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FACTS AND VOICES ON THE ALUMINIUM SMELTING INDUSTRY Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean, Sustainable Development Unit - April 2007 Note to the reader: This brief on aluminum smelters was prepared by the Sustainable Development Unit of ECLAC Subregional Headquarters for the Caribbean with a view to better inform the debate about the social and economic costs and benefits of aluminum smelters. It is meant to document carefully referenced facts and voices on the aluminum smelting industry but is by no means comprehensive. 1. Short Facts on Aluminium (Source: www.world-aluminium.org ) Aluminium is the third most abundant element in the earth's crust after oxygen and silicon. However due to its high reactivity, aluminium is never found in nature as an element -its existence is instead in oxidised form, in about 250 different minerals. One important group of such minerals are the silicates and the products of their weathering, the clays. Other important compounds include the hydroxides, a group which includes bauxite, which is the basic raw material for primary aluminium production. The major bauxite deposits of the world are located in the tropics and Mediterranean regions. Today most bauxite mining locations are in the Caribbean area, South America, Australia and Africa. 2. Facts about the Aluminium Smelting Process (Source: www.world-aluminium.org ) The aluminium industry produces alumina from bauxite through a process known as the Bayer Process, considered to be the most economic means of obtaining alumina for the production of the aluminium metal. Two to three tons of bauxite are required to produce one ton of alumina and two tons of alumina are required to produce one ton of aluminium metal. Alumina is then reduced into aluminium in aluminium smelter plants using a process called the HallHeroult process that dates as far back as 1886. Alumina is dissolved in an electrolytic bath of molten cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) within a large carbon or graphite lined steel container known as a "pot". An electric current is passed through the electrolyte at low voltage, but very high current, typically 150,000 amperes. The electric current flows between a carbon anode (positive electrode), made of petroleum coke and pitch, and a cathode (negative electrode), formed by the thick carbon or graphite lining of the pot. Molten aluminium is deposited at the bottom of the pot and is siphoned off periodically to be transferred to a furnace and sometimes blended to an alloy specification, cleaned and then generally cast. A typical aluminium smelter consists of around 300 pots that will produce some 125,000 tons of aluminium annually.

Figure 1: The aluminum life cycle Reproduced from www.world-aluminium.org.

However, this figure can rise to 350-400,000 ton range in the latest generation smelters. On average, around the world it takes some 15.7 kWh of electricity to produce one kilogram of aluminium from alumina, owing to improvements in design and process that have progressively reduced this intake from about 21kWh in the 1950s. Aluminium smelting is energy-intensive, and for this reason smelters are usually located in areas which have access to abundant power resources (hydro-electric, natural gas, coal or nuclear). The smelting process is continuous. A smelter cannot easily be stopped and restarted. If production is interrupted by a power supply failure of more than four hours, the metal in the pots will solidify, often requiring an expensive rebuilding process. From time to time individual pot linings reach the end of their useful life and the pots are then taken out of service and relined. There are two primary technologies using the Hall-Hroult process: Sderberg and

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Prebake. The main difference between the two is in the type of anode used. Pre-bake potrooms are the preferred design in modern smelters because of lower levels of emissions.

Figure 2: Soderberg Cell Reproduced from www.world-aluminium.org

Pre-Bake Cell

It is to be noted that the newest primary aluminium production facilities use a variant on pre-bake technology called Centre Worked Pre-bake Technology (CWPB). A key feature of CWPB plants is the enclosed nature of the process. Fugitive emissions from these cells are very low, less than 2% of the generated emissions. The balance of the emissions is collected inside the cell itself and carried away to very efficient scrubbing systems which remove particulates and gases. Computer technology controls the process down to the finest detail, which means that occurrence of the anode effect - the condition which causes small quantities of the ozone-depleting substance, Perfluorocarbons (PFC) to be produced - can be minimised. All new plants and most plant expansions are based on pre-bake technology. 3. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Aluminium Smelters: Weighing the Pros and Cons The Environmental Impact Emissions released by Smelters (Source: www.world-aluminium.org)
Fluorides: Most smelters operated by International Aluminium Institute (IAI) members now have powerful scrubbing equipment which removes 96-99 per cent of all emissions from the pots and enables their re-use in the process. As a result, current average levels of emission to the atmosphere are 1.1kg (0.5kg for the new modern plants) of fluoride per ton of aluminium. This compares with 3.9 kg per ton in 1974. There are two main types of fluoride emissions: a mixture of the inorganic fluorides (as particulates) and Hydrogen Fluoride (as a gas); and the organic Perfluorocarbons as gases. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): These are produced during the manufacture of anodes for modern "pre-bake" aluminium smelters, and during the electrolytic process itself in the older "Sderberg" type facilities. Current air emission levels of PAH from pre-bake plants is 0.05 kg per ton and 0.25kg per ton from Sderberg plants. In recent years levels have been reduced considerably. Modern pre-bake plants emit less than 0.01kg per ton. Sulphur Dioxide: It is generated from the sulphur content at fossil-fueled power stations, and other parts of the aluminium production process. The remedy is to use low sulphur fuel and coke if available, and wet scrubbers to remove the particles from the air. Carbon Dioxide: The gas forms when the carbon in the anode combines with the oxygen in aluminium oxide during the smelting process. It is therefore an unavoidable by product of the aluminium smelting process that contributes to the Greenhouse effect. Over the last 10 years the aluminium industry has reduced its carbon dioxide output by around 10 per cent through better production techniques. Inorganic Fluorides: These are compounds which have a local effect around a smelter (unlike PFCs which do not have any local effects but a global effect as a Greenhouse Gas). Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) - Tetrafluoromethane and Hexafluoroethane These gases are chemically inert but have high global warming potential, they are produced in very small quantities during "anode effects" when the alumina concentration in the cryolite bath is reduced. The carbon anode then reacts directly with the fluoride in the electrolyte.

2 Major Costs: Environment and Health

Smelters are responsible for 90 percent of all tetrafluromethane, and 65 percent of all hexafluoroethane emissions worldwide. With atmospheric lifetimes of at least 10,000 years, these are some of the longestlived atmospheric pollutants. These PFCs have global warming potentials that are 6,500 to 9,200 times higher than carbon dioxide. [Source:IPS/SEEN/TNI Report 2001]

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The Impact on Health 1.Scientific Evidence on Occupational Hazards faced by workers within the Aluminium Smelters Evidence concerning a relationship between work in the aluminium industry and lung disease exists, and relates mainly to four diseases: asthma syndrome, chronic obstructive lung disease, lung cancer and pulmonary fibrosis. Other diseases have also been reported, such as granulomatosis, desquamative interstitial pneumonia and alveolar proteinosis (Abramson et al, European Respiratory Journal, 1989). A series of Norwegian studies were carried out in the 1990s establishing a link between potroom asthma and fluoride emissions while North American studies in the 1970s and 1980s failed to find such a link, with the exception of a 2006 study reported below (Lynn Fritschi, University of West Indies Symposium, 2007).
HEALTH STUDIES ..In the early studies in the aluminium industry fluorosis was considered the major health outcome, but with the reduction in fluoride exposures through effective fume extraction and environmental controls, this is no longer of concern in most modern potrooms. In 1984 the International Agency for Research on Cancer concluded: "... certain exposures in the aluminium industry are probably carcinogenic to humans". Working in Sderberg aluminium potrooms has been associated with increased risk of lung and bladder cancer. . An association between plasma fluorides and bronchial hyper-responsiveness has been shown. It has also been reported that workers in aluminium potrooms are at increased risk of mortality from chronic obstructive lung disease (COLD). [Sim and Benke, 1993, World at Work, Hazards and Controls in aluminium potrooms ].

Excerpts of Medical Evidence: Letting Science Speak A.Aluminium Potroom Asthma:

Aluminium smelter potroom employment is associated with the development of an asthma-like syndrome known as potroom asthma. Despite being described in the medical literature for more than 50 yr, the causative agent of the syndrome, and the pathophysiologic process by which respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function abnormalities develop, remain unknown. It is uncertain whether this condition results from the initiation of new asthma or the symptomatic exacerbation of a preexisting subclinical condition. [Arnaiz et al, Archives of Environmental Health, 2003]. Occupational asthma is the principal respiratory health problem within the primary aluminium industry. Current evidence indicates that it is irritant induced and due to occupational exposure to the inhalation of gaseous or particulate fluoride compounds. Following transfer from the occupational exposure of those who develop asthma, there is commonly symptomatic improvement. A programme of compulsory respiratory protection, HAZARDS FACED IN THE POTROOM progressive engineering improvements and of regular screening of potroom workers aimed at early detection, Chemical hazards Physical hazards Ergonomic/psychological and the transfer of asthmatic workers from that Smelter dusts Burns Lifting environment has resulted not only in improvement of including alumina, asthmatic symptoms among them, but also in the calcined coke, and majority of an improvement in bronchial responsiveness. refactory materials The majority of studies indicate a slightly increased (inspirable and prevalence of symptoms of chronic bronchitis and of respirable) chronic obstructive pulmonary disease among workers in carbon bake areas, although tobacco smoking has a Aluminium fluorides Electrocution Posture greater and additive effect. Only a trivial number of Coal tar pitch volatiles clinical cases of pulmonary fibrosis ascribed to (polycyclic aromatic aluminium compounds has been reported. Particle size hydrocarbons) limits smelter grade primary alumina reaching the Carbon monoxide Electromagnetic Shift-work alveoli of the lung. [ODonell, 1995, Sci Total fields Environment]. Fluoride dusts Falls Exposures to respiratory irritants encountered in Hydrogen fluoride Heat aluminum smelters in Europe, Australia, and New Sulphur dioxide Mobile Zealand have been suggested as the cause of "potroom equipment asthma." However, there remains disagreement in North Noise America regarding the existence of this entity. This Vibration study was designed to assess whether asthma occurs excessively among potroom workers and, if so, delineate Source: Sim and Benke, 1993, World at Work, Hazards and Controls dose-response relationships for possible causal risk in aluminium potrooms. factors. The asthma incidence ratio between potroom and nonpotroom workers after adjusting for smoking was 1.40. Although bivariate analyses showed a relationship between asthma incidence and exposure fluoride (relative risk [RR] = 5.1) and smoking (RR = 7.7) remained significant in a multivariate model. Potroom asthma appears to occur at to t t l fl id fl id ti l t fl id the studied United States aluminum smelters at doses within regulatory guidelines. [Taiwo et al, 2006, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine].

Excerpts of Medical Evidence: Letting Science Speak B. Respiratory Disorders and Exposure to Fluorides:
In a survey of 370 aluminium pot-room workers in western Norway, bronchial responsiveness, lung function, and respiratory symptoms were studied in relation to occupational exposure to air contaminants in the pot-room. Increased prevalences of respiratory symptoms, work related asthmatic symptoms, and abnormal lung function were found in subjects exposed to total fluorides above 0.5 mg/m3 when compared with significant workers exposed to total fluorides at concentrations of less than 0.5 mg/m3. No association between bronchial responsiveness and exposure to fluoride was found and the prevalence of respiratory symptoms was independent of the degree of dust exposure. These findings indicate that work related asthmatic symptoms in pot-room workers may be related to exposure to fluorides. [Soyseth and Kongerud, 1992, Br J Ind Med].

Excerpts of Medical Evidence: Letting Science Speak D. Bladder Cancer and Coal Tar Pitch Volatiles in Potrooms :
To confirm the relationship between exposure to coal tar pitch volatiles and bladder cancer among primary aluminum production workers, we carried out a casecontrol study among blue-collar workers who had worked more than 1 year between 1950-1979 in a major plant using mostly the Soderberg process in the Province of Quebec.Men who had worked in the Soderberg potrooms were at higher risk of developing the disease, the risk increasing with the time spent in these departments. [Tremblay et al, 1995, Am J Ind Med]. A 14-year update to a previously published historical cohort study of aluminum reduction plant workers was conducted. All men with three or more years at an aluminum reduction plant in British Columbia (BC), Canada between the years 1954 and 1997 were included; a total of 6,423 workers. A total of 662 men were diagnosed with cancer, representing a 400% increase from the original study. ..Poisson regression was used to examine risk by cumulative exposure to coal tar pitch volatiles (CTPV). The risk for bladder cancer was related to cumulative exposure to CTPV measured as BSM and BaP .., and the risk for stomach cancer was related to exposure measured by BaP ... The risks for lung cancer .., non-Hodgkin lymphoma .., and kidney cancer also increased with increasing exposure, although the overall rates were similar to that of the general population. Analysis of the joint effect of smoking and CTPV exposure on cancer showed the observed doseresponse relationships to be independent of smoking. [Spinelli et al, 2006, Cancer Causes and Control].

C. Pulmonary Fibrosis and Exposure to Dust:

Many reports of respiratory disease attributable to aluminum exposure have appeared in the European medical literature during the last 50 years. Great Britain and Germany are two major industrialized nations that acknowledge a causal relationship between occupational exposure to aluminum and respiratory impairment. For factory workers in these countries, pulmonary disease attributed to respirable aluminum particulates is : compensated as a workplace disability. In North America, however, there is a lack of consensus regarding the pathogenicity of aluminum fumes and dust to the worker. This view may be based on a difference in the types of industrial usage, the updated methods of aluminum processing in this country, or the benefits of a modern workplace. It has also been proposed that the development of aluminum-induced pulmonary disease may depend on a particular host factor that has not yet been identified. We describe a patient whom we believe developed severe respiratory compromise and irreversible pulmonary fibrosis from a lifetime of industrial aluminum exposure. [Al-Masalkhi and Walton, 1994, J Ky Med Assoc]. This study discusses problems concerning differentiated exposure of workers to dust and fumes of aluminum and its compounds and describes the observed toxic effect on the respiratory tract. Long- term occupational exposure to the above factors leads to changes in lungs of the pneumoconiotic nature. Other disorders presented in the literature include: pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary alveolitis and alveolar proteinosis, asthma, chronic bronchitis, and chronic pneumonia. The respiratory effect depends to some extent on the form of aluminum or the stage of processing in which exposure occurs. Numerous studies of workers occupationally exposed to aluminum dust and fumes have demonstrated the increase in the incidence of pulmonary fibrosis, depending on the air concentration of respirable fraction of dust. [Nasiadek and Sapota, 2004, Med Pr].

E. Lung and Bladder Cancer and Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs):
The relation between exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the incidence of lung and bladder cancer among aluminium production workers was investigated based on a cohort comprising of 1790 men employed for more than 5 years at a Norwegian aluminium plant. Cancer incidence was investigated from 1953 to 1995. The observed cases of cancer among men were compared with expected numbers calculated from national rates for men,..the effect of lagging exposure by 10, 20, and 30 years was also investigated. The present study showed no increased risk of urinary bladder cancer or lung cancer with increasing cumulative exposure to PAHs. No significant changes in risk were found for different lag timesDue to the small size of this study, a minor increase in risk could not be excluded. [Romunstad et al, 2000, Occup Environ Med].

2003 Study Exposure to Multiple Substances

Objectives. To determine whether exposure to five different occupational substances contributes to respiratory symptoms in aluminium smelter workers. Methods. A cross-sectional survey of 1,615 male employees of two Australian aluminium smelters was conducted in 1995. Subjects underwent spirometry and were asked about respiratory symptoms and the relationship of those symptoms to work. [Contd. Next Page].

2. Scientific Evidence on Non-Occupational Hazards: Effects on Humans, Animals, and Plants outside the 5 Aluminium Smelters Excerpts of Medical Evidence: Letting Science Speak Direct Effects (Aluminium Smelters Emissions) A. Animal and Plant Life
Mandibles from 1104 red deer, 147 moose and 453 roe deer collected between 1990 and 1993 in the vicinity of seven Norwegian aluminum smelters, were examined for dental fluorotic and osteofluorotic lesions. The metacarpal or metatarsal bones from 214 of these cervids also were evaluated. Dental fluorotic lesions occurred in all three cervid species. Prevalence of dental fluorosis was generally low at the various locations, with the exception of Ardal, where 15% of the cervids examined were affected. Only sporadic cases of severe dental fluorotic lesions were diagnosed. ..Gross osteofluorosis occurred in only three cervids, all with mandibular fluorine residues > 8,000 ppm F. Hence, generalized fluorosis was not a prominent feature in the material studied. [Vikoren and Stuve, J Wildl Dis, 1996]. .Systematic literature searches were conducted to obtain all relevant information on toxic response of terrestrial plants, invertebrates, and wildlife exposed to PAHs. More than 325 papers on PAHs were reviewed. Rapid volatilization of lower molecular weight PAHs, generally low toxicity of persistent PAHs, limited potential for uptake by plants, binding to soil organic matter that lowers bioavailability, and low bioaccumulation by invertebrates may explain the general absence of documented adverse effects among terrestrial receptors exposed to PAHs. [Kaputska, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 2004]. Published data on the toxicity of fluoride (F-) to algae, aquatic plants, invertebrates and fishes are reviewed. Aquatic organisms living in soft waters may be more adversely affected by fluoride pollution than those living in hard or seawaters because the bioavailability of fluoride ions is reduced with increasing water hardness. Fluoride can either inhibit or enhance the population growth of algae, depending upon fluoride concentration, exposure time and algal species. Aquatic plants seem to be effective in removing fluoride from contaminated water under laboratory and field conditions. In aquatic animals, fluoride tends to be accumulated in the exoskeleton of invertebrates and in the bone tissue of fishes. The toxic action of fluoride resides in the fact that fluoride ions act as enzymatic poisons, inhibiting enzyme activity and, ultimately, interrupting metabolic processes such as glycolysis and synthesis of proteins. Fluoride toxicity to aquatic invertebrates and fishes increases with increasing fluoride concentration, exposure time and water temperature, and decreases with increasing intraspecific body size and water content of calcium and chloride. Freshwater invertebrates and fishes, especially net-spinning caddisfly larvae and upstreammigrating adult salmons, appear to be more sensitive to fluoride toxicity than estuarine and marine animals. Because, in soft waters with low ionic content, a fluoride concentration as low as 0.5 mg F-/l can adversely affect invertebrates and fishes, safe levels below this fluoride/l concentration are recommended in order to protect freshwater animals from fluoride pollution. [Camargo, 2003, Chemosphere].

Excerpts of Medical Evidence: Letting Science Speak Indirect Effects (Aluminium) B. Humans
Historically, aluminum has been considered relatively non-toxic; healthy individuals can tolerate oral doses as high as 7 grams per day without experiencing harmful effects. However, abundant evidence now shows that aluminum may adversely affect the nervous system in humans and animals. Aluminum exposure was suggested as a possible cause of Alzheimer's disease because the brain cells of Alzheimer's patients can contain from 10 to 30 times the normal concentrations of aluminum. However, it is not clear whether the accumulation of aluminum is a cause or a result of the disease. Several studies on humans have shown a slightly increased risk of Alzheimer's disease or related dementia in communities where the drinking water contains high concentrations of aluminum. On the other hand, a number of other studies have shown no relationship between aluminum in drinking water and the onset of dementia. In addition, scientists have been unable to induce Alzheimer's disease-type changes in the brains of laboratory animals exposed to aluminum Some studies have also shown little or no accumulation of aluminum in the brain tissues of Alzheimer's patients. After weighing all the evidence, experts have concluded that even though a true association between dementia (including Alzheimer's disease) and high concentrations of aluminum in drinking water has not yet been proven, the possibility cannot be ruled out, especially for the most elderly. Aluminum has also been associated with other severe diseases of the nervous system, such as Lou Gehrig's and Parkinson's diseases. As with Alzheimer's disease, the significance, if any, of the association is unknown. An unusually high incidence of Lou Gehrig's and Parkinson's diseases in indigenous populations in Guam and New Guinea suggests a possible correlation between the diseases and local environmental conditions, including high levels of aluminum and low levels of calcium and magnesium in soil and food. As with Alzheimer's, humans with these disorders tend to have high levels of aluminum in some areas of their brains, although it has not been demonstrated that the presence of aluminum in the brain initiates the onset of the diseases. Source: Health Canada 2003 (http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/water-eau/drinkpotab/aluminum-aluminium e.html)

2003 Study Exposure to Multiple Substances

[ ContdPage 4] Their job histories were combined with a task exposure matrix to produce individual quantitative measures of oil mist..Results. After adjusting for smoking and age, we found that subjects with the highest cumulative exposure to fluoride (>0.16 mg/m3 years) and inspirable dust (>2.9 mg/m3 years) were two to four times more likely to report work-related wheeze and chest tightness than were unexposed subjects. Lower prevalence ratios for the same symptoms were seen with sulphur dioxide and BSF. Levels of lung function decreased slightly with exposure to oil mist, but not with cumulative exposure to other substances. Conclusions. This study suggests that the relevant causative agents for respiratory symptoms in aluminium smelters are fluoride and inspirable dust. [Fritschi, Sim et al, Occupational and Environmental Health, 2003].

Weighing the Pros and Cons:

Weighing the Pros and Cons:

Alternative Perspectives
Letting the Aluminium Smelting Companies speak: Mitigating the Negative Impacts of the industry through scientific and technological research Science on the Move: An Example of Ongoing ResearchLight Metal Flagships, CSIRO in Australia

Alternative Perspectives
Comparative Facts from other Industries: Oil and Natural Gas .
Emissions from Offshore Oil and Gas Industries
[During drilling, specially formulated fluids called "muds" are used to cool and lubricate the drill bit, control pressure and bring the cuttings (rock or sand from a borehole) back to the surface. These muds are most commonly based on water (WBM), but in some cases mineral oil (OBM) or synthetics (SBM) believed to be more biodegradable. Although the use of WBM is preferred, sometimes OBM or SBM has to be used when drilling conditions are more difficult. Inevitably, when drilling with OBM, rock cuttings are contaminated with oil from the muds. In the past, when working offshore these cuttings were often discharged to sea, in accordance with local regulation. Where OBM is used offshore, the spent mud and cuttings are now re-injected or transported to shore for treatment and disposal, or recycling. .. When crude oil is produced from the reservoir it is frequently accompanied by water. This is either naturally present or it has been injected into the reservoir to maintain pressure for production. The proportion of water produced increases as the oil field matures. Some of this water is re-injected. If environmental quality standards are not exceeded the remainder may be discharged to surface waters. There is to date no universal solution for the treatment of produced water. There is a need for further experience and information exchange on the use of different technologies associated with produced water. The biggest sources of carbon dioxide emissions are platforms and production floaters New and improved technology will allow substantial volumes of carbon dioxide to be separated from flue gases and then deposited deep beneath the seabed.] [United Nations Environment Program, Offshore Oil and Gas Forum] . Occupational Hazards Human exposure to benzene is derived occupationally from the petrochemical and petroleum refining industries. This study was performed to determine whether the frequencies of chromosome aberrations in workers exposed to low levels of benzene in a petroleum refining factory were elevated compared to an unexposed control group. The study population was comprised of 178 exposed workers and 36 unexposed workers. The frequencies of chromatid deletions and total chromosome aberrations in workers exposed to benzene were significantly higher compared to the unexposed control group. [Kim et al, 2004, J Toxicol Environ Health A]. Effects on Marine Life in combination with other Industries, including Inshore Smelters

Light Metals Flagship research aims to reduce the energy requirement and global greenhouse impact of aluminium production by 30 per cent, while improving cost effectiveness, by 2012. I m p r o v i n g t h e p r o c e s s : The process for producing aluminium from alumina is well established, but there is still scope for improvements to efficiency and environmental performance. The current production methods for aluminium consumes a large amount of electricity. In fact, the aluminium industry is the single largest consumer of electricity in Australia. A large proportion of the energy used in smelters is lost as heat from the electrolytic process. Much of the Light Metals Flagship's research is focused on reducing energy consumption of electrolytic cells and improving process productivity. Better Monitoring: Flagship researchers are monitoring the amount of greenhouse gases produced by aluminium smelters. The challenge facing aluminium producers in responding to increased global demand is to reduce the environmental impact of aluminium production, including greenhouse gas emissions. To meet this challenge, emissions must be effectively monitored The Light Metals Flagship, in partnership with the Bureau of Meteorology and the University of California, has installed a new instrument at the Bureaus atmospheric monitoring station at Cape Grim, Tasmania, Australia, that continuously measures PFCs in the background atmosphere. Sensors to monitor Molten Aluminium Quality: Light Metals Flagship researchers are developing an online sensor system to monitor contamination of molten aluminium and enhance worker safety. Flagship researchers are developing a vision system to monitor tapped metal for contamination.Video images are wirelessly transmitted to a handheld LCD video screen and are also captured for video analysis to quantify bath contamination. The system will alert potroom floor operators to excessive bath contamination without requiring them to stand next to the hot crucibles. Smart Vehicles to handle hot metal safely: Automation of hot metal carriers used in aluminium smelters could improve health and safety, and allow better process scheduling. Hot metal carriers are large prime movers used in aluminium smelters to move giant crucibles containing molten metal from pot lines to casting machines. The crucibles each weigh about 2 tonnes and hold up to 8 tonnes of hot metal. Pot lines in smelters can be up to 2 km long. The Light Metals Flagship has been demonstrating the feasibility of a hot metal carrier that can operate autonomously around a site similar in layout to a smelter operation. [Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Organization (CSIRO), 2006]

Low levels of oil and hence polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are naturally present in the marine environment, although levels have increased significantly following human extraction and use of oil and gas. Other major anthropogenic sources of PAHs include smelters, the use of fossil fuels in general, and various methods of waste disposal, especially incineration. There are two major sources for PAHs to marine ecosystems in Norway: the inshore smelter industry, and offshore oil and gas activities. A distinction is generally made between petrogenic

(oil-derived) and pyrogenic (combustion-derived) PAHs. Although petrogenic PAHs appear to be bioavailable to a large extent, pyrogenic PAHs are often associated with soot particles and less available for uptake into organisms. There is extensive evidence linking sediment-associated PAHs to induction of phase-I enzymes, development of DNA adducts, and eventually neoplastic lesions in fish. Most studies have focused on high-molecular-weight, carcinogenic PAHs such as benzo[a]pyrene. It is less clear how two- and three-ring PAHs affect fish, and there is even experimental evidence to indicate that these chemicals may inhibit some components of the phase I system rather than produce induction. There is a need for increased research efforts to clarify biological effects of two- and three-ring PAHs, PAH mixtures, and adaptation processes in marine ecosystems [Hylland, 2006, J Toxicol Environ Health A].

Letting the Economic Impact Assessment Studies Speak : Evidence from other Countries
1. Fjaral Iceland Project

Economic development: Staff will total roughly 400 employees. About 800 new jobs will be generated in east Iceland. Virtually all employees will be hired within Iceland, half from east Iceland and the other half from other parts of the country. Employees will likely live in the region, a majority within a 30-minute drive from the workplace. Jobs in aluminum smelters pay better than jobs in the general industrial sector and are characterized by diversity, flexibility, responsibility, distribution of authority, teamwork and set procedures. Socio-economic benefits: The aluminum smelter will strengthen the operation of numerous services in the region. The number of residents is expected to increase by 1,600-1,800. Hundreds of new homes will be built to house the increasing population. Municipal revenues have risen significantly, fortifying the financial position of the region. Construction has already generated significant development involving public schools, pre-schools, healthcare, athletic facilities, communications and transportation, and a wide variety of services. [World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2006] 2. An integrated Aluminium Industry: Pacific Northwest, US The aluminum industry has been a fixture in the Pacific Northwest economy for the past sixty years. The purpose of this study is to estimate the economic importance of the aluminum industry to Flathead County in the State of Montana, which has one of the region's major aluminum plants. The year of analysis is 1998. In 1998, the Pacific Northwest aluminum industry sold more than $3 billion worth of products and employed approximately 10,000 people in Oregon, Washington, and Montana: The aluminum industry in Montana engaged 620 workers. The Columbia Falls Aluminum Company accounted for virtually all of the industry's total employment in the state. Aluminum industry employees in Montana earned $24.4 million in wages and salaries (excluding non-wage benefits) in 1998. The average wage and salary was $39,620 per year, approximately 1.8 times the state average. Labor income (including non-wage benefits) totaled $28.9 million for an average of $47,070 per employee. In 1998, the aluminum industry's employment impact on the Montana economy extended beyond the 620 people working for the industry, since the industry's payroll and other operating expenditures created job opportunities in other businesses through the so-called multiplier (respending) process. With an estimated employment multiplier of 3.4, the industry's total economic impact amounted to approximately 2,110 jobs or 0.4 percent of total state employment. The impact of the aluminum industry on the Montana economy was significant, but its relative impact on Flathead County was much greater: With 610 employees earning $28.7 million in labor income (including nonwage benefits), Columbia Falls supported a total of 1,980 jobs in the county, according to the Flathead County economic base model. The company accounted for 4.3 percent of the employment in the county. The personal income impact was estimated at $65.5 million or 4.3 percent of county income. The aluminum industry in Flathead County generated $6.2 million in state and local taxes, most of which came from personal and corporate property taxes. The aluminum industry and its employees directly accounted for $3.2 million in taxes. Overall, the aluminum industry constituted 5.3 percent of the Flathead County tax base. The aluminum industry plays several roles in our economy. Foremost, it is a producer of a strong and light-weight material that is used in thousands of products. In the State of Montana, the industry is also a major provider of high-paying jobs. [ Montana State Aluminium Industry Economic Impact Study, 2000]

1.Job creation 2.Above average industry wages 3. Tax revenues 4.Export revenues 5.Infrastructure 6.Scope for developing into a fully integrated, multi-sectoral industry ranging from smelting to aluminium based goods production.

The Major Benefits: 1. Direct Economic Impact from the Smelting Industry and Windfall Gains for Community Development. 2. Benefits to Consumers of Aluminium Products . 3. Benefits for Industries using Aluminium as a raw material .

The Multiple Industrial Uses of Aluminium and Scope for further Manufacturing Growth Uses of Aluminium
Low density and strength make it ideal for construction of aircraft, lightweight vehicles, and ladders. An alloy of aluminium called duralumin is often used instead of pure aluminium because of its improved properties. Easy shaping and corrosion resistance make it a good material for drink cans and roofing materials. Corrosion resistance and low density leads to its use for greenhouses and window frames. Good conduction of heat leads to its use for boilers, cookers and cookware. Good conduction of electricity leads to its use for overhead power cables hung from pylons (low density gives it an advantage over copper). High reflectivity makes it ideal for mirrors, reflectors and heat resistant clothing for fire fighting. Sources: http://gcsechemistry.com/ex16.htm

The major direct benefit of the aluminium smelting industry is to be reaped through the economic gains associated with the production of aluminium (the creation of jobs, generation of export foreign exchange revenues, creation of a tax base, increase in investment and infrastructure development) that stimulate community and local development. In addition aluminium smelting companies may invest in social and environment conservation programmes in the communities in which they are located as part of a deliberate policy of building ties with the community and ploughing back a share of their profits into the communities. In a second round, as an indirect benefit, the aluminium produced can be used as a raw material in the manufacture of a range of other goods. The magnitude of the total benefits therefore will depend on the scale of the aluminum production as well as the degree to which the aluminum industry is vertically integrated in a given country, meaning the extent to which the country has industries that use aluminium as an input for further manufacturing and the resulting total value-added. The benefits to consumers from consumption of goods made cheaper and possible by aluminium must also be factored in. It is to be noted that the high malleability, high electrical conductivity and low weight of aluminium make it an essential productive input in many industries, notably the aeronautical, aviation and automotive industries.

Smelters Around the World: Letting the Facts Speak

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How to Decide? What to Consider?

Weighing the Pros and Cons: A Social Welfare Approach addressing Governance, Capacities, Human Rights & Sustainability .ECLAC Speaks

Since the late 1970s, scientists have correlated elevated bladder cancer rates in smelter pot-room workers. In 1989, Alcoa told an Australia newspaper that it "emphatically rejects" any such risk for smelter workers. In 1999, Alcoa finally sent warnings to thousands of its workers worldwide that "a small increase in cancer could be expected at lower levels of exposure than had previously been expected." Fluoride emissions from the Nalco smelter in India plague local villagers with brittle bones, tooth and gum diseases, and lumps of dead skin. Their cattle, more prone to fluoride contamination, commonly suffer from bone deformities and rising death rates. In one village within a kilometer of the plant, the local herd of cattle dropped from 3,000 to 100 head in a ten year period. Similar symptoms of fluorosis are apparent in villages around the world's fourth largest smelter, in Tursunzade, Tajikistan. A Quebec, Canada, region that hosts four Alcan smelters has the highest birth defect rate in the country. It leads the province in deaths caused by malignant tumors. Biologists have connected emissions from these smelters with cancers in beluga whales downstream in the Saint Lawrence Estuary. Veterinary pathologists from the University of Montreal have fingered PAHs discharged from the upstream aluminum smelters as a contributor to a cancer epidemic among the belugas. According to these researchers, one out of five adults belugas suffer from cancer, comparable to the 23% cancer rate among humans in the western world. "Such a high percentage had never been observed in any wild animal species, terrestrial or aquatic (with the important exception of fish). To our knowledge, this is the first population of wild mammals that can be compared to humans in this regard," University of Montreal researcher Daniel Martineau observes in the website "Diseases and Causes of Death of Beluga from The St. Lawrence Estuary, Quebec, Canada." Imagine a world without aluminium. There would be no commercial air travel. It makes a key contribution to fuelefficient engines in cars and trucks as well as to high speed rail and sea travel. It facilitates the construction of corrosionresistant and low maintenance cost buildings. Aluminium in packaging preserves food quality and avoids waste, and its low weight reduces fuel consumption and emissions during transportation. Around the world, most high voltage overhead transmission and distribution lines over long distances are made of aluminium. Aluminium is the most abundant metal on earth. Aluminium production is highly beneficial to us as consumers, providing strong but lightweight commodities for use in building and construction, transport, consumer durables, packaging, electrical, machinery and equipment. [From Tomago Aluminium, one of Australasias largest aluminium smelter]. Sources: Behind the Shining, Aluminiums Dark Side IPS/SEEN/TNI Report 2001; World Aluminium Organization; Tomago Aluminium website.

1. Decision makers, in deciding whether to grant operating licenses to aluminium smelting plants, need to ensure that they are in possession of adequate comprehensive evidence and information across a range of sectors so as to be able to weigh the total full costs against the total full benefits of aluminium smelting operations. In a social welfare approach, resting on the premise of sustainable development, the operating plant can operate only if social welfare is increased as a result, that is, where the total benefits exceed the total costs. The first issue then is how to measure social welfare? Which costs and which benefits should be considered? How to weigh the welfare of various groups in society: concerns of environmentalists against business developers, immediate and foreseen economic gains from exchange revenue creation against potential unforeseen increased medical costs in the longrun? Short-term and long-term considerations matter. Have all welfare groups been identified? Have all voices been heard? Should the welfare of animals and plants be given the same weight as that of humans? Within the animal and plant world, are some species more valuable than others? How to counterbalance the welfare of the present generation against future generations (the sustainability dimension)? These are all preferences to be determined by the authorities on behalf of society and in doing so, it becomes essential to engage in wide stakeholder consultations to make the process as inclusive as possible. In most countries these preferences are embodied in the environmental and safety regulations imposed by the government on the industry, dictating tolerance levels for pollution, air and water quality and the like, as well as defining occupational and health safety standards and measures against hazards and risks. 2. National authorities need to ensure that the legal and institutional structures are in place so as to be able to address and minimize the total costs imposed by the industry. Loopholes in the institutional frameworks will only allow the industry to get away with violating safety standards or engaging in malpractices. The incentive structure has to be set up so that faced with the prospect of hefty penalties, the industry has an incentive to adjust its behavior in order to minimize costs to society. Are environmental laws in place to regulate emissions levels by the industry? Have health and occupational standards been enacted to protect those who stand to lose from smelter operations? Do various groups and individuals have full access to the justice system to take legal action in case their rights have been transgressed by the industry? Is the institutional environment apt to handle the costs imposed by the industry? 3. Regulatory effectiveness and monitoring capabilities are necessary prerequisites. Even if standards, laws, rules and regulations have been enacted to ensure costs to society are minimized in theory, a functional regulatory authority and system is needed to ensure that these rules and regulations are being implemented and adhered to in practice. Monitoring the behavior of the industry on a regular basis is key and national capacities for this must be put in place if non-existent. 4. Distributional issues need to be addressed. How are losses and gains distributed? Are there compensating mechanisms in place for the winners to reward the losers? If communities are being displaced, are they being compensated and by how much? Are the rights of all concerned parties being considered? Should the industry bear full medical costs for its workers? What about Corporate Social Responsibility? 6. The full costs of emissions on the environment for instance are almost impossible to assess due to the sheer complexity of the eco-system and persistence of possible effects. Should then costs be inflated by a certain factor to account for uncertainty? 7. Finally, comparative analyses in terms of costs and benefits with other industries may prove useful. Does the aluminium industry bring considerably more benefits or larger costs relative to other industries?