analgesic and antispasmodic and used for arthritis, rheumatism, muscle and joint pain, injuries and inflammation. The bark contains a great deal of astringent tannins and is usually prepared in decoctions for diarrhea and dysentery, blenorrhagia (purulent discharge, pain in the urethra), hemorrhoids, and for internal and external wounds and bleeding. In addition, the bark is also used for tonsillitis (is an infection of the tonsils and will often, but not necessarily, cause a sore throat and fever), laryngitis (an inflammation of the larynx. It causes hoarse voice or the complete loss of the voice because of irritation to the vocal folds), malaria, fever, erysipelas, bladder and kidney stones, snakebite, and intestinal nulcers. The bark is also considered to be a good topical antiseptic and healing remedy for all types of wounds, rashes, psoriasis (a disorder which affects the skin and joints, it commonly causes red scaly patches to appear on the skin), dermatitis (a blanket term meaning any inflammation of the skin), leishmaniasis (symptoms include skin

sores which erupt weeks to months after the person affected is bitten by sand flies), leprosy, and other skin problems. The many small fragrant flowers of Spondias mombin are also used in herbal medicine. They are typically prepared in an infusion and used for eye infections and cataracts, as a soothing tea for sore throat, laryngitis and mouth sores, as well as a heart tonic. The root is used as an antimicrobial for tuberculosis, diarrhea and vaginal infections. The fruit is eaten as a mild laxative but in large quantities it is considered to be emetic (induces vomiting). Toxicity studies with mice and rats were performed on Spondias mombin in several published studies. The leaves were reported non-toxic in animals when administered orally (up to 5 g per kg of an animal's weight). Toxicity was noted however when animals were injected with a leaf extract (LD50 was between 1.36 and 1.86 gm / kg). The use of Spondias mombin leaves by midwives has been studied and reported over several years. It was reported with uterine stimulant actions as well as abortive effects in three studies with laboratory animals (mice and guinea pigs). Spondias mombin leaves were also reported with smooth muscle relaxant actions, uterine antispasmodic, sedative and anticonvulsant actions, and antianxiety actions in other animal studies, which help validate some of its other traditional uses. In addition, Spondias mombin leaves have long been used traditionally to treat parasitic and intestinal worms in humans and animals. One research group administered the leaves (two doses of 500 mg per kg in body weight) to sheep with confirmed intestinal worms and reported that it reduced fecal egg counts by 54 per cent for Strongyloides, 65 per cent for Oesophagostomum, and 100 per cent for Tichuris parasites. They also reported it directly killed these parasites in their test tube studies. Strongyloides stercoralis, also known as the threadworm, is the scientific name of a human parasitic roundworm causing the disease of strongyloidiasis. Oesophagostomum bifurcum is a free-living nematode (roundworm). The parasite is a common parasite of the colons of sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, apes, monkeys and other wildlife, in which they may cause serious illness, characterised by emaciation, dysentery and peritonitis. Tichuris vulpis (Whipworms) are thin, thread-like worms, which live in the cecum and colon of dogs. They irritate the lining of the bowel causing abdominal discomfort, weight loss, intermittent diarrhea, and unthrifty appearance.