Stoichiometric Calculations: Mole to Mole Calculations

When we balance an equation it is important to think if it in terms of atoms of each element. For example, in a simple reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to make water, the equation we get is 2 H2 + O2 -------> 2 H2O which can mean 2 molecules of H2 + 1 molecules of O2 --------> 2 molecules of H2O However, when we use a balanced equaiton to plan how much of each reactant to use in an actual experiment, we have to shift our thinking to huge collections of molecules - to moles. The shift from molecules to moles is done by taking advantage of a simple rule from mathematics. Multiplying a set of numbers, such as the coefficients, by any constant number does not alter the ratios among the members of the set. If we select Avogadro's number as the multiplier then we get lab-sized units of each chemical. 2 X (6.02 X 1023 molecules) of H2 + 1 X (6.02 X 1023 molecules) of O2 --------> 2 X (6.02 X 1023 molecules) of H2O The essential 2:1:2 ratio has not been changed by this multiplication. But the scale of the reaction has shifted to the mole level. 2 moles of H2 + 1 moles of O2 --------> 2 moles of H2O The ratio of moles of molecules is identical to the ratio of molecules - it has to be, since equal numbers of moles have equal numbers of molecules. The ratio of the coefficients for any given chemical reaction is set by nature. You cannot change this ratio. It is set when you write the formulae correctly and then balance the equation properly. Once this is done the coefficient numbers can be used as the basis for chemical calculations. The decision that is left for us is the scale of the reaction - how much do we want to use or make? The number of options is infinite. We could have 0.02 moles of H2 + 0.01 moles of O2 --------> 0.02 moles of H2O or 1.36 moles of H2 + 0.68 moles of O2 --------> 1.36 moles of H2O or 88 moles of H2 + 44 moles of O2 --------> 88 moles of H2O In every case, the relative mole quantities of H2 to O2 to H2O are 2:1:2. We could say that 2 moles of H2, 1 mole of O2, and 2 moles of H2O are equivalent to each other in this reaction. This does not mean that one chemical can actually substitute for any other chemical. It does mean that a specific mole quantity of one substance requires the presence of a specific mole quantity of each of the other substance in accordance with the ratio of coefficients. Below shows five different scales for the reaction of iron with sulphur to make

iron sulphide, FeS. Notice that the mole ratios are the same regardless of the scale. 1 atom of Fe + 1 atom of S ----> 1 molecule of FeS 10 atoms of Fe + 10 atoms of S ----> 10 molecules of FeS 55.8 mg of Fe + 5.58 g of Fe 55.8 g of Fe + + 32.1 mg S ----> 87.9 mg FeS 3.21 g of S ----> 8.79 g of FeS 32.1 g of S ----> 87.9 g of FeS

Mole to mole calculations:

This is an example of how to do mole to mole type problems: Two atoms of sulphur react with three molecules of oxygen to form two molecules of sulphur trioxide, which is an air pollutant. 2 S + 3 O2 -------> 2 SO3 How many moles of sulphur react in this way with 9 moles of O2? Solution: From the balanced equation you can see that 2 S react with 3 O2 Set up your ratio like this: 2 S = 3 O2 x 9 moles Cross multiply to get 2 * 9 moles = 3 * x

x = (2 * 9 moles) / 3 = 6 moles Therefore if 9 moles of oxygen are reacted then 6 moles of S must also be present. Note that the unit "moles" was carried through the calculation

Mole to Mole Stoichiometric Calculations

1. A chemist describes a particular experiment in this way: "0.0400 mol of H2O2 decomposed into 0.0400 mol of H2O and 0.0200 mol of O2." Express the chemistry of this reaction by a conventional equation. The octane present in gasoline burns according to the following equation: 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 ---------> 16 CO2 + 18 H2O (a) How many moles of O2 are needed to react fully with 4 moles of octane? (b) How many moles of CO2 can form from 1 mole of octane?

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

(c) How many moles of water are produced by the combustion of 6 moles of octane? (d) If this reaction is to be used to synthesize 8 mole of CO2, how many moles of oxygen are needed? How many moles of octane? The alcohol in "gasohol" burns according to the following equation. C2H6O + 3 O2 --------> 2 CO2 + 3 H2O (a) If 25 moles of ethyl alcohol burns this way, how many moles of oxygen are needed? (b) If 30 moles of oxygen is consumed by this reaction, how many moles of alcohol are used up? How many moles of carbon dioxide are formed? (c) In one test, 23 moles of carbon dioxide was produced by this reaction. How many moles of oxygen were consumed? (d) In another test, 41 moles of water is collected from this reaction. How many moles of alcohol had been consumed? How many moles of oxygen were used up? How many moles of CO2 also formed? One way to change iron ore, Fe2O3, into metallic iron is to heat it together with hydrogen. Fe2O3 + 3 H2 -----------> 2 Fe + 3 H2O (a) How many moles of iron are made from 25 moles of Fe2O3? (b) How many moles of hydrogen are needed to make 30 moles of Fe? The Solvay process is used to make sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, a chemical that ranked 11th among all chemicals in annual production in 1986. The process begins with the passing of ammonia and carbon dioxide through a solution of sodium chloride. This makes sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride: H2O + NaCl + NH3 + CO2 ---------> NH4Cl + NaHCO3 How many moles of sodium bicarbonate could, in theory, be made from 100 moles of NaCl? How many moles of iron, Fe, can be made from Fe2O3 by the use of 18 moles of carbon monoxide, CO, in the following reaction? Fe2O3 + 3 CO -----------> 2 Fe + 3 CO2 How many moles of H2O are produced when 6 moles of O2 is consumed in burning methyl alcohol, CH3OH, according to the following equation? 2 CH3OH + 3 O2 ----------> 2 CO2 + 4 H2O Solution of iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, are used in photoengraving and to make ink. This compound can be made by the following reaction. 2 Fe + 3 Cl2 ---------> 2 FeCl3 (a) How many moles of FeCl3 form from 24 moles of Cl2? (b) How many moles of Fe are needed to combine with 24 moles of Cl2 by this reaction? (c) If 0.5000 mole of Fe is to be used by this reaction, how many moles of Cl2

are needed and how many moles of FeCl3 form? 9. How many moles of nitric acid, HNO3, are needed to react with 2.56 moles of Cu in the following reaction? 3 Cu + 8 HNO3 ----------> 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + H2O How many moles of carbon dioxide are produced by burning 1.50 moles of 10. C2H5OH? 11. The questions below refer to the equation: 3 Cu(s) + 8 HNO3(aq) ---------> 3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NO(g) + 4 H2O(l) a) How many moles of NO are produced by the reaction of 4.0 moles of copper with excess HNO3? b) How many moles of HNO3 are required to react completely with 5.0 moles of copper? c) How many moles of NO are produced by the reaction of 6.35 grams of Cu with excess HNO3? 12. Ammonia is produced synthetically by the reaction: N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ---------> 2 NH3(g) + 92.05 kJ Assume the reaction is complete and answer these questions: a) Is this an exothermic or endothermic process? b) How many moles of NH3 are formed when one mole of N2 reacts with excess hydrogen? c) If 18.0 x 1023 molecules of H2 react with sufficient nitrogen, how many moles of NH3 are produced? d) When 0.1 mole of N2 combines with 0.3 moles of H2, how many moles of NH3 are produced?

Chapter Three:
Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations Overview

Chemical Equations Patterns/Reactions Atomic/Molecular Weights Moles/Molar Mass Empirical/Molecular Formulas Quantitative Relationships Limiting Reactants/Theoretical Yields

Chemical Equations

chemical 'sentences'

reactants and products described by formulas or symbols combined with "punctuation"

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l)

"atoms can be neither created nor destroyed"

all equations must be 'balanced' with the same number of atoms on both sides of the reaction arrow

H2O + O2
unbalanced

goes to

H2O2 2H2O2

2H2O + O2
balanced

goes to

Examples

CH3OH(l) + O2(g) goes to CO2(g) + H2O(l) Na(s) + H2O(l) goes to NaOH(aq) + H2(g) HBr(aq)+ Ba(OH)2(aq) goes to H2O(l) + BaBr2(aq)

Patterns of Chemical Reactivity

Because elements are grouped by chemical properties, their reactions can also be grouped:
alkali metals and water

specific

2K(s) + 2H2O(l)
general

goes to

2KOH(aq) + H2(g) 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)

2M(s) + 2H2O(l)
specific

goes to

Combustion in air

C3H8(g) + O2(g)
general

goes to

CO2(g) + H2O(l) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CxHy + O2(g)

goes to

Combination Reactions

specific

2Mg(s) + O2(g)
general

goes to

2MgO(s)

X+Y

goes to

XY

Decomposition Reactions

specific

CaCO3(s)
general

goes to

CaO(s) + CO2(g) X+Y

XY

goes to

Name the Reaction

PbCO3(s) C(s) + O2(g) 2NaN3(s)
goes to

PbO(s) + CO2(g) CO2(g) 2Na(s) + 3N2(g)

goes to

decomposition

goes to

combination

goes to

decomposition

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g)

4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

combustion

Atomic and Molecular Masses

Amu scale
o o o defined by assigning the mass of 12C as 12 amu exactly 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g 1 g = 6.02214 x 1023 amu

12

Average Atomic Masses

C 98.892% abundant 13C 1.1108% abundant

(0.98892)(12 amu) + (0.01108)(13.00335 amu) = 12.011 amu

Formula and Molecular Masses

sum of all atomic masses in the formula of an ionic or molecular compound

vitamin C C6H8O6 6 x 12.0 = 72.0 amu 8 x 1.0 = 8.0 amu 6 x 16.0 = 96.0 amu 176.0 amu
[formula mass of vitamin C (often called molecular mass)]

Percentage Composition

Calculate the percent mass that each type of atom contributes to a molecule
o

% X = (no. X atoms)(X amu) x 100 formula mass cmpd

C6H8O6 % C = (6)(12.01amu) x 100 = 40.94% C 176.0 amu % H = (8)(1.01amu) x 100 = 4.59% H 176.0 amu % O = (6)(16.00 amu) x 100 = 54.55% O 176.0 amu

The Mole
We can measure masses in amu but how do we relate that to mass in grams? We define a quantity of atoms - a mole - which has the same mass in grams as the mass of the element in amu. So how many atoms does it take to make, say, 1.00 g of H? 1.0 g H x 1 atom H 1.7 x 10-24 g H 6.0 x 1023 atoms of H

12.0 g C x

1 atom C 2.0 x 10-23 g C

6.0 x 1023 atoms of C

Avogadro's Number

6.02214 x 10 units/mole
23

No. of atoms per mole of an element No. of molecules per mole of molecular cmpd. No. of formula units per mole of ionic cmpd. No. of cows per mole of cows

Memorize this number & what it means!

1 C atom = 12 amu 1 mole C atoms = 12 g 1 Mg atom = 24 amu 1 mole Mg atoms = 24 g 1 CO molecule = 28 amu 1 mole CO molecules = 28 1 NaCl fm. unit = 58 amu 1 mole NaCl fm.units = 58g

Molar Mass

From this information we can define something called the molar mass (MM) of an atom (or molecule or formula): o from the equality: 1 mole C = 12.0 g C o we define the molar mass of a substance 12.0 g C = MM 1 mole C or Molar Mass (Atomic Mass) (Molecular Mass) (Formula Mass)

Problems

Practice Ex. 3.9:

Given: MM = 84.02 g/mol NaHCO3 508 g NaHCO3? How many mole in 508 g of NaHCO3? 508 g NaHCO3 x 1 mole = 84.02 g NaHCO3 6.05 mole NaHCO3

How many formula units of NaHCO3? Given: 6.02

x 1023 form. units/mole NaHCO3

x 6.02 x 1023 fm. units 1 mole = 3.64 x 1024 fm. Units NaHCO3

6.05 mole NaHCO3

Molar Mass converts between moles and grams of a substance Avogadro's number converts between moles of a substance and atoms (or molecules or formula units) of that substance

These are very important conversion factors, know & understand them!

Problems

How many moles of vitamin C are contained in 5.00 g of vitamin C? C6H8O6 176.0 g/mol 17.5 mg of cocaine (C17H21NO4) per kg of body weight is a lethal dose. How many moles is that? How many molecules? In 25 g of C12H30O2 THC (tetrahydrocannibinol) how many moles are there? How many molecules are there? How many C atoms are there? How many moles of O are contained in 1.50 moles of C6H5NO3? How many grams of nitrogen are contained in 70.0 g of C6H5NO3? How many atoms?

Determination Empirical Formulas

simplest ratio of atoms

o o o

change g of each element to moles or assume 100 grams of substance & change the % of each element to moles change the mole ratio of atoms to the simplest ratio by dividing by the smallest number of moles

Practice Ex. 3.12:

5.325 g methyl benzoate contains 3.758 g C, 0.316 g H, 1.251 g O. Determine empirical formula. 3.758 g C x 1 mole = 0.313 mol C 12.01 g 0.316 g H x 1 mole = 0.313 mol H 1.01 g 1.251 g O x 1 mole = 0.0782 mol O 16.00 g

C0.313H0.313O0.0782

C4H4O

Determination of Molecular Formulas

actual ratio of atoms

o o o

determine the empirical formula divide the actual molar mass by the empirical formula mass to get 'n' multiply the mole ratio in the empirical formula by 'n'

Practice Ex. 3.13:

Ethylene glycol is composed of 38.7% C, 9.7% H & 51.6% O by mass. Its true molar mass is 62.1 g/mol. What are the empirical and molecular formulas? 38.7 g C x 1 mole = 3.23 mole C 12.0 g 9.7 g H x 1 mole = 9.60 mole H 1.01 g 51.6 g O x 1 mole = 3.22 mole O 16.0 g

C3.23H9.60O3.22

CH3O
empirical fm. (n=2)

C2H6O2
molecular fm.

Formulas from Combustion Data

Formulas determined from products of combustion products

Menthol is composed of C, H, and O. A 0.1005 g sample of menthol is combusted, producing 0.2829 g of CO2 and 0.1159 g H2O. What is the empirical formula?

CxHyOz + O2
0.1005 g

goes to

CO2 +
0.2829 g

H2O
0.1159 g

Calculate moles CO2 & C; moles H2O & H 0.2829g CO2 x 1 mol 44.0 g 0.1159g H2O x 1 mol 18.0 g x 1 mol C = 1 mol CO2 x 0.00643 mol C

2 mol H = 1 mol H2O

0.0129 mol H

total mass of C + H = 0.0902 g mass of O = 0.1005 g - 0.0902 g = 0.0103 g O x 1 mol = 16.0 g 6.44 x 10-4 mol O

C0.00643H0.0129O0.000644

10 20 (empirical formula mass 156 g/mol)

C H O

If the MM is 156 g/mol, what is the molecular formula? n=1 therefore molecular formula is C10H20O

Quantitative Stoichiometry

Determination of quantities from balanced chemical reaction equations

o mole ratios from balanced chemical equation convert between species

if quantities are given for more than one reactant, the limiting reactant must be determined

Given the following balanced equation: 1Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl goes to 1MgCl2 + 2H2O Calculate the number of moles of HCl required to react completely with 0.42 mol of Mg(OH)2
0.42 mol Mg(OH)2 x 2 mol HCl 1 mol Mg(OH)2 = 0.84 mol HCl

The mole ratio comes from the balanced chemical equation How many grams of MgCl2 can be produced?
0.42 mol Mg(OH)2 x 1 mol MgCl2 1 mol Mg(OH)2 x 95.3 g MgCl2 1 mol =

40.0 g MgCl2
Theoretical Yield

Conversion sequence:

g reactant molar mass moles reactant mole ratio moles product molar mass g prod.

Practice Ex. 3.14: How many grams of O2 can be prepared from 4.50 g of KClO3?
2KClO3
goes to x

2KCl + 3O2
1 mol x 122.6 g 3 mol O2 2 mol KClO3 x 32.0 g O2 1 mol = 1.76 g O2

4.50 g KClO3

Limiting Reactantgiven a non-stoichiometric amount of both

reactants, you will have to determine which is the limiting

reagent or

reactant

example: you have 10 bicycle frames and 16 bicycle wheels and you need to put them together to produce
as many bicycles as possible, how many bicycles can be produced, what is the limiting "reagent", and how much excess "reagent" do you have left over?

Balanced 'Equation'
1 (mole) frame + 2 (moles) wheels
[10 (moles) frames] [16 (moles) wheels]

goes to

1 (mole) bicycles
[8(moles) bicycles]

Limiting Reactant -- will produce the least amount of product

10 mol frames x 1 mol bicycles 1 mol frames 1 mol bicycles 2 mol wheels = 10 bicycles

16 mol wheels

8 bicycles

Limiting

Practice Ex. 3.16:

A mixture of 1.5 mol of Al and 3.0 mol of Cl2 react. What is limiting & how many moles of AlCl3 are formed? 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) goes to 2AlCl3(s)
1.5 mol 3.0 mol

1.5 mol Al
3.0 mol Cl2

x x

2 mol AlCl3 2 mol Al 2 mol AlCl3 3 mol Cl2

= =

1.5 mol AlCl3 2.0 mol AlCl3

Limiting

Chapter 4: Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry

Solution Composition
o o

Molarity Dilution Ionic Compounds Molecular Compounds

Properties of Solutes
o o

Electrolytes--strong/weak Acids/Bases/Salts/Neutralization Reactions Ionic Equations Metathesis Reactions

o o o

Precipitation Reactions Solubility Products & Prediction Activity Series Titration

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
o

Solution Stoichiometry
o

Solution Composition

Solutions are composed of a solute and a solvent

o o

solute--present in smallest quantity solvent--present in largest quantity concentration gives ratio of solute : solvent/solution molarity, M = moles solute 1 L solution

Molarity
o o

Practice Ex. 4.1:

Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 5.00 g of glucose, C6H12O6, in sufficient water to form 100 mL of solution.

5.00 g C6H12O6

1 mol 180 g

0.0278 mol 0.100 L

0.278 M

Practice Ex. 4.2:

How many grams of Na2SO4 are there in 15 mL of 0.50 M Na2SO4? How many mL of 0.50 M Na2SO4 solution are required to supply 0.038 mol of salt?
15 mL x 1L 103 mL x 0.50 mol Na2SO4 1L x 142 g mol = 1.1 g Na2SO4

0.038 mol Na2SO4

1L 0.50 mol

103 mL 1L

76 mL Na2SO4

Dilution
o

Stock solutions are generally concentrated solutions that are diluted before use

General format for diluting a concentrated solution:

Minitial Vinitial = Mfinal Vfinal

or

Mconc Vconc = Mdil Vdil

Practice Ex. 4.3:

How many mL of 5.0 M K2Cr2O7 solution must be diluted in order to prepare 250 mL of 0.10 M solution?

Mconc = 5.0 M K2Cr2O7 Vconc = ?

Mdil = 0.10 M K2Cr2O7 Vdil = 250 mL

Mconc Vconc = Mdil Vdil

0.10 mol L
Mdil

x
x

0.250 L
Vdil

1L 5.0 mol
x 1 Mconc

=
=

0.0050 L or 5.0 mL
Vconc

Properties of Solutes

Electrolytes
o o

conduct electricity form ions in solution stoichiometrically do not conduct electricity do not form ions in solution slightly conduct electricity form less than stoichiometric amounts of ions dissociate into constituent ions when dissolved hence, they are electrolytes if they are soluble

Nonelectrolytes
o o

Weak Electrolytes
o o

Ionic Compounds
o o

ions dissociate stoichiometrically Na2SO4 2Na+(aq) + SO4(aq)2(NH4)2SO4 2NH4(aq)+ + SO4(aq)2Ca(NO3)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)-

Practice Ex. 4.4

How many moles of K+ ions are present in 0.25 L of 0.015 M K2CO3 solution? K2CO3 2K(aq)+ + CO3(aq)2-

0.25 L

0.015 mol 1L1

2 mol K mol K2CO3

0.0075 mol K+

Molecular Compounds
o o o

structure of the molecules remains intact

do not separate into ions !

molecules themselves are separated on the molecular level generally not electrolytes

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

o

All soluble ionic compounds are strong electrolytes

ions are produced stoichiometrically--exist completely or nearly completely as ions in solutions

Some molecular compounds are weak electrolytes--produce small concentrations of ions when dissolved
Since molecular compounds do not "contain" ions, they must 'produce' ions through a reaction with water, eg. NH3(aq) + H2O NH4(aq)+ + OH(aq)HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + C2H3O2(aq)HCl(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + Cl(aq)-

o o

Some molecular compounds are strong electrolytes

Note the difference in arrows used for chemical equations for weak vs strong electrolytes

Acids/Bases/Salts

Acids
o o

have an ionizable hydrogen, H eg. HCl(aq) or HC2H3O2(aq) can be strong or weak electrolytes
+

o o o

HCl(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + Cl(aq)HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + C2H3O2(aq)-

strong acids are more reactive than weak acids can be monoprotic
HCl(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + Cl(aq)H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O 2H3O(aq)+ + SO4(aq)2-

or diprotic

Strong Acids--know these!

o

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4, substances that react with acids produce hydroxide ions, OH-, in solution can be strong or weak electrolytes
NaOH(aq) Na(aq)+ + OH(aq)NH3(aq) + H2O NH4(aq)+ + OH(aq)-

Bases
o o o

Strong Bases--know these!

o o

Group IA metal hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH) Heavy group IIA metal hydroxides [Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2] occur between acids and metal hydroxide bases produce water and a salt (any ionic compound)

Neutralization Reactions
o o

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

Ionic Equations

Three ways to express ionic equations

o

molecular equation--all species expressed in molecular form

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) HCl(aq) is really H+(aq) and Cl-(aq)

complete ionic equation--all species expressed in ionic form

H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

o o

note that spectator ions undergo no change net ionic equation--incl. only species that change
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

only soluble, strong electrolytes are written in ionic form

Examples
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq) 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq) + 2Na (aq) + 2OH (aq) 2H2O(l) + 2Na+(aq) + SO4 net ionic equation--incl. only species that change
o o
+ 2+ 2-

(aq)

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

only soluble, strong electrolytes are written in ionic form

Examples
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq) o 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq) + 2Na (aq) + 2OH (aq) 2H2O(l) + 2Na (aq) + SO4 (aq) net ionic equation--incl. only species that change
o
+ 2+ + 2-

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

only soluble, strong electrolytes are written in ionic form

Examples
o o

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq) 2H (aq) + + 2OH (aq) 2H2O(l)

+ -

Metathesis Reactions

General Form
o

ion partner exchange

AX + BY AY + BX Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Driving Forces
o o o

formation of an insoluble solid formation of a weak or non-electrolyte formation of a gas

Precipitation Reaction
o o o

formation of an insoluble solid know the solubility guidelines!! examples:

NaCl(aq) + KNO3(aq) NR

AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) AgCl(s)

+ KNO3(aq)

Formation of a weak or non-electrolyte

o o o

common example is an acid/base reaction--H2O forms know/recognize electrolyte vs non-electrolyte examples:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

NiO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ni(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

Formation of a gas
o o

gases exit the reacting solution driving the reaction examples:

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) (
H2CO3 H2O + CO3)

2HCl(aq) + Na2S(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2S(g)

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

the loss of electrons by a substance

o o o o o Ca(s) Ca2+ + 2eCl2(g) + 2e- 2ClCa(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s) Ca(s) + O2(g) CaO(s) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

the gain of electrons by a substance Oxidation and Reduction always occur together

Oxidation of Metals by Acids & Salts

o

metal + acid salt + hydrogen

Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g) Mg(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Zn(s)

Activity Series
o o o

metals arranged relative to the ease of their oxidation most active metals are the easiest to oxidize least active metals are the least easy to oxidize does a reaction occur between Co(s) and Cu(NO3)2(aq)?
which is the more active metal? the more active metal prefers the oxidized state Co(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) Co(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)
more less active

Examples:
o

what about Ag(s) and Pb(NO3)2(aq)?

2Ag(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)
less more active

NR

Solution Stoichiometry

Chemical Analysis of Solutions

o o o o

All discussions of stoichiometry apply to solutions as well as solid reactants and products use the same format for stoichiometric problems as in chapter 3 determine the moles of reactant, convert to moles of product a solution volume and concentration can give you solute moles

Practice Ex. 4.12:

What volume of 0.500 M HCl(aq) is required to react completely with 0.100 mol of Pb(NO3)2(aq), forming a precipitate of PbCl2(s)?

write a correct equation: 2HCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) determine amt. HCl to react w/ Pb(NO3)2: 0.100 mol Pb(NO3)2 x 2 mol HCl = 1mol Pb(NO3)2 convert mol HCl to vol. HCl solution: 0.200 mol HCl x 1 L sol'n = 0.500 mol HCl

0.200 mol HCl

0.400 L or 400 mL HCl

Practice Ex. 4.13:

o

What is the molarity of an NaOH solution if 48.0 mL is needed to neutralize 35.0 mL of 0.144 M H2SO4?
write the equation for the reaction: H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 0.144 M ?M 0.0350 L 0.0480 L H2O + Na2SO4(aq)

determine mol of H2SO4(aq) : 0.0350 L H2SO4 x 0.144 mol H2SO4 1 L sol'n

0.00504 mol H2SO4

Practice Ex. 4.13:

o

What is the molarity of an NaOH solution if 48.0 mL is needed to neutralize 35.0 mL of 0.144 M H2SO4? H
write the equation for the reaction: H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) H2O + Na2SO4(aq)

determine mol of NaOH: 0.00504 mol H2SO4 x

2 mol NaOH 1 mol H2SO4

0.0101 mol NaOH

determine Molarity of NaOH: 0.0101 mol NaOH = 0.0480 L sol'n

0.210 M NaOH

Titrations

Used commonly, but not exclusively, in neutralization reactions

the first reactant is "titrated" with the second reactant until stoichiometric equivalence is reached

the first reactant is added slowly, in small aliquots the concentration of the first reactant or the molarity of the second reactant

this is used to determine:

Practice Ex. 4.14:

o

What mass of chloride ion is present in a sample of water if 15.7 mL of 0.108 M AgNO3 is required to titrate the sample?

AgNO3(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + NO3-(aq) 0.0157 L ?g 0.108 M 0.0157 L x 0.108 mol Ag+ = 1 L sol'n 0.00170 mol Ag+ x 1mol Cl= + 1 mol Ag 0.00170 mol Clx 35.5 g Cl= 1 mol

0.00170 mol Ag+ 0.00170 mol Cl0.0602 g Cl-

Unit 2.7 - Chemical equilibria

Reversible reactions Some reactions are irreversible like 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

There are many more, which are reversible, in other words they can easily go backwards or forwards, like H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)

The symbol indicates that the reaction is reversible

Dynamic equilibrium

If a reaction is reversible

then it does not go to completion Both the forward reaction (reactants products) and the backward reaction (______________ _____________) can and do happen If the forward and backward reactions are happening at the same rate then the concentrations of the reactants and products will stay the _____________

Dynamic equilibrium The rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. Therefore, there is no further change in the concentrations of the reactants and products.

Graph of concentration vs. time

Graph of rate vs. time

Example - Formation of HI For the reaction H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)

To be at equilibrium, the rate of

[forward]

Must be equal to the rate of

2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)

[backward]

Case study - The Haber-Bosch process

Perhaps the best-known reversible reaction Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen The product, ammonia (NH3), is used in fertilizer and explosive manufacture Traditionally uses an iron catalyst Temperature 350-500 C High pressure 15-25 MPa Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch

reactants

products

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)

H = -92.4 kJ/mol

High pressure is used to increase the ___________ of ammonia High temperature is used to increase the __________ of reaction

Le Chetalierss principle

If a chemical system at equilibrium experiences a change in concentration, temperature, volume, or partial pressure, then the equilibrium

In other words

1. Effect of temperature

Remember o o Exothermic (-ve H) reactions ___________ energy to the surroundings making them _________ Endothermic (+ve H) reactions ___________ energy from the surroundings making them ___________

Exothermic reactions Increase temperature Decrease temperature

Favour the backward reaction, which is endothermic, and move the position of equilibrium towards the reactants

Favour the ______________ reaction, which is _____thermic and move the position of equilibrium towards the ______________

Endothermic reactions Increase temperature Decrease temperature

Favour the ____________ reaction, which is _____thermic, and move the position of equilibrium towards the ______________

Favour the ______________ reaction, which is _____thermic, and move the position of equilibrium towards the ______________

Case study - The Haber-Bosch process

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)

H = -92.4 kJ/mol (exothermic)

Forward reaction:

Backward reaction:

The effect of increasing the temperature would be

The effect of decreasing the temperature would be

NB The reaction is done at a compromise temperature (350-500 C) and uses a catalyst to achieve a commercially viable rate of reaction. Lower temperatures would give a higher yield of ammonia but the reaction would take much longer. 2. Effect of pressure

Again using the Haber-Bosch process as an example:

reactants

products

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)

moles of gas moles of gas

As you can see there are __________ moles of gas on the left hand side of this equation Therefore, the forward reaction has the effect of _____________ the pressure (producing more gas would increase the pressure) For the Haber-Bosch process high pressure favours the production of the _____________ ammonia as the equilibrium shifts in order to counteract the _____________ in pressure Lowering the pressure would favour the ________________ reaction

More moles of gaseous reactants Increase pressure Decrease pressure

Favour the forward reaction and move the position of equilibrium towards the reactants thus counteracting the initial increase

Favour the ______________ reaction, which is and move the position of equilibrium towards the ______________

More moles of gaseous products Increase pressure Decrease pressure

NB

This only applies to equilibrium

reactions involving gases. Reducing the volume or adding more gas to the same volume can increase pressure.

3. Effect of concentration The effect of altering the concentration of one or both of the reactants applies to reactions that are carried out in solution. As the Haber-Bosch process involves a gas-phase reaction we will have to find another example:

2CrO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) Cr2O72-(aq) + H2O(l)

Chromate(VI) Yellow Dichromate(VI) Orange

Addition of excess acid Adding excess acid causes the equilibrium to shift to the __________ to oppose the change (increase in reactant ________________) and as more dichromate(VI) ions are produced, the solution turns ________________

Addition of excess alkali

Increasing the concentration of reactants favours the _________________ reaction Reducing the concentration of reactants favours the _________________ reaction

Effect of catalyst Catalysts are substances that _______________ the rate of a chemical reaction but remain unchanged themselves They do this by providing an alternative route with a lower activation energy They have no effect on the position of equilibrium They speed up both the forward and backward reactions so equilibrium is reached faster

Nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2(g) N2O4(g)
brown colourless

H = -57 kJ/mol

Forward reaction: Backward reaction: The forward reaction is _______thermic Increasing the temperature favours the _____________ reaction Decreasing the temperature favours the _____________ reaction

If we reduced the temperature we will observe

If we increase the temperature we will observe

Methane hydrate

Methane hydrate (also known as methane clathrate and fire ice) is a solid substance containing methane molecules surrounded by cage-like structures of water molecules. Huge deposits of methane hydrate exist on deepsea beds around the world. Up to

ten times the current natural gas reserves may be trapped in hydrates. Methane is also a powerful greenhouse gas; any sudden release could be catastrophic.

The methane in hydrates is in equilibrium with gaseous methane:

methane hydrate(s) methane(g) + water(l)

= +ve Effect of increasing pressure on this equilibrium

Effect of increasing temperature on this equilibrium

Notes on Acids and Bases

General Definitions Properties Water Dissociation pH Strength of Acids & Bases Acid & Base Reactions Titrations Models of Acids

1. General Definitions:
Acid: a substance which when added to water produces hydrogen ions [H ].
+

Base: a substance which when added to water produces hydroxide ions

[OH-].

2. Properties:
Acids:
react with zinc, magnesium, or aluminum and form hydrogen (H 2(g)) react with compounds containing CO32- and form carbon dioxide and water turn litmus red taste sour (lemons contain citric acid, for example) DO NOT TASTE ACIDS IN THE LABORATORY!!

Bases:
feel soapy or slippery turn litmus blue they react with most cations to precipitate hydroxides taste bitter (ever get soap in your mouth?) DO NOT TASTE BASES IN THE LABORATORY!!

3. Water dissociation: H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

equilibrium constant, KW = [H+][OH-] / [H2O]
Note: water is not involved in the equilibrium expression because it is a pure liquid, also, the amount of water not dissociated is so large compared to that dissociated that we consider it a constant

Value for Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

Note: The reverse reaction, H+(aq) + OH-(aq) [H+] for pure water = 1 x 10-7 [OH-] for pure water = 1 x 10-7 H2O(l) is not equal to 1 x 10-14

Definitions of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on [H+]

acidic: if [H+] is greater than 1 x 10-7 M basic: if [H+] is less than1 x 10-7 M neutral: if [H+] if equal to 1 x 10-7 M

Example 1: What is the [H+] of a sample of lake water with [OH-] of 4.0 x 10-9 M? Is the lake acidic, basic, or neutral?

Solution: [H+] = 1 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-9 = 2.5 x 10-6 M Therefore the lake is slightly acidic Remember: the smaller the negative exponent, the larger the number is. Therefore: acid solutions should have exponents of [H+] from 0 to -6. basic solutions will have exponents of [H+] from -8 on.

Example 2: What is the [H+] of human saliva if its [OH-] is 4 x 10-8 M? Is human saliva acidic, basic, or neutral? Solution: [H+] = 1.0 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-8 = 2.5 x 10-7 M The saliva is pretty neutral.

4. pH
relationship between [H+] and pH pH = -log10[H+] Definition of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on pH acidic: if pH is less than 7 basic: if pH is greater than 7 neutral: if pH is equal to 7
The [H+] can be calculated from the pH by taking the antilog of the negative pH Example 3: calculate the [OH-] of a solution of baking soda with a pH of 8.5. Solution: First calculate the [H+] if pH is 8.5, then the antilog of -8.5 is 3.2 x 10-9. Thus the [H+] is 3.2 x 10-9 M Next calculate the [OH-] 1.0 x 10-14 / 3.2 x 10-9 = 3.1 x 10-6 M Example 4: Calculate the pH of a solution of household ammonia whose [OH-] is 7.93 x 10-3 M. Solution: This time you first calculate the [H+] from the [OH-]

7.93 x 10-3 M OH- = 1.26 x 10-12 M H+ Then find the pH -log[1.26 x 10-12] = 11.9 Now you try a few by yourself. You can then check your answers using the Java applet that follows, but remember, you won't learn how to do them if you don't try by yourself first. Practice #1. What is the pH of a solution of NaOH that has a [OH-] of 3.5 x 10-3 M? Practice #2. The H+ of vinegar that has a pH of 3.2 is what? Practice #3. What is the pH of a 0.001 M HCl solution?

How can pH be determined experimentally?

By using pH paper or a pH meter

5. Strength of Acids and Bases: Acids

1. Strong Acids:
completely dissociate in water, forming H+ and an anion. example: HN03 dissociates completely in water to form H+ and N031-. The reaction is HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + N031-(aq)

A 0.01 M solution of nitric acid contains 0.01 M of H+ and 0.01 M N03- ions and almost no HN03 molecules. The pH of the solution would be 2.0. 1. HCl 2. 3. 4. 5. H2SO4 HNO3 HClO4 HBr

There are only 6 strong acids: You must learn them. The remainder of the acids therefore are considered weak acids.

6. HI Note: when a strong acid dissociates only one H+ ion is removed. H2S04 dissociates giving H+ and HS04- ions. H2SO4 H+ + HSO41-

A 0.01 M solution of sulfuric acid would contain 0.01 M H+ and 0.01 M HSO41(bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate ion).

2. Weak acids:
a weak acid only partially dissociates in water to give H+ and the anion for example, HF dissociates in water to give H+ and F-. It is a weak acid. with a dissociation equation that is HF(aq) H+(aq) + F-(aq)

Note the use of the double arrow with the weak acid. That is because an equilibrium exists between the dissociated ions and the undissociated molecule. In the case of a strong acid dissociating, only one arrow ( ) is required since the reaction goes virtually to completion. An equilibrium expression can be written for this system: Ka = [ H+][F-] / [HF]

Which are the weak acids? Anything that dissociates in water to produce H and is not one of the 6 strong acids. 1. Molecules containing an ionizable proton. (If the formula starts with H then it is a prime candidate for being an acid.) Also: organic acids have at least one carboxyl group, COOH, with the H being ionizable. 2. Anions that contain an ionizable proton. ( HSO41- H+ + SO42- ) 3. Cations: (transition metal cations and heavy metal cations with high charge) also NH4+ dissociates into NH3 + H+

Bases
1. Strong Bases:
They dissociate 100% into the cation and OH- (hydroxide ion). example: NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

a. 0.010 M NaOH solution will contain 0.010 M OH- ions (as well as 0.010 M Na+ ions) and have a pH of 12. Which are the strong bases? The hydroxides of Groups I and II.

Note: the hydroxides of Group II metals produce 2 mol of OH- ions for every mole of base that dissociates. These hydroxides are not very soluble, but what amount that does dissolve completely dissociates into ions. exampIe: Ba(OH)2(aq) Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

a. 0.000100 M Ba(OH)2 solution will be 0.000200 M in OH- ions (as well as 0.00100 M in Ba2+ ions) and will have a pH of 10.3.

2. Weak Bases:
What compounds are considered to be weak bases? 1. Most weak bases are anions of weak acids. 2. Weak bases do not furnish OH- ions by dissociation. They react with water to furnish the OH- ions. Note that like weak acids, this reaction is shown to be at equilibrium, unlike the dissociation of a strong base which is shown to go to completion. 3. When a weak base reacts with water the OH- comes from the water and the remaining H+ attaches itsef to the weak base, giving a weak acid as one of the products. You may think of it as a two-step reaction similar to the hydrolysis of water by cations to give acid solutions. examples: NH3(aq) + H2O(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) CH3NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)

methylamine: CH3NH2(aq) + H20(l)

acetate ion: C2H3O2-(aq) + H2O(aq) HC2H302(aq) + OH-(aq)

General reaction: weak base(aq) + H2O(aq) weak acid(aq) + OH-(aq)

Since the reaction does not go to completion relatively few OH- ions are formed.

Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions:

definition of a salt: an ionic compound made of a cation and an anion, other than hydroxide. the product besides water of a neutralization reaction

determining acidity or basicity of a salt solution: 1. split the salt into cation and anion 2. add OH- to the cation

a. if you obtain a strong base. the cation is neutral b. if you get a weak base, the cation is acidic 3. Add H+ to the anion a. if you obtain a strong acid, the anion is neutral b. if you obtain a weak acid. the anion is basic 4. 5. 6. 7. Salt solutions are neutral if both ions are neutral Salt solutions are acidic if one ion is neutral and the other is acidic Salt solutions are basic is one of the ions is basic and the other is neutral. The acidity or basicity of a salt made of one acidic ion and one basic ion cannot be determined without further information.

Examples: determine if the following solutions are acidic, basic, or neutral Click on each one to find out the answer. KC2H3O2 Cu(NO3)2 KClO4 NaHPO4 LiHS NH4Cl

6. Acid-Base Reactions:
Strong acid + strong base: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O net ionic reaction: H+ + OH- H2O Strong acid + weak base: example: write the net ionic equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl, and aqueous ammonia, NH3. What is the pH of the resulting solution? Strong base + weak acid: example: write the net ionic equation for the reaction between citric acid (H 3C6H507) and sodium hydroxide. What is the pH of the resulting solution?

7. Titrations
1. Nomenclature: these are terms that are used when talking about titrating one substance with another. You need to learn these definitions well enough to explain them to someone else.
titration

titrant indicator equivalence point end point titration cuve

2. Strong acid-strong base titration

example: titration curve pH at equivalence point species present appropriate indicators

3. Strong acid-weak base titration

example titration curve pH at end point species present appropriate indicators

4. Weak acid-strong base titrations

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Dictionary of chemical formulas

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

This is a list of chemical compounds with chemical formulas and CAS numbers, indexed by formula. This complements alternative listings to be found at list of organic compounds and inorganic compounds by element. Note: There are elements where spellings differ, such as Aluminum/Aluminium, Sulphur/Sulfur, Cesium/Caesium.
Table of contents: A B C Ca-Cu D E F G H I K L M N O P R S T U V W X Y Z &

Tables to be merged
Inorganic: Organic:

A B Ca-Cu G H I L M N O P S
C C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 C19 C20 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25-C29 C30-C39 C40-C49 C50-C100

A
Chemical formula Ac2O3 AgBF4 AgBr AgBrO3 AgCl AgClO4 AgCN AgF AgF2 AgI AgIO3 Synonyms actinium(III) oxide silver tetrafluoroborate silver bromide silver bromate silver chloride silver perchlorate silver cyanide silver fluoride silver difluoride silver iodide silver iodate 14104-20-2 7785-23-1 7783-89-3 7783-90-6 7783-93-9 506-64-9 7775-41-9 7775-41-9 7783-96-2 7783-97-3 CAS number

AgMnO4 AgN3 AgNO3 Ag2O AgONC AgPF6 AgSNC Ag2C2 Ag2CO3 Ag2C2O4 Ag2Cl2 Ag2CrO4 Ag2Cr2O7 Ag2F Ag2MoO4 Ag2O Ag2S Ag2SO4 Ag2Se Ag2SeO3 Ag2SeO4 Ag2Te

silver permanganate silver azide silver nitrate silver oxide silver fulminate silver hexafluorophosphate silver thiocyanate silver acetylide silver(I) carbonate silver oxalate silver(II) dichloride silver chromate silver dichromate silver subfluoride silver molybdate silver(I) oxide silver sulfide silver sulfate silver selenide silver selenite silver selenate silver(I) telluride

7783-98-4 13863-88-2 7761-88-8 1301-96-8 5610-59-3 26042-63-7 1701-93-5 7659-31-6 534-16-7 533-51-7 75763-82-5 7784-01-2

1302-01-8 13765-74-7 20667-12-3 21548-73-2 10294-26-5 1302-09-6 7784-05-6 7784-07-8 12002-99-2

Ag3Br2 Ag3Br3 Ag3Cl3 Ag3I3 Ag3PO4 AlBO AlBO2 AlBr AlBr3 AlCl AlClF AlClF2 AlClO AlCl3 AlCl2F AlCl3 AlCl4Cs AlCl4K AlCl4Na AlCl4Rb AlCl6K3 AlCl6Na3

silver dibromide silver tribromide silver(III) trichloride silver(III) triiodide silver phosphate aluminium boron oxide aluminium borate aluminium monobromide aluminium tribromide aluminium monochloride aluminium chloride fluoride aluminium chloride fluoride aluminium chloride oxide aluminium chloride aluminium chloride fluoride aluminium trichloride aluminium caesium tetrachloride potassium tetrachloroaluminate sodium tetrachloroaluminate aluminium rubidium tetrachloride potassium hexachloroaluminate sodium hexachloroaluminate

11078-32-3 11078-33-4 12444-96-1 37375-12-5 7784-09-0 12041-48-4 61279-70-7 22359-97-3 7727-15-3 13595-81-8 22395-91-1 13814-65-8 13596-11-7 16603-84-2 13497-96-6 7446-70-0 17992-03-9 13821-13-1 7784-16-9 17992-02-8 13782-08-6 60172-46-5

AlF AlFO AlF2 AlF2O AlF3 AlF4K AlF4Li AlF6K3 AlF6Li3 AlF6Na3 AlGaInP Al(OH)3 AlI AlI3 AlLiO2 AlN Al(NO3)3 AlNaO2 AlO AlOSi AlO2 AlP

aluminium monofluoride aluminium monofluoride monoxide aluminium difluoride aluminium difluoride oxide aluminium trifluoride potassium tetrafluoroaluminate lithium tetrafluoroaluminate potassium hexafluoraluminate lithium hexafluoroaluminate cryolite aluminium-gallium-indium phosphide aluminium hydroxide aluminium monoiodide aluminium triiodide lithium aluminate aluminium nitride aluminium nitrate sodium aluminate aluminium monoxide aluminium silicon monoxide Aluminium(IV) oxide aluminium monophosphide

13595-82-9 13596-12-8 13569-23-8 38344-66-0 7784-18-1 14484-69-6 15138-76-8 13775-52-5 13821-20-0 15096-52-3

21645-51-2 29977-41-1 7784-23-8 12003-67-7 24304-00-5 13473-90-0 1302-42-7 14457-64-8 37361-47-0 11092-32-3 20859-73-8

AlPO4 AlTe AlTe2 Al2BeO4 Al2Br6 Al2(CO3)3 Al2Cl9K3 Al2CoO4 Al2F6 Al2I6 Al2MgO4 Al2O Al2O2 Al2O3 Al2O5Si Al2O5Si Al2O5Si Al2O7Si2 Al2S Al2S3 Al2(SO4)3 Al2Se

aluminium phosphate aluminium monotelluride monoaluminium ditelluride beryllium aluminium oxide dialuminium hexabromide aluminium carbonate potassium aluminium chloride cobalt blue aluminium fluoride aluminium iodide magnesium aluminium oxide dialuminium monoxide dialuminium dioxide aluminium oxide aluminium silicate aluminium silicate andalusite aluminium silicate dialuminium monosulfide aluminium sulfide aluminium sulfate dialuminium selenide

7784-30-7 23330-86-1 39297-18-2 12004-06-7 18898-34-5 14455-29-9 74978-20-4 1333-88-6 17949-86-9 18898-35-6 12068-51-8 12004-36-3 12252-63-0 1344-28-1 1302-76-7 12141-46-7 12183-80-1 1332-58-7 12004-45-4 1302-81-4 14455-29-9 12598-14-0

Al2Te Al3F14Na5 Al6BeO10 Al6O13Si2 ArClF ArClH ArFH AsBrO AsBr3 AsClO AsCl3 AsCl3O AsCl4F AsF3 AsF5 AsH3 AsI3 AsO AsO2 AsP AsP3 AsTl

dialuminium telluride chiolite beryllium aluminium oxide mullite argon chloride fluoride argon chloride hydride argon fluoride hydride arsenic oxybromide arsenic tribromide arsenic monoxide monochloride arsenic trichloride arsenic oxychloride arsenic tetrachloride fluoride arsenic trifluoride arsenic pentafluoride arsine arsenic triiodide arsenic monoxide arsenic dioxide arsenic monophosphide arsenic triphosphide thallium arsenide

12598-16-2 1302-84-7 12253-74-6 1302-93-8 53169-15-6 163731-17-7 163731-16-6 82868-10-8 7784-33-0 14525-25-8 7784-34-1 60646-36-8 87198-15-0 7784-35-2 7784-36-3 7784-42-1 7784-45-4 12005-99-1 12255-12-8 12255-33-3 12511-95-4 12006-09-6

As2I4 As2O3 As2P2 As2O5 As2S4 As2S5 As2Se As2Se3 As2Se5 As3O4 As3P As4O3 As4O5 As4S3 As4S4 AuBO AuBr AuBr3 AuCN AuCl AuCl3 AuF3

arsenic diiodide arsenic trioxide arsenic diphosphide arsenic pentaoxide arsenic tetrasulfide arsenic pentasulfide arsenic hemiselenide arsenic triselenide arsenic pentaselenide arsenic tetraoxide arsenic(III) phosphide tetraarsenic trioxide tetraarsenic pentaoxide tetraarsenic trisulfide tetraarsenic tetrasulfide gold monoboride monoxide gold bromide gold tribromide gold cyanide gold chloride gold trichloride gold trifluoride

13770-56-4 1327-53-3 12512-03-7 1303-28-2 1303-32-8 1303-34-0 1303-35-1 1303-36-2 1303-37-3 83527-53-1 12512-11-7 83527-54-2 83527-55-3 12512-13-9 12279-90-2 12588-90-8 10294-27-6 10294-28-7 506-65-0 10294-29-8 13453-07-1 14720-21-9

AuI AuI3 Au(OH)3 AuTe Au2O3 Au2S Au2S3 Au2(SeO4)3 Au2Se3

gold iodide gold(III) iodide gold hydroxide gold telluride gold trioxide gold sulfide gold trisulfide gold triselenate gold triselenide

10294-31-2 31032-13-0 1303-52-2 37043-71-3 1303-58-8 1303-60-2 1303-61-3 10294-32-3 1303-62-4

B
Chemical formula BAs BAsO4 BBr3 BCl3 BF3 BI3 BN B(OH)3 BP BPO4 B2Cl4 Synonyms boron arsenide boron(III) arsenate boron tribromide boron trichloride boron trifluoride boron iodide boron nitride boric acid boron(III) phosphide boron(III) orthophosphate boron chloride 10294-33-4 10294-34-5 7637-07-2 13517-10-7 10043-11-5 10043-35-3 20205-91-8 13308-51-5 13701-67-2 CAS number 12005-69-5

B2F4 B2H6 B2O3 B2S3 B3N3H6 B4C Ba(AlO2)2 Ba(AsO3)2 Ba(AsO4)2 BaB6 Ba(BrO3)2H2O Ba(BrO3)22H2O BaBr2 Ba(CHO2)2 Ba(C2H3O2)2 Ba(CN)2 BaC2O4 BaC2 BaCO3 Ba(ClO4)2 BaCl2 BaCrO4

boron trifluoride boron hydride boron(III) oxide boron sulfide borazine boron carbide barium aluminate barium arsenite barium arsenate barium hexaboride barium bromate monohydrate barium bromate dihydrate barium bromide barium formate barium acetate barium cyanide barium oxalate barium carbide barium carbonate witherite barium perchlorate barium chloride barium chromate

13965-73-6 19287-45-7 1303-86-2 12007-33-9 6569-51-3 12069-32-8 12004-04-5 125687-68-5 56997-31-0 12046-08-1 10326-26-8

10553-31-8 541-43-5 543-81-7 542-62-1 516-02-9 50813-65-5 513-77-9 13465-95-7 10361-37-2 10294-40-3

barium chromate(VI) BaF2 BaFeSi4O10 BaHgI4 BaI2 BaK2(CrO4)2 BaMnO4 Ba(MnO4)2 BaMoO4 BaN6 Ba(NO2)2 Ba(NO3)2 Ba(NbO3)2 BaNb2O6 BaO Ba(OH)2 BaO2 Ba(PO3)2 BaS Ba(SCN)2 BaS2O3 BaSiF6 barium fluoride gillespite barium tetraiodomercurate(II) barium iodide barium potassium chromate barium manganate barium permanganate barium molybdate barium azide barium nitrite barium nitrate barium niobate barium metaniobate barium oxide barium hydroxide baryta barium dioxide barium metaphosphate barium sulfide barium thiocyanate barium thiosulfate barium hexafluorosilicate 10048-99-4 13718-50-8 27133-66-0 7787-35-1 7787-36-2 7787-37-3 18810-58-7 13465-94-6 10022-31-8 12009-14-2 12009-14-2 1304-28-5 17194-00-2 1304-29-6 13466-20-1 21109-95-5 2092-17-3 35112-53-9 17125-80-3 7787-32-8

BaSO3 BaSO4 BaSe BaSeO3 BaSeO4 BaSiO3 BaSi2 BaSi2O5 BaSn3 BaTeO3 BaTeO43H2O BaTiO3 BaU2O7 BaWO4 BaZrO3 Ba2Na(NbO3)5 Ba2P2O7 Ba2V2O7 Ba2XeO6 Ba3(CrO4)2 Ba3N2

barium sulfite barium sulfate barite barium selenide barium selenite barium selenate barium metasilicate barium silicide barium disilicate barium stannate barium tellurite barium tellurate trihydrate barium titanate barium metatitanate barium uranium oxide barium tungstate barium zirconate barium sodium niobate barium pyrophosphate barium pyrovanadate barium perxenate barium chromate(V) barium nitride

7787-39-5 7787-43-7 1304-39-8 13718-59-7 7787-41-9 13255-26-0 1304-40-1 12650-28-1 12009-18-6 58440-17-8 28557-54-2 12047-27-7 10380-31-1 7787-42-0 12009-21-1 12323-03-4 13466-21-2

12345-14-1 12047-79-9

Ba3(PO4)2 Ba3(VO4)2 BeB2 Be(BH4)2 BeBr2 Be(CHO2)2 Be(C2H3O2)2 Be(C5H7O2)2 BeCl2 BeF2 BeI2 BeO Be(OH)2 BeS BeSO4 Be2C Be3N2 BiBO3 BiBr3 Bi(C2H3O2)3 BiC6H5O7 BiCl3

barium orthophosphate barium orthovandate beryllium boride beryllium borohydride beryllium bromide beryllium formate beryllium acetate beryllium acetylacetonate beryllium chloride beryllium fluoride beryllium iodide beryllium oxide bromellite beryllium hydroxide beryllium sulfide beryllium sulfate beryllium carbide beryllium nitride bismuth(III) orthoborate bismuth(III) bromide bismuth(III) acetate bismuth(III) citrate bismuth(III) chloride 7787-58-8 22306-37-2 813-93-4 7787-60-2 39416-30-3 12228-40-9 17440-85-6 7787-46-4 1111-71-3 543-81-7 10210-64-7 7787-47-5 7787-49-7 7787-53-3 1304-56-9 13327-32-7 13598-22-6 13510-49-1 506-66-1 1304-54-7

BiF3 BiI3 Bi(NO3)35H2O BiOCl BiOI (BiO)2CO3 BiPO4 Bi(VO3)5 Bi2Se3 Bi2(MoO4)3 Bi2O3 Bi2S3 Bi2Se3 BrCl BrO3 Br2

bismuth(III) fluoride bismuth(III) iodide

7787-61-3 7787-64-6

bismuth(III) nitrate pentahydrate 10035-06-0 bismuth(III) oxychloride bismuth(III) oxyiodide bismuth oxycarbonate bismuth(III) orthophosphate bismuth(III) metavanadate bismuth(III) selenide bismuth selenide bismuth(III) molybdate bismuth(III) oxide bismuth(III) sulfide bismuthinite bismuth(III) selenide bromine chloride bromate ion bromine 12068-69-8 13565-96-3 1304-76-3 1345-07-9 12068-69-8 13863-41-7 15541-45-4 7726-95-6 7787-59-9 7787-63-5 5892-10-4 10049-01-1

C
Chemical compound CCl2F2 Synonyms dichlorodifluoromethane freon-12 carbon tetrachloride tetrachloromethane CAS number 75-71-8

CCl4

56-23-5

CFCl3 CFCl2CF2Cl

freon-11 freon-13 chloroform trichloromethane methyl trichloride formate ion 1,3-butadiene ketene chloroacetic acid dichloromethane formaldehyde ethylene glycol propyne 2-butene propene acetaldehyde bromoethane butan-1-ol 1-propanol propan-1-ol propanamide propionic acid diethyl ether ethoxyethane

75-69-4

CHCl3

67-66-3

CHO2 CH2CHCHCH2 CH2CO CH2ClCOOH CH2Cl2 CH2O CH2OHCH2OH CH3CCH CH3CHCHCH3 CH3CHCH2 CH3CHO CH3CH2Br CH3CH2CH2CH2OH CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CH2CONH2 CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2OCH2CH3

106-99-0

75-09-2 19710-56-6

CH3CH2OH CH3(CH2)16COOH CH3COCH3 CH3COCl CH3CONH2 CH3COO CH3COOCHCH2 CH3COOCH2C6H5

ethanol stearic acid acetone acetyl chloride acetamide ethanamide acetate ion vinyl acetate benzyl acetate

CH3COO(CH2)2CH(CH3)2 isoamyl acetate CH3COOH acetic acid ethanoic acid chloromethane methyl chloride iodomethane methyl iodide dimethyl ether methanol dimethyl sulfide DMS methanethiol isopropyl alcohol 2-propanol propan-2-ol isopropanol acetone 74-87-3

CH3Cl

CH3I CH3OCH3 CH3OH CH3SCH3 CH3SH

74-88-4

(CH3)2CHOH

(CH3)2CO

(CH3)2C2O4 (CH3)2NNH2 (CH3)2S+CH2CH2COO (CH3)3CCl (CH)3COH (CH3)3COOC(CH3)3

dimethyl oxalate dimethyl hydrazine dimethylsulfoniopropionate DMSP t-butyl chloride t-butyl alcohol di-t-butyl peroxide DTBP methane natural gas cyanide ion guanidine nitrate cyanate ion carbon monoxide phosgene carbon dioxide carbon trioxide carbonate ion carbon disulfide tetrafluoroethylene acetylene vinyl chloride acetate ion ethylene 74-85-1 75-15-0 116-14-3 74-86-2 75-01-4 630-08-0 75-44-5 124-38-9 74-82-8

CH4 CN C(NH2)3NO3 CNO CO COCl2 CO2 CO3 CO32 CS2 C2F4 C2H2 C2H3Cl C2H3O2 C2H4

C2H4Cl2 C2H4O2 C2H5Br C2H5NH2 C2H5NO2 C2H5O C2H5OH (C2H5)2NH C2H6 C2H6OS C2O42 C3H3O4 C3H5N3O9

ethylene dichloride acetic acid bromoethane ethylamine glycine Gly ethoxide ion ethanol ethyl alcohol diethylamine ethane dimethyl sulfoxide DMSO oxalate ion malonate ion nitroglycerine cyclopropane

107-06-2 64-19-7 74-96-4

56-40-6

74-84-0 67-68-5

75-19-4 115-07-1 56-41-7

C3H6 propylene C3H7NO2 alanine Ala cysteine Cys serine Ser propane

C3H7NO2S

52-90-4

C3H7NO3 C3H8

56-45-1 74-98-6

C3H8O

propanol 1-propanol 2-propanol

71-23-8 67-63-0

C3N3(OH)3 C3N12

cyanuric acid cyanuric triazide 2-bromobutyric acid 4-bromobutyric acid 5637-83-2 80-58-0 2623-87-2 2052-01-9 105-36-2 56-84-8 287-23-0 70-47-3

C4H7BrO2 -bromoisobutyric acid ethyl bromoacetate C4H7NO4 C4H8 C4H8N2O3 aspartic acid Asp cyclobutane asparagine Asn tetrahydrofuran THF threonine Thr butyl alcohol butane C4H10 2-methylpropane C4H10O C5H4NCOOH C5H5 C5H5N diethyl ether niacin cyclopentadienyl anion pyridine 110-86-1 75-28-5 60-29-7 106-97-8

C4H8O

109-99-9

C4H9NO3 C4H9OH

72-19-5

C5H9NO2

proline Pro glutamic acid Glu cyclopentane glutamine Gln deoxyribose valine Val methionine Met pentane pentafluorobenzoic acid orthobenzoquinone

147-85-3

C5H9NO4 C5H10 C5H10N2O3 C5H10O4 C5H11NO2

56-86-0 287-92-3 56-85-9 533-67-5 660-88-8

C5H11NO2S C5H12 C6F5COOH

25343-91-3 109-66-0

583-63-1 106-51-4

C6H4O2

parabenzoquinone quinone benzaldehyde benzyl alcohol benzoyl chloride benzoate ion benzoic acid fluorobenzene phenol citrate ion

C6H5CHO C6H5CH2OH C6H5COCl C6H5COO C6H5COOH C6H5F C6H5OH C6H5O73

65-85-0 462-06-6

(C6H5)4Ge C6H6

tetraphenylgermane benzene catechol 71-43-2 120-80-9 123-31-9 108-46-3 77-92-9 71-00-1 3128-06-1 6295-06-3 141-97-9 25584-83-2 599-04-2

C6H6O2 (benzenediols)

hydroquinone resorcinol

C6H8O7 C6H9N3O2

citric acid histidine His 4-acetylbutyric acid butyl glyoxylate ethyl acetoacetate

C6H10O3 2-hydroxypropyl acrylate pantolactone propyl pyruvate C6H12 cyclohexane fructose C6H12O6 glucose C6H13NO N-ethylmorpholine isoleucine Ile C6H13NO2 leucine Leu C6H14 C6H14N2O2 hexane lysine 61-90-5 110-54-3 56-87-1 50-99-7 1119-29-5 73-32-5 110-82-7 7660-25-5

Lys C6H14N4O2 C7H8 C7H16 C8H8 C8H9NO2 C8H18 C9H8O4 arginine Arg toluene heptane cubane acetaminophen octane acetylsalicylic acid aspirin phenylalanine Phe tyrosine Tyr nonane naphthalene mentha spicata herb oil ephedrine camphor decane tryptophan Trp undecane biphenyl maltose 74-79-3 108-88-3 142-82-5 277-10-1 103-90-2 111-65-9 50-78-2

C9H11NO2

63-91-2

C9H11NO3 C9H20 C10H8 C10H14O C10H15ON C10H16O C10H22 C11H12N2O2 C11H24 C12H10 C12H22O11

31330-59-3 111-84-2 91-20-3 8008-79-5 56370-30-0 76-22-2 124-18-5 73-22-3 1120-21-4 92-52-4 69-79-4

sucrose C12H26 C13H10O C13H12O C13H28 C14H10 C14H10O14 C14H18N2O5 C14H30 C15H32 C16H34 C17H36 C18H32O2 C18H36O2 C18H38 C19H40 C20H24O2N2 C20H42 C21H36N7O16P3S C164H256Na2O68S2 Cl2O8 dodecane benzophenone -ionone tridecane anthracene benzoyl peroxide aspartame tetradecane pentadecane hexadecane heptadecane linoleic acid stearic acid octadecane nonadecane quinine eicosane Coenzyme A maitotoxin Chlorine octaoxide

57-50-1 112-40-3 119-61-9 2484-16-4 629-50-5 120-12-7 94-36-0 81-14-1 629-59-4 629-62-9 544-76-3 629-78-7 60-33-3 57-11-4 593-45-3 629-92-5 130-95-0 112-95-8 31416-98-5 59392-53-9

Ca-Cu
Chemical formula CaB6 CaBr2 Ca(CN)2 Synonyms calcium boride calcium bromide calcium cyanide calcium carbonate spent lime calcite limestone marble calcium carbide calcium formate calcium acetate calcium oxalate calcium chloride calcium chlorate calcium perchlorate calcium fluoride fluorite calcium hydride calcium hypophosphite calcium iodide calcium iodate calcium molybdate calcium nitrite CAS number 12007-99-7 7789-41-5 592-01-8

CaCO3

471-34-1

CaC2 Ca(CHO2)2 Ca(C2H3O2)2 CaC2O4 CaCl2 Ca(ClO3)2 Ca(ClO4)2 CaF2 CaH2 Ca(H2PO2)2 CaI2 Ca(IO3)2 CaMoO4 Ca(NO2)2

75-20-7 544-17-2 62-54-4 563-72-4 10043-52-4 10137-74-3 13477-36-6 7789-75-5 7789-78-8 7789-79-9 10102-68-8 7789-80-2 7789-82-4 13780-06-8

Ca(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2 4H2O Ca(NbO3)2

calcium nitrate Calcium nitrate tetrahydrate calcium metaniobate quicklime calcium oxide burnt lime calcium hypochlorite calcium hydroxide slaked lime calcium peroxide calcium sulfide hepar calcies sulfurated lime oldhamite calcium sulfate whiskers crystal plaster of paris calcium sulfate hemihydrate calcium selenide calcium selenite calcium selenate calcium metasilicate wollastonite calcium telluride calcium tellurite calcium tellurate

10124-37-5 13477-34-4

CaO

1305-78-8

Ca(ClO)2 Ca(OH)2 CaO2

1305-62-0 1305-79-9

CaS

20548-54-3

CaSO4

7778-18-9

CaSO4 0.5H2O CaSe CaSeO3 CaSeO4 CaSiO3 CaTe CaTeO3 CaTeO4

10034-76-1 1305-84-6

1344-95-2 12013-57-9

CaTiO3 Ca(VO3)2 Ca(VO4)2 CaWO4 Ca3N2 Ca3P2 CdBr2 Cd(CN)2 CdCO3 Cd(C2H3O2)2 CdC2O4 CdCl2 CdCrO4 CdF2 CdI2 Cd(IO3)2 CdMoO4 Cd(NO3)2 Cd(N3)2 CdO Cd(OH)2 CdS

calcium titanate calcium metavanadate calcium orthovanadate calcium tungstate calcium nitride calcium phosphide cadmium bromide cadmium cyanide cadmium carbonate cadmium acetate cadmium oxalate cadmium chloride cadmium chromate cadmium fluoride cadmium iodide cadmium iodate cadmium molybdate cadmium nitrate cadmium azide cadmium oxide cadmium hydroxide cadmium sulfide greenockite

12049-50-2

7790-75-2 12013-82-0 1305-99-3 7789-42-6 542-83-6 513-78-0 543-90-8 814-88-0 10108-64-2 14312-00-6 7790-79-6 7790-80-9 7790-81-0 13972-68-4 10325-94-7 14215-29-3 1306-19-0 21041-95-2 1306-23-6

CdSO3 CdSO4 CdSb CdSe CdSeO3 CdSiO3 Cd(TaO3)2 CdTe CdTeO4 CdTiO3 CdWO4 CdZrO3 Cd2Nb2O7 Cd3As2 Cd3P2 Cd3(PO4)2 CeB6 CeBr3 CeC CeCl3 CeF3 CeF4

cadmium sulfite cadmium sulfate cadmium antimonide cadmium selenide cadmoselite cadmium selenite cadmium metasilicate cadmium metatantalate cadmium telluride cadmium tellurate cadmium titanate cadmium tungstate cadmium metazirconate cadmium niobate cadmium arsenide cadmium phosphide cadmium phosphate cerium boride cerium(III) bromide cerium carbide cerium(III) chloride cerium(III) fluoride cerium(IV) fluoride 12008-02-5 14457-87-5 12012-32-7 7790-86-5 7758-88-5 7758-88-5 12187-14-3 12006-15-4 12014-28-7 12014-14-1 7790-85-4 1306-25-8 13477-19-5 10124-36-4 12014-29-8 1306-24-7

CeI2 CeI3 CeN CeO2 CeS Ce(SO4)2 CeSi2 Ce2C3 Ce2O3 Ce2S3 ClF ClF3 ClF5 ClOClO3 ClO2 ClO3F Cl2 Cl2O3 Cl2O6 Cl2O7 CoAl2O4 CoAs

cerium(II) iodide cerium(III) iodide cerium nitride cerium(IV) oxide cerianite cerium(II) sulfide cerium(IV) sulfate cerium silicide cerium(III) carbide cerium(III) oxide cerium(III) sulfide chlorine fluoride chlorine trifluoride chlorine pentafluoride chlorine perchlorate chlorine dioxide chlorine trioxide fluoride chlorine chlorine trioxide chlorine hexoxide chlorine heptoxide cobalt(II) aluminate cobalt arsenide

19139-47-0 7790-87-6 25764-08-3 1306-38-3 12014-82-3

12014-85-6 12115-63-8 1345-13-7 12014-93-6 7790-89-8 7790-91-2 13637-63-3 27218-16-2 10049-04-4 7616-94-6 7782-50-5 17496-59-2 12442-63-6 10294-48-1 13820-62-7 27016-73-5

CoAs2 CoB CoBr2 Co(CN)2 Co(C2H3O2)2 Co(C2H3O2)3 CoC2O4 Co(ClO4)2 CoCl2 CoCrO4 CoCr2O4 CoF2 CoF3 Co(IO3)2 CoI2 CoMoO4 Co(NO3)2 Co(NO3)3 CoO Co(OH)2 Co(OH)3 CoS

cobalt(II) arsenide cobalt(II) boride cobalt(II) bromide cobalt(II) cyanide cobalt(II) acetate cobalt(III) acetate cobalt(II) oxalate cobalt(II) perchlorate cobalt(II) chloride cobalt(II) chromate cobalt(II) chromite cobalt(II) fluoride cobalt(III) fluoride cobalt(II) iodate cobalt(II) iodide cobalt(II) molybdate cobalt(II) nitrate cobalt(III) nitrate cobalt(II) oxide cobalt(II) hydroxide cobalt(III) hydroxide cobalt(II) sulfide

12044-42-7 12006-77-8 7789-43-7 542-84-7 71-48-7 917-69-1 814-89-1 13455-31-7 7646-79-9 24613-38-5 13455-25-9 10026-17-2 10026-18-3 13455-28-2 15238-00-3 13762-14-6 10141-05-6 15520-84-0 1307-96-6 21041-93-0 1307-86-4 1317-42-6

CoS2 CoSb CoSe CoSeO3 CoTe CoTiO3 CoWO4 Co2B Co2SO4 Co2S3 Co2SiO4 Co2SnO4 Co2TiO4 Co3(Fe(CN)6)2 CrBr2 CrBr3 CrCl2 CrCl3 CrCl4 CrF2 CrF3 CrF4

cobalt disulfide cobalt antimonide cobalt(II) selenide cobalt(II) selenite cobalt(II) telluride cobalt(II) titanate cobalt(II) tungstate cobalt boride cobalt(II) sulfate cobalt(III) sulfide cobalt(II) orthosilicate cobalt(II) stannate cobalt(II) titanite cobalt(II) ferricyanide chromium(II) bromide chromium(III) bromide chromium(II) chloride chromium(III) chloride chromium(IV) chloride chromium(II) fluoride chromium(III) fluoride chromium(IV) fluoride

12013-10-4 12052-42-5 1307-99-9

12017-13-9 12017-01-5 12640-47-0 12045-01-1 10124-43-3 1332-71-4 12017-08-2 12139-93-4 12017-38-8 14049-81-1 10049-25-9 10031-25-1 10049-05-5 10025-73-7 15597-88-3 10049-10-2 7788-97-8 10049-11-3

CrF5 CrF6 CrI2 CrI3 Cr(NO3)3 Cr(NO2)3 CrO2 CrO3 CrO42 CrO2Cl2 CrPO4 CrSb CrVO4 Cr2O3 Cr2(SO4)3 Cr2S3 Cr2Se3 Cr2(TeO4)3 Cr2Te3 Cr3As2 Cr3C2 Cr3Sb2

chromium(V) fluoride chromium(VI) fluoride chromium(II) iodide chromium(III) iodide chromium(III) nitrate chromium(III) nitrite chromium(IV) oxide chromium(VI) oxide chromate ion chromium(VI) oxychloride chromium(III) phosphate chromium antimonide chromium(III) orthovanadate chromium(III) oxide eskolaite chromium(III) sulfate chromium(III) sulfide chromium(III) selenide chromium(III) tellurate chromium(III) telluride chromium(II) arsenide chromium(II) carbide chromium(II) antimonide

13843-28-2 13843-28-2 13478-28-9 13569-75-0 13548-38-4

12018-01-8 1333-82-0

14977-61-8 7789-04-0 12053-12-2

1308-38-9 10101-53-8 12018-22-3

12053-39-3

12012-35-0

Cr3Si2 CsBO2 CsBr CsBrO3 CsBr3 CsCN CsC2H3O2 CsCl CsClO3 CsClO4 CsF CsI CsI3 CsNH2 CsNO3 CsN3 CsNbO3 CsOH CsO2 Cs2S CsSCN CsSeO4

chromium(II) silicide caesium borate caesium bromide caesium bromate caesium tribromide caesium cyanide caesium acetate caesium chloride caesium chlorate caesium perchlorate caesium fluoride caesium iodide caesium triiodide caesium amide caesium nitrate caesium azide caesium metaniobate caesium hydroxide caesium superoxide caesium sulfide caesium thiocyanate caesium selenate 21351-79-1 12018-61-0 12214-16-3 22205-57-8 7789-18-6 22750-57-8 21159-32-0 3396-11-0 7647-17-8 13763-67-2 13454-84-7 13400-13-0 7789-17-5 92141-86-1 7787-69-1 13454-75-6

CsTaO3 Cs2CO3 Cs2C2O4 Cs2CrO4 Cs2Cr2O7 Cs2HPO4 Cs2MoO4 Cs2O Cs2SO3 Cs2SO4 Cs2SiO3 Cs2TeO4 Cs2TiO3 Cs2WO4 Cs3PO4 Cs3VO4 CuBr Cu(BrO3)2 6H2O CuBr2 CuC2O4 CuCl Cu(ClO3)2 6H2O

caesium metatantalate caesium carbonate caesium oxalate caesium chromate caesium dichromate caesium hydrogen orthophosphate caesium molybdate caesium oxide caesium sulfite caesium sulfate caesium metasilicate caesium tellurate caesium titanate caesium metatitanate caesium orthotungstate caesium orthophosphate caesium orthovanadate copper(I) bromide copper(II) bromate hexahydrate copper(II) bromide copper oxalate copper(I) chloride copper(II) chlorate hexahydrate 7758-89-6 7787-70-4 10294-54-9 13597-64-3 20281-00-9 29703-01-3

CuCl2 CuFeS2 CuFe2O4 CuFe2S3

copper(II) chloride copper iron sulfide chalcopyrite copper(II) iron(II) oxide copper iron sulfide cubanite

7447-39-4

[Cu(H2O)4]SO4 H2O blue vitriol CuI CuIO3 Cu(IO3)2 CuMoO4 Cu(NO3)2 Cu(NO3)2 3H2O Cu(NO3)2 6H2O Cu(NbO3)2 CuO Cu(OH)2 CuS CuSCN CuSO4 CuSO4 5H2O CuSe CuSeO3 2H2O copper(I) iodide copper(I) iodate copper(II) iodate copper(II) orthomolybdate copper(II) nitrate copper(II) nitrate trihydrate copper(II) nitrate hexahydrate copper(II) orthoniobate copper(II) oxide copper(II) hydroxide copper(II) sulfide covellite copper(I) thiocyanate copper(II) sulfate copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate copper(II) selenide copper(II) selenite dihydrate 7758-98-7 1317-40-4 1317-38-0 10294-41-4 7681-65-4

CuSeO4 5H2O CuSiO3 CuTe CuTeO3 CuTiO3 Cu(VO3)2 CuWO4 Cu2CO3(OH)2 Cu2S Cu2Se Cu2Te Cu3As Cu3P Cu3(PO4)2 Cu3Sb Cu9S5 Cu3Zn2

copper(II) selenate pentahydride copper(II) metasilicate copper(II) telluride copper(II) tellurite copper(II) metatitanate copper(II) metavanadate copper(II) orthotungstate malachite copper(I) sulfide chalcocite copper(I) selenide copper(I) telluride copper(I) arsenide copper(I) phosphide copper(II) phosphate copper(III) antimonide copper sulfide digenite copperzinc brass

Dictionary of chemical formulas/D Dictionary of chemical formulas/E Dictionary of chemical formulas/F

G
Chemical formula GaAs Synonyms gallium(III) arsenide CAS number

GaAsO4 GaBr3 Ga(C2H3O2)3 GaCl2 GaCl3 GaI2 GaI3 GaN Ga(OH)3 GaPO4 GaSb GaTe Ga2O3

gallium(III) orthoarsenate gallium(III) bromide gallium(III) acetate gallium(II) chloride gallium trichloride gallium(II) iodide gallium(III) iodide gallium(III) nitride gallium(III) hydroxide gallium(III) orthophosphate gallium(III) antimonide gallium(II) telluride gallium(III) oxide 12064-03-8 12024-14-5 12024-21-4 13450-91-4 128579-09-9 13450-90-3 13450-88-9

Ga2(SO4)318H2O gallium(III) sulfate octadecahydrate Ga2S3 Ga2Te3 GeBr4 GeH3COOH GeI2 GeI4 GeO gallium(III) sulfide gallium(III) telluride germanium(IV) bromide 2-germaacetic acid germanium(II) iodide germanium(IV) iodide germanium(II) oxide 13573-08-5 13450-95-8 20619-16-3 13450-92-5

H
Chemical formula HAt HBr Synonyms hydrogen astatide hydrogen bromide hydrobromic acid acetylene ethyne hydrocyanic acid hydrogen cyanide formamide methanamide formate ion formic acid methanoic acid ammonium formate hydrogen carbonate ion lactic acid pyridinium ion ascorbic acid acetylsalicylic acid thiamine hydrochloride vitamin B1 hydrochloride hydrochloric acid hydrogen chloride hypochlorous acid chlorous acid 7647-01-0 7790-92-3 13898-47-0 6914-07-4 10035-10-6 CAS number

HCCH

HCN

HCONH2 HCOO HCOOH HCOONH4 HCO3 HC3H5O3 HC5H5N+ HC6H7O6 HC9H7O4 HC12H17ON4SCl2

HCl HClO HClO2

HClO3 HClO4 HDO HF HI HIO3 HNO2 HNO3 HN3 HOCl HOF HOOCCOOH HPO42 HSO3 HSO4 HTO H2 H2C(CH)CN H2CO H2CO3 H2CSO

chloric acid perchloric acid semiheavy water water-d1 hydrofluoric acid hydroiodic acid iodic acid nitrous acid nitric acid hydrogen nitrate hydrazoic acid hypochlorous acid hypofluorous acid oxalic acid hydrogen phosphate ion hydrogen sulfite ion hydrogen sulfate partially tritiated water water-t hydrogen acrylonitrile formaldehyde carbonic acid sulfine

7790-93-4 7601-90-3 14940-63-7 7664-39-3 10034-85-2

7782-77-6 7697-37-2 7782-79-8 7790-92-3 14034-79-8

13670-17-2 1333-74-0

19710-56-6 107-32-4 40100-16-1

H2C2O4 H2C4H4O6 H2C8H4O4 H2CrO4 H2NCH2COOH H2NNH2 H2O H2O2 H2PO4 H2S H2SO3 H2SO4 H2S2O7 H2S2O8 H2SeO3 H2SeO4 H2SiO3 H2TeO3 H2TiO3 H3AsO4 H3CCH2CH3

oxalic acid tartaric acid phthalic acid H2Ph chromic acid glycine hydrazine water hydrogen peroxide dihydrogen phosphate ion hydrogen sulfide hydrosulfuric acid sulfurous acid sulfuric acid hydrogen sulfate disulfuric acid peroxydisulfuric acid selenous acid selenic acid silicic acid tellurous acid titanic acid arsenic acid propane

144-62-7

7732-18-5 7722-84-1

7783-06-4

7664-93-9

7699-41-4

H3N+CH2COO H3O+ H3PO4 H4XeO6 H6TeO6 HfBr4 HfF4 HfOCl2 8H2O HfOH(C2H3O2)3 Hf(SO4)2

zwitterion hydronium ion phosphoric acid perxenic acid telluric acid hafnium(IV) bromide hafnium(IV) fluoride hafnium(IV) oxychloride octahydrate hafnium(IV) acetate, basic hafnium(IV) sulfate 13777-22-5 13709-52-9 7664-38-2

Hg(BrO3)2 2H2O mercury(II) bromate dihydrate HgBr2 Hg(C2H3O2)2 mercury(II) bromide mercury(II) acetate 7789-47-1

Hg(C7H5O2)2 H2O mercury(II) benzoate monohydrate HgClO4 4H2O mercury(I) perchlorate tetrahydrate

Hg(ClO4)2 3H2O mercury(II) perchlorate trihydrate HgCl2 Hg(IO3)2 HgI2 Hg(NO3)2 H2O Hg(CNO)2 HgO mercury(II) chloride mercury(II) iodate mercury(II) iodide mercury(II) nitrate monohydrate mercury(II) fulminate mercury(II) oxide 628-86-4 21908-53-2 7774-29-0 7487-94-7

HgS Hg(SCN)2 HgSe HgSeO3 HgTe HgTeO3 HgWO4 Hg2Br2 Hg2Cl2 Hg2I2 Hg3(AsO4)2

mercury(II) sulfide cinnabar mercury(II) thiocyanate mercury(II) selenide mercury(II) selenite mercury(II) telluride mercury(II) tellurite mercury(II) tungstate mercury(I) bromide mercury(I) chloride mercury(I) iodide mercury(II) orthoarsenate 15385-58-7 10112-91-1 15385-57-6

I
Chemical formula IBr IBr3 ICl ICl3 IO3 I2 I3 InAs InBr Synonyms iodine(I) bromide iodine(III) bromide iodine(I) chloride iodine(III) chloride iodate ion iodine triiodide ion indium(III) arsenide indium(I) bromide 14280-53-6 7553-56-2 7790-99-0 CAS number 7789-33-5

InBrI2 InBr2I InBr3 InCl InCl2 InCl3 InCl34H2O InI In(IO3)3 InI2 InI3 In(NO3)34.5H2O In(OH)3 InP InPO4 InS InSb InTe In2O3 In2(SO4)3H2O In2S3 In2Se3

indium(III) bromodiiodide indium(III) dibromoiodide indium(III) bromide indium(I) chloride indium(II) chloride indium(III) chloride indium(III) chloride tetrahydrate indium(I) iodide indium(III) iodate indium(II) iodide indium(III) iodide indium(III) nitrate tetrahemihydrate indium(III) hydroxide indium(III) phosphide indium(III) orthophosphate indium(II) sulfide indium(III) antimonide indium(II) telluride indium(III) oxide indium(III) sulfate monohydrate indium(III) sulfide indium(III) selenide 12030-14-7 1312-41-0 12030-19-2 1312-43-2 22398-80-7 13510-35-5 13966-94-4 10025-82-8 13465-09-3 13465-10-6

In2Te3

indium(III) telluride

K
Chemical formula KrF2 Synonyms CAS number

krypton difluoride 13773-81-4

L
Chemical formula LaCl3 LaPO4 LaPO40.5H2O Li(AlSi2O6) LiBr LiBr2H2O LiBrO3 LiCN LiC2H5O LiHSO4 LiIO3 LiNa LiNO3 LiNO3H2O LiTaO3 LiVO32H2O Synonyms lanthanum(III) chloride lanthanum(III) phosphate lanthanum(III) phosphate crystal hemihydrate keatite lithium bromide lithium bromide dihydrate lithium bromate lithium cyanide lithium ethoxide lithium hydrogen sulfate lithium iodate sodium lithium lithium nitrate lithium nitrate monohydrate lithium tantalate lithium metatantalate lithium metavanadate dihydrate 7550-35-8 CAS number 10099-58-8 14913-14-5

Li2B4O75H2O Li2CrO4 Li2CrO42H2O Li2Cr2O7 Li2MoO4 Li2NbO3 Li2SO4 Li2SeO3 Li2SeO4

lithium tetraborate pentahydrate lithium chromate lithium chromate dihydrate lithium dichromate lithium orthomolybdate lithium metaniobate lithium sulfate lithium selenite lithium selenate lithium metasilicate 10102-24-6 10377-48-7 13568-40-6

Li2SiO3 lithium orthosilicate Li2TeO3 Li2TeO4 Li2TiO3 Li2WO4 Li2ZrO3 lithium tellurite lithium tellurate lithium metatitanate lithium orthotungstate lithium metazirconate 12031-82-2 13568-45-1

M
Chemical formula Mg(AlO2)2 MgCO3 MgC2O4 Mg(ClO3)2xH2O Synonyms magnesium aluminate magnesium carbonate magnesite magnesium oxalate magnesium chlorate hydrate 546-93-0 CAS number

MgCl2 MgCrO45H2O MgF2 MgI2 MgMoO4 MgNH4PO46H2O Mg(NO3)26H2O

magnesium chloride magnesium chromate pentahydrate magnesium fluoride magnesium iodide magnesium molybdate magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate magnesium nitrate hexahydrate

7786-30-3

7783-40-6 10377-58-9

MgNaAl5(Si4O10)3(OH)6 montmorillonite (clay) magnesium oxide magnesia periclase magnesium hydroxide milk of magnesia magnesium polonide magnesium sulfide magnesium sulfate magnesium selenide magnesium selenite magnesium selenate magnesium metasilicate enstatite magnesium metatitanate magnesium metavanadate magnesium tungstate 13573-11-0 13776-74-4 12032-30-3 12032-36-9 7487-88-9

MgO

1309-48-4

Mg(OH)2 MgPo MgS MgSO4 MgSe MgSeO3 MgSeO4 MgSiO3 MgTiO3 Mg(VO3)2 MgWO4

Mg2Al(AlSiO5)(OH)4 Mg2P2O7 Mg2SiO4 Mg3As2 Mg3Bi2 Mg3P2 Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4 Mg3(Si4O10)(OH)2 Mg3(VO4)2 MnAs MnBi MnBr2 MnBr24H2O Mn(CHO2)22H2O MnCO3 MnCl2 MnF2 MnI2 MnMoO4 Mn(NO3)24H2O MnO Mn(OH)2

amesite magnesium pyrophosphate forsterite magnesium arsenide magnesium bismuthide magnesium phosphide chrysotile talc magnesium orthovanadate manganese(III) arsenide manganese(III) bismuthide manganese(II) bromide manganese(II) bromide tetrahydrate manganese(II) formate dihydrate manganese(II) carbonate manganese(II) chloride manganese(II) fluoride manganese(II) iodide manganese(II) orthomolybdate manganese(II) nitrate tetrahydrate manganese(II) oxide manganese hydroxide 1344-43-0 7773-01-5 7782-64-1 13446-03-2 10034-94-3

MnOOH MnO2 MnO4 MnPb8(Si2O7)3 MnS MnTe MnZrO3 Mn2O3 Mn3As2

manganite manganese dioxide pyrolusite permanganate ion barysilate manganese sulfide manganese(II) telluride manganese(II) metazirconate manganese(III) oxide manganese(II) arsenide manganese(II,III) oxide trimanganese tetroxide hausmannite manganese(II) phosphide manganese(II) antimonide molybdenum(II) bromide molybdenum(III) bromide molybdenum(II) chloride molybdenum(III) chloride molybdenum(V) chloride molybdenum(IV) oxide molybdate ion molybdenum sulfide molybdenum disulfide molybdenite 10241-05-1 18868-43-4 13446-56-5 13446-57-6 18820-29-6 1313-13-9

Mn3O4

Mn3P2 Mn3Sb2 MoBr2 MoBr3 MoCl2 MoCl3 MoCl5 MoO2 MoO42

MoS2

1317-33-5

Hg2Br2

mercury(I) bromide

N
2Na3
Chemical formula NH2 NH2CH2CH2NH2 NH2CONH2 NH2C6H4SO3H NH2OH (NH2)2CO NH3 NH4+ (NH4)3N NH4Br NH4CO2NH2 (NH4)2CO3 NH4Cl NH4ClO4 NH4HS (NH4)H2AsO4 NH4NO3 NH4OCONH2 amide ion ethylenediamine urea sulfanilic Acid hydroxylamine urea ammonia ammonium ion ammonium nitride ammonium bromide ammonium carbamate ammonium carbonate ammonium chloride Ammonium perchlorate ammonium hydrosulfide ammonium dihydrogen arsenate ammonium nitrate ammonium carbamate 6484-52-2 12125-02-9 7790-98-9 12124-97-9 7664-41-7 Synonyms CAS number

(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6

ammonium cerium(IV) nitrate ceric ammonium nitrate CAN ammonium phosphate ammonium chromate mercury(II) ammonium thiocyanate ammonium hexachloroplatinate(IV) ammonium hexathiocyanoplatinate(IV) ammonium sulfate nitrogen triiodide nitric oxide nitrogen oxide nitrogen(II) oxide nitrogen dioxide nitrogen(IV) oxide nitrite ion nytril chloride nitrate ion nitrogen hydrazine nitrous oxide dinitrogen oxide nitrogen(I) oxide dinitrogen trioxide nitrogen(III) oxide dinitrogen tetroxide 7727-37-9 302-01-2 13444-90-1

(NH4)3PO4 (NH4)2CrO4 (NH4)2Hg(SCN)4 (NH4)2[PtCl6] (NH4)2[Pt(SCN)6] (NH4)2SO4 NI3

NO

10102-43-9

NO2 NO2 NO2Cl NO3 N2 N2H4

10102-44-0

N2O

10024-97-2

N2O3 N2O4

10544-73-7 10544-72-6

nitrogen(IV) oxide N2O5 N4H4 NaAlSi3O3 NaAsO2 NaAu(CN)2 Na2Cr2O7 2H2O Na[B(NO3)4] NaBr NaCN NaC6F5COO NaC6H5COO dinitrogen pentaoxide nitrogen(V) oxide trans-tetrazene albite sodium metaarsenite sodium dicyanoaurate(I) Sodium dichromate dihydrate sodium tetranitratoborate(III) sodium bromide sodium cyanide pentafluorobenzoate sodium benzoate 7647-15-6 143-33-9 10588-01-9 10102-03-1 54410-57-0

NaCa2(Al5Si5O20) 6H2O thomsonite sodium chloride rock-salt halite sodium hydride sodium formate sodium bicarbonate baking soda sodium iodide sodium sulfanilate sodium nitrate 144-55-8 7681-82-5

NaCl

7647-14-5

NaH NaHCOO NaHCO3 NaI NaNH2C6H4SO3 NaNO3

7646-69-7

NaNbO3 NaNbO3 7H2O NaOH NaO2As(CH3)2 3H2O NaSeO3 NaTaO3 NaVO3 Na2CO3 Na2C2O4 Na2MoS4 Na2O2 Na2O Na2S Na2SO4 Na2S2O3 Na2S2O5 Na2S4 Na2SeO4 Na2TeO3 Na2TeO4 Na2TiO3

sodium metaniobate sodium metaniobate heptahydrate sodium hydroxide sodium salt of cacodylic acid sodium selenite sodium metatantalate sodium metavanadate sodium carbonate soda ash sodium oxalate sodium thiomolybdate sodium peroxide sodium oxide sodium monosulfide sodium sulfate salt cake sodium thiosulfate sodium disulfite sodium tetrasulfide sodium selenate sodium tellurite sodium tellurate sodium metatitanate 7681-57-4 1313-82-2 7757-82-6 1313-60-6 497-19-8 62-76-0 1310-73-2

Na2ZnO2 Na2ZrO3 Na3AlF6 Na3[Co(CO3)3] Na3VO4 Na4V2O7 NbBr5 NbCl3 NbCl5 NbI5 Nb2O3 NdCl2

sodium zincate sodium metazirconate cryolite sodium tricarbonatocobaltate(III) sodium orthovanadate sodium pyrovanadate niobium(V) bromide niobium(III) chloride niobium(V) chloride niobium(V) iodide niobium(III) oxide neodymium(II) chloride neodymium dichloride neodymium(III) iodide neodymium diiodide neodymium hydroxide neodymium(III) oxide dineodymium trioxide nickel(III) arsenide nickel arsenic sulfide gersdorffite nickel(II) bromide nickel(II) bromide trihydrate nickel(II) bromide hexahydrate 13462-88-9 25469-93-6 10026-12-7 13478-45-0 15096-52-3

NdI2 Nd(OH)3 Nd2O3 NiAs NiAsS NiBr2 NiBr2 3H2O NiBr2 6H2O

Ni(CO)4 NiC2O4 2H2O NiCl2 NiFe2O4 NiI2 Ni(H2PO)2 6H2O NiMoO4 Ni(NO3)2 6H2O NiOOH NiO Ni(OH)2 NiS NiSO4 NiS2 NiSe NiTiO3 Ni(VO3)2 NiWO4 Ni2SiO4 Ni3(PO4)2 Ni3Sb2

nickel tetracarbonyl nickel(II) oxalate dihydrate nickel(II) chloride nickel(II) iron(III) oxide nickel(II) iodide nickel(II) hypophosphite hexahydrate nickel(II) orthomolybdate nickel(II) nitrate hexahydrate nickel oxo-hydroxide nickel(II) oxide nickel(II) hydroxide nickel(II) sulfide millerite nickel sulfate nickel sulfide nickel(II) selenide nickel(II) metatitanate nickel(II) metavanadate nickel(II) orthotungstate nickel(II) orthosilicate nickel(II) orthophosphate nickel(II) antimonide 12035-51-7 16812-54-7 1313-99-1 7718-54-9

O
Chemical formula O O2 O2 O22 OF2 O2F2 OH O3 O3 Synonyms oxygen dioxygen superoxide ion peroxide ion oxygen difluoride 7783-41-7 CAS number 7782-44-7

dioxygen difluoride 7783-44-0 hydroxide ion ozone ozonide ion 10028-15-6

P
Chemical formula PoBr2 PoCl2 PoCl4 PoF6 PoH2 PoO PoO2 PoO3 Synonyms polonium dibromide polonium dichloride polonium tetrachloride 10026-02-5 polonium hexafluoride 35473-38-2 polonium hydride polonium monoxide polonium dioxide polonium trioxide 7446-06-2 31060-73-8 CAS number 66794-54-5

R
Chemical formula Synonyms CAS number

RnF2 RuCl3 RuF6 RuO4

radon difluoride ruthenium(III) chloride ruthenium hexafluoride 13693-08-8 ruthenium tetroxide 20427-56-9

S
Chemical formula SCN SF4 SF6 SOF2 SO2 SO2Cl2 SO2F2 SO2OOH SO3 SO32 SO42 S2Br2 S2O32 S2O72 SbBr3 SbCl3 thiocyanate sulfur tetrafluoride sulfur hexafluoride thionyl difluoride sulfur dioxide sulfuryl chloride sulfuryl difluoride peroxymonosulfurous acid (aqueous) sulfur trioxide sulfite ion sulfate ion sulfur(II) bromide thiosulfate ion disulfate ion antimony(III) bromide antimony(III) chloride 7789-61-9 10025-91-9 71677-14-0 7446-11-9 2551-62-4 7783-42-8 7446-09-5 7791-25-5 2699-79-8 Synonyms CAS number

SbCl5 SbI3 SbPO4 Sb2OS2 Sb2O3 Sb2O5 Sb2S3 Sb2Se3 Sb2Se5 Sb2Te3 Sc2O3 SeBr4 SeCl SeCl4 SeOCl2 SeOF2 SeO2 SeO42 SeTe SiBr4 SiC

antimony(V) chloride antimony(III) iodide antimony(III) phosphate antimony oxysulfide kermesite antimony(III) oxide antimony(V) oxide antimony(III) sulfide antimony(III) selenide antimony(V) selenide antimony(III) telluride scandium oxide scandia selenium(IV) bromide selenium(I) chloride selenium(IV) chloride selenium(IV) oxychloride selenyl difluoride selenium(IV) oxide selenate ion selenium(IV) telluride silicon(IV) bromide silicon carbide

7647-18-9 7790-44-5

1309-64-4

1345-04-6 1315-05-5

10026-03-6 7791-23-3

7446-08-4

12067-42-4 7789-66-4 409-21-2

SiCl4 SiH4 SiI4

silicon(IV) chloride silane silicon(IV) iodide silicon(IV) dioxide silica quartz silicate ion disilicate ion silicon nitride cyclosilicate ion tin(IV) bromotrichloride tin(II) bromide tin(IV) dibromodichloride tin(IV) tribromochloride tin(IV) bromide tin(II) chloride tin(IV) dichlorodiiodide tin(IV) chloride tin(IV) chromate tin(IV) iodide tin(IV) oxide stannate ion tin(II) sulfide

10026-04-7 7803-62-5 13465-84-4

SiO2

7631-86-9

SiO44 Si2O76 Si3N4 Si6O1812 SnBrCl3 SnBr2 SnBr2Cl2 SnBr3Cl SnBr4 SnCl2 SnCl2I2 SnCl4 Sn(CrO4)2 SnI4 SnO2 SnO32 SnS

12033-89-5

10031-24-0

14779-73-8 7789-67-5 7772-99-8

7646-78-8

7790-47-8 18282-10-5

1314-95-0

SnS2 Sn(SO4)22H2O SnSe SnSe2 SnTe SnTe4 Sn(VO3)2 Sn3Sb4 SrBr2 SrBr26H2O SrCO3 SrCl2 SrC2O4 SrF2 SrI2 SrI26H2O Sr(MnO4)2 SrMoO4 Sr(NbO3)2 SrO Sr2RuO4 SrS

tin(IV) sulfide tin(IV) sulfate dihydrate tin(II) selenide tin(IV) selenide tin(II) telluride tin(IV) telluride tin(II) metavanadate tin(IV) antimonide strontium bromide strontium bromide hexahydrate strontium carbonate strontium chloride strontium oxalate strontium fluoride strontium iodide strontium iodide hexahydrate strontium permanganate strontium orthomolybdate strontium metaniobate strontium oxide strontium ruthenate strontium sulfide 1314-96-1 1314-11-0 13470-04-7 7783-48-4 10476-86-5 10476-81-0 12040-02-7 1315-06-6

SrSeO3 SrSeO4 SrTeO3 SrTeO4 SrTiO3

strontium selenite strontium selenate strontium tellurite strontium tellurate strontium metatitanate

T
Chemical formula T2O TaBr3 TaBr5 TaCl5 TaI5 TaO3 TcO4 TeBr2 TeBr2 TeBr4 TeCl2 TeCl4 TeI2 TeI4 TeO2 Name tritium oxide tritiated water tantalum(III) bromide tantalum(V) bromide tantalum(V) chloride tantalum(V) iodide tantalate ion pertechnetate ion tellurium(II) bromide tellurium(II) bromide tellurium(IV) bromide tellurium(II) chloride tellurium(IV) chloride tellurium(II) iodide tellurium(IV) iodide tellurium(IV) oxide 7446-07-3 10026-07-0 7721-01-9 CAS number 14940-65-9

TeO4 TeY Th(CO3)2 Th(NO3)4 TiBr4 TiCl2I2 TiCl3I TiCl4 TiO2 TiO32 TlBr TlBr3 Tl(CHO2) TlC2H3O2 Tl(C3H3O4) TlCl TlCl3 TlF TlI TlIO3 TlI3 TiI4

tellurate ion yttrium telluride thorium carbonate thorium nitrate titanium(IV) bromide titanium(IV) dichlorodiiodide titanium(IV) trichloroiodide titanium tetrachloride titanium dioxide rutile titanate ion thallium(I) bromide thallium(III) bromide thallium(I) formate thallium(I) acetate thallium(I) malonate thallium(I) chloride thallium(III) chloride thallium(I) fluoride thallium(I) iodide thallium(I) iodate thallium(III) iodide titanium(IV) iodide 7720-83-4 7789-27-7 7790-30-9 7791-12-0 563-68-8 7789-40-4 7550-45-0 1317-70-0 12187-04-1 19024-62-5 13823-29-5 7789-68-6

TiO(NO3)2 xH2O titanium(IV) oxynitrate hydrate TlNO3 TlOH TlPF6 TlSCN Tl2MoO4 Tl2SeO3 Tl2TeO3 Tl2WO4 Tl3As thallium(I) nitrate thallium(I) hydroxide thallium(I) hexafluorophosphate 60969-19-9 thallium thiocyanate thallium(I) orthomolybdate thallium(I) selenite thallium(I) tellurite thallium(I) orthotungstate thallium(I) arsenide 10102-45-1

U
Chemical formula UF4 UF6 Synonyms CAS number

uranium(IV) fluoride 10049-14-6 uranium(VI) fluoride 7783-81-5

V
Chemical formula VBr2 VBr3 VCl2 VCl3 VSO5 V2O3 Synonyms vanadium(II) bromide vanadium(III) bromide vanadium(II) chloride 10580-52-6 vanadium(III) chloride 7718-98-1 vanadium oxysulfate 27774-13-6 vanadium(III) oxide 1314-34-7 CAS number

V2O5 V2O74

vanadium pentoxide 1314-62-1 divanadate ion pyrovanadate ion

W
Chemical formula WBr2 WBr3 WBr4 WBr5 WBr6 W(CO)6 WCl2 WCl3 WCl4 WCl5 WCl6 WF4 WF5 WF6 WI2 WI4 WOBr3 WOBr4 Synonyms tungsten(II) bromide tungsten(III) bromide tungsten(IV) bromide tungsten(V) bromide tungsten(VI) bromide tungsten(VI) carbonyl tungsten(II) chloride tungsten(III) chloride tungsten(IV) chloride tungsten(V) chloride tungsten(VI) chloride tungsten(IV) fluoride tungsten(V) fluoride tungsten(VI) fluoride tungsten(II) iodide tungsten(IV) iodide tungsten(V) oxytribromide CAS number 13470-10-5 15163-24-3 14055-81-3 13470-11-6 13701-86-5 14040-11-0 13470-12-7 20193-56-0 13470-13-8 13470-14-9 13283-01-7 13766-47-7 19357-83-6 7783-82-6 13470-17-2 14055-84-6 20213-56-3

tungsten(VI) oxytetrabromide 13520-77-9

WOCl3 WOCl4 WOF2 WO2 WO2Br2 WO2Cl2 WO2I2 WO3 WO42 WS2 WS3 WSe2 WTe2 W2C

tungsten(V) oxytrichloride

14249-98-0

tungsten(VI) oxytetrachloride 13520-78-0 tungsten(VI) oxytetrafluoride 13520-79-1 tungsten(IV) oxide 12036-22-5

tungsten(VI) dioxydibromide 13520-75-7 tungsten(VI) dioxydichloride 13520-76-8 tungsten(VI) dioxydiiodide tungsten(VI) oxide tungstate ion tungsten(IV) sulfide tungsten(VI) sulfide tungsten(IV) selenide tungsten(IV) telluride tungsten carbide 12138-09-9 12125-19-8 12067-46-8 12067-76-4 12070-13-2 14447-89-3 1314-35-8

Y
Chemical formula YAs YB6 YBr3 YC2 YCl3 YF3 Synonyms ytrrium arsenide yttrium boride yttrium bromide yttrium carbide ytrrium chloride yttrium fluoride CAS number 12255-48-0 12008-32-1 13469-98-2 12071-35-1 10361-92-9 13709-49-4

YP YSb YVO4 Y2O3 Y2S3 YbBr2 YbBr3 YbCl2 YbCl3 YbCl36H2O YbF2 YbF3 YbI2 YbI3 YbSe YbSi2 Yb2O3 Yb2S3 Yb2Se3 YbTe

yttrium phosphide yttrium antimonide yttrium vanadate yttria yttrium oxide yttrium sulfide ytterbium(II) bromide ytterbium(III) bromide ytterbium(II)chloride ytterbium(III) chloride

12294-01-8 12186-97-9 13566-12-6 1314-36-9 12039-19-9 25502-05-0 13759-89-2 13874-77-6 10361-91-8

ytterbium(III) chloride hexahydrate 19423-87-1 ytterbium(II) fluoride ytterbium(III) fluoride ytterbium(II) iodide ytterbium(III) iodide ytterbium(II) selenide ytterbium(II) silicide ytterbium(III) oxide ytterbium(III) sulfide ytterbium(III) selenide ytterbium(II) telluride 15192-18-4 13760-80-0 19357-86-9 13813-44-0 12039-54-2 12039-89-3 1314-37-0 12039-20-2 12166-52-8 12125-58-5

Z
Chemical formula Synonyms CAS number

Zn(AlO2)2 Zn(AsO2)2 ZnBr2 Zn(CN)2 ZnCO3 Zn(C8H15O2)2 Zn(ClO3)2 ZnCl2 ZnCr2O4 ZnF2 Zn(IO3)2 ZnI2 ZnMoO4 Zn(NO2)2 Zn(NO3)2 Zn(NbO3)2 ZnO ZnO2 Zn(OH)2 Zn(OH)42 ZnS

zinc aluminate zinc arsenite zinc bromide zinc cyanide zinc carbonate zinc caprylate zinc chlorate zinc chloride zinc chromite zinc fluoride zinc iodate zinc iodide zinc orthomolybdate zinc nitrite zinc nitrate zinc metaniobate zinc(II) oxide zinc oxide zinc peroxide zinc hydroxide zincate ion zinc sulfide sphalerite

68186-87-8 10326-24-6 7699-45-8 557-21-1 3486-35-9 557-09-5 10361-95-2 7646-85-7 12018-19-8 7783-49-5 7790-37-6 10139-47-6 7783-20-2 10102-02-0 7779-88-6

1314-13-2 1314-22-3 20427-58-1

1314-98-3

Zn(SCN)2 ZnSO4 ZnSb ZnSe ZnSeO3 ZnSnO3 Zn(TaO3)2 ZnTe ZnTeO3 ZnTeO4 ZnTiO3 Zn(VO3)2 ZnWO4 ZnZrO3 Zn2P2O7 Zn2SiO4 Zn3(AsO4)2 Zn3As2 Zn3N2 Zn3P2 Zn3(PO4)2 Zn3Sb2

zinc thiocyanate zinc sulfate zinc antimonide zinc selenide zinc selenite zinc stannate zinc metatantalate zinc telluride zinc tellurite zinc tellurate zinc metatitanate zinc metavanadate zinc orthotungstate zinc metazirconate zinc pyrophosphate zinc orthosilicate zinc arsenate zinc arsenide zinc nitride zinc phosphide zinc phosphate zinc antimonide

557-42-6 7733-02-0 12039-35-9 1315-09-9

1315-11-3

7446-26-6 13597-65-4 13464-44-3

1313-49-1 1314-84-7 7779-90-0

ZrB2 ZrBr4 ZrC ZrCl4 ZrF4 ZrI4 ZrN Zr(OH)4 ZrO2 ZrO32 ZrP2 ZrS2 ZrSi2 ZrSiO4 Zr3(PO4)4

zirconium boride zirconium bromide zirconium carbide

12045-64-6 13777-25-8 12020-14-3

zirconium tetrachloride 10026-11-6 zirconium fluoride zirconium iodide zirconium nitride zirconium hydroxide zirconium dioxide baddeleyite zirconate ion zirconium phosphide zirconium sulfide zirconium silicide 12037-80-8 12039-15-5 12039-90-6 7783-64-4 13986-26-0 25658-42-8 14475-63-9 1314-23-4

zirconium orthosilicate 10101-52-7 zirconium phosphate 13765-95-2

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example: titratio n curve for the titration of vinegar with NaOH pH at end pointapproximately 8.5 species presentH2O and NaC2H3O2 appropiate indicatorphenolphthalein

Note: no matterwhat type of titration you do, at the equivalence (end) point the number of moles of H+ is equivalent to the number of moles of OH-. This applies whether you have weak or strong acids and/or bases.
Problems: l. Citric acid (C6H807) contains a mole of ionizable H+/mole of citric acid. A sample containing citric acid has a mass of 1.286 g. The sample is dissolved in 100.0 mL of water. The solution is titrated with 0.0150 M of NaOH. If 14.93 mL of the base are required to neutralize the acid. then what is the mass percent of citric acid in the sample? 2. A sample of solid calcium hydroxide is mixed with water at 30 oC and allowed to stand. A 100.0 mL sample of the solution is titrated with 59.4 mL of a 0.400 M solution of hydrobromic acid. a. What is the concentration of the calcium hydroxide solution? b. What is the solubility of the calcium hydroxide in water at 30 oC? Express your answer in grams of Ca(OH)2 / 100 mL water?

8. Three models of acids:

l. Arrhenius Model
Basis for the model--action in water

acid definition: produces H<sup+< sup=""> in water solution </sup+<>

base definition: produces OH1- in water solution

2. Bronsted-Lowry Model
Basis for the model-- proton transfer acid definition: donates a proton ( H<sup+< sup=""> ) </sup+<> base definition: accepts a proton conjugate acid definition: the acid becomes the conjugate base after it donates the proton because it can now accept it back. conjugate base definition: the base becomes the conjugate acid after it accepts the proton because it can now donate it back.

3. Lewis Model
Basis for model--electron pair transfer acid definition: accepts a pair of electrons base definition: donates a pair of electrons

Send questions, comments or suggestions to Gwen Sibert, at the Roanoke Valley Governor's School gsibert@rvgs.k12.va.us

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Periodic Table

v t e

Periodic table (standard form, large)

Gr ou p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

 IA IA Per iod
Name of element Heli um

IIA IIA

IIIA IVA IIIB IVB

VA VB

VIA VIIA VIII VIII VIII VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIIIB B B

IB IB

IIB IIB

IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

0 VIII A

Hydr ogen

1 H
1.00 794( 7)

Atomic number Chemical symbol

Relative atomic mass

2 He
4.0 026 02( 2)

Ber Lithi ylliu um m

Bor on

3 Li

4 Be

6.94 9.01 1(2) 218 2(3)

18.9 10.8 12. 15. 20. 14.0 984 11(7 010 999 179 067 032( 7(8 ) 4(3) 7(6) (2) 5) )

5 B

Car Nitr Fluo bo Oxy oge rine n gen n 9

Ne on

6 C

7 N

8 O

10 Ne

Sodi um

11 12 3 Na 22.9 M 8976 g

Ma gne siu m

Alu Pho Sili mini sph Sulf Chlo Arg con um orus ur rine on

928( 24.3 2) 050 (6)

28. 26.9 30.9 32. 35.4 39. 085 815 737 065 53(2 948 5(3 386( 62( (5) ) (1) ) 8) 2)

14 13 15 16 17 18 Si Al P S Cl Ar

25 20 21 19 22 23 24 34 35 36 4 M Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga 32 As Ca Sc K Ti V Cr Se Br Kr 55. 58. 65. 40.0 44. n 84 933 58.6 63.5 38( 69.7 Ge 74.9 78. 79.9 83. 39.0 47.8 50.9 51.
983( 1) 78( 4) 955 934( 46(3 67(1 415( 996 54. 5(2 195 912 4) ) ) 1) 1(6) 938 ) (5) (6) 045 (5) 2) 23(1 72. 216 63( 0(2) ) 1)

Pota Calc ssiu ium m

Sca ndi um

Tita niu m

Ma nga Van Chr nes adiu omi e m um

Ger Iro Cob Nick Cop Galli ma Ars n alt Zinc el per um niu enic 26 27 30 28 29 31 m 33

Sel eni um

Bro min e

Kry pto n

96( 04(1 798 3) ) (2)

Rut Mol he Rho ybd Rubi Yttri Zirc Pall Cad Stro Niob enu Tec niu diu Silve Indi diu um oniu adiu miu m ntiu ium m hne m r um m m m m m 39 tiu 44 45 41 42 47 49 37 46 48 m Y 40 38 88. 85.4 905 87.6 678( 85( 24(2 2(1) 8(2) 3) 2) )

Tin

Rb

Sr

50 Sn 51 52 R Rh Nb M Ag In 118 Zr Pd Cd Sb Te 43 92.9 u 102 106. 107. 112 114. .71 121. 127 91.2 o Tc 063 868 818( 0(7 10 .90
95. 96( 2) [98] 1.0 550 7(2 (2) ) 42(1 .41 2(2) ) 1(8) 3) )

Anti Tell Iodi Xen mo uriu ne on ny m 53

126. 131 904 .29 760 .60( 47(3 3(6) (1) 3) )

54 Xe

79 81 82 83 74 75 O 85 86 Cs Au 80 6 Ba 57- Hf Ta Ir Pt Tl Pb Bi 84 W Re s At Rn 132. 196. Hg 137. 71 178. 180. 192 195. 204. 207 208. Po 9054 183 186 19 966 200 [210 [22 327 49(2 947 .21 084( 383 .2( 980 [21 * 519( .84( .20 0.2 569( .59( ] 2]
2) (7) ) 88(2 ) 1) 7(1) 3(3 ) 7(3) 9) 4) 2) 3(2) 1) 40( 1) 0]

Os Tant Caes Tun Rhe mi Bari Lant Hafn alu Iridi Plati ium gste niu um um hani ium m um num n m 76 55 56 des 72 73 77 78

Gol d

Bis Me Thal Lea mut rcur lium d h y

Pol Asta Rad oni tine on um

Fran Radi Dub Actin Ruth cium um niu ides erfo rdiu m 87 88 89- m 10

Fr

Ra
[22

[223

103 10

Sea Boh Ha Mei Dar Roe Cop Unu Fler Unu Live Unu Un bor riu ssi tner mst ntge erni ntri ovi npe rm nse uno giu m um ium adti niu ciu um um ntiu oriu ptiu ctiu m 10 10 10 um m m 11 11 m m m m

10

11 11 11

11 11 11 11

6]

**

4 Db 6 Bh Hs Mt 0 1 2 Uu Fl 5 6 7 8 Rf [268 Sg [27 [26 [27 Ds Rg Cn t [28 Uu Lv Uu Uu ] 9] 8] [281 [281 [28 [286 9] [267 [26 0] p [29 s o
] 9] ] ] 5] ] [28 8] 3] [294 [29 ] 4]

58 67 68 71 * Lanthanid 57 59 61 S 63 64 Tb 66 Tm 70 60 Ce Ho Er Lu Pr Eu Gd 158. Yb es La Nd P m Dy 164. 167 168. 140. 174. 138 140. 151 157. 925 934 173 116( 144 m 15 162 930 .25 966 .90 907 .96 25(3 35(2 21( .05
547 (7) 1) .24 65(2 2(3) ) [14 5] 0.3 4(1) 6(2 ) ) ) .50 32(2 9(3 0(1) ) ) 2) 4(5) 8(1)

Lan tha nu m

Ceri um

Sa Pras Pro ma Neo eod Eur dy met riu ymi opi miu hiu m um m 62 um m

Dys Gad Terb pro olini ium siu um 65 m

Hol miu m

Erb Thul Ytte iu Lute ium rbiu m tium 69 m

** Actinides

Prot Thor acti Acti ium niu niu 90 m m

91 89 Th Pa Ac 232.
[22 7]

Me Fer Ura ndel No Law Plu Am Cali niu Nep Berk Eins mi eviu beli renc ton erici Curi for m tuni eliu teini um m um ium iu um um niu m um 10 92 um m 95 10 10 10 m 96

238 038 231. .02 06(2 035 891 88(2 ) (3) )

93 97 99 0 94 A Cm 98 1 2 3 Np Bk Es F Pu m [247 Cf M No Lr [23 [247 [252 m [24 [24 [25 ] d [25 [262 7] ] ]

4] 3] 1] [25 7] [25 8] 9] ]

Legend
Some element

categories in the periodic table

Nonmetals

Metals

Unknow Alkalin Inner transition PostNobl n Metalloid Other Alkali Transitio metals chemical e transitio s Halogen e metal n nonmetal earth Lanthanid Actinide n s gase propertie s metals s s metals es metals s s

Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at standard conditions: 0 C and 1 atm): black=Soli green=Liqui red=Ga grey=Unknow d d s n

Border shows natural occurrence:

Primordial

From decay

Synthetic

Atomic Mass 1.0079 4.0026 6.941 9.0122 10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984 20.1797 22.9897 24.305 26.9815 28.0855 30.9738 32.065 35.453 39.0983 39.948 40.078 44.9559 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938 55.845 58.6934 58.9332 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.64

Name chemical element Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Potassium Argon Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Nickel Cobalt Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium

Symbol H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K Ar Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni Co Cu Zn Ga Ge

Atomic number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 27 29 30 31 32

74.9216 78.96 79.904 83.8 85.4678 87.62 88.9059 91.224 92.9064 95.94 98 101.07 102.9055 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.71 121.76 126.9045 127.6 131.293 132.9055 137.327 138.9055 140.116 140.9077 144.24 145 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.9253

Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Iodine Tellurium Xenon Cesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium

As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb I Te Xe Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 52 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

162.5 164.9303 167.259 168.9342 173.04 174.967 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.9665 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.9804 209 210 222 223 226 227 231.0359 232.0381 237 238.0289 243 244 247 247 251

Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Protactinium Thorium Neptunium Uranium Americium Plutonium Curium Berkelium Californium

Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Pa Th Np U Am Pu Cm Bk Cf

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 91 90 93 92 95 94 96 97 98

252 257 258 259 261 262 262 264 266 268 272 277

Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Rutherfordium Lawrencium Dubnium Bohrium Seaborgium Meitnerium Roentgenium Hassium Darmstadtium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium

Es Fm Md No Rf Lr Db Bh Sg Mt Rg Hs Ds Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

99 100 101 102 104 103 105 107 106 109 111 108 110 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Nomenclature

Naming Organic Compounds

The increasingly large number of organic compounds identified with each passing day, together with the fact that many of these compounds are isomers of other compounds, requires that a systematic nomenclature system be developed. Just as each distinct compound has a unique molecular structure which can be designated by a structural formula, each compound must be given a characteristic and unique name. As organic chemistry grew and developed, many compounds were given trivial names, which are now commonly used and recognized. Some examples are:
Name Formula Methane CH4 Butane C4H10 Acetone CH3COCH3 Toluene CH3C6H5 Acetylene C2H2 Ethyl Alcohol C2H5OH

Such common names often have their origin in the history of the science and the natural sources of specific compounds, but the relationship of these names to each other is arbitrary, and no rational or systematic principles underly their assignments.
The IUPAC Systematic Approach to Nomenclature

A rational nomenclature system should do at least two things. First, it should indicate how the carbon atoms of a given compound are bonded together in a characteristic lattice of chains and rings. Second, it should identify and locate any functional groups present in the compound. Since hydrogen is such a common component of organic compounds, its amount and locations can be assumed from the tetravalency of carbon, and need not be specified in most cases. The IUPAC nomenclature system is a set of logical rules devised and used by organic chemists to circumvent problems caused by arbitrary nomenclature. Knowing these rules and given a structural formula, one should be able to write a unique name for every distinct compound. Likewise, given a IUPAC name, one should be able to write a structural formula. In general, an IUPAC name will have three essential features: A root or base indicating a major chain or ring of carbon atoms found in the molecular structure. A suffix or other element(s) designating functional groups that may be present in the compound. Names of substituent groups, other than hydrogen, that complete the molecular structure. As an introduction to the IUPAC nomenclature system, we shall first consider compounds that have no specific functional groups. Such compounds are composed only of carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded together by sigma bonds (all carbons are sp3 hybridized).

An excellent presentation of organic nomenclature is provided on a Nomenclature Page. created by Dave Woodcock. A full presentation of the IUPAC Rules is also available.
Alkanes Alkanes

Hydrocarbons having no double or triple bond functional groups are classified as alkanes or cycloalkanes, depending on whether the carbon atoms of the molecule are arranged only in chains or also in rings. Although these hydrocarbons have no functional groups, they constitute the framework on which functional groups are located in other classes of compounds, and provide an ideal starting point for studying and naming organic compounds. The alkanes and cycloalkanes are also members of a larger class of compounds referred to as aliphatic. Simply put, aliphatic compounds are compounds that do not incorporate any aromatic rings in their molecular structure. The following table lists the IUPAC names assigned to simple continuous-chain alkanes from C1 to C-10. A common "ane" suffix identifies these compounds as alkanes. Longer chain alkanes are well known, and their names may be found in many reference and text books. The names methane through decane should be memorized, since they constitute the root of many IUPAC names. Fortunately, common numerical prefixes are used in naming chains of five or more carbon atoms.
Examples of Simple Unbranched Alkanes Name Molecular Formula CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 C5H12 Structural Formula CH4 CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3(CH2)3CH3 Isomers Name Molecular Formula C6H14 C7H16 C8H18 C9H20 C10H22 Structural Formula CH3(CH2)4CH3 CH3(CH2)5CH3 CH3(CH2)6CH3 CH3(CH2)7CH3 CH3(CH2)8CH3 Isomers

methane ethane propane butane pentane

1 1 1 2 3

hexane heptane octane nonane decane

5 9 18 35 75

Some important behavior trends and terminologies:

(i) The formulas and structures of these alkanes increase uniformly by a CH2 increment. (ii) A uniform variation of this kind in a series of compounds is called homologous. (iii) These formulas all fit the CnH2n+2 rule. This is also the highest possible H/C ratio for a stable hydrocarbon. (iv) Since the H/C ratio in these compounds is at a maximum, we call them saturated (with hydrogen). Beginning with butane (C4H10), and becoming more numerous with larger alkanes, we note the existence of alkane isomers. For example, there are five C6H14 isomers, shown below as abbreviated line formulas (A through E):

Although these distinct compounds all have the same molecular formula, only one (A) can be called hexane. How then are we to name the others? The IUPAC system requires first that we have names for simple unbranched chains, as noted above, and second that we have names for simple alkyl groups that may be attached to the chains. Examples of some common alkyl groups are given in the following table. Note that the "ane" suffix is replaced by "yl" in naming groups. The symbol R is used to designate a generic (unspecified) alkyl group.
Grou p Nam e CH3 C2H5 Ethyl CH3CH2C H2 (CH3)2C H Isoprop yl CH3CH2CH2C H2 (CH3)2CHC H2 CH3CH2CH(C H3) (CH3)3 C tertButyl

Meth yl

Propyl

Butyl

Isobutyl

sec-Butyl

Alk yl

IUPAC Rules for Alkane Nomenclature

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Find and name the longest continuous carbon chain. Identify and name groups attached to this chain. Number the chain consecutively, starting at the end nearest a substituent group. Designate the location of each substituent group by an appropriate number and name. Assemble the name, listing groups in alphabetical order using the full name (e.g. cyclopropyl before isobutyl). The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc., used to designate several groups of the same kind, are not considered when alphabetizing. For the above isomers of hexane the IUPAC names are: B 2-methylpentane methylpentane D 2,2-dimethylbutane E 2,3-dimethylbutane C 3-

Halogen substituents are easily accommodated, using the names: fluoro (F-), chloro (Cl-), bromo (Br-) and iodo (I-). For example, (CH3)2CHCH2CH2Br would be named 1-bromo-3methylbutane. If the halogen is bonded to a simple alkyl group an alternative "alkyl halide" name may be used. Thus, C2H5Cl may be named chloroethane (no locator number is needed for a two carbon chain) or ethyl chloride. Halogenated alkyl substituents such as bromomethyl, BrCH2, and trichloromethyl, CCl3, may be listed and are alphabetized according to their full names. For additional examples of how these rules are used in naming branched alkanes, and for some sub-rules of nomenclature .

Cycloalkanes Cycloalkanes

Cycloalkanes have one or more rings of carbon atoms. The simplest examples of this class consist of a single, unsubstituted carbon ring, and these form a homologous series similar to the unbranched alkanes. The IUPAC names of the first five members of this series are given in the following table. The last (yellow shaded) column gives the general formula for a cycloalkane of any size. If a simple unbranched alkane is converted to a cycloalkane two hydrogen atoms, one from each end of the chain, must be lost. Hence the general formula for a cycloalkane composed of n carbons is CnH2n. Although a cycloalkane has two fewer hydrogens than the equivalent alkane, each carbon is bonded to four other atoms so such compounds are still considered to be saturated with hydrogen.

Examples of Simple Cycloalkanes Name Molecular Formula Cyclopropane Cyclobutane Cyclopentane Cyclohexane Cycloheptane Cycloalkane

C3H6

C4H8

C5H10

C6H12

C7H14

CnH2n

Structural Formula

(CH2)n

Line Formula

Substituted cycloalkanes are named in a fashion very similar to that used for naming branched alkanes. The chief difference in the rules and procedures occurs in the numbering system. Since all the carbons of a ring are equivalent (a ring has no ends like a chain does), the numbering starts at a substituted ring atom.

IUPAC Rules for Cycloalkane Nomenclature

1. For a monosubstituted cycloalkane the ring supplies the root name (table above) and the substituent group is named as usual. A location number is unnecessary. 2. If the alkyl substituent is large and/or complex, the ring may be named as a substituent group on an alkane. 3. If two different substituents are present on the ring, they are listed in alphabetical order, and the first cited substituent is assigned to carbon #1. The numbering of ring carbons then continues in a direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) that affords the second substituent the lower possible location number. 4. If several substituents are present on the ring, they are listed in alphabetical order. Location numbers are assigned to the substituents so that one of them is at carbon #1 and the other locations have the lowest possible numbers, counting in either a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. 5. The name is assembled, listing groups in alphabetical order and giving each group (if there are two or more) a location number. The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc., used to designate several groups of the same kind, are not considered when alphabetizing. For examples of how these rules are used in naming substituted cycloalkanes . Small rings, such as three and four membered rings, have significant angle strain resulting from the distortion of the sp3 carbon bond angles from the ideal 109.5 to 60 and 90 respectively. This angle strain often enhances the chemical reactivity of such compounds, leading to ring cleavage products. It is also important to recognize that, with the exception of cyclopropane, cycloalkyl rings are not planar (flat). The three dimensional shapes assumed by the common rings (especially cyclohexane and larger rings) are described and discussed in the Conformational Analysis Section. Hydrocarbons having more than one ring are common, and are referred to as bicyclic (two rings), tricyclic (three rings) and in general, polycyclic compounds. The molecular formulas of such compounds have H/C ratios that decrease with the number of rings. In general, for a hydrocarbon composed of n carbon atoms associated with m rings the formula is: CnH(2n + 2 2m). The structural relationship of rings in a polycyclic compound can vary. They may be separate and independent, or they may share one or two common atoms. Some examples of these possible arrangements are shown in the following table.

Examples of Isomeric C8H14 Bicycloalkanes Isolated Rings Spiro Rings Fused Rings Bridged Rings Two common atoms

No common atoms One common atom One common bond

Practice Problems

Alkenes & Alkynes Alkenes and Alkynes

Alkenes and alkynes are hydrocarbons which respectively have carbon-carbon double bond and carbon-carbon triple bond functional groups. The molecular formulas of these unsaturated hydrocarbons reflect the multiple bonding of the functional groups:
Alkane RCH2CH2R CnH2n+2 This is the maximum H/C ratio for a given number of carbon atoms. Alkene RCH=CHR Alkyne RCCR CnH2n Each double bond reduces the number of hydrogen atoms by 2.

CnH2n-2 Each triple bond reduces the number of hydrogen atoms by 4.

As noted earlier in the Analysis of Molecular Formulas section, the molecular formula of a hydrocarbon provides information about the possible structural types it may represent. For example, consider compounds having the formula C5H8. The formula of the five-carbon alkane pentane is C5H12 so the difference in hydrogen content is 4. This difference suggests such compounds may have a triple bond, two double bonds, a ring plus a double bond, or two rings. Some examples are shown here, and there are at least fourteen others!

IUPAC Rules for Alkene and Cycloalkene Nomenclature

1. The ene suffix (ending) indicates an alkene or cycloalkene. 2. The longest chain chosen for the root name must include both carbon atoms of the double bond. 3. The root chain must be numbered from the end nearest a double bond carbon atom. If the double bond is in the center of the chain, the nearest substituent rule is used to determine the end where numbering starts. 4. The smaller of the two numbers designating the carbon atoms of the double bond is used as the double bond locator. If more than one double bond is present the compound is named as a diene, triene or equivalent prefix indicating the number of double bonds, and each double bond is assigned a locator number. 5. In cycloalkenes the double bond carbons are assigned ring locations #1 and #2. Which of the two is #1 may be determined by the nearest substituent rule. 6. Substituent groups containing double bonds are: H2C=CH Vinyl group H2C=CHCH2 Allyl group

IUPAC Rules for Alkyne Nomenclature

1. The yne suffix (ending) indicates an alkyne or cycloalkyne. 2. The longest chain chosen for the root name must include both carbon atoms of the triple bond. 3. The root chain must be numbered from the end nearest a triple bond carbon atom. If the triple bond is in the center of the chain, the nearest substituent rule is used to determine the end where numbering starts. 4. The smaller of the two numbers designating the carbon atoms of the triple bond is used as the triple bond locator. 5. If several multiple bonds are present, each must be assigned a locator number. Double bonds precede triple bonds in the IUPAC name, but the chain is numbered from the end nearest a multiple bond, regardless of its nature. 6. Because the triple bond is linear, it can only be accommodated in rings larger than ten carbons. In simple cycloalkynes the triple bond carbons are assigned ring locations #1 and #2. Which of the two is #1 may be determined by the nearest substituent rule. 7. Substituent groups containing triple bonds are: HCC Ethynyl group HCCHCH2 Propargyl group For examples of how these rules are used in naming alkenes, alkynes and cyclic analogs .

Benzene Derivatives Benzene Derivatives

The nomenclature of substituted benzene ring compounds is less systematic than that of the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. A few mono-substituted compounds are named by using a group name as a prefix to "benzene", as shown by the combined names listed below. A majority of these compounds, however, are referred to by singular names that are unique. There is no simple alternative to memorization in mastering these names.

Two commonly encountered substituent groups that incorporate a benzene ring are phenyl, abbreviated Ph-, and benzyl, abbreviated Bn-. These are shown here with examples of their use. Be careful not to confuse a phenyl (pronounced fenyl) group with the compound phenol (pronounced feenol). A general and useful generic notation that complements the use of R- for an alkyl group is Ar- for an aryl group (any aromatic ring).

When more than one substituent is present on a benzene ring, the relative locations of the substituents must be designated by numbering the ring carbons or by some other notation. In the case of disubstituted benzenes, the prefixes ortho, meta & para are commonly used to indicate a 1,2- or 1,3- or 1,4- relationship respectively. In the following examples, the first row of compounds show this usage in red. Some disubstituted toluenes have singular names (e.g. xylene, cresol & toluidine) and their isomers are normally designated by the ortho, meta or para prefix. A few disubstituted benzenes have singular names given to specific isomers (e.g. salicylic acid & resorcinol). Finally, if there are three or more substituent groups, the ring is numbered in such a way as to assign the substituents the lowest possible numbers, as illustrated by the last row of examples. The substituents are listed alphabetically in the final name. If the substitution is symmetrical (third example from the left) the numbering corresponds to the alphabetical order.

Practice Problems

Seven questions concerning nomenclature are presented here.

Return to Table of Contents

Solubility Product
The concentrations of ions in saturated solutions have a relationship to one

another somewhat like the relationship between the concentration of H 3O+ and OHin water.
Sodium Chloride Consider saturated sodium chloride solution. Quite a bit of sodium chloride can be dissolved in water, about 6 moles in one liter. That makes the concentration of both the sodium ion and the chloride ion about 6 M. What happens if we increase the concentration of Cl- by adding some concentrated hydrochloric acid (12M HCl)?. The saturated NaCl is in the test tube and the concentrated HCl is in the dropper. To see the reaction move your mouse over the picture. Approximate Concentrations [Na+] Start Potential Actual 6M 6M 5M [Cl-] 6M 8M 7M

If nothing happened, we would still have 6M Na+ and a higher concentration, perhaps, 8M, of Cl-. But something does happen. Crystals of NaCl form from the reaction of some of the extra Cl- with some of the Na+ that was in the solution. The concentration of Na+ goes down to around 5 M as the conc of Cl- increases to somewhere around 7M.

As the concentration of one ion increases, the concentration of the other ion decreases. Just as there was an equation that related the concentrations of the dissociated ions of water, there is an equation that relates the concentrations of the dissociated ions of sodium chloride. Let me draw the parallel.
Water ionizes to form H3O+ and OH-. The reaction is reversible. The concentrations of H3O+ and OH- are related by this equation:

2 H2O 2 H2O

H3O+ + OHH3O+ + OH-

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]

When multiplied together, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- give a fairly constant value called the ionization constant of water, or Kw.

Now sodium chloride.

Sodium chloride dissolves and dissociates in water to Na+ and Cl-. The reaction is reversible: The concentrations of Na+ and Cl- are realated by this equation:

NaCl(s) NaCl(s)

Na+ + ClNa+ + Cl-

Ksp = [Na+][Cl-]

When multiplied together, the concentrations of Na+ and Cl- give a fairly constant value called the solubility product constant, or Ksp. For sodium chloride, the value of Ksp is about 36. Practice

See if you can figure out what the concentration of Na + would be if we were able to increase the concentration of Cl- up to 10 M. Take a moment to figure that out.
Answer You should have calculated about 3.6 M for the sodium ion concentration. I got that value by saying that the concentration of Na+ times the concentration of Cl- is equal to 36 (the Ksp value for sodium chloride). If the concentration of Cl- is going to be 10 M, then the concentration of of Na+ has to be 36 divided by 10. That comes at to 3.6 M. Ksp = [Na+]x[Cl-] [Na+] = Ksp [Cl-] [Na+] = 36 10 [Na+] = 3.6M

Silver Chloride

The same line of reasoning can be used with any salt that dissolves in water, even if it dissolves only a very small amount.

Silver chloride will dissolve somewhat in water. However, it reaches saturation very quickly--that is, when the concentrations of silver and chloride ions are about 1.3 x 105 M. Still we can write a solubility product equation for it. The value for the Ksp of silver chloride, however, is about 1.8 x 10-10, a very small number. Practice

AgCl(s)

Ag+ + Cl-

Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]

Ksp = 1.8 x 10-10

Try using that information to calculate the Ag+ concentration if the chloride ion concentration were 3.0 M.
Answer Ksp = [Ag+]x[Cl-] In this case the answer turns out to be a very small number, which can be calculated using the process shown here. [Ag+] = Ksp [Cl-] [Ag+] = (1.8 x 10-10) 3.0 [Ag+] = 6.0 x 10-11M

Lead(II) Chloride

When the formula for a salt contains more than just one of each ion, the solubility product equation gets a little more complicated.
Let's use PbCl2 as an example. When PbCl2 cissolved in water, two ions of Cl- are released for every one ion of Pb2+. When saturation is reached we show that the reaction is reversible. The equation for the solubility product is:

PbCl2(s)

Pb2+ + Cl-

PbCl2(s)

Pb2+ + 2 Cl-

Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl-]2

The concentration of Cl- is squared because the balanced equation for the reaction shows a 2 as the coefficient in front of Cl-. Looking at the reaction in this way might help you to remember that:

PbCl2(s)

Pb2+ + Cl- + Cl-

then: Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl-][Cl-] thus: Ksp = [Pb2+] [Cl-]2

Example - Determining concentrations at equilibrium

Here is an example of how to calculate the equilibrium concentration of one substance given the Ksp and the equilibrium concentrations of the other substance. (Also shown in example 23 in your workbook.)
Ksp = [Pb+2] x [Cl]2 For the reaction PbCl2(s) Pb+2(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq), what is [Pb+2] at equilibrium if [Cl-] = 2.0 x 10-3 M given that the Ksp = 2.0 x 10-5? 2.0 x 10-5 = [Pb+2] x (2.0 x 10-3)2 2.0 x 10-5 = [Pb+2] x 4.0 x 10-6

2.0 x 10-5 = [Pb+2] 4.0 x 10-6

5.0 M = [Pb+2]

Practice Problems: Equilibrium Concentrations

Try your hand at answering the following questions (also shown in exercise 24 in your workbook.) Check your answers below and then move on to the Wrap-Up.
The Ksp for AgCl is 1.8 x 10-10. If Ag+ and Cl- are both in solution and in equilibrium with AgCl. What is [Ag+] if [Cl-] = .020 M?

If Ag+ and Cl- were both present at 0.0001 M, would a precipitate occur?

What concentration of Ag+ would be necessary to bring the concentration of Cl- to 1.0 x 10-6 M or lower?

Answers: Equilibrium Concentrations

Here are the answers to the questions above.

The Ksp for AgCl is 1.8 x 10-10. If Ag+ and Cl- are both in solution and in equilibrium with AgCl. What is [Ag+] if [Cl-] = .020 M?

[Ag+] = 9.0 x 10-9M

If Ag+ and Cl- were both present at 0.0001 M, would a precipitate occur?

Yes, a precipitate would occur because these concentrations together are higher than what the Ksp allows.
What concentration of Ag+ would be necessary to bring the concentration of Cl- to 1.0 x 10-6 M or lower?

[Ag+] = 9.0 x 10-9M or higher

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E-mail instructor: Eden Francis Clackamas Community College 1998, 2002 Clackamas Community College, Hal Bender

Solubility Product

Nahkleh Group Robinson Group Weaver Group Bodner Group

Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria

Solubility Solubility Product Common Ions and Complex Ions Combined Equilibria Solubility Product
The Solubility Product Expression Common Misconceptions About Solubility Product Calculations The Relationship Between Ksp And the Solubility of a Salt Using Ksp As A Measure Of the Solubility of a Salt

The Role of the Ion Product (Qsp) In Solubility Calculations

The Solubility Product Expression Silver chloride is so insoluble in water (.0.002 g/L) that a saturated solution contains only about 1.3 x 10-5 moles of AgCl per liter of water. H2O AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Strict adherence to the rules for writing equilibrium constant expressions for this reaction gives the following result.

(Water isn't included in the equilibrium constant expression because it is neither consumed nor produced in this reaction, even though it is a vital component of the system.) The [Ag+] and [Cl-] terms represent the concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions in moles per liter when this solution is at equilibrium. The third term [AgCl] is more ambiguous. It doesn't represent the concentration of AgCl dissolved in water because we assume that AgCl dissociates into Ag+ ions and Cl- ions when it dissolves in water. It can't represent the amount of solid AgCl in the system because the equilibrium is not affected by the amount of excess solid added to the system. The [AgCl] term has to be translated quite literally as the number of moles of AgCl in a liter of solid AgCl. The concentration of solid AgCl can be calculated from its density and the molar mass of AgCl.

This quantity is a constant, however. The number of moles per liter in solid AgCl is the same at the start of the reaction as it is when the reaction reaches equilibrium. Since the [AgCl] term is a constant, which has no effect on the equilibrium, it is built into the equilibrium constant for the reaction. [Ag+][Cl-] = Kc x [AgCl] This equation suggests that the product of the equilibrium concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions in this solution is equal to a constant. Since this constant is proportional to the solubility of the salt, it is called the solubility product equilibrium constant for the reaction, or Ksp. Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-] The Ksp expression for a salt is the product of the concentrations of the ions, with each concentration raised to a power equal to the coefficient of that ion in the balanced equation for the solubility equilibrium.

Practice Problem 1: Write the Ksp expression for a saturated solution of CaF2 in water. Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 1

The Relationship Between Ksp And the Solubility of a Salt Ksp is called the solubility product because it is literally the product of the solubilities of the ions in moles per liter. The solubility product of a salt can therefore be calculated from its solubility, or vice versa. Photographic films are based on the sensitivity of AgBr to light. When light hits a crystal of AgBr, a small fraction of the Ag+ ions are reduced to silver metal. The rest of the Ag+ ions in these crystals are reduced to silver metal when the film is developed. AgBr crystals that do not absorb light are then removed from the film to "fix" the image. Example: Let's calculate the solubility of AgBr in water in grams per liter, to see whether AgBr can be removed by simply washing the film. We start with the balanced equation for the equilibrium. H2O AgBr(s) Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq)

We then write the solubility product expression for this reaction. Ksp = [Ag+][Br-] = 5.0 x 10-13 One equation can't be solved for two unknowns the Ag+ and Br- ion concentrations. We can generate a second equation, however, by noting that one Ag+ ion is released for every Br- ion. Because there is no other source of either ion in this solution, the concentrations of these ions at equilibrium must be the same. [Ag+] = [Br-] Substituting this equation into the Ksp expression gives the following result. [Ag+]2 = 5.0 x 10-13 Taking the square root of both sides of this equation gives the equilibrium concentrations of the Ag+ and Br- ions. [Ag+] = [Br-] = 7.1 x 10-7M Once we know how many moles of AgBr dissolve in a liter of water, we can calculate the solubility in grams per liter.

The solubility of AgBr in water is only 0.00013 gram per liter. It therefore isn't practical to try to wash the unexposed AgBr off photographic film with water. Solubility product calculations with 1:1 salts such as AgBr are relatively easy to perform. In order to extend such calculations to compounds with more complex formulas we need to understand the relationship between the solubility of a salt and the concentrations of its ions at equilibrium. We will use the symbol Cs to describe the amount of a salt that dissolves in water.

Practice Problem 2: Several compounds were studied as possible sources of the fluoride ion for use in toothpaste. Write equations that describe the relationship between the solubility of CaF2 and the equilibrium concentrations of the Ca2+ and F- ions in a saturated solution as a first step toward evaluating its use as a fluoridating agent.

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 2

Practice Problem 3: Use the Ksp for calcium fluoride to calculate its solubility in grams per liter. Comment on the potential of CaF2 to act as a fluoridating agent. (CaF2: Ksp = 4.0 x 10-11) Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 3 Click here to see a solution to Practice Problem 3

The techniques used in the preceding practice problems are also valid for salts that contain more positive ions than negative ions.

Practice Problem 4: Calculate the solubility in grams per liter of silver sulfide in order to decide whether it is accurately labeled when described as an insoluble salt. (Ag2S: Ksp = 6.3 x 10-50)

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 4 Click here to see a solution to Practice Problem 4

Common Misconceptions About Solubility Product Calculations Let's focus on one step in Practice Problem 4. We started with the solubility product expression for Ag2S. Ksp = [Ag+]2[S2-] We then substituted the relationship between the concentrations of these ions and the solubility of the salt into this equation. [2 Cs]2[Cs] = 6.3 x 10-50 When they see this for the first time, students often ask: "Why did you double the Ag+ ion concentration and then square it? Aren't you counting this term twice?" This question results from confusion about the symbols used in the calculation. Remember that the symbol Cs in this equation stands for the solubility of Ag2S in moles per liter. Since we get two Ag+ ions for each Ag2S formula unit that dissolves in water, the Ag+ ion concentration at

equilibrium is twice the solubility of the salt, or 2 Cs. We square the Ag+ ion concentration term because the equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the three products of the reaction. Ksp = [Ag+][Ag+][S2-] It is just more convenient to write this equation in the condensed form. Ksp = [Ag+]2[S2-] Another common mistake in solubility product calculations occurs when students are asked to write an equation that describes the relationship between the concentrations of the Ag+ and S2ions in a saturated Ag2S solution. It is all too easy to look at the formula for this compound Ag2S and then write the following equation. [S2-] = 2 [Ag+] This seems reasonable to some, who argue that there are twice as many Ag+ ions as S2- ions in the compound. But the equation is wrong. Because two Ag+ ions are produced for each S2- ion, there are twice as many silver ions as sulfide ions in this solution. This solution is correctly described by the following equation. [Ag+] = 2 [S2-] How can you avoid making this mistake? After you write the equation that you think describes the relationship between the concentrations of the ions, try it to see if it works. Suppose just enough Ag2S dissolved in water to give two S2- ions. How many Ag+ ions would you get? Four. If you get the right answer when you substitute this concrete example into your equation, it must be written correctly.

Using Ksp As A Measure Of the Solubility of a Salt The value of Ka for an acid is proportional to the strength of the acid.

If we find the following Ka values in a table, we can immediately conclude that formic acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.

Formic acid (HCO2H): Acetic acid (CH3CO2H): The same can be said about values of Kb.

Ka = 1.8 x 10-4 Ka = 1.8 x 10-5

The following base-ionization equilibrium constants imply that methylamine is a stronger base than ammonia. Methylamine (CH3NH2): Ammonia (NH3): Kb = 4.8 x 10-4 Kb = 1.8 x 10-5

Unfortunately, there is no simple way to predict the relative solubilities of salts from their Ksp's if the salts produce different numbers of positive and negative ions when they dissolve in water.

Practice Problem 5: Determine which salt liter? CaCO3 or Ag2CO3 is more soluble in water in units of moles per

CaCO3: Ag2CO3:

Ksp = 2.8 x 10-9 Ksp = 8.1 x 10-12

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 5

The Role of the Ion Product (Qsp) In Solubility Calculations Consider a saturated solution of AgCl in water. H2O AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Because AgCl is a 1:1 salt, the concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions in this solution are equal.

Saturated solution of AgCl in water: [Ag+] = [Cl-] Imagine what happens when a few crystals of solid AgNO3 are added to this saturated solution of AgCl in water. According to the solubility rules, silver nitrate is a soluble salt. It therefore dissolves and dissociates into Ag+ and NO3- ions. As a result, there are two sources of the Ag+ ion in this solution. AgNO3(s) H2O AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Adding AgNO3 to a saturated AgCl solution therefore increases the Ag+ ion concentrations. When this happens, the solution is no longer at equilibrium because the product of the concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions is too large. In more formal terms, we can argue that the ion product (Qsp) for the solution is larger than the solubility product (Ksp) for AgCl. Qsp = (Ag+)(Cl-) > Ksp The ion product is literally the product of the concentrations of the ions at any moment in time. When it is equal to the solubility product for the salt, the system is at equilibrium. The reaction eventually comes back to equilibrium after the excess ions precipitate from solution as solid AgCl. When equilibrium is reestablished, however, the concentrations of the Ag+ and Clions won't be the same. Because there are two sources of the Ag+ ion in this solution, there will be more Ag+ ion at equilibrium than Cl- ions: Saturated solution of AgCl to which AgNO3 has been added: [Ag+] > [Cl-] Now imagine what happens when a few crystals of NaCl are added to a saturated solution of AgCl in water. There are two sources of the chloride ion in this solution. H2O NaCl(s) H2O AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Once again, the ion product is larger than the solubility product. Qsp = (Ag+)(Cl-) > Ksp This time, when the reaction comes back to equilibrium, there will be more Cl- ion in the solution than Ag+ ion. Saturated solution of AgCl to which NaCl has been added: [Ag+] < [Cl-] The figure below shows a small portion of the possible combinations of the Ag+ and Cl- ion concentrations in an aqueous solution. Any point along the curved line in this graph corresponds to a system at equilibrium, because the product of the Ag+ and Cl- ion concentrations for these solutions is equal to Ksp for AgCl.

Point A represents a solution at equilibrium that could be produced by dissolving two sources of the Ag+ ion such as AgNO3 and AgCl in water. Point B represents a saturated solution of AgCl in pure water, in which the [Ag+] and [Cl-] terms are equal. Point C describes a solution at equilibrium that was prepared by dissolving two sources of the Cl- ion in water, such as NaCl and AgCl. Any point that is not along the solid line in the above figure represents a solution that is not at equilibrium. Any point below the solid line (such as Point D) represents a solution for which the ion product is smaller than the solubility product. Point D: Qsp < Ksp If more AgCl were added to the solution at Point D, it would dissolve.

If Qsp < Ksp: AgCl(s)

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Points above the solid line (such as Point E) represent solutions for which the ion product is larger than the solubility product. Point E: Qsp > Ksp The solution described by Point E will eventually come to equilibrium after enough solid AgCl has precipitated. If Qsp > Ksp: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOLUBILITY PRODUCTS

This page looks at how solubility products are defined, together with their units. It also explores the relationship between the solubility product of an ionic compound and its solubility.

What are solubility products, Ksp? Solubility products are equilibrium constants Barium sulphate is almost insoluble in water. It isn't totally insoluble - very, very small amounts do dissolve. That's true of any so-called "insoluble" ionic compound. if you shook some solid barium sulphate with water, a tiny proportion of the barium ions and sulphate ions would break away from the surface of the solid and go into solution. Over time, some of these will return from solution to stick onto the solid again.

You get an equilibrium set up when the rate at which some ions are breaking away is exactly matched by the rate at which others are returning.

The position of this equilibrium lies very far to the left. The great majority of the barium sulphate is present as solid. In fact, if you shook solid barium sulphate with water you wouldn't be aware just by looking at it that any had dissolved at all. But it is an equilibrium, and so you can write an equilibrium constant for it which will be constant at a given temperature - like all equilibrium constants. The equilibrium constant is called the solubility product, and is given the symbol Ksp.

To avoid confusing clutter, solubility product expressions are often written without the state symbols. Even if you don't write them, you must be aware that the symbols for the ions that you write are for those in solution in water.

Why doesn't the solid barium sulphate appear in the equilibrium expression? For many simple equilibria, the equilibrium constant expression has terms for the right-hand side of the equation divided by terms for the left-hand side. But in this case, there is no term for the concentration of the solid barium sulphate. Why not? This is a heterogeneous equilibrium - one which contains substances in more than one state. In a heterogeneous equilibrium, concentration terms for solids are left out of the expression.
Note: The simplest explanation for this is that the concentration of a solid can be thought of as a constant. Rather than have an expression with two

constants in it (the equilibrium constant and the concentration of the solid), the constants are merged to give a single value - the solubility product.

Solubility products for more complicated solids Here is the corresponding equilibrium for calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2:

And this is the solubility product expression:

Just as with any other equilibrium constant, you raise the concentrations to the power of the number in front of them in the equilibrium equation. There's nothing new here.

Solubility products only apply to sparingly soluble ionic compounds You can't use solubility products for normally soluble compounds like sodium chloride, for example. Interactions between the ions in the solution interfere with the simple equilibrium we are talking about.

The units for solubility products The units for solubility products differ depending on the solubility product expression, and you need to be able to work them out each time. Working out the units in the barium sulphate case Here is the solubility product expression for barium sulphate again:

Each concentration has the unit mol dm-3. So the units for the solubility product in this case will be: (mol dm-3) x (mol dm-3) = mol2 dm-6

Working out the units in the calcium phosphate case Here is the solubility product expression for calcium phosphate again:

The units this time will be: (mol dm-3)3 x (mol dm-3)2 = (mol dm-3)5 = mol5 dm-15 If you are asked to calculate a solubility product in an exam, there will almost certainly be a mark for the correct units. It isn't very hard - just take care!

Solubility products apply only to saturated solutions Let's look again at the barium sulphate case. Here is the equilibrium expression again:

. . . and here is the solubility product expression:

Ksp for barium sulphate at 298 K is 1.1 x 10-10 mol2 dm-6.

In order for this equilibrium constant (the solubility product) to apply, you have to have solid barium sulphate present in a saturated solution of barium sulphate. That's what the equilibrium equation is telling you. If you have barium ions and sulphate ions in solution in the presence of some solid barium sulphate at 298 K, and multiply the concentrations of the ions together, your answer will be 1.1 x 10-10 mol2 dm-6.

What if you mixed incredibly dilute solutions containing barium ions and sulphate ions so that the product of the ionic concentrations was less than the solubility product? All this means is that you haven't got an equilibrium. The reason for that is that there won't be any solid present. If you lower the concentrations of the ions enough, you won't get a precipitate just a very, very dilute solution of barium sulphate. So it is possible to get an answer less than the solubility product when you multiply the ionic concentrations together if the solution isn't saturated.

Can you get an answer greater than the solubility product if you multiply the ionic concentrations together (allowing for any powers in the solubility product expression, of course)? No! The solubility product is a value which you get when the solution is saturated. If there is any solid present, you can't dissolve any more solid than there is in a saturated solution.
Note: In the absence of any solid, a few substances produce unstable supersaturated solutions. As soon as you add any solid, or perhaps just scratch the glass to give a rough bit that crystals can form on, all the excess solid precipitates out to leave a normal saturated solution.

If you mix together two solutions containing barium ions and sulphate ions and the product of the concentrations would exceed the solubility product, you get a precipitate formed.

Enough solid is produced to reduce the concentrations of the barium and sulphate ions down to a value which the solubility product allows.

Summary

The value of a solubility product relates to a saturated solution. If the ionic concentrations give a value less than the solubility product, the solution isn't saturated. No precipitate would be formed. If the ionic concentrations give a value more than the solubility product, enough precipitate would be formed to reduce the concentrations to give an answer equal to the solubility product.

Solubility:
Definition: Solubility of a solute in a solvent is the number of grams of solute necessary to saturate 100 grams of solvent at a particular temperature. Solubility product: www.citycollegiate.com Solubility product is defined as the product of ionic concentration when dissolved ions and undissolved ions are in equilibrium. In other words, When a saturated solution of sparingly or slightly soluble salt is in contact with undissolved salt, an equilibrium is established between the dissolved ions and the ions in the solid phase of the undissolved salt. Ionic product at this stage is called solubility product. Symbol: It is denoted by Ksp

Determination of solubility product: AgCl(aq) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Applying equilibrium law:

Consider a slightly soluble salt such as silver chloride (AgCl).

Kc=[Ag+][Cl-]/[AgCl] Kc[AgCl] = [Ag+][Cl-]

Since there is no change in the concentration of salt (AgCl) at equilibrium. Therefore,

[AgCl] = constant (K') Kc = [Ag ][Cl ]/ K' Kc x K'= [Ag+][Cl-] Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-] Ionic product:
+ -

www.citycollegiate.com

Let Kc x K' = solubility product or Ksp , Therefore,

Product of ionic concentration other than equilibrium is called ionic product.

Applications of solubility product:

www.citycollegiate.com Knowledge of solubility product is very useful to determine whether precipitates will be obtained or not by the addition of more amount of solute to the solution. There are three conditions: When Ksp > ionic product: If solubility product is greater than the ionic product then, the solution is unsaturated and no precipitate will form by the addition of more solute. When Ksp< ionic product: If solubility product is less than the ionic product then the solution is super saturated and the excess of solute will precipitate immediately. When Ksp= ionic product: In this condition solution is saturated and further addition of solute will cause precipitates.