Heterojunction silicon based solar cells

Miro Zeman Photovoltaic Materials and Devices Laboratory, Delft University of Technology

Outline
Introduction to Si PV technologies Motivation for developing HTJ Si solar cells Achievements Challenges HET-Si project Summary

Introduction to Si PV technologies
Wafer-based crystalline silicon

century of manufacturing history, ~90% of 2008 market highest performance of flat-plate technologies good track record and reliability cost reduction is main overall challenge module efficiencies:
- 12 ~ 20% (now) - 18 ~ > 22% (long term)
Wim Sinke (ECN, Leader of WG 3 : Science, technology & applications of EU PV Technology Platform)

Introduction to Si PV technologies
Thin-film silicon

low-cost potential and new application possibilities application of micro-crystalline silicon efficiency enhancement is major challenge stable module efficiencies:
- 6 ~ 9% (now) - 10 ~ 15% (longer term)

Wim Sinke (ECN, Leader of WG 3 : Science, technology & applications of EU PV Technology Platform)

Introduction to Si PV technologies
Most popular Si PV technologies:

High performance

Hybrid technology HIT solar cell

Sanyo started R&D in 1990

Low-cost potential

HIT: Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer http://us.sanyo.com/Dynamic/customPages/docs/solarPower_HIT_Solar_Power_10-15-07.pdf

Motivation for HTJ solar cells

Solar cell operating principles:
Thermodynamic approach: Conversion of energy of solar radiation into electrical energy Two-step process: 1. 2. Solar energy Chemical energy of electron-hole pairs Chemical energy Electrical energy

Solar cell operating principles

1. Solar energy Chemical energy of electron-hole pairs
absorber

-q e EC EF EV e electron affinity

Solar cell operating principles

1. Solar energy Chemical energy of electron-hole pairs
absorber

-q

EC

EFC -eh EFV

EV

Solar cell operating principles

2. Chemical energy Electrical energy
absorber

-q

EC

EFC -eh EFV

EV

Solar cell operating principles

2. Chemical energy Electrical energy
Semipermeable membrane for holes

absorber

Semipermeable membrane for electrons

-q

EC EFC EV EFV
-qVOC

Solar cell operating principles

2. Chemical energy Electrical energy
Semipermeable membrane for holes

absorber

Semipermeable membrane for electrons

-q
p-type n-type

EC EFC EV EFV
-qVOC

Solar cell operating principles

2. Chemical energy Electrical energy
Semipermeable membrane for holes

absorber

Semipermeable membrane for electrons

-q
p-type n-type

EC EFC EV EFV
-qVOC

Solar cell operating principles

2. Chemical energy Electrical energy
Semipermeable membrane for holes

absorber

Semipermeable membrane for electrons

-q e EC E EV EFC e e

EFV

-qVOC

Solar cell operating principles

2. Chemical energy Electrical energy
Semipermeable membrane for holes

absorber

Semipermeable membrane for electrons

-q
p-type n-type

EC E EV EFC

EFV

-qVOC

Solar cell operating principles

2. Chemical energy Electrical energy
Semipermeable membrane for holes

absorber

Semipermeable membrane for electrons

-q
p-type n-type

EC E EV EFC

EFV

-qVOC

Silicon based solar cells

Real world:
Homojunction
N c-Si Eg1 P c-Si Eg1 Eg2

Heterojunction (band off-set)

P a-Si N c-Si Eg1

EF EF

1. Tunneling 2. Thermionic emission 3. Trap-assisted tunneling

Heterojunction Si solar cells

Sanyo HIT (Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer) solar cell:
Between p and n-type materials there is an intrinsic a-Si:H layer. Thin-layer: optimum thickness of the intrinsic a-Si:H is about 4 to 5 nm.

p-doped a-Si:H intrinsic a-Si:H n-doped c-Si

http://us.sanyo.com/Dynamic/customPages/docs/solarPower_HIT_Solar_Power_10-15-07.pdf

Heterojunction Si solar cells

Comparison with homojunction c-Si solar cell:

UNSW PERL c-Si solar cell

Sanyo HIT solar cell

23% 39.5 mAcm-2, 0.729 V, 0.80, 100 cm2 Formation of pn junction, BSF are all completed by PECVD Less than 200 C

Efficiency record
Jsc, Voc, FF, Area

25% 42.7 mAcm-2, 0.705 V, 0.828, 4 cm2 Complicated diffusion, oxidation passivation, photomasking High temperature processes (up to 1000C)

Manufacturing Temperature requirement

http://pvcdrom.pveducation.org/MANUFACT/LABCELLS.HTM http://sanyo.com/news/2009/05/22-1.html

Heterojunction Si solar cells

Potential:
High efficiency (capability of reaching efficiency up to 25%) Good stability under light
[1]

and thermal exposure

[2]

Negligible SWE due to very thin a-Si:H layer

Favorable temperature dependence of the conversion efficiency

[1] T. Sawada, et al, Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 2 (1994) 1219--1226 [2] Maruyama, E. et al, Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 2 (2006) 1455--1460

Heterojunction Si solar cells

Industrial benefits:
1. Low thermal budget 2. Avoiding bowing of thin wafers. Route to use very thin wafers 3. Suppressing lifetime degradation of minority carriers; possible use low quality c-Si
1000

c-Si conventional technology

30 0,3

1000

a-Si/c-Si technology

Process temperature [C]

800

Process temperature [C]

800

Low Temperature

Front/back contact TCO Firing

600 0,5 ARC 200 Junction diffusion Contacts 2 Firing

600 Plasma

400

400

200

0,3 10 Time [min]

F. Roca, ENEA

Time [min]

Rapid Process

Achievements
Laboratory solar cells:
FZ/CZ Area (cm ) Sanyo AIST Helmholtz centre Berlin IMT EPFL n CZ n CZ n FZ p FZ n FZ p FZ NREL p FZ n FZ 100 0.2 1 1 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.9
2

Jsc (mA/cm ) 39.5 35.6 39.3 36.8 34 32 35.9 35.3

2

Voc (mV) 729 656 639 634 682 690 678 664

FF (%) 80 75 79 79 82 74 78.6 74.5

Efficiency (%) 23,0 17.5 19.8 18.5 19.1 16.3 19.1 17.2

Achievements
Development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:
The maximum efficiency was 12.3% Low Voc and FF compared to c-Si homojunction results from large interface state density.

TCO p a-Si:H n c-Si metal

M. Tanaka, et al, Development of New a-Si/c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells: ACJ-HIT (Artificially Constructed Junction-Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin-Layer), Appl. Phys., 31 (1992) 3518-3522

Achievements
Development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:
Thin intrinsic a-Si layer introduced, better passivation of silicon wafers The maximum conversion efficiency is 14.8% Voc is improved by 30 mV due to excellent passivation of a-Si:H FF is improved to 0.8

TCO p a-Si:H i a-Si:H n c-Si metal

ACJ-HIT

M. Tanaka, et al, Development of New a-Si/c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells: ACJ-HIT (Artificially Constructed Junction-Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin-Layer), Appl. Phys., 31 (1992) 3518-3522

Achievements
Development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:
Application of textured substrate and back surface field (BSF), the maximum conversion efficiency increases to 18.1% for 1cm2 area. Jsc is improved by 20% to 37.9 mA/cm2 n c-Si n a-Si:H metal

TCO p a-Si:H i a-Si:H

M. Tanaka, et al, Development of New a-Si/c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells: ACJ-HIT (Artificially Constructed Junction-Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin-Layer), Appl. Phys., 31 (1992) 3518-3522

Achievements
Development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:
metal

TCO p a-Si:H i a-Si:H

The symmetrical structure can suppress both thermal and mechanical stress. The maximum conversion efficiency is 21.3% for 100 cm2.

n c-Si i a-Si:H n a-Si:H TCO

M. Tanaka, et al, Development of hit solar cells with more than 21% conversion efficiency and commercialization of highest performance hit modules, Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 1 (2003) 955--958

Achievements
Development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:
Conversion efficiency 22.3% has been achieved in 2008 by further optimization:

1. Improving the a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunction 2. Improving the grid electrode 3. Reducing the absorption in the a-Si:H and TCO

Y. Tsunomura, et al, Twenty-two percent efficiency HIT solar cell, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 93 (2009) 670--673

Achievements
Sanyo HIT modules:

Achievements
Sanyo HIT Double Bifacial modules:

Achievements
Development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:
Conversion efficiency 23,0% has been achieved in May 2009:

Voc(V) Jsc(mA/cm2) FF Efficiency c-Si Thickness (m)

0.729 39.5 0.8 23% >200

http://us.sanyo.com/News/SANYO-Develops-HIT-Solar-Cells-with-World-s-Highest-Energy-Conversion-Efficiency-of-23-0-

Achievements
Development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:
Conversion efficiency 22.8% with 98 m thick c-Si (EU-PVSEC Hamburg 2009): Highest Voc for c-Si type solar cell, Voc = 0.743V

http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20090923/175532/

Achievements
Production development of HIT solar cells at Sanyo:

http://www.pv-tech.org/news/_a/sanyo_targets_600mw_hit_solar_cell_production_with_new_plant/

Achievements
National Institute of
Ag ITO p a-SiO:H i a-SiO:H n c-Si i a-SiO:H n a-SiO:H ITO Al

Advanced Industrial Science and Technology:

a-SiO:H i layer can suppress epitaxial growth completely Efficiency decreases with decreasing thickness of c-Si
H. Fujiwara, et al, Crystalline Si Heterojunction Solar Cells with the Double Heterostructure of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Oxide, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 48 (2009) 064506

Achievements
Institute of Microtechnology (IMT) Neuchatel (EPFL):
ITO p a-Si:H/c-Si:H i a-Si:H n c-Si i a-Si:H n a-Si:H/c-Si:H ITO Al or Ag

a-Si:H/uc-Si:H layers fabricated by VHF-CVD Small area (0.2 cm2) cells without front metal contact

S.Olibet, PhD thesis, 2008

Achievements
Helmholtz Center Berlin for Materials and Energy:
AZO p a-Si:H

n c-Si n a-Si:H Al

no intrinsic a-Si:H layer results in low Voc reduction of optical loss due to thinner a-Si layer
M.Schmidt, et al, Physical aspects of a-Si:H/c-Si hetero-junction solar cells, Thin Solid Films, 515 (2007) 7475--7480

Achievements
National Renewable Energy laboratory (NREL):
metal

ITO n a-Si:H i a-Si:H

p c-Si i a-Si:H p a-Si:H metal a-Si:H layers fabricated by HW CVD

Q. Wang, et al, Crystal Silicon Heterojunction Solar cell by Hot-Wire CVD, The 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2008.

Challenges
Losses in HIT solar cell:
Optical losses: 1. Textured surface 2. Low absorption of TCO and a-Si 3. High aspect ratio of grid electrode Recombination losses: 1. cleaning 2. Hydrogen termination of wafer surface 3. High quality a-Si:H Resistance losses: 1. High conductivity TCO 2. Good ohmic contact between different layers
reflection

Optical losses (Jsc)

absorption shading

+-

n c-Si a-Si:H (i/n) TCO

Recombination losses (Voc)

Resistance losses (FF)

Grid electrode TCO a-Si:H (p/i)

Challenges
1. Wafer cleaning
Remove particles and metallic contaminants from the surface Partial passivation by H2 or HF solution to saturate dangling bonds

Chemicals
SC1 + SC2 (RCA Cleaning) NaOH : H2O HNO3 : HF HF : H2O HCl:HF CH3OH:HF CH3CH(OH)CH3:HF (or HI) HF:H2O2:H2O CF4/O2 (8% Mix) NF3 H2 N2 O2 Ar

PVMD/DIMES results:

wet

dry

F. Roca, ENEA

Challenges
2. Epitaxial growth at the heterojunction interface
Suppression of the epitaxial growth Optimum growth temperature and rf power density

H. Fujiwara, et al, Impact of epitaxial growth at the heterointerface of a-Si:H/c-Si solar cell, Appl. Phys. Lett., 90 (2007) 013503--3

Challenges
3. Controlling layer thickness
Efficiency is highly related to the thickness of the intrinsic and doped layers

Jsc is sensitive to thickness of p-type a-Si:H layer. Thicker intrinsic a-Si:H layers lead to rapid reduction in Jsc and FF

T. Sawada, et al, High efficiency a-Si/c-Si heterojuction solar cell, IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Vol. 2 (1994) 12191226

Challenges
4. Reducing absorption loss in a-Si and TCO
Optical loss in short wavelength region is caused by the absorption of a-Si. Optical loss in long wavelength region is caused by the free carrier absorption of TCO.

Solutions:
1. High-quality wide gap alloys such as a-SiC:H 2. High-quality TCO with high carrier mobility and relatively low carrier density.

E.Maruyama, et al, Sanyo's Challenges to the Development of High-efficiency HIT Solar Cells and the Expansion of HIT Business, Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 2 (2006) 1455--1460

Challenges
5. Surface-textured wafer surface
Surface-textured substrates are used due to optical confinement effect Problems:
1. Fabrication of an uniform a-Si layer on the textured c-Si 2. Insufficient cleaning of c-Si surfaces before a-Si film growth

Solutions:
1. Optimization of deposition condition 2. Clean c-Si surface with hydrogen plasma treatment

M. Tucci, et al, CF4/O2 dry etching of textured crystalline silicon surface in a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunction for photovoltaic applications, Solar energy materials and solar cells, 69 (2001) 175-185

Challenges
6. Improvement of grid electrode
Finer width (W) and no spreading area of grid electrode reduce shade losses Solutions:
1. Optimize viscosity and rheology of silver paste 2. Optimize process parameters in screen printing

Y.Tsunomura, et al, Twenty-two percent efficiency HIT solar cell, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 93 (2009) 670--673

00/00/2008

Project concept and objectives

Hetorojunction concepts for high efficiency solar cells
Short-term target: demonstrate the industrial feasibility of heterojunction solar cells in Europe Medium term target: demonstrate the concept of ultrahigh efficiency rear-contact cells based on a-Si/c-Si heterojunction

00/00/2008

Project partnership
HETSI partnership

Summary
1. HTJ Si solar cells offer promising potential to conventional c-Si solar cells - lower production cost - better thermal stability - higher electrical yield 2. HIT Si solar cells contain a-Si/c-Si heterojunction and use intrinsic a-Si:H for high-quality passivation 3. The efficiency record of HIT solar cells is 23.0% 4. Challenges to fabricate high-efficiency HTJ Si solar cells
- clean and textured c-Si surfaces - abrupt heterojunctions with low interface-defect densities - optimum a-Si :H deposition conditions and layer thickness - TCO

Acknowledgements